1

Design and Control of Smart DC Microgrid for

Integration of Renewable Energy Sources
Mahesh Kumar, Student Member, IEEE, S.N. Singh, Senior Member, IEEE, and
S.C. Srivastava, Senior Member, IEEE
Abstract-- This paper presents the design, modeling, and
operational analysis of an autonomous coordinated control
strategy for a DC microgrid in islanded mode under various
loading conditions, with and without Battery Energy Storage
System. The DC Micro-Grid (DCMG) consists of Wind Turbine
(WT), Solar Photo Voltaic (SPV), Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)
generators, dc and ac (three-phase and single-phase) loads. A
three-phase bidirectional PWM VSC (ac-dc) is used for
integrating WT to DCMG, which establishes constant dc voltage.
In case of failure of this VSC, dc-dc boost converter employed
for integrating SPV, has been utilized for establishing constant
dc voltage. The SOFC generation is also integrated to DCMG
through a dc-dc boost converter, which is controlled to maintain
the power balance in the DCMG depending on the rated plant
capacity and peak power capacity of the SOFC generation. The
design, modeling and simulation of the proposed control scheme
for the DCMG have been implemented in MATLAB/Simulink
environment.
Index Terms-- DC microgrid, DC-DC converters, Solarphotovoltaic, Solid Oxide fuel cell, Wind turbine, Battery energy
storage, Voltage source converters, Pulse width modulation.

I. INTRODUCTION

HE ever increasing energy demand, fast depletion of

fossil fuels, along with environmental concerns and the
emergence of electricity market have attracted interest in
large deployment of Renewable Energy Sources (RES). The
concept of Microgrid is one of the solutions to integrate a
mix of RES, which offers advantages of higher flexibility,
controllability, efficiency of operation, and bidirectional
power flow between utility grid and the microgrid under the
grid connected mode of operation [1].
The microgrids are classified as ac microgrid, and dc
microgrid. The DC Micro-Grid (DCMG) is preferred over AC
microgrid because of the advantages: 1) higher quality of
power supply, 2) higher reliability and uninterruptible supply,
3) due to absence of reactive power, it leads to better
utilization and reduced total losses, 4) higher efficiency, and
5) each Distributed Generation (DG) connected to the DCMG
can be easily operated as only dc voltage is required to be
controlled [2, 3].
The Power Electronic (PE) interface is used to integrate any
type of Distributed Generation (DG), energy storage system,
and ac and dc loads to the DCMG. The Pulse Width
Mahesh Kumar, (Fax: +915122590063; e-mail: maheshku@iitk.ac.in), S.N.
Singh (Ph: +915122597009; e-mail: snsingh@iitk.ac.in), and S. C. Srivastava
(Ph: +915122597625; e-mail: scs@iitk.ac.in) are with the Department of
Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur 208016, India.

978-1-4673-2729-9/12/$31.00 2012 IEEE

Modulation (PWM) based Voltage Source Converters (VSCs)

with Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors switches (IGBTs) are
being used to provide effective voltage control, power flow
control, system balancing, fault protection, and Maximum
Power Point Tracking (MPPT) [4].
This paper focuses on the design, modeling, and operational
analyses of an autonomous coordinated control scheme for a
smart dc microgrid to pool and optimally schedule the
energy from various types of Distributed Generations (DGs)
in islanded mode under varying loading conditions, with and
without energy storage system. The proposed DCMG consists
Wind Turbine (WT), Solar-Photovoltaic (SPV), Solid Oxide
Fuel Cell (SOFC) generators, and a Battery Energy Storage
System (BESS). The DCMG is able to supply both the ac and
dc power to the loads simultaneously. An autonomous
coordinated control strategy is proposed in this paper by using
only the dc voltage of DCMG. The main problem is the
circulating current among the DG units connected to the
DCMG, when a voltage difference exists among them. This
can be eliminated with the proposed control strategy.
In the proposed DCMG, the Variable Speed Wind Turbine
(VSWT) with Doubly Fed Induction Generator (DFIG) is
integrated through a three-phase bidirectional PWM VSC
(ac/dc) and dc cable. The controller of this bidirectional VSC
has been utilized for establishing the constant dc voltage of
the DCMG. A part of the power generated by the WT DG is
consumed by a three-phase load, connected local to the WT
generator, and the remaining part of the wind power
generation is transmitted through dc cable to other loads
connected to the DCMG. The SPV system with a MPPT
controller is integrated to DCMG through a dc-dc boost
converter. In case of failure of the above bidirectional VSC
controller, the controller of this dc-dc boost converter is used
for establishing the constant dc voltage. The SOFC DG is also
integrated to the DCMG through a dc-dc boost converter. The
controller of dc-dc boost converter of SOFC DG has been
used for maintaining power balance of DCMG by controlling
the load current, depending on Rated Power Capacity (RPC)
and Peak Power Capacity (PPC) of the SOFC DG. The energy
storage control unit is connected to DCMG through a
bidirectional dc-dc converter. The BESS increases the power
system stability and security. The need of transformer has
been eliminated on load side converters by selecting proper dc
voltage of the DCMG (750V in the present study).
In the proposed autonomous coordinated control strategy,
the control strategies of both bidirectional VSCs (one for
integration of wind turbine generation, and second for threephase load as well as grid interconnection) have been
implemented into two Synchronous Reference Frames (SRF):
positive SRF and negative SRF. A Delayed Signal

