Section 3

LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GAS

By GEORGE R. BENZ

ManagerJ Engineering

Department

and
PAUL TUCKER and E. W. EVANS

Technical Representatives, Engineering

Phillips Petroleum Co.
Bartlesville, OkIa.

Department

Liquefied petroleum gas, commonly called LP-Gas or "bottled gas," is also known
by its principal generic components propane and butane. There are also many wellestablished trade names for this product such as Philgas, Pyrofax, Flamo, Shellane,
Essotane, Solgas, and Skelgas. This quality fuel has been the basis for one of the
fastest growing industries in the country, having exhibited an average growth of 16.4
per cent per year since 1945.
The most commonly used definition of liquefied petroleum gas is in the National Fire
Protection Association (NFPA) Standard 58 covering its storage and handling: "The
terms 'liquefied petroleum gases,' 'LPG' and 'LP-GAS' . . . shall mean and include
any material which is composed predominantly of any of the following hydrocarbons,
or mixtures of them: propane, propylene, butanes (normal butane or iso-butane), and
butylenes."
The hydrocarbons comprising LP-Gas are intermediate between the lighter ones
predominating in utility natural gas and the heavier hydrocarbons predominating in
gasolines, although there is some minor overlapping in each direction. Table 3-1
illustrates this relationship.
"Bottled gas" or compressed gas can be traced back as far as 1810, when it was sold
in Great Britain. Pintschgas and Blaugas were introduced about 1870 and 1907,
respectively, and each marked a milestone toward the development of the present-day
LP-Gas industry. The period 1910-1920 was one of experimentation by the refining
and natural gasoline industries in the United States, with their "weathered" gases.
In 1920 Pyrofax, the first of the present familiar names in the industry, was introduced
by Carbide and Carbon Chemicals Co. In 1927 Phillips Petroleum Co. introduced
LP-Gas tank cars and the "one-drum" system, in which the consumer's cylinder was
filled in place from a tank truck. Other marketers soon were in the business, and
growth accelerated at an amazing pace, as illustrated by the U.S. Bureau of Mines
reports (see Table 3-10).

Table 3-1. Hydrocarbons from Petroleum

From natural gasoline
and
cycling plants

From refineries

Methane

Methane

Ethane

Ethylene
Ethane

Propane

Propylene
Propane

Isobutane
w-Butane

Isobutane
Butylenes
n-Butane

Isopentane
n-Pentane

Isopentane
Amylenes
w-Pentane

Heavier

Heavier

Gas

Liquefied petroleum gas

(Gas at normal atmospheric
pressure and temperature;
liquid under moderate pressure)

Liquid

In 1922, the first year for which marketed production has been reported, total sales
were only 223,000 gal. The 1-million-gal mark was not exceeded until 1927, when
1,091,000 gal was marketed. The next five years, in spite of the Depression, ended
with a marketed gallonage of 34,115,000 gal in 1932. During 1956 a total of 6,635,763,000 gal was reported marketed. A major depression and a world war were taken
in stride, and every year since 1922 registered an increase in marketed production over
the previous year.
PROPERTIES OF LP-GAS HYDROCARBONS

(PENTANE)

UNIFORM FLAME SPEED INCHES PER SECOND

In addition to the C3 and C 4 hydrocarbons listed in the definition of LP-Gas, small

quantities of ethane or isopentane are usually present in some commercial grades, since

MIXTURE: 25% WATER GAS

75% COAL GAS
(MANUFACTURED GAS)

PERCENT GAS BY VOLUME IN AIR REQUIRED FOR COMBUSTIBLE

MIXTURES

FIG. 3-1. Flammable range and flame speed of LP-Gas hydrocarbons.

the fractionation processes are not designed for complete separation of the various
hydrocarbons. The subject of LP-Gas properties, therefore, is twofold: the properties
of the individual hydrocarbons that compose LP-Gases and the properties of commercially available grades of LP-Gas.
About 75 per cent of the LP-Gas marketed at present is extracted from natural gas
and contains only the paraffin hydrocarbons, the properties of which are listed in
Table 3-2. Of the five hydrocarbons listed, as much as 5 per cent of ethane may be
present in commercial propane, and commercial butane may contain as much as 1.5 per
cent of isopentane. Some LP-Gas sold as feedstocks for petrochemical plants may
contain up to 30 per cent of ethane. At the other extreme some butane-pentane mixtures are used in heating appliances, such as portable soldering units and camp stoves.
Since these grades of LP-Gas are not covered by the specifications of the Natural Gasoline Association of America (NGAA), they are usually sold under contracts in which
the specified vapor pressure limits the maximum content of ethane or pentane.
Table 3-2. Physical Constants of Paraffin Hydrocarbons in LP-Gas*
Compound

Properties
Ethane

Propane

Isobutane

n-Butane

Isopentane

58.120
58.120
44.094
Molecular weight
30.068
72.146
-255.3
Melting point at 1 4.696 psia,0 0 F
-297.9
-217.0
-255.8
-305.8
10.9
Boiling point at 14.6960 psia, F
-127.5
82.1
31. 1
- 43.7
Density of liquid at 60 F and
14.696 psia:
0
Specific gravity
at
60/60
F
0.5844
0.374
0.6248
0.5631
0.5077
Lb/galat 600F 0
4.685
3. 11
4.863
5.200
4.224
12.40
9.67
13.88
Gal/lb mol at 60 F 0
10.44
11.95
Density of vapor at 60 F and 14.696 psia
(specific gravity air = 1.00)actual.
1.546
2.070
2.066
1.046
Lb/M cu ftactual
118.0
157.7
79.86
158. 1
29.70
Cu ft vapor/gal liqactual
35.78
30.77
221. 1
Ratio, gas vol/liq volactual
267.6
230. 1
Critical conditions:
Temperature, 0 F
90.1
206.3
275.0
370.0
305.6
Pressure, atmospheres
48.2
36.0
32.9
37.5
42.0
Pressure, psia
708
529
551
483
617
Gross heat of combustion at 600F:
Btu/cu ftactual0
3,354
2,558
1,783
3,368
Btu/gal Hq at 60 F
91.044
99,097
69,433
103,047
108,820
Flammable limits:
Lower % in air
1.86
2.37
1.80
3.22
1.32
Upper % in air
8.41
9.50
8.44
12.45
Cu ft air to burn I cu ft gas
30.97
23.82
30.97
16.67
38.11
Heat of vaporization at 14.696 psia at boiling point, Btu/lb0
210.7
145.9
165.9
183.5
157.8
Specific heat at 60 F and 14.696 psia:
CP vapor, Btu/lb
0.4097
0.3880
0.3885
0.3872
0.3970
Cv vapor, Btu/lb
0.342
0.343
0.361
0.363
0.352
N CP/Cv, Btu/lb
1.133
1.094
1. 193
1.076
1.097
Cp liquid, Btu/lb
0.534
0.548
0.533
0.537

Vapor pressure at 1000F, psia

Octane number (Motor)
Deviation factor at 60F,t 14.696 psia,
RT/PV.

780
Over 100

at 43F
190
Over 100

at 14F
72.2
99

1.008

1.016

1.032

at 0 0 F
51.6
92

20.4
90.3

1.030

* NGAA PuU. 2145, revised 1957.

f ASTM Spec. PuU. 109.

Figure 3-1 shows the flammable range and the flame speed of the LP-Gas hydrocarbons as compared with methane (natural gas), pentane, and manufactured gas. Flame
speeds are important when considering combustion characteristics and burner design.
The olefin hydrocarbons are found in various concentrations in LP-Gas extracted

from refinery gases, and their properties are listed in Table 3-3. To differentiate
between LP-Gas from natural gas and that from refinery gases, the latter is commonly
termed liquefied refinery gas (LR-Gas). The higher value of the olefins in polymerization and alkylation processes within the refinery currently limits their sale to the
LP-Gas industry, except as feedstocks to petrochemical or butadiene plants. Propane
from refineries which charge the propane-propylene stream to a polymerization unit
Table 3-3. Physical Constants of Olefin Hydrocarbons*
Compound
Properties
Propenef

