Fundamentals of

Magnetohydrodynamics
(MHD)
Tony Arber
University of Warwick

STFC Advanced School, MSSL September 2013.

Aim
Derivation of MHD equations from conservation laws
Quasi-neutrality
Validity of MHD
MHD equations in dierent forms
MHD waves
Alfvens Frozen Flux Theorem
Line Conservation Theorem
Characteristics
Shocks
Applications of MHD, i.e. all the interesting stu!, will
be in later lectures covering Waves, Reconnection and
Dynamos etc.

Derivation of MHD
Possible to derive MHD from

N-body problem to Klimotovich equation, then take

moments and simplify to MHD

Louiville theorem to BBGKY hierarchy, then take

moments and simplify to MHD

Simple uid dynamics and control volumes

First two are useful if you want to study kinetic theory along the
way but all kinetics removed by the end
Final method followed here so all physics is clear

Ideal MHD
Maxwell equations
Mass conservation
F = ma for uids
Low frequency Maxwell
Adiabatic equation for uids
Ideal Ohms Law for uids
8 equations with 8 unknowns

Mass Conservation - Continuity Equation

F (x)
m=

F (x +

x+ x

x)

dx
x

x+ x
x
Mass m in cell of width x changes due to rate of mass
leaving/entering the cell F (x)
!
Z x+ x
@
dx = F (x) F (x + x)
@t
x
F (x)
@
= lim
x!0
@t

F (x +
x

@ @F (x)
+
=0
@t
@x

x)

Mass ux - conservation laws

@ @F (x)
+
=0
@t
@x

Mass ux per second through cell boundary

F (x, t) = (x, t) vx (x, t)

In 3D this generalizes to
@
+ r.(v) = 0
@t

This is true for any conserved quantity so if

@U
+ r.F = 0
@t

U dx conserved

Hence applies to mass density, momentum density and energy

density for example.

Convective Derivative
In uid dynamics the relation between total and partial
derivatives is

Convective derivative:
Rate of change of quantity at a point
moving with the uid.

Rate of change of quantity at a xed

point in space

Often, and frankly for no good reason at all, write

D
d
instead of
Dt
dt

Adiabatic energy equation

If there is no heating/conduction/transport then changes in uid
elements pressure and volume (moving with the uid) is adiabatic
PV

Where

= constant

is ration of specic heats

d
(P V ) = 0
dt

Moving with a packet of uid the mass is conserved so V /

d P
=0
dt

Momentum equation - Euler uid

P (x)

P (x +

ux x
x+

x)

Total momentum in cell changes due to pressure gradient

@
(ux x) = F (x)
@t

F (x +

x) + P (x)

P (x +

Now F is momentum ux per second F = ux ux

@
@F
(ux ) +
=
@t
@x

rP

x)

Momentum equation - Euler uid

Use mass conservation equation to rearrange as
@ux
@ux

+ ux
= rP
@t
@x

@ux
@ux

+ ux
= rP
@t
@x
dux

=
dt

rP

Since by chain rule

dux (x, t)
@ux
@x @ux
=
+
dt
@t
@t @x

Momentum equation - MHD

du
=
For Euler uid
dt

rP how does this change for MHD?

Force on charged particle in an EM eld is

F = q(E + v B)

Hence total EM force per unit volume on electrons is

ne e(E + v B)

and for ions (single ionized) is

ni e(E + v B)

Where ne and ni are the electron and ion number densities

Momentum equation - MHD

Hence total EM force per unit volume
e(ni

ne )E + (eni ui

ene ue ) B

If the plasma is quasi-neutral (see later) then this is just

en(ui

ue ) B = j B

Where j is the current density. Hence

du

=
dt

rP + j B

Note jxB is the only change to uid equations in MHD. Now

need an equation for the magnetic eld and current density to
close the system

Maxwell equations

Not allowed in MHD!