Cancellation (DSC) method has been used for separation of

positive and negative sequences in 2-phase stationary
reference frame (). The positive and negative sequence
currents are regulated by Proportional Integral (PI) controllers
in its own SRF separately. The dc voltage is also regulated by
a PI controller. The proposed control scheme for the DCMG
has been implemented in MATLAB/Simulink environment.

L, RL

II. SYSTEM CONFIGURATION AND MODELING

A. DC Microgrid Configuration
The proposed architecture of smart dc microgrid for
integration of renewable energy sources is shown in Fig. 1. In
the proposed DCMG, a 600 kW autonomous control VSWT
comprises of DFIG with back-to-back (ac-dc-ac) PWM VSC:
Rotor Side Converter (RSC), and Stator Side Converter
(SSC). The RSC is used for MPPT, stator flux control, and to
provide reactive power to DFIG through rotor circuit. The
SSC is used to maintain active power balance in the system
and constant dc link voltage of back-to-back converter. The
WT generates a maximum active power of 600 kW at rated
generating voltage of 690V (line-to-line, rms), and a part of
this power is consumed by a three-phase load connected to
local area of the WT generator. The remaining WT generated
power is converted into dc power by maintaining the constant
dc voltage (750V) through the bidirectional VSC and is
transmitted through dc cable to the DCMG. When WT
generation is zero at the wind speed below cut-in speed and
above cut-off speed, then three-phase load in local area of the
WT generator is supplied by other DG or BESS through this
bidirectional VSC.
The SPV generation comprises of a MPPT controller to
track the maximum output power. The MPPT controller tracks
the peak power of the SPV system based on the P-V
characteristic as shown in Fig. 2, and the incremental
conductance [5-7]. In the positive-slope region (dP/dVpv > 0),
the operation voltage is increased. On the other hand, in the
negative-slope region (dP/dVpv <0), the operation voltage is
decreased. The peak power point starting from any operating
point will be finally reached through a few steps of voltage
adjustment. The SPV generates the dc power at lower voltage
than DCMG voltage and therefore a dc-dc boost converter is
required to boost up the voltage up to DCMG voltage level,
and also used for establishing the constant dc voltage in case
of failure of the bidirectional VSC controller.
The SOFC system generates dc power, and fuel cell voltage
varies when the load changes. For instance, the fuel cell
voltage increases to the maximum under no load condition
while it decreases as load increases. Therefore a dc-dc boost
converter is needed to; 1) boost up a constant dc voltage equal
to DCMG voltage, and 2) maintain power balance of DCMG
by controlling the load current, depending on RPC and PPC of
SOFC plant. In the present study, the PPC of SOFC DG
system is considered 1.8 times of the RPC.
A BESS is connected to DCMG through a bidirectional
dc-dc converter for controlling the charging and discharging
of battery.

Fig. 1. Proposed architecture of smart DC microgrid for integration of

renewable energy sources.