1-Butenef

cis-2Butene

trans-2Butene

Isobutene

42.078
56.104
56.104
Molecular weight
56.104
56.104
-301.45
-220.63
-218.04
Melting point at 14.696 psia, 0 F
- 157.99
-301.63
-53.86
+ 19.58
+ 38.70
Boiling point at 14.696 psia, 0 F
+ 33.58
+
20.73
Density of liquid at 60 0 F and 14.696
psia:
0.5218J
0.6272|
Specific gravity at 60/60 0 F. . . . . .
0.6100J
0.6002t
0.601IJ
0
139.7
API
94. 1
103.9
100.5
1.039
0
4.340J
Lb/gal at 60 F
5.21It
4.994t
5.075t
5.001t
Density of vapor at 6O0F and 14.696
psia:
Specific gravity, air, 1.00 ideal gas.
1.4526
1.9368
1.9368
1.9368
1.9368
Specific gravity, actual (corrected)
1.4760
1.9988
2.0063
2.0061
1.9988
Cu ft gas/lb, ideal gas
9.020
6.764
6.764
6.764
6.764
Cu ft gas/lb, actual (corrected). . .
8.877
6.554
6.530
6.531
6.554
Cu ft gas/gal liq, ideal gas
39.23
33.85
35.37
34.39
33.90
Cu ft gas/gal liq, actual (corrected)
34.15
38.61
32.80
33.20
32.85
Critical conditions:
Temperature, 0 F
311
197.4
292.5
311
295.6
Pressure, psia
600
667
600
579.8
583
Gross heat of combustion at 60 0 F:
Btu/lb liq
20,655
20,943
20,618
20.633
20.727
Btu/cu ft vapor at 14.696 psia.. .
2,333
3,074
3,074
3.069
3,082
Btu/gal liq
90.891
102.964
104.711
107.633
103.658
Flammable limits:
Lower % gas in gas-air mixture. . .
2.00
Upper % gas in gas-air mixture. .
11.1
Cu ft air to burn 1 cu ft gas
21.44
28.58
28.58
28.58
28.58
Heat of vaporization at 14.696 psia
at boiling point, Btu/lb
169.48
178.91
188.19
174.37
167.93
Specific heat at 60 0 F and 14.696 psia:
Cp vapor, Btu/lb
0.3269
0.3541
0.3701
0.3654
0.3703
Cv vapor, Btu/lb
0.2915
0.3069
0.3347
0.3300
0.3349
CP/Cv
1.1214
1.1538
1.1058
1.1073
1.1051
Cp liquid
0.53
0.55
0.54
0.53
0
Vapor pressure at 100 F, psia
45.54
63.40
49.80
226.4
63.05
Octane number (Motor)
88.1
84.9
81.7
Deviation factor at 60 0 F and 14.696
psia, RT/PV
1.0359
1.0161
1.0320
1.0358
1.0320
* ASTM Spec.Publ. 109.
f Propylene and butylene are often used instead of propene and butene.
t At saturation pressure.

will contain less than 5 per cent and usually about 2 per cent of propylene. However,
a few refineries do not have the equipment to utilize propylene, and their LP-Gas (or
LR-Gas) may contain from 35 to 50 per cent of propylene. Very little of the refinery
butanes-butylenes reach the LP-Gas fuel markets because their value is higher in
petrochemicals, butadiene, motor fuel blending, and other refinery processing.
Properties of Commercial LP-Gas. The properties of any specific LP-Gas can be
easily calculated from the values listed in Tables 3-2 and 3-3, providing the composition
is known. Since composition usually is not determined for each shipment, most pro-

ducers of LP-Gas list the average properties of some of the grades of LP-Gas which they
market. Table 3-4 illustrates such a list. It should be remembered that individual
shipments may have properties which vary from the "average" within the limitations
imposed by specifications under which the LP-Gas is marketed.
In addition to the average properties listed in Table 3-4, it is sometimes desirable to
determine the approximate vapor pressure over a temperature range which is not
easily covered in a table. This information is more conveniently shown in a vaporpressure curve such as Fig. 3-2, which has been calculated for various mixtures of
propane (assumed to contain 2.0 per cent of ethane) and normal butane.
Table 3-4. Average Properties of Commercial Propane and Commercial Butane*
..
n
Properties

Vapor pressure, psig:

At 7O0F
At 1000F
At 1050F
At 1300F
Specific gravity of liquid at 60/60 0 F
Initial boiling point at 14.7 psia, 0 F
Weight per gal of liquid at 6O0F, Ib
Dew point at 14.7 psia, 0 F
Specific heat of liquid at 600F, Btu/(Ib)( 0 F)
Cu ft gas at 600F, 30 in. Hg, per gal liq at 600F
Specific volume of gas at 600F, 30 in. Hg, cu ft/lb
Specific heat of gas at 6O0F (Cp), Btu/(lb)( 0 F)
Specific gravity of gas (air = 1) at 600F, 30 in. Hg
Ignition temperature in air, 0 F
Max flame temperature in air, 0 F
% gas in air for max flame temperature
Max rate of flame propagation in 25-mm tube:
Cm/sec
In./sec
Limits of flammability, % gas in air:
At lower limit
At max rate of flame propagation
At upper limit
Required for complete combustion:
Cu ft O2/cu ft gas
Cu ft air/cu ft gas
Lb Os/lb gas
Lb air/lb gas
Products of complete combustion:
Cu ft CO2/CU ft gas
Cu ft H2O/CU ft gas
Cu ft N 2 /cu ft gas
Lb CO 2 /lb gas
Lb H 2 O/lb gas
Lb N 2 /lb gas
Ultimate CO2, % by volume
Latent heat of vaporization at boiling point:
Btu/lb
Btu/gal
Total heating values (after vaporization):
Btu/cuft
Btu/lb
Btu/gal

Commercial
propane

Commercial
butane

124
192
206
286
0. 509
- 51
4. 24
- 46
0. 588
36. 28
8. 55
0.404
1. 52
920-1020
3595
4. 2-4. 5

31
59
65
97
0. 582
15
4. 84
24
0. 549
31. 46
6. 50
0.382
2.01
900-1000
3615
3. 33.4

84.9
33.4
2.4
4. 7-5.0
9.6

87.1
34.3
1.9
3.7-3.9
8.6

4.9
23.4
3.60
15.58

6.3
30.0
3.54
15.3

3.0
3.8
18.5
3.0
1.6
12.0
13.9

3.9
4.6
23.7
3.1
1.5
11.8
14.1

185
785

167
808

2522
21,560
91,500

3261
21.180
102.600

* Courtesy of Phillips Petroleum Co.

Odorization of LP-Gas. With the exception of some of the refinery production

there is insufficient odor in LP-Gas, after caustic treatment, to warn of its presence in
dilute concentrations with air. Most states, however, require that a distinct warning
of the presence of LP-Gas in air be provided, and it is necessary that a malodorant be

VAPOR PRESSURE LBS/SQ. IN. GAGE

PROPANE COMPOSITION ASSUMED TO BE:

ETHANE 2 % a PROPANE 98%

A - 1 0 0 % COMMERCIAL PROPANE
B - 9 0 % PROPANE, 10% N. BUTANE
C - 8 0 % PROPANE, 20 % N. BUTANE
D - 7 0 % PROPANE, 3 0 % N. BUTANE
E - 6 0 % PROPANE, 4 0 % N. BUTANE
F - 5 0 % PROPANE, 50 % N. BUTANE
G - 4 0 % PROPANE, 6 0 % N. BUTANE
H - 3 0 % PR0PANE,70% N. BUTANE
I - 25% PROPANE, 7 5 % N. BUTANE
J - 20% PR0PANE,80% N. BUTANE
K - 10% PR0PANE,90%N. BUTANE
L - 100% N. BUTANE

TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES FAHRENHEIT

F I G . 3-2. V a p o r pressures of b u t a n e - p r o p a n e m i x t u r e s . (Phillips

Petroleum

Co.)

added. This is customarily done at the point of shipment. Most states have an
odorization requirement based upon the following NFPA Pamphlet 58:
B.I

ODORIZING GASES

(a) All liquefied petroleum gases shall be effectively odorized by an approved agent of
such character as to indicate positively, by distinct odor, the presence of gas down to concentration in air of not over one-fifth the lower limit of flammability. Odorization, however, is not required if harmful in the use or further processing of the liquefied petroleum
gas, or if odorization will serve no useful purpose as a warning agent in such use or further
processing.
NOTE: The lower flammable limits of the more commonly used LP-Gases are: Propane,
2.15%; Butane, 1.55%. These figures represent volumetric percentage of gas in gas-air
mixtures.
(6) The odorization requirement of B.I (a) shall be considered to be met by the use of
1.0 pounds of ethyl mercaptan, 1.0 pounds of thiophane or 1.4 pounds of amyl mercaptan
per 10,000 gallons of LP-Gas. However, this listing of odorants and quantities shall not
exclude the use of other odorants that meet the odorization requirements of B.I (a).

Some of the states have not adopted all of the Pamphlet 58 wording or have modified
it slightly. It is, therefore, imperative that state regulations be consulted to determine
specific odorization requirements.
PRODUCTION AND TREATING OF LP-GAS
General. LP-Gas is obtained from two sources: natural gas and refinery gas
streams. During the period 1950-1956 inclusive, about 75.4 per cent of total LP-Gas
production came from natural gas and about 24.6 per cent from refinery gases (see
Table 3-5).
Natural gas is processed in natural gasoline plants, cycling plants, and petrochemical
plants to extract hydrocarbons heavier than ethane by compression, adsorption, or
absorption. The extracted hydrocarbons are then separated by fractionation. The
propane and/or butane fractions, after treatment to remove undesirable constituents

(such as hydrogen sulfide, mercaptans, sulfur, and water), constitute the commercial
grades of LP-Gas.
Natural gas which is not associated with crude oil in the producing formation is
called dry gas, since it usually contains only minor quantities of easily liquefiable hydrocarbons. The production of LP-Gas from dry gas is sometimes restricted by the necessity of maintaining a thermal content sufficient to meet natural-gas pipeline requirements. In some dry gas fields the nitrogen content exceeds 15 per cent, and since its
removal is not economically feasible, sufficient propane and butane must be left in the
gas to compensate for the thermally inert nitrogen.
Table 3-5. LP-Gas Production*
From natural-gas sources
Year

Million gal
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956

Totals

From refinery sources

Total,
million gal
% of total

Million gal

% of total

4,214
4,950
5,490
6,153
6,639
7,805
8,482

2,993
3,562
4.189
4,754
5,204
5,973
6,300

71.0
72.0
76.3
77.3
78.4
76.5
74.3

1,221
1,388
1,301
1,399
1,435
1,832
2,182

29.0
28.0
23.7
22.7
21.6
23.5
25.7

43,733

32,975

7574

10,758

2476

* SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of Mines.

