Int.J. Behav. Med.

(2010) 17:279286
DOI 10.1007/s12529-009-9060-6

Determinants of Physical Activity in Singaporean

Adolescents
Kok Sonk Lee & Paul D. Loprinzi & Stewart G. Trost

Published online: 4 September 2009

# International Society of Behavioral Medicine 2009

Abstract
Background An understanding of the factors that influence
physical activity behavior is an important prerequisite for the
design and implementation of physical activity interventions in
adolescents. To date, no studies have investigated the factors
that influence physical activity participation in Singaporean
adolescents.
Purpose The purpose of this study was to identify the
psychosocial and environmental factors that influence physical
activity in a representative sample of Singaporean adolescents
(N=1,814, 919 boys, 895 girls, mean age 14.41.1 years).
Methods Participants completed the Three-Day Physical
Activity Recall and a questionnaire measuring hypothesized
psychosocial and environmental correlates of physical
activity.
Results Hierarchical regression revealed self-efficacy, enjoyment of physical activity, parental support, and participation in sport teams to be significant correlates of
physical activity.
Conclusion Interventions promoting physical activity in
Singaporean adolescents should aim to increase selfefficacy perceptions by offering enjoyable, developmentally
K. S. Lee
School of Human Movement Studies,
The University of Queensland,
Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
e-mail: LEE_Kok_Sonk@moe.gov.sg
P. D. Loprinzi : S. G. Trost (*)
Department of Nutrition and Exercise Sciences,
Oregon State University,
203D Womens Building,
Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
e-mail: stewart.trost@oregonstate.edu
P. D. Loprinzi
e-mail: loprinzp@onid.orst.edu

appropriate physical activity options that promote mastery

and adopt policies that increase parental support and
awareness of community physical activity programs.
Keywords Exercise . Youth . Health promotion .
Self-efficacy . Enjoyment

Introduction
Chronic diseases such as cancer, coronary heart disease,
and stroke are the leading causes of death in Singapore
today [1]. In 2000, these three conditions accounted for
approximately 60% of all deaths in Singapore [1]. Regular
participation in physical activity is associated with a
number of positive health outcomes. Among adults, regular
physical activity reduces the risk of many chronic diseases,
including coronary heart disease, hypertension, stroke,
depression, type 2 diabetes, and certain cancers [2]. The
evidence linking physical activity and health outcomes in
children and adolescents is less consistent. Emerging
evidence suggests that physical activity has beneficial
effects on weight status, blood lipids and lipoproteins, bone
health, and psychological well-being [3, 4]. Moreover,
because several health outcomes associated with physical
activity track from childhood into adulthood, regular
physical activity may be important in the prevention of
chronic diseases later in life [5, 6].
Despite the health benefits of physical activity, Singaporean
adolescents are not participating in physical activity on a
regular basis. The results of a recent national study indicate
that significant percentages of Singaporean high school
students do not meet public health guidelines for physical
activity. Currently, 37% of Singaporean adolescents fail to
meet the current physical activity guideline of 60 min of

280

daily moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA), and

approximately 50% report no participation in vigorous
physical activity on a daily basis [7]. On average, girls
participate in 20% less daily MVPA than boys [7].
Although the percentage of Singaporean adolescents meeting the 60-min MVPA guideline (63%) is somewhat higher
than that reported for high school students in the USA
(34%) [8] and 1315 year olds participating in the World
Health Organizations 20012002 Health Behavior in
School-Aged Children survey (34%) [9], the observed low
prevalence of sustained vigorous physical activity and the
marked gender differences in MVPA underscore the need
for effective physical activity intervention programs for this
population.
An important prerequisite to designing and implementing physical activity intervention programs is to understand
the factors that influence physical activity. Several comprehensive reviews on the correlates of physical activity in
youth have identified physical activity self-efficacy, beliefs
about physical activity, attitude towards physical activity,
social norms, enjoyment of physical activity, parental
support, sport equipment at home/access to equipment and
facilities, supervised school sports, and participation in
sports teams as significant influences on physical activity
behavior [2, 10, 11]. However, because the majority of
studies included in these reviews were conducted in the
western countries such as the USA, it is uncertain whether
these findings can be generalized to Singaporean adolescents. Currently, we are aware of no studies that have
investigated the correlates of physical activity in a sample
of Singaporean adolescents. To address this research gap,
the purpose of this study was to identify the psychosocial
and environmental correlates of physical activity behavior
in Singaporean high school students aged 13 to 16 years.