The DCMG is able to supply both the ac and dc power to

the loads simultaneously. The loads connected to the DCMG
are: (1) three-phase load operating at line to line voltage of
415V rms, connected through a PWM Voltage Source Inverter
(VSI) of 50 Hz frequency, (2) single-phase load operating at
240V rms through a PWM VSI of 50 Hz frequency, (3) dc
load operating at 220V dc through a dc-dc buck converter,
and (4) fast dc charging station having 500V dc through a dcdc buck converter for electric vehicle loads.
B. Modeling of Wind Turbine Generation
1) Modeling of Turbine
The mechanical power extracted from the wind is given as
[8]:
Pmech =

( KEwind )
1
3
C ( , ) = C ( , ) A v
P
air b wind
2 P
t

(1)

where vwind is the wind speed (m/s), air (= 1.225 kg/m3) is the
air density, Ab (= Rb2) is the area swept by rotor blades (m2),
and Rb being the radius of rotor blade (m). The factor Cp(,)
is the power performance coefficient, which represents the
aerodynamic efficiency of the turbine and depends on blade
pitch angle and tip speed ratio (TSR) , and can be
calculated in the present study as [8, 9]:

C ( , ) = 0.5176 116 0.4 5 e 21 i + 0.0068

( 2)
1
1
0.035
where = t Rb

and

=
vwind
i + 0.08 3 +1

2) Modeling of DFIG
The model of DFIG with both d and q axes stator and rotor
voltages expressed in p.u., are given as in [10, 11]:

d qs
d
vds = Rsids s qs + ds , vqs = Rsiqs +s ds +

dt
dt

d dr
vdr = Rr idr (s r ) qr +

dt

d qr
vqr = Rr iqr +(s r ) dr +

dt

T = i i

qr dr dr qr
e

( 3)

where Te is the electro mechanical torque generated by DFIG,

v being the voltage (V), R is the resistance, i is the current (A),

s and r is the stator and rotor electrical frequency (rad/s),
is the flux linkage (Vs); ds, dr, and qs, qr correspond to d-axis
stator and rotor and q-axis stator and rotor indices,
respectively.
The active power (P) and reactive power (Q) generated by
the DFIG is determined as [10]:
P = vdsids + vqsiqs +vdr idr + vqr iqr

Q = vqsids vdsiqs + vqr idr vdr iqr

( 4)

C. Modeling of Solar-Photovoltaic System

The equivalent circuit of a SPV array is shown in Fig. 3.
The SPV array output current is given as [7, 12, 13]:
I pv = n p I ph nP I sat

{(

{(

exp q V pv + I ns Rse n p

n pV ns + IRse

))

ns

ns
Rsh
nP

where Ipv is the SPV array output current (A), Vpv is the SPV
array output voltage (V), ns is the number of SPV cells
connected in series, nP is the number of modules connected
in parallel, q (=1.610-19C) is the charge of an electron, k
(=1.3810-23J/K) is Boltzmann's constant, A is the p-n
junction ideality factor, Tcell is the cell operating temperature
(K), Isat is the cells saturation current, Rse is series resistance,
and Rsh is the shunt resistance.
The photo-current depends on the Solar Irradiation (SI) and
cell operating temperature, and is expressed as:

( 6)

I sat = I rs Tcell Tref

( 7)
(
)
The reverse saturation current at reference temperature is
given as:
I rs = I sc exp( qVoc N s kATcell )1
( 8)
exp qEG 1 Tref 1 Tcell

E. Modeling of Battery Energy Storage System

The dynamic model of lead acid battery with an
assumption of neglecting the difference between the charge
and discharge resistances is shown in Fig. 4. Battery is an
electrical storage device, which has been considered
equivalent to a capacitor (Cb). The capacitance Cb of the
battery is modeled as a controlled voltage source in
MATLAB, which is controlled relative to the state of charge
of the battery [16, 17].
The expressions of battery voltage for charge and discharge
are given by (14) and (15), respectively as [18]:

The SPV cells saturation current varies with the cell

operating temperature, and is expressed as:
3

water, and oxygen respectively. Time constant is the value of

the system pole associated with the hydrogen flow.

Fig. 3. Equivalent circuit of

SPV array.