NOTE: Change in method of reporting accounts for increase in percentage of refinery production starting in 1954. Prior to that, LR-Gas produced in refineries and distributed by pipelines for chemical
processing and plant fuel was not reported.

Natural gas produced along with crude oil (wet gas) usually contains higher percentages of propane and butane than does dry gas. When the producing formation is
under high pressure, considerable amounts of gas are dissolved in the crude oil and are
released in a gas-oil separator when the pressure is reduced to permit surface storage
of the crude. These gases are usually quite high in propane and butane content.
Cycling Plants. As the search for crude-oil and natural-gas reserves reached
greater depths, a third type of natural gas was found. At high pressures, 1,500 psi or
more, methane and heavier hydrocarbons, some of which may have a boiling point as
high as 6000F, are found in gas-condensate fields as a single-phase fluid, that is, neither
a true gas nor liquid. This fluid is in the retrograde-condensation pressure range, and
a reduction in pressure results in partial condensation of the heavier hydrocarbons
until the fluid is resolved into true gas and liquid phases. Should the pressure reduction and resulting retrograde condensation occur in the producing formation, a large
portion of the liquid will not be recoverable. Consequently, the formation pressure
must be maintained as close to the original as practicable to obtain maximum recovery
of the heavier components. To do this, the residue gas, following extraction of the
heavier hydrocarbons by oil-absorption methods in a cycling plant, is recompressed
and returned to the formation through input wells so located that the residue gas
drives the remaining condensate to the producing wells. When the gas condensate
has been displaced and processed, the recycled gas is then treated as natural gas.
Compression Plants. Compression plants which started the natural gasoline and
LP-Gas industries are mainly of historical interest, although on Jan. 1, 1957, some 79
were still in operation. Prior to 1920, wet natural gas, especially casinghead gas, was
compressed to 45 to 60 psig in a single stage or to as high as 250 psig in a two-stage
compression unit and then water-cooled. The resulting condensate was called casinghead gasoline and was weathered to remove excess quantities of propane and butane
if too "wild" to be sold as recovered.

The compression plant had the virtues of simplicity and low investment cost but
could be used only with rich gases such as casinghead gas. The higher recovery of the
two-stage plant ran into the problem of "wild" or high-vapor-pressure gasoline from
the second stage, and weathering was an inefficient and wasteful method of vaporpressure control. Since the early 1920s, the absorption plant has almost entirely
replaced the compression plant for new installations and fractionation has completely
replaced weathering as a means of quality control.
Adsorption Plants. Shortly after World War I, Col. G. A. Burrell made use of his
experience in the Gas Warfare Division of the U.S. Army to introduce the use of activated charcoal to adsorb the heavier hydrocarbons from natural gas. A number of
adsorption plants were built in the mid-20s, but operating problems, especially in sourgas areas, placed the adsorption process at a disadvantage to that of oil absorption.
CONDENSER AND
,REFLEX DRUM ,

RESIDUE
GAS

FIELD
GAS

DEBUTANIZER

DEPROPANIZER

DEETHANIZER

STILL

ABSORBER

REABSORBER

PROPANE

BUTANES

NATURAL
GASOLINE

FLASH
TANK

FIG. 3-3. Simplified flow sheet of typical natural gasoline plant LP-Gas recovery system.
Recently, with a growing market for ethane in the petrochemical industry and increasing demands for propane, as LP-Gas, there has been a revival of interest in adsorption,
although it has not as yet threatened the popularity of oil absorption as a means of
recovering easily liquefiable gases from natural gas. Automatic adsorption units for
lean gas streams of small volumes appear to be practical in isolated fields where it
would not be economical to install an oil-absorption plant. A continuous adsorption
process, "hypersorption," is very effective on lean gases and, in addition to a high
propane recovery, will also recover ethane and ethylene for petrochemical feedstocks.
Oil-absorption Plants. The use of "mineral seal" oil to absorb the heavier hydrocarbons began to replace the compression method about 1920. Absorption permitted
more efficient recovery from casinghead gas and, in addition, made it practical to process the leaner gases. The term "natural gasoline" soon replaced "casinghead gasoline," and the separation of the components of natural gasoline by fractionation,
which began in 1923, made possible the LP-Gas industry. The first absorption plants
operated at low pressures and, while fairly efficient in removing the heavier hydrocarbons, did not attempt to recover propane (for which there was no market), which had
to be weathered off to control vapor pressure. Some grades of natural gasoline contained up to about 40 per cent of butanes, and any recovered in excess of this was also
weathered off.
When fractionation was introduced into natural gasoline plant operations, it became

practical to recover propane and excess butanes, provided a market could be found for
them. There had been a small but growing "bottled gas" business before this, but
increased recovery, separation, and quality control (made possible by fractionation)
contributed to the remarkable growth of the LP-Gas industry. This growth, which
started in the late 1920s, really boomed after suitable transportation facilities (tank
cars and tank trucks) had been developed. Figure 3-3 shows a simplified flow sheet
for a typical oil-absorption natural gasoline plant producing LP-Gas.
Refinery LP-Gas. Crude oil stored at atmospheric pressure contains very little
propane and usually only a small amount of butanes. Butanes which may have been
added to pipeline movements of crude oil are mostly flashed or weathered off to the
refinery gas system before the crude is charged to stills. Consequently, the distillation
unit contributes little propane or butanes to the refinery gas streams, and, of course,
no propylene or butylenes. The gas streams from thermal and catalytic cracking,
reforming, and coking units contain appreciable quantities of propane, propylene,
butanes, and butylenes. These are extracted by conventional oil absorption, distillation, condensation, and fractionation processes.
The propane and propylene recovered are usually charged to a polymerization unit,
which reduces the propylene content from 2 to 5 per cent in the effluent propane stream.
The propylene polymer is used in the petrochemical industry or blended in premium
motor fuel. In some cases, a portion of the propane is cracked to produce hydrogen
for refinery hydrogenation or desulfurization processes. It can also be cracked to
produce ethylene or propylene for other refining or petrochemical processes.
The butanes and butylenes recovered are usually charged to a hydrofluoric or sulfuric acid alkylation plant. The butylenes and isobutane form an alkylate which is
used as an aviation gasoline or premium motor fuel component. As a rule, the feed
stream is deficient in isobutane, which must be supplemented by outside supplies or by
isobutane produced by isomerization of excess refinery normal butane.
The butylenes can also be converted into petrochemicals or dehydrogenated to
butadiene, which is used in the manufacture of synthetic rubber. In the absence of an
alkylation plant, where the removal of butylenes is practically 100 per cent, the
butanes-butylenes can be charged to a polymerization unit either with the propanepropylene stream or separately if advantage of its higher octane polymer is economically desirable.
Economics. It is apparent that for refinery butanes and butylenes to reach the
LP-Gas fuel market there must be a price incentive or it will continue to be used in the
refinery or at petrochemical or rubber plants. Motor fuel will average about 6 per
cent butane, practically all of which is normal butane. The present price structure
favors the addition of as much butane to motor fuel as possible without encountering
vapor-lock problems. Propane, containing only a minor amount of propylene (2 to 5
per cent), probably will continue to be the only liquefied refinery gas sold to the LP-Gas
industry in large volumes for fuel uses.
Treating LP-Gas. Following fractionation, the LP-Gas streams from refinery gases
and natural gases must be treated to meet corrosion and moisture specifications. If
hydrogen sulfide is present in the source streams, it is largely removed by an amine
treater prior to fractionation. Then a caustic wash is employed to remove the remaining traces and to reduce the mercaptan content to acceptable concentrations, usually
less than 2 grains per 100 cu ft. Since the caustic wash results in a water-saturated
LP-Gas, it is then necessary to remove the water in solution by means of a dryer,
usually employing an adsorbant or desiccant, such as activated alumina or bauxite.
Commercial propane must be dried to pass the cobalt bromide test, which results in
the vapor having a dew point of 15F or lower. The desiccant must be regenerated
when the effluent propane shows excessive moisture content. This is done by passing
gas preheated to 350 to 4000F through the dryer bed after the dehydrator has been