Int.J. Behav. Med. (2010) 17:279286

was approved by the University of Queensland Medical

Research Ethics Committee and the Ministry of Education,
Singapore.
Measurement of Physical Activity
Physical activity was assessed using Three-Day Physical
Activity Recall (3DPAR). This instrument requires students
to recall their past physical activity behavior from each of
the three previous days, beginning with the most recent day.
Each day is segmented into 30-min time blocks (7:00 a.m.
to midnight), which, in turn, are grouped into broader time
periods such as morning, afternoon, and evening. The
instrument provides a list of 53 commonly performed
activities grouped into the following categories: sleep/
bathing, eating, work, interschool/spare time/hobbies,
transportation, and physical activities/sports. For each block
of each day, the student entered the main activity for which
they participated during that 30-min period. The main
activity was defined as the activity that occupied the
majority of the 30-min period. Participants also rated the
relative intensity of the designated activity as light,
medium, hard, or very hard. To help participants select
the correct intensity level, the instrument provides pictorial
representation of four levels of relative intensity.
All students completed the 3DPAR instrument on a
Wednesday, recalling activities from the immediate preceding Tuesday, Monday, and Sunday. Each 30-min block on
the 3DPAR instrument was assigned a literature-based
metabolic equivalent (MET) task value based on the
reported activity and level of intensity [12]. MET values
from all 34 blocks were then averaged to derive an estimate
of mean activity level during each day. The 3DPAR was
customized to include activities typically performed by
Singaporean adolescents and has shown to be reliable and
valid in Singaporean youth [13].

Materials and Methods

Correlates of Physical Activity
Participants and Settings
A stratified two-stage cluster sample design was used to
select a representative sample of Singaporean adolescents.
The first stage involved the random selection of six schools
from each geographical region, and the second stage
involved selecting two classes per level in each school.
All 1,902 students (100%) from the randomly selected class
groups agreed to participate in the study. After deletions for
incomplete or missing data, the final sample consisted of
1,814 students (95.4%). The demographic characteristics
of the initial and final sample remained unchanged by
the exclusion of these students. Prior to participation in the
study, written informed consent was obtained from
the principal of each school and the students. This study

Students completed a questionnaire designed to measure

hypothesized demographic, psychosocial, and environmental correlates of physical activity. Variables were selected on
the basis of Social Cognitive Theory [14] and the Theory of
Reasoned Action/ Planned Behavior [15]. A brief description of these scales, the number of items, possible range of
scores, testretest reliability coefficients, internal consistency statistics (Cronbachs alpha) are provided in Table 1.
The measures of physical activity self-efficacy, attitude
towards physical activity, and social norms regarding
physical activity were modeled on the measurement scales
developed by Saunders and coworkers [16]. The selfefficacy measure consisted of eight items rated on a fivepoint Likert-type scale anchored by 1 (strongly disagree)

Int.J. Behav. Med. (2010) 17:279286

281

Table 1 Description of scales used to measure correlates of physical activity

Name of scale

No. of
items

Range of possible
scores

Testretest

Cronbachs
alpha

Sample questions

Self-efficacy

15

0.89

0.80

(125)

0.88

0.78

(125)

0.73

0.88

Parental support

(04)

0.94

0.82

Sport equipment at home

(15)

0.86

NA

Access to facilities

(15)

0.89

NA

Neighborhood safety

(15)

