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Anatomy of a Breadboard:
The breadboard is where you will be assembling your circuits. The
breadboard is composed of rows and columns of metal clips. These
clips are housed in a plastic covering with holes that allow for pin
connections.
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For example, a resistor with color code red, violet, yellow gold is a
resistor with a value of 270k and a 5% tolerance. Thus the actual
value of the resistor is between 256.5k and 283.5k. More
expensive resistors have lower tolerance.
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is used:
A shortcut for two resistors in parallel is:
Capacitors
A capacitor is an electrical device that stores
the energy in the electric field between a pair
of conductive plates. Charges of equal
magnitude but opposite polarity build up on
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Diode
A diode is an electronic component that
restricts the direction of movement of
charge. Therefore, it allows current to
flow in only one direction, and blocks it
in the opposite direction.
A first order model for diode behavior is illustrated in the plot below.
If the voltage across the diode is less than a threshold voltage VF,
which is usually 0.7V for silicon junction diodes, then the diode is
considered off and no current flows through it. In the event that the
voltage across the diode reaches Vf, the diode turns on and current
flows through the diode in the specified direction (A C).
Note that the magnitude of the current is not defined by the diode,
but rather by the rest of the circuit, which the diode is a part of. Also,
since current can only flow in one direction, the current can only be
zero or any positive value, but not negative. Finally, because an
unlimited amount of current could flow though the diode, the circuit
the diode is a part of cannot cause VAC to become larger than Vf. Thus,
the diode clamps VAC to VF and no higher.
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A unique type of diodes made from materials other than silicon, and
that typically have a VF of 1.0 to 2.0V, dissipate power in the form of
light. These diodes are known as Light Emitting Diodes, or LEDs, and
are available in red, yellow, green and blue. These diodes are useful to
use as indicators in electronic circuits.
Making Measurements
Multimeters:
A multimeter is a device that is able to measure
current (ammeter), potential difference between two
locations (voltmeter), and resistance (ohmmeter)
amongst other things.
The purpose for which you are using the multimeter (i.e to measure
current, voltage, or resistance) dictates the method in which you
connect it to the rest of your circuit.
Ammeter
To measure current, the multimeter should
be connected in series with the rest of the
components in your circuit. This allows the
current flowing through the circuit to pass
through the ammeter as well. However,
meters should not alter the behavior of the
circuit whose current they are measuring,
and
thus, to avoid causing a voltage drop
across them, ammeter should have very low resistance.
Voltmeter
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The multimeter will display the RMS, or root mean square, voltage of
the AC signal.
Measurements Practice:
For the following 3 steps, use a 12 V DC source voltage from the
power supply, then repeat with a 12 V AC source voltage from the
function generator.
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Voltage Divider
In electronics, the voltage divider rule is a very useful design
technique used to supply a voltage that is a fraction of that provided
by the power supply.
Build the following circuit and use the following equations to
determine the voltage across Resistor 2, for some power supply
voltage V1.
Note that if the voltage divider is supplying a load resistance RL, the
output voltage you detect would be different than a setup in which
there is no load hooked up to the divider circuit.
Current Divider
If two or more impedances are in parallel, the current that enters
them will be split between them in inverse proportion to their
resistance. As we have seen, if the impedances that are in parallel are
equal, then the incoming current will be evenly split across each
resistor.
Build the following circuit and determine the current across each of
the three resistors:
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Note that since R1 is half of R3, the current through R1 will be twice
that through R3.
Since the voltage across all the components in a parallel circuit are
the same, we can calculate the current through each branch using
Ohms law (I=V/R).
Then, knowing that in parallel circuits, branch currents add up to
equal the total current, you can determine the total current for the
circuit using the branch currents previously calculated.
Finally, knowing the power supply voltage, and having just determined
the total current, the total resistance for this circuit can be
determined, again using Ohms law.
Use the following table to help guide you through the above calculations:
R1
R2
R3
Total
V
I
V
A
R
Remember:
Current through any resistor: I//=V///R//
Voltage in parallel circuit: Vtotal=V//=ItotalRtotal
So, substituting ItotalRtotal for V// in the first equation gives the current
through any parallel resistor:
I//=Itotal(Rtotal/R//)
This equation is the current divider formula.
Since Rtotal/R// will always be a number less than one, you can see that
this parallel circuit is able to proportion, or divide, the total current
into fractional parts through the parallel resistors, hence the term
current divider.
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Review:
Voltage divider: V//=Vtotal(R///Rtotal)
Current divider: I//=Itotal(Rtotal/R//)
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Probe this circuit and verify the voltages and currents across the two
resistors.
Calculate the total resistance in this circuit using the expression for
Rtotal for parallel resistors.
Using this value, compute the total current for this circuit using
Ohms Law.
Note that the current calculated for this parallel resistor set up is
greater than that for the series circuit because in this case,
connecting the resistors in parallel provides alternative pathways for
the current and makes its flow easier. The current that goes through
each resistor is equal since they have the same resistance value.
Therefore, the Itotal you computed gets evenly split between the two
resistors.
Finally, compute the voltage across each resistor. This voltage value
should be equal to the voltage provided by the power supply.
Conceptually, this makes sense since the top of R1 is connected to the
positive terminal of the battery while the bottom end of the resistor is
connected to the negative terminal, with no other circuit components
in the way. Following the same logic, the voltage across R2 is equal to
that across R1 and to that provided by the power supply.
Remember that components in parallel have the same voltage across
them.
Consider the following circuit with both series and parallel parts.
First, determine the total
resistance of the entire circuit by
adding the combined resistance of
the parallel setup to the resistor
R1 in series. Then, determine the
current through this Rtotal. This
current is the I that flows through
R1. Since R2 and R3 have the same
magnitude, this Itotal value is evenly
split between the two resistors.
Use Ohms law to determine the
voltage across R1. The difference
between the power supply voltage
and the voltage drop across R1
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gives the voltage difference across R2, which is the same as that
across R3, thus Vtotal-V1= V23.
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