PERCEPTION OF CONTROL AND OVERALL PROGRAM EVALUATION AMONG MBA STUDENTS

Sekhar Anantharaman, Indiana University of Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania, USA

Jungki Lee, Korea University at Sejong, Korea
Barbara A.P. Jones, Alabama A&M University, Alabama, USA
ABSTRACT
A majority of MBA students are often under a lot of stress as they struggle to maintain a balance between
academics on one hand and their work, family, etc. on the other. MBA students are known to have a
high propensity to experience frustration, stress, and general dissatisfaction with their lives. Regardless,
there is paucity in literature dealing with the psychology and satisfaction among MBA students. We
attempted to examine the effects of perceived control among MBA students on their evaluation of the
MBA program that they were in. An empirical investigation confirmed that MBA students overall
evaluation of the program was significantly affected by the perception of control. The strong relationship
between perceived control and students satisfaction demonstrated in this study should provide important
managerial implications and an impetus for additional research.
Keywords: perceived control, student satisfaction, MBA program
1. INTRODUCTION
Graduate business programs are under constant pressure to maintain a balance among student
enrollment, faculty development, financial sustainability, assurance of learning, and student satisfaction
(Byrne 2000). Even under tight budgets and increased competition for resources, directors of MBA
programs are aware of the importance of restructuring their programs to become more flexible, innovative,
and student-oriented in order to maintain the programs viability (Richards-Wilson 2002). Out of many
challenging tasks for MBA administrators, accommodating diversified demands from students and
maintaining their satisfaction may be at the top of the list. Students are viewed as customers, and their
satisfaction becomes an important strategic goal in many higher education institutions. Student
satisfaction not only serves as a gauge of the overall quality of an institutions education but also indicates
its long-term viability in a competitive environment (Bailey and Dangerfield 2000).
An MBA degree is a very attractive career path to many people. A graduate business degree has been
described as being critical to achieving senior management rank (Yerak 2000), being successful with
small businesses, entrepreneurial ventures, and Internet-based opportunities (Daniels 2000), and most
commonly as being more competent than others in corporate America (Lord 1997). An increasing
number of people from diversified workforces in the USA are pursuing their MBA degrees. Although the
degree by itself is recognized as an individuals career achievement, the process of getting it can be quite
demanding. Because the majority of MBA students are part-time, they need to maintain a balance
among academics, work, and in many cases, family life. They are found to have a high propensity of
experiencing stress, frustration, and burnout during their endeavor to obtain their graduate degrees.
Often higher dropout rates are possibly a result of an older student population with greater family
obligations and job responsibilities (Nash 2005; Patterson and McFadden 2009). Although marketing
concept describes that understanding the customers needs and expectations is the first step in winning
customer satisfaction, there is a surprising paucity in literature dealing with the needs, experiences, and
challenges with which MBA students are struggling during their tenure in the program. At the
fundamental level, there is hardly any theoretical framework that MBA administrators may adopt to better
understand student needs and deliver satisfactory services.
This study explores a possible solution to help reduce negative experiences and enhance satisfaction
among MBA students. To be specific, the purpose of this study is to propose and empirically investigate
the effects of perceived control among MBA students on their satisfaction with their education. Studies in
psychology have demonstrated the significant role of perceived control in reducing stress and enhancing
satisfaction. Characterizing MBA students as individuals under significant stress caused by academic