Initial condition only
Used to update B

Low frequency version

used to nd current
density j

Low-frequency Maxwell equations

Displacement current

So for low velocities/frequencies we can ignore the

displacement current

Quasi-neutrality
For a pure hydrogen plasma we have

Multiply each by their charge and add to get

where is the charge density and j is the current density
From Ampere's law

Hence for low frequency processes

if we look only at low frequencies

this is quasi-nuetrality

MHD
Maxwell equations

Mass conservation
Momentum conservation
Low frequency Maxwell
Energy conservation

8 equations with 11 unknowns! Need an equation for E

Ohm's Law
Equations of motion for ion uid is

Assume quasi-neutrality, subtract electron equation

This is called the generalized Ohm's law

Note that Ohm's law for a current in a wire (V=IR) when
written in terms of current density becomes
When uid is moving this becomes

Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD)
Valid for:
Low frequency
Large scales

If =0 called ideal MHD

Missing viscosity, heating,

conduction, radiation, gravity,
rotation, ionisation etc.

Validity of MHD
Assumed quasi-neutrality therefore must be low frequency
and speeds << speed of light
Assumed scalar pressure therefore collisions must be sucient
to ensure the pressure is isotropic. In practice this means:
mean-free-path << scale-lengths of interest
collision time << time-scales of interest
Larmor radii << scale-lengths of interest
However as MHD is just conservation laws plus low-frequency
MHD it tends to be a good rst approximation to much of the
physics even when all these conditions are not met.

Eulerian form of MHD equations

@
=
@t

r.(v)

@P
=
@t

P r.v

@v
=
@t

v.r.(v)

1
1
r.P + j B

@B
= r (v B)
@t
1
j=
rB
0

Final equation can be used to eliminate current density so 8

equations in 8 unknowns

Lagrangian form of MHD equations

D
=
Dt
DP
=
Dt
Dv
=
Dt

Alternatives
r.v
D
=
Dt

P r.v
1
1
r.P + j B

DB
= (B.r)v B(r.v)
Dt
1
j=
rB
0

P
r.v

Specic internal energy density

P
=
(
1)
D
Dt

B
= .rv

Conservative form
@
=
@t
@v
=
@t

r.(v)

B
r. vv + I(P +
)
2

@E
=
@t

r.

@B
=
@t

r(vB

E=

B
E+P +
20

BB

B(v.B)

Bv)

v 2
B2
+
+
1
2
20

The total energy density

Plasma beta
A key dimensionless parameter for ideal MHD is the
plasma-beta
It is the ratio of thermal to magnetic pressure

20 P
=
B2
Low beta means dynamics dominated by magnetic eld, high
beta means standard Euler dynamics more important

c2s
/ 2
vA

MHD Waves
Univorm B eld
Constant density, pressure
Zero initial velocity
Apply small perturbation to system

Assume initially in stationary equilibrium

r.P0 = j0 B0

Simplify to easiest case with 0 , P0 , B0 = B0

z constant and
no equilibrium current or velocity
Apply perturbation, e.g. P = P0 + P1

MHD Waves
Ignore quadratic terms, e.g. P1 r.v1
Linear equations so Fourier decompose, e.g.
P1 (r, t) = P1 exp i(k.r

!t)

u= u
Gives linear set of equations of the form A.

= (P1 , 1 , v1 , B1 )
Where u

Solution requires det|A

=0
I|

Dispersion relation

(Fast and slow magnetoacoustic waves)

B

(Alfvn waves)
Alfvn speed
Sound speed

Alfven Waves

Incompressible no change to density or pressure

Group speed is along B does not transfer energy
(information) across B elds

Fast magneto-acoustic waves

For zero plasma-beta no pressure

Compresses the plasma c.f. a sound wave

Propagates energy in all directions

Magnetic pressure and tension

But
So

Magnetic pressure
Magnetic tension

Pressure perturbations

Phase and group speeds

Phase speeds:

: Group speeds

MHD Waves Movie

Throwing a pebble into a plasma lake...
For low plasma beta vA >> cs
transv. velocity

density

Three types of MHD waves

Alfvn waves
magnetic tension (=VAk)

Fast magnetoacoustic waves

magnetic with plasma pressure (VAk)
Slow magnetoacoustic waves
magnetic against plasma pressure (CSk)

Linear MHD for uniform media

1. The perturbations are waves
2. Waves are dispersionless
3. and k are always real
4. Waves are highly anisotropic
5. There are incompressible - Alfvn waves - and compressible magnetoacoustic modes

However, natural plasma systems are usually

highly structured and often unstable

Non-ideal terms in MHD

Ideal MHD is a set of conservation laws
Non-ideal terms are dissipative and entropy producing