0.78

NA

Perceived walkability

(15)

0.73

NA

School activity programs

(01)

0.83

0.61

Participation in sports teams

(03)

0.97

0.59

14

(15)

0.90

0.91

I can be physically active during

my free time on most days
If I were to be physically active during
my free time on most days...
It would be fun Having fun is...
My fellow students think I should be
physically active during my free time
on most days I want to do what
my fellow students want me to do
During a typical week, how often has
your parent encouraged you to do
physical activity or sports?
At home there are enough supplies and
pieces of sports equipment (e.g., balls,
bicycles, skates) to use for physical activity
There are playgrounds, parks, or gyms close
to my home that I can get to easily
It is safe to walk or jog alone in my
neighborhood during the day
It is difficult to walk or jog in my
neighborhood because of things like traffic,
no sidewalks, dogs, or gangs
At your school, are there supervised physical
activity programs (e.g., mass walking,
mass jogging) for all interested students?
During the past 12 months, how many sports
teams run by your school did you play on?
When I am active ... I enjoy it

Attitude

Social norms

Enjoyment of physical activity

NA not applicable

to 5 (strongly agree). The attitude measure included eight

items that consisted of belief and corresponding value
statements. The belief statements were rated also on a fivepoint Likert-type scale anchored by 1 (strongly disagree)
to 5 (strongly agree); value statements were rated on a fivepoint Likert-type scale with responses ranging from 1 (very
bad) to 5 (very good). Attitude scores were computed by
multiplying the response for each belief statement with its
corresponding value response and averaging the products.
The social norms measure included eight items that consisted
of normative beliefs and corresponding motivation to
comply statements. Normative belief statements and motivation to comply statements were rated on five-point Likerttype scales anchored by 1 (strongly disagree) and 5
(strongly agree). Social norms scores were computed by
averaging by the product of each normative belief and
motivation to comply rating. The enjoyment of physical
activity measure was modeled on the 14-item scale developed by Motl and colleagues [17]. Responses to each item
were reported on a five-point Likert-type scale with end
points ranging from 1 (strongly agree) to 5 (strongly

disagree). Scores for enjoyment of physical activity were

computed by averaging the responses to each item.
Hypothesized physical and social environmental correlates included items designed to measure parental support,
sporting/fitness equipment at home, access to sports/fitness
facilities, perceived neighborhood walkability, perception of
neighborhood safety, availability of supervised school
sports, and participation in sport teams. These items were
modified from measures used in the National Children and
Youth Fitness Study [18] and the CDC Youth Risk Behavior
Survey [19]. When any of these measures consisted of
multiple items, scores were computed by averaging the
responses to each item. The psychometric properties of
these measures have been reported elsewhere [20, 21].
Study Protocol
Data were collected during two classroom visits completed
within a single week. Students completed the 3DPAR
during the first visit and the correlates of physical activity
questionnaire during the second visit. Each instrument took

282
Table 2 Gender differences in
mean METs and correlates of
physical activity in Singaporean
adolescents

Int.J. Behav. Med. (2010) 17:279286

Variable

Boys (n=919)
Mean (95% CI)

Activity
Mean METs

*p<0.05, denotes significant

difference from boys

1.98 (1.942.02)

Correlates
Self-efficacy
Attitude
Social norms
Enjoyment of physical activity
Parental support
Sport equipment at home
Access to facilities
Neighborhood Safety
Perceived walkability
School activity programs (%)
Participation in sports teams (%)

approximately 30 to 45 min to complete. Prior to data

collection, both instruments were piloted to ensure that the
reading level and response format were appropriate for
Singaporean adolescents.
Statistical Analysis
All data were analyzed using STATA, version 7.0.
Descriptive statistics were calculated for mean MET levels
and physical activity correlate variables. Due to positively
skewed data, mean METs was log-transformed. Crude
associations between mean METs and the hypothesized
correlates of physical activity were assessed using Pearson
productmoment correlation coefficients. Hierarchical linear regression analysis was conducted to determine whether
the demographic, psychological, and environment variables
exhibiting significant univariate relationships were independently associated with participation in physical activity.
Analyses were performed separately for boys and girls.
Significance was set at an alpha level of 0.05.