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challenges, competition, and time pressure, this study examines whether the enhanced level of perceived
control reduces students stress and enhances satisfaction. Findings from the study are expected to
suggest an important mechanism for MBA administrators for their program reengineering, satisfaction
enhancement among students, student retention, and ultimately program viability.
The paper is organized in the following fashion: it introduces the concept of perceived control and its
components, highlighting its potential for enhancing satisfaction. Then, the studys hypotheses are
developed. The methods and findings from a survey research are then presented. Next, a summary of
the results from the study is presented. Finally, this article concludes with potential implications and
future research directions.
2. PERCEIVED CONTROL
In psychology literature, the concept of perceived control has been examined in conjunction with a
persons interaction with his/her environment. White (1959) defined perceived control as ones
perceived competence, superiority, and mastery over an environment. A number of studies have tested
and demonstrated the critical role of perceived control in mediating both negative consequences such as
stress, helplessness, meaninglessness, and intention to abuse substances, and positive consequences
such as self-efficacy, competence, satisfaction, and physical and psychological well-being (Cohen 1981;
Goldstein 1989; Langer and Saegert 1977; Mills and Krantz 1979; Newcomb and Harlow 1986). After
noting that perceived control both reduces stress and enhances satisfaction within an environment, Averill
(1973) has provided three types of control that makes one feel in charge of a situation: behavioral,
cognitive, and decisional controls. Averill (1973) explained that each type of perceived control
contributes to lowering an individuals stress and perceived risk when coping with a potentially stressful
event. In the following, each of these controls is reviewed before they are applied to the context of this
study.
2.1 Behavioral Control
The most widely used conceptualization of perceived control is ones perception of ability to change the
objective nature of an imminent event. A league of researchers maintained that individuals perceive
control over an environmental event when they believe that they have a set of responses that can modify
the objective nature of that event (Geer, Davison, and Gatchel 1970; Kanfer and Seidner 1973; Litt 1988;
Thompson 1981). Several studies have reported the interference of the availability of responses at ones
disposal with the ability to respond adaptively to a stressful situation. Langer and Rodin (1976), for
example, demonstrated that ones ability to exert influences on ones environment had significant effects
on ones well-being. In their study involving nursing homes, residents of a nursing home that were
provided with behavioral control (i.e., opportunities for choices, possibility of influencing nursing home
policies, and small decisions to make and small responsibilities to fulfill) reported a higher level of
happiness and satisfaction than those that did not have such behavioral control (Langer and Rodin 1976).
Similar effects of behavioral control were observed in other studies involving medical services (Deci 1980;
Folkman and Moskowitz 2000; Helgeson 2003; Schultz and Hanusa 1979). Averill (1973) explained that
behavioral control is perceived when one believes (1) that s/he is capable of determining such things as
who administers the stimulus and how/when the stimulus will be encountered (p. 287) and (2) that s/he
has the ability to modify the nature of an aversive stimulus with an opportunity to choose his/her
behavioral response (e.g., avoidance, escape, attack, and so on). Therefore, when one believes that
one is able to make changes in an environment or when one is provided with a set of behavioral options
from which s/he can freely choose, perceived risk and stress in that environment are reduced.
2.2 Cognitive Control
The concept of cognitive control was proposed by a group of researchers who found that ones
understanding and predictability about the nature of an impending stressful event made one become less

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aversive to that event (Miller 1979; Seligman and Miller 1979). The theory of cognitive control in
essence is dealing with ones ability to subjectively incorporate the stressful event into ones cognitive
plan. In Langer and Saegarts study (1977), the crowdedness of a supermarket was perceived higher
among individuals who did not know about the crowded conditions until they entered the store than those
who had been informed about it before entering. Langer and Saegart (1977 181) explained that
anticipation of crowding does result in behavioral and attitudinal adjustment [and] information about
possible reactions to an environment not only makes a person feel better, but may actually increase the
attention available for tasks. Averill (1973) named such ability to subjectively incorporate an aversive
stimulus into ones cognitive plan as cognitive control. Subsequent studies (Delong 1970; Seligman and
Miller 1979; Taylor 1989) have elaborated that cognitive control is perceived as a person obtains
information about the specific nature of an imminent event as well as the consequences of the event for
that individual. In short, according to the theory of cognitive control, when one can incorporate a
potentially stressful event into a cognitive plan by knowing the nature of the event in advance, s/he
perceives less stress in dealing with the event.
2.3 Decisional Control
A group of action-theoretical researchers conceptualized perceived control as an individuals belief that
s/he can gain a personally desirable outcome through his/her interaction with an event (Kelley 1955;
Skinner, Chapman, and Baltes 1988). The theory is founded upon an assumption that human actions
are goal-directed and that one may perceive feeling in charge from a situation involving a potentially
stressful event, when one believes that one will eventually obtain a personally desirable outcome/goal
from that situation. Neither predictability nor the choices is needed for one to perceive such type of
control. Averill (1973, p. 300) noted that this form of control is different from either behavioral or
cognitive control and explained that it is not the objective range of choices which determines whether or
not a person experiences control; rather it is the degree to which he agrees or identifies with the
choices he does have, no matter how limited. Thus, according to the theory of decisional control,
people are more tolerant with stress caused by an event when they are certain that they will eventually
gain personally desirable outcomes from the situation.
In summary, there are several different perspectives dealing with the nature of perceived control. As
White (1959) explained, personal control is not a simple concept but a complicated compound of
interrelated, but different concepts. One may perceive feeling in charge of a situation (1) when one
believes that one is effective in exerting influence over an environmental event, (2) when one is
knowledgeable and able to predict the nature and personal consequences of the event, and (3) when one
believes that ones influence, choice, or action in dealing with the event can lead to a personally desirable
outcome (Averill 1973). This study applies the perspective of personal control to those students in MBA
programs and posits that the stress-reducing effects of perceived control can also be observed among
students enrolled at MBA programs.
3. HYPOTHESES
The purpose of this paper is to examine whether the perception of control over their school life among
MBA students affects their satisfaction with their MBA programs. Although an MBA degree is considered
an attractive career path by many people, even the admission process for getting in can be quite
demanding. Students that make it successfully through this process and get admitted into a rigorous
MBA program find themselves faced with the challenges of academic life at a totally different level than
their respective undergraduate experiences. The competition for academic achievement, the need to
perform, the enormous volumes of work and the time constraints of study, work and family are all the
obvious stressors that come to mind when people think of an MBA (MBA.co.za). An overwhelming
number of MBA students are struggling to maintain a balance among their jobs and family, in addition to
the academic demands. Students are found to experience frustration, stress, and dissatisfaction with
their lives. Thus, characterizing the academic pursuit in MBA programs as a potentially stressful event,
this study hypothesizes that perceived control would mediate satisfaction among MBA students. That is,