S
= I sc + i Tcell Tref
sc

1000

(10)

hydrogen, water, and oxygen, respectively, (kmol/s atm);

H , H O , and O are time constants (sec), for hydrogen,

VPV

ph

p = qin -2 K I K 1+ s
H 2 H 2 r FC H 2 ( H 2 )

pH 2O = ( 2 K r I FC ) K H 2O (1+ H 2O s )

in - K I
pO = qO
r FC KO2 (1+ O2 s )

2 2

where qin [kmol/s] respectively are the molar flows of H2,

H2O, and O2; Kr (= NFC /4F) is a constant defined for
modeling; K H , KH O , and K O are the valve molar constants for
2
2

I
nP I ph

respectively, and are described as:

( 5)
ns
Rse
nP

(9)

where E0 (=1.18V) is ideal standard potential, r is ohmic loss

(), R (=8314 J/kmol K) is universal gas constant, F (=96487
C/mol) is Faradays constant, T is absolute temperature (K);
pH 2 , pH 2O and pO2 are partial pressures of H2, H2O and O2

dP dVPV < 0

Fig. 2. P-V characteristic of

SPV array.

0.5
p

H 2 pO2
RT
Vrated , FC = N FC E0 + ln
rI FC
2F
pH O

ns kTcell A 1

} Rsh

nP

dP dVPV > 0

D. Modeling of SOFC System

The SOFC stack output voltage is determined by Nernsts
equation as [14, 15]:

kA

where ISC is the SPV cells short-circuit current at standard

test condition (STC) i.e. 25C and 1kW/m2, isc is the cells
temperature coefficient of short-circuit current, Tref is the
reference temperature, and S is the solar irradiation (kW/m2),
EG is the band-gap energy of the semiconductor used in the
SPV cell (eV).
Since normally Iph >> Isat and ignoring the small diode and
ground-leakage currents under zero-terminal voltage, shortcircuit current Isc is approximately equal to the photocurrent
Iph.

(11)

V = V R i k Q ( it +i* ) + Exp (t )
batt 0 1

Q it

where Exp (t ) = B i( t ) ( Exp + Au( t ) )

(12 )

C1

Vsa
Vsb
Vsc

R1

Cb

Vbatt = V0 R1i k
i k
it + Exp (t )
it 0.1Q
Q it

RP

C2

Vconv ,a

L, RL

Vconv ,b

Cdc
Vconv ,c

Vdc

Vbatt

Fig. 4. Dynamic model

of battery.

Fig. 5. Three-phase, 2-level, PWM

voltage source converter.

where Vbatt is battery voltage (V), V0 is battery constant

voltage (V), k is polarization constant (V/Ah) or polarization

resistance (), Q is battery capacity (Ah), it (=idt) is actual
battery charge (Ah), A is exponential zone amplitude (V), B is
exponential zone time constant inverse (Ah), i is battery
current (A), i* is filtered current (A), R1 is battery resistance,
Exp(t) is exponential zone voltage (V), i(t) is battery current
(A), u(t) is charge or discharge mode, Rp is self-discharge
resistance, R2 is over voltage resistance.
F. Modeling of PWM Converters
1) Voltage Source Converters
As shown in Fig. 5, three-phase, 2-level, bidirectional
VSCs have been used, because the proposed architecture of
DCMG has dc voltage with polarity (750V). The voltage
equations of PWM VSC in a stationary reference frame (dq)
for a balanced supply are given for rectifier and inverter in
[19, 20]. The voltage equations of PWM VSC for an
unbalanced supply are given by (13, 14) and (15, 16) for
rectifier and inverter, respectively [20]. The minus sign in
(13, 15) stands for positive sequence d components and plus
sign for negative sequence d components. The plus sign in
(14, 16) stands for positive sequence q components and minus
sign for negative sequence q components.
didpn
Vs ,dpn = RL idpn + L
+ Vconv ,dpn m Liqpn
(13)
dt
diqp
+ Vconv ,qpn Lidpn
dt
didpn
Vconv , dpn = RL idpn + L
+ Vs , dpn m Liqpn
dt
diqpn
Vconv ,qpn = RL iqpn + L
+ Vs ,qpn Lidpn
dt

(14)

Vs ,qpn = RL iqpn + L

(15)

(16)

2) DC DC Converters
The dc-dc boost, buck, and bidirectional converters are
shown in Fig. 6. The duty ratio (D) of dc-dc boost and buck
converters are given as:

