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Introduction
Numerical methods are now extensively applied in engineering due to the advances in
computing. Of all the numerical methods, the finite element method is the most popular
convenient approach, because it is easy to implement for all kinds of boundary and loading
conditions and it can be used for the analysis of large complex structures. It is worth
mentioning that experimental measurements are considered a powerful data required to
approve most of mathematical models. Paik et al. [1] performed a series of experiments on the
quasi-static crushing of stiffened square tubes and brought forward an empirical formula for
the mean crushing load. The experimental results showed that the mean crushing load
changed with the variation of the stiffener directions. Zhang and Suzuki [2] analyzed the
effects of longitudinal and transverse stiffeners on the quasi-static crushing of stiffened square
tubes by using the non-linear finite element program LS-DYNA. The obtained numerical data
was used in prediction the mean crushing load and the equivalent thickness of the stiffened
tubes. Recent numerical tools have allowed that a range of quasi-static problems can be
analyzed effectively. Gupta et al. [3] applied the finite element method to simulate the axial
compression of the tubes of round cross-sections. An axi-symmetric model was used to obtain
the deformed shapes and the crushing load at different stages of loading. Gupta and Gupta [4]
have carried out experimental studies of axial compression of thin walled aluminum and mild
steel tubes of varying diameter to thickness ratios. The effect of annealing and presence of a
Paper: ASAT-13-ST-34
hole at mid height of the tube on the energy absorption characteristics and collapse mode
transitions was examined. Results revealed that a diamond deformation mode was generated
in all the tube specimens. A great number of studies have been carried out on the axial
crushing of thin-walled tubes. Wierzbicki and Abramowicz [5] developed a simplified model
based on rigid plastic assumptions and obtained the mean crushing force for square tubes.
Abramowicz and Jones [6,7] conducted a series of experiments, and modified the collapse
models by taking account of strain-rate sensitivity and effective crushing distance. Grzebieta
[8] proposed a method for determining the load history between a peak and a minimum during
an oscillation of the load-compression curve of round tubes. Gupta and Velmurugan [9]
studied experimentally the internal/external folding of round tubes. The folding parameter
(ratio of the inside to the total fold length) was determined experimentally and employed in a
proposed analysis. Wierzbicki et al. [10] studied the axi-symmetric mode of deformation of
round tubes by considering partly internal and partly external folding. It was shown that the
load compression curve is dependent on the folding parameter, while the mean collapse load
and the folding length are independent of it. Closed form solutions were obtained for the
instantaneous and mean crushing force, the effective crush distance and the length of the local
folding wave. Singace et al. [11-13] gave an analysis of the axi-symmetric and multi-lobe or
diamond mode of deformation to determine the eccentricity factor and crushing load. It was
concluded that measured values of the eccentricity factor and the critical folding angles
obtained for tubes of different materials and geometric ratios are independent of the tubes
material and geometric ratios. There is a considerable amount of published data on the
response of composite tubes to axial crushing [14]. Many of these studies utilize circular
cross-section tubular specimens to determine the energy absorption capability of the material.
Farley [15] studied the effect of specimen geometry on the energy absorption capability of
composite materials. He found that, changes in section lay-up that lead to an increase in
modulus lead to higher crush strengths and energy absorption. Mamalis et al. [16-18]
analyzed the collapse behavior and deformation mechanism of thin-walled non-circular
composite tube, thin-walled composite conical shell, and braced elliptical tube. They
contributed with a valuable data of crashworthiness of composite structures.
The aims of this study are to obtain numerical data on the crushing of different cross-section
tubes, and to develop simple empirical expressions for predicting the absorbed energy and the
fold formation of steel tubes. A series of finite element calculations was carried out on six
tube models crushed axially in a quasi-static condition by using ABAQUS/Explicit. The
cross-section shapes of the six tubes were circle, ellipse, triangle, square, pentagon and
hexagon. Effect of the side breadth and the generated fold depth on the initiated peak load and
the mean crushing force of different tubes were carefully examined.
Paper: ASAT-13-ST-34
file. A list of numerical values of the basic material properties required for the tube models is
given in Fig. (2). All the tube models used in the present finite element simulation were
generated by using the element S4R. This element is a three-dimensional doubly curved fournode shell element. Each node has three-displacement and three-rotation degrees of freedom.
Moreover, this element is considered a general-purpose shell element where it allows for large
strains as load increases. In order to predict the overall response accurately, the mesh of finite
elements was fine and uniform with equal number of elements along the length of the tube
and through its circumferential direction. On the other side, all the tube models were crushed
axially between upper and lower rigid parallel plates. These two parallel plates were
simulated by using three-dimensional four-node rigid elements R3D4. The tubes were crushed
by pushing down the upper rigid plate. The latter was fixed in all degrees of freedom except
the vertical downward displacement where the loading was applied. However, the lower rigid
plate was stationary by constraining its whole degrees of freedom. All tube models rested free
on the lower rigid plate however the applied force was attained as a reaction created from the
pushing of the upper plate. The quasi-static loading condition was achieved by moving the
upper plate slowly downward over a sufficiently long time. It is noted that the tubes were not
completely free due to the effect of friction between the tube models and the crushing parallel
plates. The progressive deformation shape was continuously monitored for each tube and the
corresponding force-axial displacement curve was depicted.