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MBA students who perceive a high level of control over their school life would find their MBA program
more satisfying than those who do not.
A model of the effects of perceived control on overall evaluation of the program among MBA students are
presented in Figure 1.
FIGURE 1. EFFECTS OF PERCEIVED CONTROL ON OVERALL MBA PROGRAM EVLUATION.

First, students are likely to evaluate an MBA program more positively when they believe that they are
capable of exerting influence on their academic program, including on course selection, curriculum, and
so on. Compared to a program in which students feel that they have no choice in their academic
program but to follow procedures that the school dictates, a program that allows students to make choices
with regard to their academic life (i.e., behavioral control) is likely to foster a high level of student
satisfaction with the program. Second, students may evaluate an MBA program more positively when
the school gives them sufficient information about the program, courses, requirements, and so on. Being
fully informed about the nature of academic life and specific aspects of the curriculum requirements (i.e.,
cognitive control), students are likely to include possible future challenges in their cognitively plan. So,
those ones having cognitive control are more likely to actively deal with and overcome challenges that
may emerge during their academic endeavor. Finally, students are likely to evaluate an MBA program
more positively when they believe that they will obtain the desired benefits from the program in the long
run. When a student believes that s/he will eventually obtain desirable outcomes from an MBA program
(i.e., decisional control), the student is likely to deal with academic challenges with less stress and
frustration and retain high hopes, which would make him/her evaluate the program more positively.
Based upon this reasoning, the following set of hypotheses is developed to test the effects of perceived
control on program evaluation among MBA students.