Resistivity
Viscosity
Radiation transport
Thermal conduction

Resistivity
Electron-ion collisions dissipate current

If we assume the resistivity is constant then

@B
2
= r (v B) +
r B
@t
0

Ratio of advective to diusive terms is the magnetic Reynolds

number
0 L0 v 0
Rm =

Usually in space physics Rm >> 1 (106-1012). This is based on

global scale lengths L0 . If L0 is over a small scale with rapidly
changing magnetic eld, i.e. a current sheet, then Rm ' 1

Alfvens theorem
Rate of change of ux through a surface moving with uid
d
dt

@B
n.B dS =
n
dS
v B.dl
@t
S
S
l
Z
=
r (E + v B).n dS
S

Magnetic ux through a surface moving with

the uid is conserved if ideal MHD Ohms law,
i.e. no resistivity
Often stated as- the ux is frozen in to the uid

Line Conservation
x(X + X, t)
x(X + X, 0)

x
x(X, t)

x(X, 0) = X

Consider two points which move with the uid

@xi
xi =
Xj
@Xj
D
@ui
x=
Xj
Dt
@Xj
@ui @xk
=
Xj
@xk @xj
= ( x.r)u

Line Conservation -2
Equation for evolution of the vector between two points moving
with the uid is
D
x = ( x.r)u
Dt
Also for ideal MHD
D
Dt

B
= .rv

Hence if we choose x to be along the magnetic eld at t = 0

then it will remain aligned with the magnetic eld.
Two points moving with the uid which are initially on the same
eld-line remain on the same eld line in ideal MHD
Reconnection not possible in ideal MHD

Cauchy Solution
B
Shown that
and x satisfy the same equation hence

@xi
xi =
Xj
@Xj
Implies
Bi
@xi Bj0
=

@Xj 0

Where superscript zero refers to initial values

@xi 0
Bi =
Bj 0
@Xj

0
=

@(x1 , x2 , x3 )
=
@(X1 , X2 , X3 )

Cauchy solution
@xi Bj0
Bi =
@Xj

MHD based on Cauchy

@xi Bj0
Bi =
@Xj
0
=

@(x1 , x2 , x3 )
=
@(X1 , X2 , X3 )

P = const
Dv
=
Dt

1
1
r.P +
(r B) B

dx
=v
dt

Only need to know position of uid elements and initial

conditions for full MHD solution

Non-ideal MHD
Resistivity

Coriolis

Thermal
Conduction

Gravity
Other

Radiation

Ohmic heating
Other

MHD Characteristics
Sets of ideal MHD equations can be written as

All equations sets of this types share the

same properties
they express conservation laws
can be decomposed into waves
non-linear solutions can form shocks
satisfy L1 contraction, TVD constraints

Characteristics

is called the Jabobian matrix

For linear systems can show that Jacobian matrix is a
function of equilibria only, e.g. function of p0 but not p1

Properties of the Jacobian

Left and right eigenvectors/eigenvalues are real

Diagonalisable:

Characteristic waves
This example is for linear equations with constant A

But A = RR
@
R
@t

so
1

A = R

@
U + .
R
@x

U =0

w
w
+ .
= 0 with w = R 1U
t
x
w is called the characteristic eld

Riemann problems
is diagonal so all equations decouple

i.e. characteristics wi propagate with speed

In MHD the characteristic speeds are vx , vx cf , vx vA , vx cs
i.e. the fast, Alfven and slow speeds
Solution in terms of original variables U

This analysis forms the

basis of Riemann
decomposition used
for treating shocks, e.g.
Riemann codes in
numerical analysis

Basic Shocks
Temperature

c2s = P/
T = T (x

cs t)

x
Without dissipation any 1D traveling pulse will eventually, i.e. in
nite time, form a singular gradient. These are shocks and the
dierentially form of MHD is not valid.
Also formed by sudden release of energy, e.g. are, or supersonic
ows.

Rankine-Hugoniot relations
U

UL
UR
x

S(t)
xl

xr

Integrate equations from xl to xr across moving discontinuity S(t)

Jump Conditions
Use

Let xl and xr tend to S(t) and use conservative form to get

Rankine-Hugoniot conditions for a discontinuity moving at speed vs

All equations must satisfy these relations with the same vs

The End