Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Exponential Modulation
Consider modulated carrier having a constant amplitude and a timevarying
phase. General representation is:
where
It has to be assumed that the message has no DC component such that the
integral converges when t. The DC component of x(t) causes a
frequency shift for the carrier and the amount of the shift is f x(t).
where
10
Then
is the modulation index (it represents the maximum phase deviation and
it is proportional to the tone amplitude). The exponential modulated signal is:
12
13
14
15
In principle, the spectrum continues to +/- infinity. It consists of a carrierfrequency line plus an infinite number of sideband lines at frequencies
c nm. All lines are equally spaced by the modulating frequency, and
the odd-order lower sidebands are in reverse phase (inverted) relative to
the unmodulated carrier.
16
17
where
The procedure can be extended to more than 2 tones.
18
19
20
21
22
The carrier J0() term varies with modulation index, and it also carries the
message information. For some value of it is equal to zero.
The number of essential sideband lines depends on .
The bandwidth is wide for large values of .
The spectrum decreases monotonically when n/ > 1, especially when
>> 1.
23
24
25
26
27
28
Note: This case does not correspond to the maximum modulation index .
Any other tone having fm < W and/or Am < 1 will require less bandwidth
even though may be larger.
29
30
31
32
PM Signal Bandwidth
The above rules also apply to PM modulation if we replace the deviation
D with the maximum phase deviation . Necessary bandwidth for PM
modulation is then:
33
35
36
37
Then the frequency and phase deviation increases n times higher. This is
utilized in some FM modulators.
38
FM Modulators (1)
Such kind of circuits are needed where the phase or the frequency of the
modulated signal depends linearly on the modulating signal.
1. Direct FM Modulator
Conceptually, a direct FM requires only a Voltage Controlled Oscillator
(VCO) whose oscillation frequency has a linear dependence on the
applied (input) voltage.
The implementation can be based on
tube ( fc 1 GHz)
semiconductors (varactors)
39
FM Modulators (2)
VCO Circuit with Varactor Diode:
Advantages:
a large deviation can be implemented directly
simple implementation
Disadvantages:
it is difficult to stabilize the carrier frequency (carrier frequency
tends to drift)
40
FM Modulators (3)
41
FM Modulators (4)
2. Indirect FM Modulator
42
FM Modulators (5)
Example: FM voice radio
43
44
Assumption:
45
46
FM Detection (1)
The task of a frequency detector (i.e. discriminator) is to produce an
output voltage that is linearly dependent on the instantaneous frequency.
Frequency detector categories are:
FM-AM-conversion
Phase-shift discriminator (quadrature detector)
Zero-crossing detection
Phase locked loop (PLL)
Note: Analog PM detection is not discussed here because it is seldom
needed in practice and, if needed, can be accomplished by integrating the
output of a FM detector.
47
FM Detection (2)
FM - AM conversion
FM-AM conversion is produced by a transfer function having
magnitude (amplitude) distortion, as, for example, the time
derivative
48
FM Detection (3)
49
FM Detection (4)
The limiter is needed to remove any spurious amplitude variation from the
received signal.
In practice, the derivative can be approximately obtained by using a
tuned circuit.
Extended linearity can be achieved by a balanced discriminator. A
balanced discriminator consists of two tuned circuits, one below and one
above the carrier frequency. This results in a wider linear range in the
amplitude curve.
50
FM Detection (5)
FM Detection Based on Zero-Crossings
. After DC block:
51
Interference (1)
Interference is caused e.g., by signals from other stations or cross-talk
between cables. So there might be two (or more) signals from a human
source. Interference can be categorized as follows
co-channel interference (same carrier frequency)
adjacent channel interference (neighbour carrier frequency)
Lets consider the case, where the desired signal is unmodulated carrier:
52
Interference (2)
Additive Interference in Unmodulated Carrier
If << 1 then
53
Interference (3)
If >> 1 then
54
Interference (4)
Additive Interference for the Demodulated Signal
For different modulation methods, the detected signal is (here i = 0 and
fi W, << 1):
FM Capture Effect
Capture effect is a phenomenon that takes place in FM systems, when
there are two FM modulated signals in the same channel and the
amplitude of these signals is nearly the same.
The stronger dominates or captures the output (annoying results
when listening to a distant FM station). When the strengths of the two FM
signals begin to be nearly the same, the capture effect may cause the
signals to alternate in their domination of the frequency. Small variations
in the relative amplitude levels cause sudden change in the station.
56
57
58
59
60
Noise in CW Modulation
In this part of chapter 3, we will discuss about the effects of the channel
noise for the linear and exponential modulations.
Noise analysis is an essential part of developing different communication
systems. The goal is to develop such a system where the effects of noise
are minimized.
If the effect of channel noise can be decreased in the receiver end, then we
can use lower transmission power. This is especially important, e.g., in
mobile phones and in satellite communications, where the power of the
transmitter should be minimized.
61
Assumptions:
Message signal x(t) is ergodic with bandwidth W,
The attenuation of the channel is L and the channel is distortionless (or
equalized).
Received power:
Transmitted waveform:
62
63
Recall: the noise power is the integral of the PSD over the bandwidth of
interest.
65
66
67
where ni(t) and nq(t) are also stationary Gaussian noise, they are
independent and have the properties:
68
69
70
71
(Use:
72
The problem is now to determine the output signal yD(t) and the S/N ratio
at the output denoted by (S/N)D for different modulations and detector
types. (S/N)D: post-detection SNR.
73
Because
, then the post-detection SNR is at
most equal with half of the baseband SNR.
76
78
80
81
82
Therefore,
where
Through signal and noise were additive at input, the detected
message term is multiplied by noise in form of cosn(t), which
is random. Thus, the message is hopelessly mutilated.
83
84
85
86
It shows that
87
where
is the quadrature component of noise. In this
model, signal phase and equivalent phase noise are additive:
88
89
90
91
since
Comments:
Post-detection noise spectral densities have out-of-band
components that must be removed by LPF.
PM-noise is flat whereas FM-noise spectrum increases
parabolically (higher baseband frequencies suffer from
more noise contamination than lower frequencies). Deemphasis/pre-emphasis filtering compensates for this
effect.
The destination noise power decreases when signal
power SR increases (noise quieting).
92
94
95
, so
96
with pre-emphasis:
97
98
Therefore in the case (S/N)R <<1, the noise dominates and the message
contained in (t) can not be recovered.
In the case of (S/N)R 1:
99
100
101
Since
Note: The threshold point and threshold for baseband SNR also apply to
PM with D replaced by .
102
103
104
106
107
Chapter 4:
Sampling and Pulse Modulation
108
109
since
110
The spectrum is periodic: Sampling replicates spectrum of continuoustime signal at integer multiples of sampling frequency.
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
with
The errors k are proportional to the sample values of noise n(t) spaced by
Ts. The errors k are uncorrelated and have zero mean, then
. Hence,
(*)
127
129
, we obtain:
130