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H1. MBA students perception of behavioral control will positively influence their evaluation of the MBA
program.
H2. MBA students perception of cognitive control will positively influence their evaluation of the MBA
program.
H3. MBA students perception of decisional control will positively influence their evaluation of the MBA
program.
4. METHODS
Data for this study were collected via a self-reported questionnaire administered to 140 MBA students
enrolled at a major state college in the United States. The questionnaire was composed of three
sections: independent measures (i.e., perception of each types of control), dependent measures (i.e.,
service quality, satisfaction, and recommendation intention), and demographic questions. Likert scales
were adopted as a response category for independent measures. Cognitive control was measured by
using a four-item scale, which includes the students understanding, capability of predicting, familiarity
with the program, and ability to tell strengths and weaknesses of the program they were enrolled at.
Behavioral control was incorporated into the questionnaire by using a four-item scale that includes the
choice availability in course selection, availability of exercising influence on school policies, and
availability of auditing courses before registering. Decisional control was measured by a five-item scale,
addressing the desirability of being in the program, appropriateness of requirements for graduation, and
program efficiency. Three dependent measures (i.e., service quality, satisfaction, and recommendation
intention) were measured by using a 7-point scale ranging from 1 (very poor quality/very dissatisfied/least
likely to recommend) to 7 (excellent quality/very satisfied/very likely to recommend).
A total of 133 useable responses were collected. Demographically, 58 percent of the respondents were
female and 42 percent male. About 86 percent of them were in their twenties or thirties. As far as
academic standings were concerned, about 17 percent of the students had cumulative GPA of 4.0, 65
percent of them between 3.0 and 3.9, and 16 percent of them were new MBA students having no GPA yet.
A review of demographic characteristics of the sample made by two MBA administrators confirmed that
the sample represented the entire MBA student population enrolled at the school appropriately.
5. RESULTS
Measurement properties of scales used in the study were evaluated using reliability, convergent validity,
and discriminant validity. Reliability of the scale for cognitive control, behavioral control, decisional
control, and overall program evaluation is 0.70, 0.83, 0.87, and 0.92 respectively, deemed to be
appropriate for an exploratory study (cf. Nunnally 1967). One item was removed because it was crossloaded over both cognitive control and decisional control. The resulting 15 items were then subjected to
a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), composed of four factors (See Figure 1). The fit of the CFA model is
acceptable, with a Goodness-of-Fit Index (GFI) of 0.95 and with an Adjusted-Goodness-of-Fit Index
(AGFI) of 0.88. These values are above the recommended threshold level of 0.80 (Bagozzi and Yi 1988).
The standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) index of 0.06 is below the recommended cutoff
value of 0.08 (Hu and Bentler 1999). The root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) is 0.09,
slightly exceeding the conventional threshold level, but this problem might be a function of our sample
size. Hu and Bentler (1999) explained that that RMSEA has a tendency of rejecting models with sample
2
sizes below 250. Finally, the ratio of /d.f. is 2.15, comfortably lower than the recommended cutoff of
3.0 (Bagozzi and Yi 1988). In summary, the overall fit supported the measurement model. Convergent
validity is indicated by significant factor loadings of each item onto its pertinent factor (Anderson and
Gerbing 1988). The CFA result not only indicates the presence of four factors but also significant factor
loadings of each item, providing evidence of significant convergent validity (Anderson and Gerbing 1988).
Discriminant validity among five scales is estimated by examining the matrix, dealing with correlations
among latent constructs. The 95 % confidence interval of phi coefficients (i.e., phi 2 x s.e.) did not

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include 1.0, indicating that the two concepts were not the same (Anderson and Gerbing 1988). Thus,
discriminant validity of the scales was also achieved. Overall, indicators proposed and purified in this
study were found to have adequate measurement properties for theory testing as evidenced in terms of
reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant validity.
A path analysis using LISREL 8 was used to assess the model presented in Figure 1. Assessment of fit
indices was all indicative of a good fit of the model to the data. Table 1 contains a summary of the
estimated effects of each independent variable on the dependent measure. The total coefficient of
determination for the structural equation was 0.79, indicating that 79 percent of the variation in the
dependent measure is accounted for by the independent variables in the model. The results imply that
MBA students overall evaluation of the program was significantly affected by the perception of decisional
control (H3), followed by cognitive control (H1). However, the students evaluation was not affected by
behavioral control (H2).
6. DISCUSSION
Characterizing the pursuit of an MBA degree as a potentially stressful event to many people, the study
attempts to explore a concept of perceived control as a means to reduce the perceived stress and
enhance satisfaction among MBA students. Perceived control is found to have a significant influence in
determining a students overall evaluation of the MBA program. This finding is consistent with literature
in psychology that notes the mediating role of perceived control in dealing with a potentially stressful
event. The SMCs (Squared Multiple Correlations) for structural equations were 0.79, indicating the
critical importance of perception of control for MBA students to have a positive evaluation of their MBA
program.
TABLE 1. EFFECTS OF PERCEIVED CONTROL ON EVALUATION OF MBA PROGRAM
Independent Variables
Cognitive Control (H1)
Overall Evaluation
Test Result

0.11 (.08)*
Partially Supported

Behavioral Control (H2)

Decisional Control (H3)