0
d i%L

=
dt v%out 1
C

Vin

Co

Vin

Co

The purpose of proposed control strategy is to establish

constant dc voltage of DCMG, and maintaining the load
demand power under various varying loads in islanding mode.
In the proposed autonomous coordinated control strategy,
each DG unit should be controlled autonomously without
communicating each other.
The WT DG is integrated to the DCMG through a threephase bidirectional PWM VSC and dc cable. A proposed
control strategy for this VSC is shown in Fig. 7. This
proposed control strategy has been implemented into two
synchronous reference frames: positive SRF and negative
SRF. Three-phase voltages and currents are sensed and
transformed from 3-phase stationary reference frame (abc) to
2-phase stationary reference frame (). A DSC method has
been used for separation of positive and negative sequences in
2-phase stationary reference frame (). The positive and
negative sequences of voltages and currents are transformed
from 2-phase stationary reference frame () to 2-phases
rotating reference frame (dq). The positive and negative
sequence currents are regulated by PI controllers in its own
SRF separately. The dc voltage is also regulated by a PI
controller. The optimized PI controllers parameters of VSC
for dc voltage and inner currents are KPv= 0.0293, KIv=1.63s-1
and KPc= 1.328, KIc=8.821 s-1, respectively.
L, RL

ia

Vs,a
Vs,b

ib

Cdc

ic

Vs ,c

ia

ib

Vdc

ic

Vdc _ Ref
Vabc _ Ref

V _ Ref

V _ Ref

Fig. 6. DC-DC converters (a) boost (b) buck (c) bidirectional.

For boost converter:

V
D = 1 in
Vout

For buck converter:

V
D = out
Vin

V p V n V n

(17 )

Small signal state-space models of dc-dc boost and buck

converter is given by (18) and (19), respectively.

0
d i%L =

dt v%out 1 D
C

and v%out = 0

1 D

L i%L 1 L
v%

+
1 v%out 0 in

RoCo
i%
1 L
v%out

(19 )

III. PROPOSED CONTROL STRATEGY

Cdc

Vout

Vin

L d%
0

where Vin is input dc voltage, Vout is output dc voltage, L is

inductance, Co is output capacitance, Ro is load resistance, iL is
current through the inductor.

Vs,a Vs,b Vs ,c

Vout

L i%L D L
v%

+
1 v%out 0 in

RoCo

Vout

+ LI d%
L
C (18)
o

i p i p i n i n

V p _ Ref
Vdp _ Ref

Vdp Vqp Vdn Vqn

idp iqp

idn iqn

Vdp

V p _ Ref

V n _ Ref

Vqp _ Ref

LI qp Vqp

3 2 2 2 2
(Vdp + Vqp Vdn Vqn )
2
I dp _ Ref

I qp _ Ref

Vdp

Vqp

Vdn _ Ref

LI dp

Vdn

V n _ Ref

I Ref

PRef

Vqn _ Ref

LI qn Vqn

I dn _ Ref

I qn _ Ref

Vdn

Vqn

LI dn

Fig. 7. Control strategy of bidirectional PWM VSC for integrating wind

turbine generation.

5
5
x 10
6
WT
Power (W)

The SPV system is integrated to the DCMG through a dc-dc

boost converter to boost up the voltage up to DCMG voltage
level. The controller of dc-dc boost converter is shown in
Fig. 8. The voltage of DCMG is sensed and compared with
the reference dc voltage (Vdc_ref). This voltage error is
controlled by PI controller. The optimized parameters of PI
voltage controller are KPpv= 0.00226, KIpv=0.03627 s-1.

5
4
3
9:00AM

10:00AM

11:00AM

12:00PM

1:00PM

12:00PM

1:00PM

time (hrs.)

Vdc _ ref

20

The SOFC DG generates dc power, and fuel cell voltage

varies when the load changes. Therefore, SOFC is integrated
to DCMG through a dc-dc boost converter for obtaining
stepped up constant dc voltage equal to DCMG voltage, and
maintaining power balance of DCMG by controlling the load
current depending upon the RPC and PPC of SOFC plant. The
proposed control strategy of dc-dc boost converter for SOFC
is shown in Fig. 9. The optimized parameters of PI controllers
for voltage and current are KPv_FC = 0.001, KIv_FC =0.015 s-1
and KPc_FC = 10, KIc_FC = 25 s-1.
Vdc _ Ref
Vdc

15
10
5
9:00AM

10:00AM

11:00AM
time (hrs.)