Results
Descriptive statistics for the physical activity and correlate
variables are presented in Table 2. On average, boys
reported significantly higher mean MET scores than girls.
Boys also scored significantly higher than girls on the selfefficacy and social norms scales. No significant gender
differences were observed for the remaining variables.
Simple correlations between physical activity and the
hypothesized correlates are shown in Table 3. For boys,
self-efficacy, attitude, social norms, enjoyment of physical
activity, parental support, sport equipment at home, access

Girls (n=895)
Mean (95% CI)

3.38
15.87
11.20
3.95
0.95
3.49
3.61
3.86
2.49
51.6
61.8

1.83 (1.801.85)*

(3.313.45)
(15.3916.35)
(10.7311.67)
(3.884.02)
(0.851.06)
(3.363.62)
(3.553.67)
(3.724.01)
(2.392.59)
(48.854.4)
(57.466.2)

3.26
15.52
10.31
3.85
0.99
3.36
3.75
3.67
2.48
53.5
61.1

(3.233.29)*
(15.2515.78)
(9.9410.67)*
(3.813.90)
(0.811.18)
(3.243.48)
(3.673.82)
(3.493.85)
(2.302.65)
(49.957.1)
(57.265.0)

to sports, safety concerns, availability of supervised school

sports, and participation in sports teams were significant
positive correlates of physical activity. Correlations ranged
from 0.06 for social norms to 0.26 for self-efficacy. For
girls, self-efficacy, attitude, social norms, enjoyment of
physical activity, parental support, sport equipment at
home, access to sports, neighborhood safety, and participation in sports teams were significant positive correlates of
physical activity. Correlations ranged from 0.07 for access
to sports to 0.20 for parental support. Low perceptions of
neighborhood walkability exhibited a weak but significant
inverse correlation with physical activity behavior.
Table 4 presents the results of the hierarchical regression
analysis for boys. On step 1, the demographic influences of
race, grade level, and socioeconomic status accounted for

Table 3 Correlation coefficients between mean METs and correlates

of physical activity in Singaporean adolescents
Variable
Self-efficacy
Attitude
Social norms
Enjoyment of physical activity
Parental support
Sport equipment at home
Access to facilities
Neighborhood safety
Perceived walkability
School activity programs
Participation in sports teams
*p<0.05; **p<0.01; ***p<0.001

Boys (n=919)

Girls (n=895)

0.26***
0.21***
0.06*
0.23***
0.15**
0.15***
0.07*
0.08**
0.03
0.14***
0.17***

0.18***
0.18***
0.08*
0.19***
0.20***
0.17***
0.07*
0.10**
0.06**
0.05
0.14***

Int.J. Behav. Med. (2010) 17:279286

Table 4 Hierarchical regression
analyses for the prediction of
log mean METS among
Singaporean adolescent boys
(N=919)

Variables

SE (b)

Std beta

Adj R2

Model R2

Step 1
Race*
Grade level

0.013
0.005

0.004
0.006

0.101
0.030

0.008

0.012

0.004

0.006

0.022

0.009
0.006
0.001
0.025

0.004
0.006
0.006
0.005

0.068
0.034
0.004
0.187

0.082

0.089

Attitude
Social norms
Enjoyment of physical activity*
Step 3
Race
Grade

0.001
0.001
0.017

0.001
0.001
0.062

0.055
0.066
0.114

0.006
0.004

0.004
0.006

0.047
0.020

0.098

0.111

Socio economic status (SES)

Self-efficacy*
Attitude
Social norms
Enjoyment of physical activity*
Parental support*
Sport equipment at home
Access to facilities
Neighborhood safety
School activity programs
Participation in sports teams*

