x

Contents

PART ONE: Fundamental Problems of Sociology

vidual and Society)
I.

(Indi-

THE FIELD OF SOCIOLOGY

1.

Society and Knowledge

2.

The

3.

Sociology as a

4.

The Problem

of Society
Abstract Character of Sociology

3
1 1

Method

13

Areas of Sociology
STUDY OF HISTORICAL LIFE ("GENTHE
SOCIOLOGICAL
(A)

ERAL SOCIOLOGY")

16

THE STUDY OF SOCIETAL FORMS ("PURE, OR FORMAL,

(B)

21

SOCIOLOGY")

THE STUDY OF THE EPISTEMOLOGICAL AND METAPHYSICAL ASPECTS OF SOCIETY ("PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIOL-

(C)

OGY")
II.

THE

23

SOCIAL AND THE INDIVIDUAL LEVEL (AN EXAMPLE OF

GENERAL SOCIOLOGY)
1.

26

The

Determinateness of the Group and the Vacillation

of the Individual

Group Member

2.

Individual

3.

Esteem of the Old and of the

4.

The

vs.

6.
7.

8.

III.

29

Sociological Significance of Individual Similarity

The
The
The
The

30

Individual's Superiority over the

Simplicity and Radicalism of the

Mass

31

Mass

34

Mass Appeal and of the Mass

the Approximation to the Low-

Emotionality of the

Level of Society as
est Common Level of Its

SOCIABILITY (AN

Members

EXAMPLE OF PURE, OF FORMAL,

OGY)
1. Contents
(Materials)
2.

The Autonomization

3.

Sociability as the

34
36

SOCIOL-

40
vs.

Forms of

Social Life

40

of Contents

Autonomous Form, or Play-Form,

Sociation
(A)

26
28

New

and Dissimilarity
5.

16

UNREALITY, TACT, IMPERSONALITY

41
of

43
45

Contents

xi

(B)

"SOCIABILITY THRESHOLDS"

(c)

THE "SOCIABILITY DRIVE" AND THE DEMOCRATIC NA-

46
47

(E)

TURE OF SOCIABILITY
THE ARTIFICIAL WORLD OF SOCIABILITY
SOCIAL GAMES

(F)

COQUETRY

50

(G)

CONVERSATION

(D)

(H) SOCIABILITY AS

48

49

51

THE PLAY-FORM OF ETHICAL PROBLEMS

AND OF THEIR SOLUTION

'

53

(l)

HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS

54

(j)

THE "SUPERFICIAL" CHARACTER OF SOCIABILITY

55

AND SOCIETY IN EIGHTEENTH- AND NINETEENTHCENTURY VIEWS OF LIFE (AN EXAMPLE OF PHILOSOPHICAL

IV. INDIVIDUAL

SOCIOLOGY)
1.

2.

3.

4.

58

Individual Life as the Basis of the Conflict between

Individual and Society

Individual Egoism vs. Individual Self-Perfection as an
Objective Value
Social vs. the

The
The

59

Human

Eighteenth Century

(E)

THE FREEDOM OF THE INDIVIDUAL

THE ANTINOMY BETWEEN FREEDOM AND EQUALITY
"NATURAL MAN"
INDIVIDUALISM IN KANT
THE DUAL ROLE OF "NATURE"

(F)

KANT'S "CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE": INDIVIDUALITY AS

(A)
(fi)

(c)
(D)

THE SYNTHESIS OF FREEDOM AND EQUALITY

5.

The Nineteenth Century

(A)
(B)

61

64
64
65
67

69
7<)

72

73

SOCIALISM

73

THE NEW INDIVIDUALISM: THE INCOMPARABILITY OF

THE INDIVIDUAL

78

PART TWO: Quantitative Aspects of the Group

I. ON THE SIGNIFICANCE OF NUMBERS FOR SOCIAL LIFE
i.

58

Small Groups
(A) SOCIALISM

87

87
87

Contents

xii

2.
3.

4.

5.
6.

II.

(B)

RELIGIOUS SECTS

(C)

ARISTOCRACIES

Large Groups:

Group

QO

The Mass

93

Radicalism, and Cohesiveness

94

Paradoxes in Group Structure

Numerical Aspects of Prominent Group Members
Custom, Law, Morality

96
97

99

THE QUANTITATIVE DETERMINATION OF GROUP DIVISIONS

AND OF CERTAIN GROUPS

105

1.

Introduction

2.

Numerically Equal Subdivisions

105

The Number

107

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

105
as a

Symbol of Group Division

Group Organization on Numerical Principles and
Effect

III.

Size,

89

upon

Its

the Individual

109

The Social Gathering ("Party")

The Extended Family

1 1 1

114

Quantity and Quality

THE

115

ISOLATED INDIVIDUAL AND THE

DYAD

118

1.

Introduction

118

2.

The

118

3.

Isolation

4.

Freedom

119
120

5.

The Dyad

122

6.

Characteristics of the

Isolated Individual

Dyad

(A) TRIVIALITY
(B)
7.

8.
9.

125
126

INTIMACY

Monogamous Marriage
Delegation of Duties and Responsibilities to the Group

The Expansion
(A)

THE TRIAD

(B)

TWO

(C)

(D)

125

of the

VS.

Dyad

THE DYAD

128
133

135
135

TYPES OF INDIVIDUALITY AND THEIR CONNECTION

WITH DYADIC AND OTHER RELATIONSHIPS

AND LARGER GROUPS
THE FORMAL RADICALISM OF THE MASS
DYADS, TRIADS,

137
138
142

Contents
IV.

145

3.

The Sociological Significance of the Third Element

The Non-Partisan and the Mediator
The Tertius Gaudens

4.

Divide

1.

2.