Fig. 10. Power generation by WT distributed generation

3

SOFC
Power (W)

Fig. 8. Controller for DC-DC boost converter of SPV system.

Wind
Speed (m/s)

Vdc

I Ref

5
x 10

2
1

I Load I FC _ Rated

9:00AM

10:00AM

Fig. 9. Control strategy of DC-DC boost converter for SOFC system.

11:00AM

12:00PM

1:00PM

time (hrs.)

Fig. 11. Power generation by SOFC distributed generation.

The parameters of PI controller for stable closed loop

system are determined by using bode plot technique.

4
x 10
10

Case1. Variable Power Constant Load without BESS

In this mode, the power generated by WT, SPV, and SOFC
DGs is variable as shown in Figs. 10-12, respectively. The
load demand power has been assumed to be constant of 700
kW. Initially WT generation at wind speed 10 m/s is 450kW,
SPV generation is 100 kW at STC, and SOFC generation is
150kW to maintain the load demand. At 9:45AM, the WT
generation increases from 450kW to 600kW because of
increasing the wind speed from 10-12m/s, and then SOFC
generation is reduced to zero. At rated wind speed (12 m/s),
the WT generation reaches to the maximum value of 600 kW,
and above the rated wind speed up to cut-off speed (25 m/s),
the WT generation remains the same as at rated wind speed.
At 10:30AM, the SPV generation reduces from 100kW to
83kW because of changing SI and temperature, and then
SOFC generation is increased from zero to 17kW, and so on.
Thus, the power gap between the load demand and power
generation by WT and SPV, would be maintained by varying
the generation of the SOFC DG within the limits of rated
power capacity and PPC of SOFC plant. The dc voltage of
DCMG is established constant (750V) as shown in Fig. 13.

9
8
7
6
9:00AM

10:00AM

11:00AM

12:00PM

1:00PM

time (hrs.)

Fig. 12. Power generation by SPV distributed generation.

800
Voltage (V)

Three case studies have been demonstrated to show the

ability of proposed autonomous coordinated control strategy
for a smart DCMG in islanded mode with or without BESS in
MATLAB/Simulink environment.

SPV
Power (W)

IV. SIMULATION RESULTS

750

700
9:00AM

10:00AM

11:00AM

12:00AM

1:00PM

time (hrs.)

Fig. 13. Voltage of DC microgrid (case1).

Case2. Constant Power and Variable Load without BESS

In this mode, the WT and SPV operate at a constant output
power 600kW and 100 kW, respectively corresponding to a
constant wind speed and weather conditions. It has been
assumed that the load demand changes as shown in Fig. 14.
For every movement, the power gap between the load demand
and generation by WT and SPV, would be maintained by
varying the generation of the SOFC DG within the limits of
rated power capacity and PPC of SOFC plant as shown in

Figs. 14-15. During this mode, the voltage of DCMG has been
also maintained constant (750V) as shown in Fig. 16.
9.5

5
x 10

Total Load (W)

9
8.5
8
7.5
7
6.5
1:00PM

2:00PM

3:00PM

4:00PM

5:00PM

the SOFC (or BESS) through the PWM VSC of WT system.

Thus, VSC is operating here as VSI, because the current
controlled by VSC controller has been reversed for obtaining
VSI operation as shown in Fig. 21.
During this mode, beyond the SOFC generating limits, if
power generation is more than load demand, then BESS is
charged by this surplus power. And if power generation is less
than load demand, the remaining power is supplied by BESS.
The voltage of DCMG has been established constant (750V)
as shown in Fig. 22. Thus, the power balance of DCMG has
been maintained with the proposed autonomous coordinated
control strategy.
5
x 10

time (hrs.)

Fig. 14. Total load connected to DC microgrid.

5
x 10

6
WT Power (W)

SOFC
Power (W)

1.5
1

4
2
0

0.5

7:00PM

0
1:00PM

1:00AM

7:00AM

1:00PM

7:00PM

time (hrs)
2:00PM

3:00PM

4:00PM

Fig. 17. Power generation by WT distributed generation.