0.002
0.020
0.001
0.002
0.014
0.009
0.004
0.002
0.002
0.011
0.015

0.006
0.005
0.001
0.001
0.006
0.004
0.003
0.003
0.003
0.006
0.006

0.011
0.154
0.048
0.086
0.098
0.079
0.054
0.020
0.024
0.062
0.078

Socio economic status (SES)

Step 2
Race*
Grade
Socio economic status (SES)
Self-efficacy*

*p<0.05, denotes significance

283

only 1% of the variance with physical activity (F(3, 914)=

3.57, p=0.014), with race being the only significant
independent predictor. When self-efficacy, attitude, social
norms, and enjoyment of physical activity were entered on
step 2, it significantly increased the predictive power of the
model (incremental F(4, 911)=19.46, p<0.0001), accounting for an additional 7% of the variance in physical activity.
Of the four psychological variables entered, self-efficacy
and enjoyment of physical activity emerged as significant
independent predictors. The addition of the environmental
influences on step 3 significantly enhanced the prediction
of the physical activity (incremental F(6, 905)=3.15, p<
0.0001), accounting for an additional 2% of the variance.
Of the six variables entered, parental support and participation in sport teams emerged as significant independent
predictors.
Table 5 presents the results of the hierarchical regression
analysis for girls. On step 1, the demographic influences of
race, grade level, and socioeconomic status accounted for
only 1% of the variance with physical activity (F(3, 889)=
0.88, p=0.009), with race being the only significant
independent predictor. When self-efficacy, attitude, social
norms, and enjoyment of physical activity were entered on

step 2, it significantly increased the predictive power of the

model (incremental F(4, 887)=10.91, p<0.0001), accounting for an additional 4% of the variance in physical activity.
Of the four psychological variables entered, self-efficacy
and enjoyment of physical activity emerged as significant
independent predictors. The addition of the environmental
influences on step 3 significantly enhanced the prediction
of the physical activity (incremental F(6, 881)=5.91, p<
0.0001), accounting for an additional 3% of the variance.
Of the six variables entered, parental support, sports
equipment at home, and participation in sport teams
emerged as significant independent predictors.

Discussion
The purpose of this study was to identify the correlates of
physical activity in a representative sample of Singaporean
adolescents. Our key finding was that self-efficacy, enjoyment
of physical activity, parental support for physical activity, and
involvement in school sports programs were associated with
physical activity behavior in both adolescent boys and girls. In
all cases, the associations were in the expected direction.

284
Table 5 Hierarchical regression
analyses for the prediction of
log mean METS among
Singaporean adolescent girls
(N=895)

Int.J. Behav. Med. (2010) 17:279286

Variables

SE (b)

Std beta

Adj R2

Model R2

Step 1
Race*
Grade level

0.008
0.006

0.003
0.005

0.093
0.044

0.010

0.013

0.008

0.005

0.052

0.006
0.004
0.007
0.012

0.003
0.005
0.005
0.004

0.076
0.032
0.049
0.105

0.052

0.059

0.082

0.096

Socio economic status (SES)

Step 2
Race*
Grade
Socio economic status (SES)
Self-efficacy*

*p<0.05, denotes significant

Attitude
Social norms
Enjoyment of physical activity*
Step 3
Race
Grade

0.001
0.000
0.012

0.010
0.001
0.005

0.049
0.010
0.106

0.004
0.003

0.003
0.005

0.045
0.019

Socio economic status (SES)

Self-efficacy*
Attitude
Social norms
Enjoyment of physical activity*
Parental support*
Sport equipment at home*
Access to facilities
Neighborhood safety
Perceived walkability
Participation in sports teams*