taken out of service. The drying is completed when the outlet gas temperature
approaches that of the inlet gas. The dehydrator is then allowed to cool to approximately atmospheric temperature before being returned to service. Because of the
batch-type operation, two or more desiccating columns are required, so that at least
one column is always in operation. LP-Gas in storage that fails to meet specification
as a result of contamination with other products or of faulty fractionation or treatment
should be isolated and rerun if practical. Otherwise, it must be rejected as LP-Gas
and burned as plant fuel or flared if that, too, is impractical.
SPECIFICATIONS AND TEST METHODS
Most LP-Gas is marketed under specifications outlined in NGAA Publication 2140.
Otherwise, the specifications are those agreed upon by marketer and purchaser.
Definitions of three grades of LP-Gas and specifications for them are given in Tables
3-6 to 3-8. These specifications are implemented by the various NGAA test methods,
also given in Publication 2140. Special uses of LP-Gas may require modifications of
Table 3-6. Commercial Propane: Definition and Specifications*
Definition
Commercial propane shall be a hydrocarbon product composed predominantly of propane
and/or propylene as determined by the NGAA LPG Vapor Pressure and Commercial
Propane Residue Tests and shall conform to the following specifications:
Specifications
Vapor Pressure. The vapor pressure at 100 F as determined by NGAA LPG Vapor
Pressure Test shall not be more than 210 pounds per square inch gage pressure.
Residue. The residue as determined by the NGAA Commercial Propane Weathering
Test shall not be more than two per cent by volume.
Volatile Sulfur. The unstenched product shall not contain volatile sulfur in excess of
fifteen grains per hundred cubic feet as determined by NGAA Volatile Sulfur Test for
LPG.
Corrosive Compounds. The product shall be free of corrosive compounds as determined
by the NGAA Corrosion Test.
Dryness. The product shall be dry as determined by the NGAA Commercial Propane
Dryness Test.
* Natural Gasoline Association of America.
Table 3-7. Commercial Butane: Definition and Specifications*
Definition
Commercial butane shall be a hydrocarbon product composed predominantly of butanes
and/or butylenes as determined by the NGAA LPG Vapor Pressure Test and the NGAA
Weathering Test for Butane and Butane-Propane mixtures and shall conform to the
following specifications:
Specifications
Vapor Pressure. The vapor pressure at 100 F as determined by NGAA LPG Vapor
Pressure Test shall not be more than 70 pounds per square inch gage pressure.
95 Per Cent Boiling Point. The temperature at which 95 per cent volume of the product
has evaporated shall be 34 F or less when corrected to a barometric pressure of 740 mm.
Hg., as determined by NGAA Weathering Test for Butane and Butane-Propane
mixtures.
Volatile Sulfur. The unstenched product shall not contain volatile sulfur in excess of
fifteen grains per hundred cubic feet as determined by NGAA Volatile Sulfur Test.
Corrosive Compounds. The product shall be free of corrosive compounds as determined
by NGAA LPG Corrosion Test.
Dryness. The product shall not contain free, entrained water.
* Natural Gasoline Association of America.

Table 3-8. Butane-Propane Mixtures: Definition and Specifications*

Definition
Butane-propane mixtures shall be hydrocarbon products composed predominantly of
mixtures of butane and/or butylenes with propane and/or propylene as determined by the
NGAA LPG Vapor Pressure Test and the NGAA Weathering Test for Butane and ButanePropane mixtures and shall conform to the following specifications:
Specifications
Vapor Pressure. The vapor pressure at 100 F as determined by NGAA LPG Vapor
Pressure Test shall not be more than 210 inch gage pressure.
95 Per Cent Boiling Point. The temperature at which 95 per cent by volume has evaporated shall be 34 F or less when corrected to a barometric pressure of 740 mm. Hg., as
determined by NGAA Weathering Test for Butane and Butane-Propane mixtures.
Volatile Sulfur. The unstenched product shall not contain volatile sulfur in excess of
fifteen grains per hundred cubic feet as determined by NGAA Volatile Sulfur Test.
Corrosive Compounds. The product shall be free of corrosive compounds as determined
by NGAA Volatile Sulfur Test.
Dryness. The product should not contain free, entrained water.
Product Designation. Butane-propane mixtures shall be designated by the vapor
pressure at 100 F in pounds per square inch gage. To comply with the designation,
the vapor pressure of mixtures shall be within +0 lbs. 5 lbs. of the vapor pressure
specified. For example: A product specified as 95 pound LPG shall have a vapor
pressure of at least 90 lbs. but not more than 95 lbs. at 100 F.
* Natural Gasoline Association of America.
the NGAA specifications and/or additional specifications. The NGAA specifications
place no limit on the propylene or butylene content of LP-Gas, and in the majority of
cases none is needed. In certain solvent and controlled-atmosphere applications the
presence of unsaturated hydrocarbons is detrimental. These unsaturates can be
avoided by specifying (in the purchase contract) that the LP-Gas be obtained from a
natural-gas source.
Specific test methods for LP-Gas have been promulgated by the American Society
for Testing Materials in ASTM Standards on Petroleum Products and Lubricants.
Among them are the following:
D 1265-55. Sampling Liquefied Petroleum Gases
D 1266-55T. Sulfur in Petroleum Products and Liquefied Petroleum Gases by the
CO2-O2 Lamp Method
D 1267-55. Vapor Pressure of Liquefied Petroleum Gases
The NGAA in NGAA Publication 2140-57 describes the following LP-Gas test methods:
LP-Gas vapor-pressure test (identical in substance with ASTM 1267-55)
LP-Gas specific-gravity test (pressure pycnometer method)
LP-Gas specific-gravity test (hydrometer method)
LP-Gas corrosion test (copper strip method)
Volatile sulfur test for LP-Gas (lamp method)
Commercial propane dryness test (cobalt bromide method)
Commercial propane dryness test (dew-point method)
Commercial propane residue test (mercury freeze method)
Weathering tests for butane-propane mixtures
Sampling liquefied petroleum gases (identical in substance with ASTM 1265-55)
The California Natural Gasoline Association (CNGA) in Bulletin TS 441, Part III,
describes the following LP-Gas test methods:

1. Tentative
petroleum gas
2. Tentative
petroleum gas
3. Tentative
leum gas
4. Tentative
5. Tentative
petroleum gas

standard method for determining the vapor pressure of a liquefied

standard method for determining the specific gravity of a liquefied
standard method for the weathering test analysis of a liquefied petrostandard method for determining isobutane in propane
standard method for determining the water content of a liquefied

In addition to the test methods listed in the foregoing ASTM, NGAA, and CNGA
publications, other methods have been employed to determine the composition, presence of deleterious substances, and olefinic constituents. Since most of these methods
require laboratory facilities and skilled personnel, they are not usually run on a routine
basis or as field tests.
Composition Test Methods
1. Mass Spectrometry. Gas samples of the flashed liquid are bled continuously at
reduced pressure through a restriction into a high-vacuum region, where they are subjected to ionization by electrons emitted from a heated filament. The resulting ions
are accelerated to high velocity through slits to which voltages have been applied.
These accelerated ions are injected into a magnetic field where their paths are deflected
proportionately to the mass of the particle. They are then "counted" by amplification and measurements of currents imparted by the ions to a collector. The spectra of
individual components are added linearly and resolved into concentration by proportional mathematics. ASTM D 1137-53, Analysis of Natural Gases and Related Types
of Gaseous Mixtures by the Mass Spectrometer, outlines a specific method of determining the composition of LP-Gas and is published in the ASTM Standards on Gaseous
Fuels.
2. Other Spectrographic Methods. Infrared and ultraviolet spectrometers are also
available to determine the composition of LP-Gas. An infrared method, Proposed
Method of Test for Individual Hydrocarbons in a C4 Fraction by Infrared Spectrophotometry, is listed in the appendix of ASTM Standards on Petroleum Products and
Lubricants. These methods have been discussed in various technical publications and
presented at the St. Louis Symposium on LP-Gas Test Methods.
3. Low-temperature Fractional Distillation. These methods, which are most commonly used to determine the composition of LP-Gas, require a sample cooled to a temperature well below its boiling point. The sample temperature is then gradually
increased, and the vapors generated are continuously fractionated at atmospheric or
subatmospheric pressures into their various components. The vapors removed from
the top of the fractionating column are measured in previously evacuated vessels and
correlated with the pressure and temperature measurements existing at the top of the
column during the period of removal. The method is completely described in the
NGAA publication Analysis by Low Temperature Distillation.
4. Chromatographic Methods. Gas chromatography is a recent and very promising
addition to the methods by which the composition of LP-Gas can be determined. Its
speed, simplicity, accuracy, and relatively low installation cost may well result in its
eventual replacement of the low-temperature fractional distillation method as the most
generally used method of analyzing hydrocarbon gases.
Gas chromatography is based on the ability of certain materials (such as activated
carbon, alumina or silica gel) to adsorb light hydrocarbons selectively. In one procedure the gas sample is passed through the adsorbant in a stream of helium. The
hydrocarbon components in the stream are adsorbed. As flow continues, the heavier