5:00PM

time (hrs.)

Fig. 15. Power generation by SOFC distributed generation.

12

4
x 10

10
SPV
Power (W)

Voltage (V)

800

750

8
6
4
2

700
1:00PM

0
2:00PM

3:00PM

4:00PM

5:00PM

7:00PM

time (hrs.)

1:00AM

7:00AM

1:00PM

7:00PM

time (hrs.)

Fig. 16. Voltage of DC microgrid (case 2).

Fig. 18. Power generation by SPV distributed generation.

5
x 10
2.5

SOFC
Power (W)

2
1.5
1
0.5
0
7:00PM

1:00AM

7:00AM

1:00PM

7:00PM

time (hrs.)

Fig. 19. Power generation by SOFC distributed generation.

5
x 10

Total Load
Total Gen Power

Battery Power

Power (W)

Case3. Variable Power and Variable Load With BESS

In this case, the BESS is connected to the DCMG through a
bidirectional dc-dc converter for controlling the charging and
discharging of battery. The WT and SPV operate in variable
power generation mode according to the changing wind speed
and weather conditions as shown in Figs. 17-18. The power
generation by SOFC is varied according to the load demand
variations as shown in Fig. 19. The total load connected to the
DCMG varies according to the residential load curve [21] for
a day (24 hours) from 200kW to 520kW as shown in Fig. 20.
Initially, at 7:00PM, the load demand is more than the power
generation by WT and SPV, this power gap is maintained by
SOFC generation, and BESS is in the rest position. The BESS
comes in the picture beyond the limits of SOFC generation.
At 11:00PM, the power generations by WT and SPV is
more than the load demand, this surplus power has been
stored in the BESS i.e. charging state of BESS as shown in
Fig. 20.
From 1:00 AM to 5:00AM, the power generated by WT,
SPV is zero, the load demand is supplied by SOFC system up
to the PPC of SOFC, and the remaining power has been
supplied by BESS i.e. discharging state of BESS as shown in
Fig. 20. In such cases, the 3-phase AC load connected to the
local area of WT generator, is supplied by the DCMG from

4
2
0
-2
-4
7:00PM

1:00AM

7:00AM

1:00PM

time (hrs.)

Fig. 20. Total load connected to DC microgrid.

7:00PM

[9]
[10]

Current (p.u.)

0.5

[11]
Id

-0.5

Id-ref

[12]
-1
7:00PM

1:00AM

7:00AM

1:00PM

7:00PM

time (hrs.)

Fig. 21. Current controlled by bidirectional VSC of WT system.

[13]

Voltage (V)

800

[14]
750

700
7:00PM

1:00AM

7:00AM

1:00PM

7:00PM

[15]

time (hrs.)

Fig. 22. Voltage of DC microgrid (case 3).

V. CONCLUSIONS
The proposed smart dc microgrid with autonomous
coordinated control scheme is found to provide reliable, stable
and high quality power supply at desired constant dc voltage,
and also facilitate the connections of any type of DGs, BESS,
and various ac and dc loads. The circulating current among
the DGs has been suppressed. The need of transformer has
also been eliminated on load side converters by selecting
proper dc voltage of the DCMG. The smart DCMG operates
satisfactorily for any variable load profile, both under the
transient and steady state conditions.
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[4]

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VII. BIOGRAPHIES
Mahesh Kumar (S'11) is pursuing Ph.D. from the Department of Electrical
Engineering, IIT Kanpur. His research interests include dc microgrid,
renewable energy sources, and voltage source converters. He is a Student
Member of the IEEE.
S N Singh (SM'02) is Professor in the Department of Electrical Engineering,
IIT Kanpur. His research interests include power system restructuring,
FACTS, power system optimization, planning, distributed generation, etc. He
is a Fellow of the IETE (India), the IE (India), the IET (UK) and Senior
Member of the IEEE.
S C Srivastava (SM'91) is Professor in the Department of Electrical
Engineering, IIT Kanpur. His research interests include power system
optimization, stability and control, distributed generation, technical issues in
electricity markets, etc. He is a Fellow of the INAE (India), the IE (India) &
the IETE (India), and Senior Member of the IEEE.