V.

xiii

THE TRIAD

et

Impera

THE IMPORTANCE

2.
3.

Group

145

154
162

OF SPECIFIC NUMBERS FOR RELATIONS

AMONG GROUPS
1.

145

'

170

Subdivisions

170

The Decimal Principle

The Outside Regulation of Groups According
Maximum and Minimum Sizes

171
to

Their
174

PART THREE: Superordination and Subordination

I.

INTRODUCTION
1.

181

Form

of Interaction

3.

Authority and Prestige

Leader and Led

4.

Interaction in the Idea of

2.

II.

Domination, a

181

183

185
186

"Law"

SUBORDINATION UNDER AN INDIVIDUAL

190

2.

Three Kinds of Subordination

Kinds of Subordination under an Individual

3.

Unification of a

1.

5.

6.
7.

8.
9.

10.
1 1

12.

in Opposition to the Ruler

Subordination under an Individ-

Group

4. Dissociating Effects of

190

190
192

ual

194

The "Higher Tribunal"

195

Domination and Leveling

Domination and Downward Gradation
Domination and Upward Gradation

206

197

Mixture of Downward and Upward Gradation

Strength and Perseverance of Domination by One
Subordination of the Group to a

Member

209
210
213

or to an Out-

sider

216

Coordination of Parties in Case of Arbitration

221

Contents

xiv
III.

SUBORDINATION UNDER A PLURALITY

1.

2.

3.

224

Consequences for the Subordinates of Subordination

under a Plurality
Subordination under a Heterogeneous Plurality
Subordination under Mutually Opposed Superordinates

4.

229

TOTAL SUBORDINATION

229

(fi)

RELATIVE SUBORDINATION

232

Subordination under Stratified Superordinates

234

(B)

CONTACT BETWEEN TOP AND BOTTOM OF THE

CATION SYSTEM
TRANSMISSION OF PRESSURE

(C)

SEPARATION BETWEEN TOP AND BOTTOM OF THE STRAT-

STRATIFI-

IFICATION SYSTEM

The Phenomenon

2.
3.

Conscience

4.

Society

5.

The

236

239

A PRINCIPLE

Subordination under a Principle

Subordination under Objects

234

237

of Outvoting

IV. SUBORDINATION UNDER

1.

229

(A)

(A)

5.

224

250
vs.

a Person

250
253

254

and "Objectivity"

256

under a Principle upon

the Relations between Superordinance and Subordinates
Effect of Subordination

261

V. SUPERORDINATION AND SUBORDINATION AND DEGREES OF

DOMINATION AND FREEDOM

268

2.

Superordination without Subordinates

Superordination in Lieu of Freedom

3.

The

1.

4.
5.
6.

268

and Anarchism

273
282

Super-Subordination without Degradation

Coordination and Reciprocal Super-Subordination

283
286

Sociological Error of Socialism

Super-Subordination as a Form of Social Organization

and as an Expression of Individual Differences; Person
vs.

Position

7.

Aristocracy

8.

Coercion

291
vs.

Equality

295
298

Contents
9.

The

xv

Inevitably Disproportionate Distribution of Qualand Positions

ifications

goo

PART FOUR: The Secret and the Secret Society

I. KNOWLEDGE, TRUTH, AND FALSEHOOD IN HUMAN RELATIONS
1.

2.

307
vs.

Knowledge of

Per-

sons

309

310

5.

Truth, Error, and Social Life

The Individual as an Object of Knowledge
The Nature of the Psychic Process and of Communication

311

6.

The Lie

31 2

3.

4.

II.

307

Knowledge of One Another

Knowledge of External Nature

TYPES OF SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS BY DEGREES OF RECIPROCAL KNOWLEDGE OF THEIR PARTICIPANTS

III.

317

1.

Interest

2.

Confidence under

3.

"Acquaintance"

320

4.

Discretion

320

5.

Friendship and Love

324

6.

Marriage

326

Groups

317

More and

Less

Complex Conditions

SECRECY
1.

2.

3.

4.
5.

IV.

310

318

330

The Role of the

The Fascination
The Fascination

Secret in Social Life

330

of Secrecy
of Betrayal

332

and Individualization
Adornment
Secrecy

THE SECRET

SOCIETY

333
334
338

345

1.

Protection and Confidence

2.

Silence

349

3.

Written Communication

352

4.

Secrecy

and Sociation

345

355

Contents

xvi

356

6.

Hierarchy
Ritual

358

7.

Freedom

360

Features of the Secret Society as Quantitative Modifications of General Group Features

361

5.

8.

(A)

SEPARATENESS, FORMALITY, CONSCIOUSNESS

(B)

EXCLUSION: SIGNS OF RECOGNITION

363

364
366

(F)

THE ARISTOCRATIC MOTIVE; ARISTOCRACY

DEGREES OF INITIATION! FORMAL AND MATERIAL SEPARATION FROM THE OUTSIDE
GROUP EGOISM
INCLUSIVENESS AND EXCLUSIVENESS AS GROUP PRINCIPLES

368

(G)

SECLUSION

(C)

CD)

(E)

FROM THE OUTSIDE AND INTERNAL

362

367

CO-

HESION

369

(H)

CENTRALIZATION

370

(l)

DE-INDIVIDUALIZATION

372

(j)

EQUALITY OF MEMBERS

374

(K)

THE SECRET SOCIETY AND CENTRAL GOVERNMENT

375

PART FIVE: Faithfulness and Gratitude; Negativity of Collective Behavior; the Stranger; Metropolis
I.

II.

III.

IV.

FAITHFULNESS AND GRATITUDE

THE NEGATIVE CHARACTER OF COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOR

THE STRANGER
THE METROPOLIS AND MENTAL LIFE

INDEX

379

396
402

409
427