hydrocarbons replace or drive off the lighter ones that have been adsorbed, so that the
effluent from the adsorber contains the individual hydrocarbons in successive order of
their increasing molecular weights. Helium is not adsorbed in this process but serves
only as a carrier. The thermal conductivity of the effluent gas is measured by a
Wheatstone bridge with a side stream of helium as the reference gas. By maintaining
a constant flow rate (controlled by a rotameter) through the adsorbent, it is possible
to plot the difference between the thermal conductivity of helium and that of the
adsorber effluent gas on a continuous recorder. The resulting plot is known as a
chromatogram. The chromatograph can be calibrated, and the identity and quantity
of each component determined from the curve heights or areas and the elapsed time
data on the recorder.
Other LP-Gas Test Methods
1. Unsaturated Hydrocarbons (Olefins). The determination of unsaturates in
LP-Gas can be made by ASTM D 1268-55 described in the ASTM Standards on Petroleum Products and Lubricants and titled Unsaturated Light Hydrocarbons (SilverMercuric Nitrate Method). Other methods include
Absorption in bromine water
Absorption in sulfuric acid
Catalytic hydrogenation
2. Hydrogen Sulfide in LP-Gas. The NGAA LP-Gas corrosion test (copper strip
method) indicates the presence of hydrogen sulfide but does not determine the amount.
The lead acetate method (in which a strip of filter paper wetted with an aqueous solution of lead acetate is contacted by a flow of LP-Gas for a specified time) is also a
qualitative test for the presence of hydrogen sulfide, although, by varying the exposure
time, the test may be made semiquantitative.
The well-known Tutweiler method of titrating a measured gas sample with standard
iodine solution, using a starch indicator, is not suitable for most LP-Gas samples, since
they very rarely contain high enough concentrations of hydrogen sulfide for a dependable titration (a minimum of about 20 grains per 100 cu ft).
A more satisfactory procedure consists of absorbing the hydrogen sulfide in neutral
cadmium sulfate solution followed by iodimetric titration. This technique is described
in the American Petroleum Institute (API) Code 50-A and in the CNGA Bulletin
TS-431.
3. Mercaptans. Mercaptans can be determined colorimetrically by passing a measured volume of gas through a filter paper treated with a solution of copper oleate in carbon tetrachloride. The filter paper is then exposed to direct sunlight or ultraviolet
light. The color intensity developed during exposure is then compared with that of a
set of standard papers.
Mercaptans can also be determined by absorption in an alkaline cadmium sulfate
solution, followed by iodimetric titration. Hydrogen sulfide interferes with this
method and, if present, must first be removed by absorption in neutral cadmium sulfate solution.
STORAGE AND HANDLING OF LP-GAS
Types of Storage. LP-Gas is stored and shipped as a liquid and used as a gas.
Because it is a gas under ordinary temperatures and pressures, it must, if it is to be
handled as a liquid, be kept under a moderate pressure. Consequently, unless butane,
with its lower vapor pressure, is to be handled exclusively, tanks having a design pressure of 250 psig are used. Tanks of this design pressure are suitable for commercial
propane, all butane-propane mixtures, or commercial butane. This affords a desirable
degree of flexibility. Lower design pressure storage tanks can be utilized only for
commercial butane or the low-vapor-pressure butane-propane mixtures. The use of

minimum design pressure tanks is an important economic consideration, particularly

in large-volume storage.
Storage is necessary at several points along the chain of distribution. It is required
at the point of production, at the point of distribution, and at the point of consumption.
Either the producer or distributor may also have secondary storage installations.
Producer storage may be of the following types:
Underground: (1) dissolved salt cavities, (2) mined caverns
Aboveground: (1) spheres, (2) horizontal or vertical cylindrical tanks
Dissolved salt cavities are possible where suitable salt domes or salt layers exist. The
NGAA has developed Tentative Standards for the Underground Storage or Liquefied
Petroleum Gas. These tentative standards contain certain basic safety standards for
the construction, testing, and fitting of these underground storage installations. An
Interstate Oil Compact Commission report lists the underground storage projects as
of early 1956 and also discusses the geological possibilities, indicating areas where
different types of underground storage might be feasible. The National Petroleum
Council 1957 report not only brings up to date the listing of all LP-Gas underground
storage projects but cites their operational experience (which has been excellent) and
includes considerable engineering and economic data.
Most of the underground storage is in the major LP-Gas producing areas of Texas,
Kansas, Louisiana, New Mexico, and Oklahoma, although some have been constructed
in Mississippi, Alabama, Illinois, Michigan, and New York. The storage capacity of a
cavity in a salt layer is limited by the thickness of the layer. The potential capacity
of a cavity in a salt dome is much greater. Dissolved salt cavities with capacities up
to 100,000 barrels are not uncommon and in salt domes range up to 500,000 bbl.
Spheres are often used for butane storage and 5,000 to 10,000-bbl spheres are quite
common. Some have capacities up to 20,000 bbl. Horizontal cylindrical tanks used
for LP-Gas storage usually are of 30,000 gal capacity, though tanks of 60,000 to 70,000
gal capacity are becoming popular, particularly at terminals. The per-gallon cost of
these larger tanks is only slightly lower, but the saving on footings, piers, piping, and
accessories makes them attractive. There have been a few special storage installations of large-diameter pipe in units of 950- to 1,100-ft lengths, but space limitations
usually discourage such installations.
Most producer storage is at the point of production, although there is a growing
tendency to construct and operate large-volume storage nearer major consuming
areas. Most of this secondary storage is located on pipelines or at water terminals.
However, several major storage terminals receive their product by tank car during the
"off" season.
Storage by the distributor is largely in the horizontal cylinderical containers of
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) construction for 250-psig design
pressure. Butane storage may utilize tanks having a design pressure of 125 psig (the
minimum set forth in NFPA Pamphlet 58). Although 12,000-, 18,000-, and 30,000-gal
tanks are the most common for bulk storage plants, these tanks may vary in capacity
from 1,000 to 30,000 gal. A few distributors have developed their own underground
storage where their operations are large enough to justify the investment and where
their marketing area is close to suitable geological formations.
Consumer storage may include all types and sizes mentioned above for producers
and distributors. The size and type will vary with the load demand by the domestic,
commercial, industrial, petrochemical, or utility user.
Installation of Storage Containers
Aboveground steel storage tanks should be mounted on two supports (piers). When
more than two supports are used, the problem of alignment arises, and unless perfect

alignment is attained, excessive stresses may be imparted to the shell. In order to

select the proper type of structural foundation, the safe load-bearing capacity and
character of the soil must first be determined. Aboveground storage containers
exceeding 2,000 gal capacity are usually electrically grounded as a protection against
lightning.
Each storage tank should be equipped with a suitable gaging device for determining
the liquid level and with a thermometer well for temperature determination. All storage containers are equipped with suitable safety devices in the form of spring-loaded
relief valves which protect the container against excessive pressures. At excessive
pressures they release gas, thereby reducing the pressure in the container. The rapid
vaporization of the liquid in the tank due to the pressure reduction results in selfrefrigeration of the liquid which reduces its vapor pressure. When the pressure is
reduced below the safety-valve setting, the valve reseats and shuts off any further
escape of LP-Gas.
The relief valves on the larger storage containers are usually equipped with vent
stacks to release the discharged gas at a safe distance above the tank. These vent
stacks are fitted with raincaps to keep out water. Further protection against ice
formation, which would render the valve inoperative, is attained by providing a drain
hole in the relief-valve assembly. The discharge of this drain hole should be fitted
with an excess-flow valve (which permits water to drain out but closes when the relief
valve opens) or piped to a safe location. These provisions are necessary to prevent
impingement of burning gas on the container shell or adjacent piping in case the reliefvalve discharge should be ignited.
The size and number of relief valves required depend upon the size of the storage
tank. The standard method of determining relief-valve-capacity requirements for
any size tank is set forth in the Standards for the Storage and Handling of Liquefied
Petroleum Gases published by the NFPA as Pamphlet 58.
Further safety is afforded through the use of excess-flow valves, installed in all openings in the storage tank except the relief valve, gaging, and sometimes the filling connections. In the absence of excess-flow valves, the filling connections are provided
with backflow check valves which prevent the escape of LP-Gas from the storage tank
in case the filling connection or hose should break. The excess-flow valve is held open
by a spring. When the flow through the valve becomes excessive, as in the case of
a line break, a pressure differential is created across the valve sufficient to overcome
the spring tension and slam the valve shut. The valve seats have a small drilled opening (No. 60), or bypass, which permits a small flow through the closed valve. Therefore, it is possible to unseat or open the excess-flow valve by closing a valve downstream
and allowing the pressure to build up on the downstream side until the differential
across the valve is less than the spring tension.
On large installations, particularly at refineries and terminals, hydraulically operated shutoff valves are sometimes used instead of excess-flow valves. These valves
are so designed that hydraulic pressure is required to hold them in the open position.
Oil pressure, maintained by a suitable pump, is usually employed for this purpose.
Fusible plugs (which melt at 165 or 2100F) are located in the hydraulic system, at the
storage tanks, and at other strategic points, so that any fire in the area will quickly
melt the plugs, release the hydraulic pressure, and automatically close the valves.
Manual shutdown stations are sometimes located at strategic points within the area so
that all valves can be quickly closed in event of an emergency. It is desirable to
locate these hydraulically operated valves at intervals in long, large liquid lines, so they
can be quickly valved off if necessary to prevent the release of the entire contents of
the line.
Due to the pronounced volatility of LP-Gases it is not normally necessary to provide
dikes around storage tanks as is commonly done with tanks containing flammable

liquids. Any liquid LP-Gas that is released will quickly vaporize. However, dikes
or diversion curbs should be used where necessary to prevent the accumulation of
flammable liquids under LP-Gas tanks.
Any complete engineering design for a new storage installation (regardless of whether
storage is for distributor or consumer) must include tank location. There are, in most
states, minimum distance requirements for the location of a container with respect to
MINIMUM DISTANCES - FEET

CONTAINER
WATER CAPACITY GALLONS

LESS THAN 125

CONTAINER TO
PROPERTY LINE

UNDER
GROUND

ABOVE
GROUND
NONE

BETWEEN ABOVEGROUND CONTAINERS

NONE

FIG. 3-4. Minimum distance requirements for locating LP-Gas tanks.