0.00 (.10)
Not Supported

0.81 (.13)**
Supported

Standard errors are in parentis

*: p < 0.1, **: p < 0.01
As far as the specific effects of each type of perceived control on overall evaluation are concerned, the
structural equation model provided an interesting finding. The path analysis indicated that decisional
control exerts a decisive influence and cognitive control has a moderate effect, while behavioral control
has no influence on students evaluation of MBA program. Thus, those MBA students who believed that
they were receiving intended education service benefits with a reasonable amount of cost (i.e., decisional
control) tended to have a positive evaluation about the program. The result also suggests that cognitive
control has a moderate effect on students overall evaluation. When students believe that they are being
provided with sufficient information regarding the curriculum and coursework ahead (i.e., cognitive
control), their overall evaluation of MBA programs is enhanced. On the other hand, students perception
that they can exert influence on their academic matters such as curriculum design, specific courses,
professors, and so on (i.e. behavioral control) was not found to have a direct influence on students
overall satisfaction with the program. Thus, giving MBA students choices for their academic matters was
not found to be a significant antecedent for their satisfaction. In hindsight, the lack of a significant

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relationship from behavioral control to satisfaction can be explained by recognizing that presenting too
many choices and asking MBA students to make their own selection on their academic matters may
overwhelm the students rather than prime their satisfaction.
7. CONCLUSIONS
Graduate students are viewed as customers, and their satisfaction has become an important strategic
goal in many graduate programs. Accordingly, there have been numerous calls for research on the
psychology and satisfaction among MBA students (Richards-Wilson 2002). This research represents a
response to such demands. The significant relationship between perceived control and students
satisfaction demonstrated in this study should provide important managerial implications and an impetus
for additional research. Simply stated, MBA students prefer to perceive control during their pursuit of
MBA degrees. MBA students overall evaluation of the program is found to be notably enhanced when
they believe that they have both decisional and cognitive controls. School administrators need to pay
attention to such psychology of students and provide service arrangements enhancing overall perceived
control among them.
This study, an exploration of the mediating role of perceived control on overall satisfaction among MBA
students, suggests several future research venues. First, it would be appropriate to study service
strategies that would help MBA students overcome negative emotions and experience satisfaction.
There are several approaches to enhancing the perceived control among MBA students as discussed
earlier in this study. Future research for identifying service arrangements that enhance MBA students
perceived control and satisfaction are highly expected. Second, it would be meaningful to understand
the MBA students strategies to sense and maintain their perception of control while in the program.
Their selection of coping strategy would differ from that of customers in normal consumption situations.
Third, a more complete understanding of the role of perceived control in determining satisfaction among
MBA students could be achieved by incorporating actual control with the mere perception of control.
This issue has a lot of managerial implications for MBA directors who might be interested in modifying
their programs to heighten students perception of control. Finally, there is a need for future study
regarding the interaction between students academic performance and evaluation of the program.
Perceived control during their tenure at the MBA program may be appreciated only when a student
believes that s/he is doing academically well in the program.
In conclusion, this article presents a perspective in enhancing students satisfaction with their MBA
program.
Service literature has made significant progress over the years in enhancing our
understanding of service exchanges. Students satisfaction with their MBA program, however, has
received limited attention. There are high expectations that this study provides an impetus for further
studies enhancing our understanding of the psychology, behavior, and satisfaction among MBA students.
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Zeithaml, A. & Bitner, M. (2003). Services Marketing, 3rd Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Irwin.
AUTHOR PROFILES:
Dr. Sekhar Anantharaman is a Professor of Accounting at the Indiana University of Pennsylvania. He
holds a Bachelor of Administration from Indiana State University, and a Ph.D. in Accounting from the
University of Central Florida. His teaching interests are primarily in the Financial Accounting area. His
research interests are in the areas of Financial Reporting and pedagogy. Dr. Anantharaman has
authored and co-authored several research papers that have been published in various refereed journals.
He serves on the Editorial Boards of three peer-reviewed journals and holds memberships in many
professional organizations including the American Accounting Association, Institute of Management
Accounts, etc.
Dr. Jungki Lee earned his Ph.D. at the University of Alabama in 1996. Currently, he is Professor of
marketing at Korea University at Sejong and the Director of the Sejong Institute of International Affairs
and Education. He has authored a number of articles in refereed journals such as Journal of Retailing,
Journal of Services Marketing, Journal of Contemporary Business Issues, Review of Business Research,
Services marketing Quarterly, and The International Journal of Business Administration. He also
presented papers at national and international conferences.
Dr. Barbara Jones, Professor of Economics, Alabama A&M University, holds the Ph.D. in economics
from Georgia State University. Most of her research has focused on the socio/economic problems of the
African-American community. She has published in peer reviewed journals, served on editorial advisory
boards and as officers in professional associations. She has served as a business school dean for 18
years.

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