0.001
0.008
0.001
0.000
0.010
0.011
0.006
0.017
0.004
0.002
0.012

0.005
0.004
0.001
0.001
0.005
0.003
0.002
0.003
0.003
0.005
0.005

0.004
0.070
0.037
0.025
0.082
0.129
0.090
0.025
0.049
0.032
0.083

An important finding was that self-efficacy was positively associated with physical activity in both boys and
girls. Our results are consistent with previous studies,
showing that self-efficacy is an important intrapersonal
influence on physical activity behavior [10]. Bungum and
colleagues [22] found self-efficacy to be a key correlate of
physical activity behavior in both male and female youth.
Similarly, Allison and colleagues [23] reported self-efficacy
to be positively associated with participation in vigorous
physical activity in Canadian high school students. In
accordance with the major tenets of Social Cognitive
Theory [14], self-efficacy perceptions can be derived from
past performances, vicarious experiences (modeling), verbal persuasion, and physiological state. Therefore, to
increase physical activity self-efficacy in Singaporean
adolescents, intervention programs should: (1) provide
enjoyable, developmentally appropriate positive physical
activity experiences (e.g., emphasize moderate to vigorous
intensity activities such as brisk walking); (2) create
opportunities to observe significant others (e.g., parents,
peers, teachers) perform physical activity; (3) provide
reinforcement to participate in physical activity (e.g., well
done, keep it up); and (4) reduce any anxiety associated with

the participation of physical activity by reducing or

eliminating competitions and inappropriate testing practices.
Enjoyment of physical activity has long been considered an
important influence on physical activity. Consistent with
results from previous investigations [22, 24, 25], enjoyment
of physical activity was positively associated with physical
activity behavior in both boys and girls. Interventions
directed at Singaporean adolescents should aim to promote
enjoyment of physical activity by offering a wide variety of
traditional and nontraditional physical activity options that
meet their needs and interests of students. Examples of
traditional physical activity options include team and
individual sports such as basketball, soccer, swimming, and
badminton. Examples of nontraditional physical activity
options include after-school walking programs, skateboarding, and exergames such as Dance Dance Revolution.
The present study found that parental support was a key
influence on physical activity behavior for both boys and
girls. This finding is in accordance with results of previous
investigations [26]. The positive effects of parental support
for physical activity suggest that health practitioners and
educators should aim to increase parental supportive
behaviors when designing and implementing physical

Int.J. Behav. Med. (2010) 17:279286

activity intervention programs. This can be accomplished

by teaching parents to: (1) facilitate access to physical
activity opportunities by signing up their child for physical
activity programs; (2) provide transportation to recreational
facilities (e.g., parks); (3) observe their child participate in
physical activity; (4) counsel their child that physical
activity is good for health; and (5) provide appropriate
levels of positive reinforcement for their childs mastery
attempts in physical activity.
In the present study, involvement in school sports was a
significant positive correlate of physical activity in boys and
girls. Our results are similar to that of previous studies,
showing that participation in community sports and physical
activity programs are significant predictors of moderate to
vigorous physical activity among school-aged children [27,
28]. This suggests that an effective way to increase physical
activity in adolescent boys and girls is to promote greater
access of physical activity programs in schools and
communities. To achieve this, community programs should
provide a range of developmentally appropriate physical
activities that cater to the needs of adolescents. To increase
awareness of community-based sports and physical activity
programs, local recreational community centers should
actively collaborate with schools to educate parents and
students of their physical activity programs.
An interesting finding from the present study was that
access to sports/fitness equipment at home was a significant
positive correlate of physical activity among girls, but not
boys. Previous investigations have reported similar results. In
a 5-year longitudinal study of Canadian adolescent girls,
Butcher [29] observed availability of sports equipment to be
a significant positive predictor of sustained involvement in
physical activity. In their examination of the correlates of
physical activity in the fifth- and sixth-grade students,
Stucky-Ropp and DiLorenzo [24] observed the number of
exercise-related items in the home to be positively associated
with physical activity in girls, but not boys. Similarly, Trost
and colleagues [30] reported access to sporting/fitness
equipment to be positively associated with objectively
measured moderate physical activity in girls. No relationship
was observed for physical activity of any intensity in boys.
The positive association between sporting/fitness equipment at home and activity behavior in girls but not boys
may, in part, be related to gender differences in preferences
for activity. The results of two prospective studies indicate
that girls are more likely than boys to participate in
individual activities that are more likely to require fitness/
sporting equipment at home [31, 32]. Alternatively, given
the cross-sectional study design, our finding may be a
function of reverse causality. Parents with daughters who
are physically active may be more likely to provide
sporting/fitness equipment than those with low-active
daughters. Notably, when DiLorenzo et al. [25] longitudi-