Pamphlet 58.)

{From NFPA

another container, important building or group of buildings, or line of adjoining property which may be built upon. Typical of such requirements are those found in NFPA
Pamphlet 58 (Fig. 3-4).
Transfer and Piping Facilities
LP-Gas bulk plant piping systems must, of course, be designed to withstand the
maximum pressure exerted by the LP-Gas. Where the piping may be subjected to
storage tank pressure, it must be capable of withstanding pressure equal to the working
pressure of the storage tank. This maximum pressure is usually about 250 psig,
although the pressure may be slightly higher on the discharge side of a transfer pump.
It is also necessary to provide protection for the piping from damage by external forces
such as differential settlement of sections of piping and/or storage tanks, thermal
expansion and contraction of lines, external corrosion (buried piping), vibration, and
physical damage. Sound engineering practice in the piping layout and proper maintenance after the installation is in operation provide this protection. It is important
that portions of liquid lines which may be valved off be protected from excessive hydrostatic pressures (due to temperature increases) by suitable relief valves.
Unloading from tank cars and tank trucks into storage tanks is through a closed system under pressure by means of a liquid pump, a gas compressor, or gas pressure. In
the first two methods of unloading, connections are made by means of flexible hose or
pipe (fitted with special swivel joints) from the liquid outlet on the tank car or tank
truck to the liquid inlet of the storage system. Another flexible hose or flexible piping
system connects the vapor line of the storage system to the vapor space of the tank car
or truck. This is shown schematically in Fig. 3-5. If a pump is used, liquid is pumped
from the transport tank into the storage system, the pressure in the storage container
and the transport tank being equalized through the vapor connections.
If a compressor is used, vapor is taken from the storage container and discharged
into the vapor space of the tank car or truck, creating a pressure differential between
the two which forces liquid into the storage container. A compressor may have its

connections reversed to remove most of the vapors remaining after the liquid is
removed from tank cars. This is important, as will be noted by reference to Fig. 3-6.
This curve shows the number of gallons of liquid propane present as vapor in an 11,000gal tank car at various tank-car pressures. This procedure is usually not economical
LIQUID
BOTTOM DRAIN
COMPRESSOR
SUCTION AND
DISCHARGE

TANK

CAR

PRESSURE

PSIG

TANK CAR
UNLOADING RISER
COMPRESSOR
STORAGE TANK
FIG. 3-5. Schematic layout of tank-car unloading of LP-Gas by pressure differential (compressor) .

SATURATED VAPOR

IN TANK CAR IN GALLONS

FIG. 3-6. Gallons of saturated propane vapor in 11,000-gal tank car (no liquid in car) at
various pressuresbased on vapor densities of pure propane.
with tank-truck deliveries because of the additional time required to remove the
vapors.
Gas under pressure can be used to increase the tank-car pressure above the storagetank pressure and force liquid to flow to the storage tank. LP-Gases are normally
loaded into tank cars and tank trucks from bulk storage by means of pumps.

All flexible hose connections should be protected with either excess-flow valves or
backflow check valves installed in the piping to prevent the escape of LP-Gas in event
of hose failure. The hose should be resistant to the action of liquid LP-Gas. During
tank-car loading and unloading operations a "stoptank car connected" sign should
be maintained in the proper position, and the wheels at both ends of the car should be
blocked on the rails. The rails on which tank cars may be loaded or unloaded should
be electrically grounded to the transfer piping in accordance with the railroad or
Association of American Railroads (AAR) requirements.
All electrical equipment used in connection with transferring LP-Gases should be in
accordance with Class I, Group D requirements of the National Electrical Code.
RULES, REGULATIONS, AND STANDARDS
Liquefied petroleum gas is classified by the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC)
as a " flammable compressed gas." As such, its interstate movement is regulated by
the ICC, along with those of other flammable compressed gases, compressed gases,
flammable liquids, oxidizing materials, poisons, and explosives. The ICC regulations
entitled Interstate Commerce Commission Regulations for Transportation of Explosives and Other Dangerous Articles by Land and Water in Rail Freight Service and by
Motor Vehicle (Highway) and Water including Specifications for Shipping Containers
set forth certain requirements for shipping containers. For example, the following
minimum specification containers are required for commercial propane:
Cylinders: ICC 4, 4-A, 4-B, 4-BA, 4-B-240X, 4-B-240FLW, 4-B-240ET, 4-E
Portable tank containers: ICC 51
Tank trucks: ICC MC-330
Tank cars: ICC 105-A-300, ICC, 105-A-300W, ICC, 112-A-400W
The ICC regulations specify materials, codes of construction, tests, design pressures,
location of fittings, protection of fittings, relief-valve requirements, filling densities,
etc. ICC standards of design and fabrication should be followed in the construction
of any cargo transport container or vehicle regardless of whether or not interstate
movement is contemplated. It is also necessary to comply with any applicable state
regulations; hence these should always be consulted and followed.
State Regulations. The rules and regulations of the ICC are only one phase of the
over-all regulatory situation inasmuch as they apply only to the transportation of the
product. LP-Gas, being flammable, is also regulated by the states. State regulations
for LP-Gas are usually administered by the state fire marshal, though the administrative agency varies in some states. Such regulation of LP-Gas covers not only transportation but also the broader aspects of storage, handling, and utilization.
Fortunately, the states have had an excellent guide to follow in the development of
LP-Gas regulations. This guide is the previously referred to NFPA Pamphlet 58 for
the Storage and Handling of Liquefied Petroleum Gases. This standard is used in
whole or in part in about 44 states. Other guides include NFPA Pamphlet 52,
entitled Liquefied Petroleum Gas Piping and Appliance Installations in Buildings, and
NFPA Pamphlet 59, entitled Liquefied Petroleum Gases at Utility Gas Plants.
Though the states have basically followed these NFPA standards, a study of the individual state regulation applicable in any given situation should be made.
In addition to the ICC and state regulations, there may be local (municipal) regulations. While these are usually in the nature of zoning ordinances, they may also have
restrictions on size of storage, spacing, etc., hence should also be checked.
Other Standards and Practices. Insurance companies, especially those carrying
the large industrial risks, may have established standards, and though they are not
regulations in the administrative (legal) sense, they do establish in certain instances

special design considerations. As a rule such special requirements are based upon
unusual exposure conditions; otherwise NFPA Pamphlet 58 is the guide.
The AAR has published a series of recommended practices and rules related to the
unloading of tank cars, leasing of tracks, prevention of sparks, and grounding of tanks.
These pamphlets are good guides as they pertain to those specific details. The American Standards Association (ASA) has published a Code for Pressure Piping (B31.1-55),
whose design recommendations are pertinent to and recommended for large-volume
storage installations, natural gasoline plants, and refineries.
The API has developed and published a standard (2510) covering The Design and
Construction of Liquefied Petroleum Gas Installations at Marine and Pipeline Terminals, Natural Gasoline Plants, Refineries and Tank Farms. This standard recognizes
the ASA code for pressure piping noted above. The API standard was developed
because the NFPA Pamphlets 58 and 59 specifically exclude these installations.
Safety Requirements
The safety requirements for handling LP-Gas are based upon a thorough understanding of the basic properties of the material. This knowledge, coupled with good
engineering practice, makes it possible to design safety into LP-Gas systems and
installations. The ICC, state, and local regulations are basically safety standards.
With properly installed excess-flow valves, relief valves, liquid-level gaging devices,
etc., in a system, safety has been built into the installation. These equipment components or appurtenances are tested and listed by Underwriters' Laboratories (UL) in
Chicago. Such approval certifies the safety of design and performance of the equipment. The American Gas Association (AGA) Laboratories also test and list gasburning appliances. This certification indicates that the design and performance of
the appliance meet the standards established by the ASA. However, because of the
individual "customized" nature of industrial (and some commercial) gas-burning
equipment, there are no applicable ASA standards; hence there is no AGA test or
approval for these appliances. These installations are specifically designed, engineered, and constructed to conform with applicable state codes and good engineering
practice.
Some insurance companies have prepared safety standards for certain occupancy
and exposure conditions. Certain insurance groups provide laboratory facilities for
testing and listing equipment and systems in a manner analogous to that performed by
the UL.
Proper engineering and construction of an LP-Gas installation should consider the
storage location. Spacing requirements have been established, based primarily on the
size of the tank or tanks involved and on the nature of adjacent installations.
The ICC and the NFPA have established maximum filling limits for the various
LP-Gas containers, dependent upon the temperature and specific gravity of the liquid
with which they are being filled. These filling densities must not be exceeded in order
that the containers will not become liquid full (hydrostatic) in case the liquid temperature subsequently increases.
Proper engineering and construction of an LP-Gas installation, from the storage
tank to the gas-consuming appliance, do not of themselves assure complete safety.
The installation must also be operated in a safe manner. Employees should be taught
the properties of LP-Gas and thoroughly indoctrinated in proper operational procedures. They should also be trained in the proper emergency procedures. These
would include shutdown operations, fire-fighting techniques, etc. This training should
be supplemented with regular drills. Such safety measures are not peculiar to LP-Gas
but are a necessary part of any successful and progressive operation. General information and safety practices are listed as follows:

Precautions in Handling
1. Because of its high Btu content, as little as 1.55 per cent of LP-Gas in a gas-air
mixture is flammable.
2. A rise in temperature increases the pressure in a storage tank, truck tank, or tank
car and causes the liquid contents to expand.
3. Do not smoke in an area into which gas might escape; keep open flames and all
other sources of ignition away from tank cars, tank trucks, storage tanks, and vaporizer
houses.
4. Open all liquid valves slowly; otherwise excess-flow valves may close.
5. If excess-flow valves close, they can be opened by closing a downstream valve
for a few minutes. The valve seat in each excess-flow valve has been scored or drilled
to permit the pressure to equalize on each side of the valve. Do not hammer the tank
fittings to open excess-flow valves.
6. Do not overload LP-Gas tanks. Observe readings on gaging device and fill only
to maximum filling level corresponding to the liquid temperature.
7. Be sure that the threaded connections are in good condition to assure vaportight
assembly when made up.
8. Bleed valves should be installed on all transfer or equalizing hoses to relieve
pressure before disconnecting. CAUTION! It is extremely dangerous to break a hose
coupling which is under pressure.
9. Test for leaks with soapy water or linseed oil, never with an open flame.
10. When repairing or adding to piping, use only approved pipe-joint compound, gasket material, and valves. If tubing is used, do not use solder having a melting point
of less than 10000F in making connections.
11. Before starting repairs make sure that valves on both sides of section to be
repaired are closed tightly and do not leak. The section of piping to be repaired must
be safely purged of gas.
12. Do not enter an LP-Gas storage tank until it has been thoroughly purged and
all pipelines leading to it have been disconnected, not merely valved off.
13. Use only Class I, Group D electrical equipment in vicinity of storage tanks, tank
cars, and vaporizers. Use only flashlights which are UL-approved for use in hazardous
areas.
14. Never tamper with safety relief valves on tank cars, and never place any portion
of the body over the safety relief valve.
15. Use care when removing plugs or caps on connections to tank car.
16. If any working part of the tank car is in unsatisfactory condition, remove the
"bad order tag" from the waterproof pouch inside the tank-car dome. Describe the
trouble on the tag and attach it to the "bad order" part.
In Case of a Fire
If an LP-Gas installation or cylinder storage area is exposed to a fire, certain procedures must be followed. Since the pressure in an LP-Gas container is commensurate
with the temperature of the contained product, the container should be kept as cool as
possible to prevent or minimize any discharge of gas through the relief valve. This can
be done by applying a stream of water to the container. Wherever practicable disconnect the containers (small containers and cylinders), remove them from the fire
zone, and place them at a safe distance in an upright position.
Portable containers should always be kept in an upright position in order to prevent
the discharge of liquid through the relief valve. The reason for this is that if the relief
valve is in the liquid phase, it is not so effective in reducing the gas pressure as when the
relief valve communicates directly with the vapor space. Actually, if the relief valve

is in the liquid phase, it traps the vapor and prevents its effective release. When the
relief valve is in the vapor phase, it reduces the gas pressure by permitting its direct
release from the container. This direct release of vapor causes vaporization of liquid
in the container, which lowers the temperature of the liquid and hence the pressure in
the container.
In fighting LP-Gas fires it is generally advisable to permit any escaping gas to burn
itself out. The fire can be controlled within limits. However, if the fire is extinguished before the gas escape is stopped, gas may accumulate and, if reignited, cause
an explosion.
Should the upper portion of the container (including the container valve) be in a
locked protecting device or hood, the lock can be broken by a hammer or axe and the
container valve can then be closed with the handwheel or with an adjustable wrench.
If the container is to be removed after the valve is closed, the flexible connection can
be disconnected or, if necessary, cut with an axe.
If gas is discharging through the relief valve and is burning, a stream of water should
be played on the container to cool the liquid and reduce the pressure therein. This will
cause the relief valve to close. If the container is equipped with a fusible plug which
has opened, it is safest to let the escaping gas continue to burn until the contents are
exhausted.
If a fire is adjacent to an LP-Gas container, but no gas is escaping, efforts should be
made to keep the container cool, thus diminishing the possibility of a build-up in pressure sufficient to open the safety relief device. If a fire occurs at a large installation,
such as a bulk plant or an industrial installation, efforts should be directed toward
cooling the storage tank by the application of streams of water. If possible, any nongas fire around the container which is heating the contents of a tank should be extinguished. When the source of heat is removed, the pressure within the container will
diminish and the relief valve will close. LP-Gas discharged from the safety relief
valve stacks should be ignited unless such ignition would create a hazard. Such a
torch will be safe as it will diminish and go out when the tank pressure is reduced below
the set pressure of the relief valve.
If a gas line is broken and the escaping gas ignited, one of the first steps taken should
be to stop the flow of gas. Generally, this can be done by closing the valves at the
storage container if no closer shutoff valves are available. After the flow of gas is
stopped, an extinguisher such as dry powder chemical or carbon dioxide should be used
to extinguish the fire. It is important to remember that the fire should be controlled
but not extinguished unless the gas leakage can be stopped.
These same principles should be followed in event of a fire involving an LP-Gas tank
truck and tank car. If practicable, they should be moved to an area of minimum
exposure.
DISTRIBUTION METHODS
Though LP-Gas is a gas at ordinary temperatures and pressures, it can be liquefied
by the application of moderate pressure. Consequently, advantage is taken of this
property, and it is stored, shipped, and handled as a liquidused as a gas. This is one
of the many advantages of LP-Gas. All modes of transportation that can be used for
petroleum products can likewise be used for its transportation. These include pipelines, tankers, barges, tank cars, tank trucks, and cylinders.
By Pipelines
Pipelines for transporting LP-Gas, at present, are most common in the production
areas. Such lines run from plants to terminals, to central storage, and to large-volume
petrochemical plants. Texas has many such lines. LP-Gas is transported in pipe-

lines in four different forms: as finished product (either as propane or as butane), in

raw streams, in crude oil, and in natural gas. In each of the last three cases further
processing is necessary to separate the LP-Gas hydrocarbons which may also require
treatment prior to marketing.
The principal pipelines used for the transportation of LP-Gas as a finished product
are:
1. From the Texas Panhandle to East Chicago, Ind.
2. From the Texas Panhandle to Denver, Colo.
3. From Wood River, 111., to East Chicago, Ind.
4. From West Texas to Houston, Tex., area
5. From South Texas to Houston, Tex., area
6. From West Texas to Beaumont, Tex., area
7. Three shorter lines: one in Louisiana, one from western Kansas into Oklahoma,
and one from Blackwell, OkIa., to Hutchinson, Kans.
8. East Chicago, Ind., to Lowell, Mich.
The number of pipelines transporting LP-Gas in a "raw" stream (which may or may
not be deethanized) is quite large and includes interplant lines, gathering systems, and
lines of several hundred miles in length to centralized processing points. There are
many such lines from New Mexico, East and West Texas into the Texas Panhandle,
and the Texas Gulf area. Some of these lines are used to transport feedstocks to
petrochemical plants.
Pipelines which transport crude-oil-LP-Gas mixtures are also numerous but more
difficult to pinpoint. This method of transportation has several advantages. It
makes the crude easier to pump, by virtue of reducing its viscosity, and also transports
the LP-Gas to major consuming areas.
There are two good examples of the transportation of LP-Gas in a natural-gas pipeline. One such example is a petrochemical plant, which extracts LP-Gas from natural
gas, located in east central Illinois (Tuscola) at the junction of two pipelines originating
in the Southwest. Another is in Kentucky, near Louisville, on a pipeline bringing gas
from the Texas Gulf and East Texas areas. As the LP-Gas market grows larger and
larger, additional pipelines may be constructed to transport the product from the
major production centers to the larger marketing areas.
By Tankers and Barges
Water transportation of LP-Gas has increased rapidly, after a rather slow start.
World-wide, it is estimated that there were in mid-1957 23 such tankers having a total
capacity of 279,693 bbl (11,747,000 gal). Many of these are combination tankers,
hauling LP-Gas and refined products. Several small tankers operate between the
Scandinavian countries and in the Caribbean. Another is going into Mediterranean
service. It is anticipated that LP-Gas will soon be exported from Venezuela and the
Near East. Some interest has been shown in transporting LP-Gas hydrocarbons
under refrigerated conditions which would obviate the necessity for heavy pressure
containers (250 psig design pressure) required to transport propane under ambienttemperature conditions. In 1957, about 17 barges suitable for LP-Gas or anhydrous
ammonia shipments were in domestic operation. Five were seagoing barges, and the
remainder for inland-water use. Each inland barge carries from 340,000 to 360,000
gal, while the seagoing barges carry 500,000 gal or more. The trend is toward larger
barges. According to a recent report, 83,539,092 gal of LP-Gas was shipped by barge
and tanker in 1956.