285

nally examined the correlates of physical activity over a 3year period, access to exercise-related items measured in
the fifth and sixth grades was not a significant predictor of
physical activity behavior among girls in the eighth and
ninth grades.
This study had a number of limitations that warrant
consideration. First, the cross-sectional design of the present
study precluded us from inferring a causal relationship
between the hypothesized correlates and physical activity
behavior. Second, the use of self-report measure of physical
activity may be subject to recall bias and social desirability
effects. Third, we were only able to explain a small
percentage of the variance in physical activity behavior (i.e.,
10% in boys and 8% in girls). This latter observation suggests
that other variables not measured in this study could be salient
influences on physical activity behavior in Singaporean
adolescents. It is likely that time spent outdoors, sedentary
opportunities, the built environment, and land use policies
(e.g., activity friendly community design programs that
promote physical activity) are important influences on
physical activity behavior among Singaporean adolescents.
Therefore, in addition to the influences examined in the
present study, future investigations should evaluate the
relative importance of environmental and policy influences
on activity levels among Singaporean youth. Notwithstanding
these limitations, we have identified a number of important
correlates of physical activity that can be targeted by
intervention programs for Singaporean high school students.
In summary, physical activity self-efficacy, enjoyment of
physical activity, parental support, and participation in sports
teams were key correlates of physical activity in Singaporean
adolescents. To further increase our understanding of
physical activity behavior in Singaporean youth, future
studies should examine the influence of policy and the built
environment on physical activity behavior and, where
possible, utilize objective measures of physical activity.
Additionally, future studies should examine the correlates of
physical activity in other age groups of Singaporean youth
such as preschoolers and elementary school children.

References
1. Ministry of Health. National health surveillance survey 2001.
Singapore: Epidemiology and Disease Control Division, Ministry
of Health; 2003.
2. US Department of Health and Human Services. Physical activity
and health: a report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta: USDHSS/
CDC; 1996.
3. Boreham C, Riddoch C. The physical activity, fitness and health
of children. J Sports Sci. 2001;19(12):91529.
4. Trost SG (2005) Discussion paper for the development of
recommendations for children's and youth's participation in health
promoting physical activity. A report prepared for the Commonwealth Department of Health and Aging.