By Tank Cars
Historically, railroad tank cars have been the backbone of the long-haul transportation of LP-Gas. Tank-car transportation continues to increase, but at a slower rate
than the truck, pipeline, and water modes of transportation. The first tank-car shipments of butane and propane were made in 1927. In 1957 there were about 23,000
tank cars in LP-Gas service during the peak demand period. The first butane tank

WEATHER HOOD
LUBRICATOR ASSEMBLY
GAGING DEVICE PROTECTION HOUSING
GAGING POINTER(USE TOP SURFACE)GAGE ROD LOCK
GAGE ROD VALVE
GAGE RODGAGE ROD BRAKEPACKING GLAND NUTGAGING DEVICE HOUSING GASKET
(IMPORTANT: DO NOT REMOVE) '
GAGE ROD SHIELD VENT HOLES

65
75
225
300
300

PSIG
PSIG
PSIG
PSIG
PSIG

SAFETY RELIEF VALVE SET

ON BUTANE CARS (CLASS ICC 104 MODIFIED)
ON BUTANE CARS (CLASS ICC 104 A)
ON PROPANE CARS (CLASS ICC 105A-300W)
ON PROPANE CARS (CLASS ICC 105A-400W)
ONPROPANE CARS (CLASS ICC H 2 A - 4 0 0 W )

A-LIQUID EDUCTION VALVE

B-VAPOR VALVE
C-SAFETY RELIEF VALVE
D-GAGING DEVICE
E-LIQUID EDUCTION VALVE
F-SAMPLE VALVE
G-THERMOMETER WELL

4" INSULATION
VAPOR CONNECTION
LIQUID SURFACE
EXCESS FLOW VALVES

EXCESS FLOW VALVE

THERMOMETER WELL
(SHOULD CONTAIN ONE
PINT OF ANTI-FREEZE)

SAMPLE LINE

LIQUID EDUCTION

PIPE (1 OF 2)

FIG. 3-7. LP-Gas tank-car dome fittings and instructions for gaging.
cars had tanks of riveted construction, while the first propane tank-car tanks were
forge-welded. These cars did not have a dome in the usual sense but a protective
housing around the appurtenances on the manway nozzle (Fig. 3-7). They were
insulated with 4 in. of cork (later fiber glass) and covered with a steel jacket. The
first fusion-welded tank-car tanks were built in 1936 and were formally accepted in
1941 after a five-year trial period. The capacity of the early tank cars was about

10,000 gal, but this has been gradually increasing until today few have less than 11,600
gal capacity. The capacity of LP-Gas tank cars has taken a sudden jump upward
recently, with the addition of a large fleet of dual-purpose (LP-Gas and anhydrous
ammonia) tank cars having capacities of 14,600 gal each.
A major development in tank-car design occurred in 1956, when, after extensive
tests, uninsulated tank cars were approved for LP-Gas and anhydrous ammonia service. The first uninsulated dual-purpose pressure tank cars were delivered and placed
in service in 1957. The tank car has proved to be an efficient and safe container.
Transportation costs have always been an important factor in the LP-Gas business.
In many cases, the transportation costs exceed the sale price of the product at its
point of production.
Though the tank car has lost much new business to the truck, pipeline, barge, and
tanker, it will continue to play an important role in the LP-Gas industry, as well as
representing important business for the railroads. It will continue to be an important
mode of transportation simply because there is an economic limit to the distance of a
tank-truck haul and because railway movement will continue to be more flexible and
widespread than pipeline or water movement. Both pipeline and water transportation
are cheaper but require heavy initial investment, not only in the transportation
facilities but also in large storage installations on both ends.
By Tank Trucks
The growth of tank-truck transportation of LP-Gas has paralleled the growth of the
LP-Gas industry. The first tank trucks had a capacity of 250 gal. Modern "bobtails" (single units for household bulk delivery) carry from 1,500 to 2,300 gal. Modern
transports (semitrailers) have capacities from 6,500 to 9,500 gal. There is a definite
trend in transport trucks toward large single-barrel cargo tanks made of high-tensile
steels as contrasted to the twin-barrel transports which have previously been the basic
design.
The tank-truck tanks are built according to the ASME Code for 250 psig design
pressure and, if used in interstate service, must meet the requirements of ICC specification MC-330. This specification, in addition to setting forth the design and construction requirements, includes requirements for material, anchoring tanks to vehicles, and
protection of valves and accessories. All loading and unloading connections must be
provided with either an excess-flow valve or an automatic quick-closing internal valve.
These tanks, as are all LP-Gas tanks, are equipped with spring-loaded safety relief
valves. NFPA Pamphlet 58 also sets forth certain requirements for cargo truck tanks.
The number of tank trucks and tank transports in LP-Gas service today is indeterminate, but it is estimated that tank trucks transport over one-half of that marketed.
Tank trucks have the advantage of versatility and flexibility in routing. It was once
considered that 200 miles was the economical limit for tank-truck transportation; however, in the western part of the country hauls of 400 to 500 miles in length are not
uncommon now.
By Cylinders
These containers constructed in accordance with ICC specifications (e.g., ICC
4-B-240 and ICC 4-BA-240) have been important in the development of the LP-Gas
industry. " Bottled-gas" LP-Gas systems are the oldest and most common type.
The most popular system is the two-cylinder systemone being the supply container
and the other the standby container. This is sometimes referred to as "delivered
service." ICC cylinders vary from 20 Ib propane capacity (often called "self-service"
or "cash and carry ") to 420 Ib propane capacity. Cylinders of 300 and 420 Ib propane
capacity are usually permanently installed on the customer's premises and refilled
from a tank truck. This system was the first of the so-called bulk delivery service
which employs tanks of 250 to 1,200 gal capacity.

Next Page
Cylinders are not used as a primary means of transportation. They are the last
step in getting LP-Gas from the bulk plant to the customer. This type of transportation employs trucks (of all sizes) with a body so constructed that the cylinders can be
transported in a vertical position. Some special trucks are equipped with racks for
carrying the cylinders in a horizontal position. In some instances a centrally located
bulk plant will fill cylinders and deliver them to the dealer in a large truck carrying
hundreds of cylinders. The dealer, in turn, will deliver them to a customer. A
"cylinder" customer will ordinarily use LP-Gas for cooking, water heating, and
refrigeration.
UTILIZATION OF LP-GAS
The uses of LP-Gas are many and varied. The earliest uses were directly attributable to its ability to produce heat and power. Later, recognition of its convenient
chemical structure made it an important chemical building block. A complete listing
of all of the uses of LP-Gas is difficult, since new applications are being made continually. Table 3-9 lists some of the typical applications of LP-Gas.
Table 3-9. Uses of Liquefied Petroleum Gas
Domestic and Farm
House heating
Stock tank heating
Cooking
Forage dehydration
Water heating
Sterilization
Refrigeration
Pasteurization
Clothes drying
Scalding
Incineration
Stock branding
Weed burning
Irrigation engines
Tobacco curing
Stationary engine fuel
Tractor, truck motor fuel
Air conditioning
Brooder fuel
Swimming-pool heating
Crop drying
Commercial
Baking ovens
Wallpaper steamers
Deep-fat fryers
Salamanders
Hot plates
Lead pots
Space heating
Tar kettles
Steam boilers
Industrial
Heat treating
Soldering and brazing
Carburizing
Galvanizing
Die casting
Malleablizing
Core baking
Engine-block testing
Mold drying
Glass-plant operations
Flame cutting
Textile processing
Lithographing ovens
Steam generation
Vitreous enamel baking
Space heating
Industrial tractors and lift trucks
Forging
Torches
Motor fuel
Brick and lumber kilns
Cannery cookers
Calendering
Foundry work
Pottery kilns
Singeing
Petrochemicals (Raw Materials for)
Alcohols
Synthetic-rubber components
Aldehydes
Acetates
Ethylene and ethylene oxide
Nitroparaffins
Organic acids
Plastics
Detergents
Ketones
Ethylene glycol
Chemical Use (Direct Application)
Dewaxing and deasphaltizing
Degreasing of food products
Solvent extraction of vegetable oils
Color control of soaps
Utility
Enrichment (to raise or maintain constant Btu content)
Peak shaving
Standby
Distribution as such (undiluted or LP-Gas and air)
Transportation
Buses
Industrial tractors and lift trucks
Trucks
Taxicabs
Tractors (farm)

Automobiles