286
5. Raitakari OT, Porkka KV, Taimela S, Telama R, Rasanen L, Viikari
JS. Effects of persistent physical activity and inactivity on coronary
risk factors in children and young adults. The cardiovascular risk in
young Finns study. Am J Epidemiol. 1994;140(3):195205.
6. Telama R, Yang X, Laakso L, Viikari J. Physical activity in
childhood and adolescence as predictor of physical activity in
young adulthood. Am J Prev Med. 1997;13(4):31723.
7. Lee KS, Trost S. Physical activity patterns of Singaporean
adolescents. Ped Exerc Sci. 2006;18:40014.
8. Eaton DK, Kann L, Kinchen S, et al. Youth risk behavior
surveillanceUnited States, 2007. MMWR Surveill Summ.
2008;57(4):1131.
9. Currie C, Roberts C, Morgan A, et al. Young people's health in
context. Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC)
study: international report from the 2001/2002 survey. Geneva:
World Health Organization; 2004.
10. Sallis JF, Prochaska JJ, Taylor WC. A review of correlates of
physical activity of children and adolescents. Med Sci Sports
Exerc. 2000;32(5):96375.
11. Kohl HW 3rd, Hobbs KE. Development of physical activity
behaviors among children and adolescents. Pediatrics. 1998;101
(3 Pt 2):54954.
12. Ainsworth BE, Haskell WL, Whitt MC, et al. Compendium of
physical activities: an update of activity codes and MET
intensities. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2000;32(9 Suppl):S498504.
13. Lee KS, Trost SG. Validity and reliability of the 3-day physical
activity recall in Singaporean adolescents. Res Q Exerc Sport.
2005;76(1):1016.
14. Bandura A. Social foundations of thought and action: a social
cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall; 1986.
15. Ajzen IFM. Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior.
Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall; 1980.
16. Saunders RP, Pate RR, Felton G, et al. Development of
questionnaires to measure psychosocial influences on children's
physical activity. Prev Med. 1997;26(2):2417.
17. Motl RW, Dishman RK, Saunders R, Dowda M, Felton G, Pate
RR. Measuring enjoyment of physical activity in adolescent girls.
Am J Prev Med. 2001;21(2):1107.
18. Ross J, Pate RR, Caspersen CJ, Damberg CL, Svilar M. The national
children and youth fitness study II: home and community in
children's exercise habits. J Phys Educ Recr Dance. 1987;58:8592.

Int.J. Behav. Med. (2010) 17:279286

19. Heath GW, Pratt M, Warren CW, Kann L. Physical activity
patterns in American high school students. Results from the 1990
youth risk behavior survey. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1994;148
(11):11316.
20. Pate RR, Dowda M, Ross JG. Associations between physical
activity and physical fitness in American children. Am J Dis
Child. 1990;144(10):11239.
21. Brener ND, Collins JL, Kann L, Warren CW, Williams BI.
Reliability of the youth risk behavior survey questionnaire. Am J
Epidemiol. 1995;141(6):57580.
22. Bungum T, Dowda M, Weston A, Trost SG, Pate RR. Correlates
of physical activity in male and female youth. Ped Exerc Sci.
2000;12:719.
23. Allison KR, Dwyer JJ, Makin S. Self-efficacy and participation in
vigorous physical activity by high school students. Health Educ
Behav. 1999;26(1):1224.
24. Stucky-Ropp RC, DiLorenzo TM. Determinants of exercise in
children. Prev Med. 1993;22(6):8809.
25. DiLorenzo TM, Stucky-Ropp RC, Vander Wal JS, Gotham HJ.
Determinants of exercise among children. II. A longitudinal
analysis. Prev Med. 1998;27(3):4707.
26. Gustafson SL, Rhodes RE. Parental correlates of physical activity
in children and early adolescents. Sports Med. 2006;36(1):7997.
27. Trost SG, Pate RR, Saunders R, Ward DS, Dowda M, Felton G. A
prospective study of the determinants of physical activity in rural
fifth-grade children. Prev Med. 1997;26(2):25763.
28. Trost SG, Pate RR, Ward DS, Saunders R, Riner W. Determinants
of physical activity in active and low-active, sixth grade African
American youth. J Sch Health. 1999;69(1):2934.
29. Butcher J. Longitudinal analysis of adolescent girls' aspirations at
school and perceptions of popularity. Adolescence. 1986;21
(81):13343.
30. Trost SG, Pate RR, Ward DS, Saunders R, Riner W. Correlates of
objectively measured physical activity in preadolescent youth. Am
J Prev Med. 1999;17(2):1206.
31. Bradley CB, McMurray RG, Harrell JS, Deng S. Changes in
common activities of 3rd through 10th graders: the CHIC study.
Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2000;32(12):20718.
32. Hovell MF, Sallis JF, Kolody B, McKenzie TL. Children's physical
activity choices: a developmental analysis of gender, intensity levels
and time. Ped Exerc Sci. 1999;11:15868.

Copyright of International Journal of Behavioral Medicine is the property of Springer Science & Business
Media B.V. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the
copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for
individual use.