Experimental Validation
The validation of the finite element tube model was made by direct comparison with the
experimental results and the collapse observations of the square tube US-2 subjected to quasistatic axial compression and examined by Paik et al. [1]. The structural geometry of the
specimen and the properties of the used material are shown in Fig. (2). All other testing
details used in the experimental works were necessarily simulated in finite element model.
The progressive collapse of the finite element tube model and the examined specimen at
various stages of the compression are compared in Fig. (3). Visual examination of the pictures
showed good agreements between the numerical simulations and the experimental outcomes.
Comparing the predicted load-displacement behaviour with the experimental results in [1] and
the obtained calculations in [2] revealed good correlation between curves at the same
displacement values as shown in Fig. (4).
Table (1) lists the comparison of results between the previously published work and the
present finite element analysis.
Paper: ASAT-13-ST-34
initial inward folding of the pentagonal tube was appeared in only two non-successive
sidewalls. After complete constituting of the initial folds, similar sequential folds were
regularly created and the crushing was propagated along the sidewalls of all polygonal tubes.
The folds generated in all tube models were in contact and adjoining each other except for
that ones of the triangular tube. This may be attributed to the acute inner angles between the
sidewalls which increase the strength of the triangular tube and allow the rigid body
behaviour to appear early before occurring a complete adjoining of folds. On the other hand,
the crushing behaviour of the elliptical tube was quite complex and totally different from the
deformation characteristics of the other tube models. The upper cross-section of the elliptical
tube was initially stretched in the direction of maximum diameter as shown in Fig. (6).
Afterwards, the crushing was propagated suddenly allover a region bounded by the upper
stretched cross-section and another similar one located nearly at the middle height of the tube.
Progressive compression generated similar crushing characteristics on the rest of the elliptical
tube model. When the walls of the tubes stopped folding and behaved as a rigid body, the
number of folds was observed maximum with fourteen folds in the circular tube and
minimum with three folds in the triangular tube.
Paper: ASAT-13-ST-34
(1)
where;
E = Absorbed energy
Sb = Side breadth,
T = Tube thickness
Fd 8.302 exp[0.021( Sb / t )]
where;
Fd = Fold depth,
Sb = Side breadth,
t = Tube thickness
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(2)
Paper: ASAT-13-ST-34
Figure (16) shows that the results of the fold depth formula coincide with the numerical data.
This relation is valid for the polygonal tubes with number of sides greater than or equal four
sides.
Conclusion
The non-linear finite element model simulations provide much more detailed information than
other approaches. These are especially efficient in local folding and internal contact of
structural elements. In this paper, a study on the quasi-static crushing collapse of multi-sided
and round tubes was performed using a non-linear finite element program ABAQUS/Explicit.
Based on the numerical data, simple empirical formulas were developed to predict the
absorbed energy and the fold depth as a function of the side breadth-to-thickness ratio of the
tubes. From the present study, the following conclusion can be drawn:
-
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
Paper: ASAT-13-ST-34
[10] Wierzbicki T., Bhat S. U., Abramowicz W. and Brodikin D., A Two Folding Elements
Model of Progressive Crushing of Tubes, Int. J. Solids Struct., Vol. 29, No. 24, pp.
3269-88, 1992.
[11] Singace A. A. and EI-Sobky H., Further Experimental Investigation on the Eccentricity
Factor in the Progressive Crushing of Tubes, Int. J. Solids Struct., Vol. 33, No. 24, pp.
3517-38, 1996.
[12] Singace A. A, EI-Sobky H. and Reddy T. Y., On the Eccentricity Factor in the
Progressive Crushing of Tubes, Int. J. Solids Struct., Vol. 32, No. 24, pp. 3589-602,
1995.
[13] Singace A. A., Axial Crushing Analysis of Tubes Deforming in the Multi-Lobe
Mode, Int. J. Mech. Sci., Vol. 41, pp. 865-90, 1999.
[14] Hull D., A Unified Approach to Progressive Crushing of Fiber-Reinforced Composite
Tubes, Comp. Sci. Technol., Vol. 40, pp. 377-421, 1991.
[15] Farley G. L., Effects of Specimen Geometry on the Energy Absorption Capability of
Composite Materials, J. Comp. Mater., Vol. 20, pp. 390-400, 1986.
[16] Mamalis A. G., Manolakos D. E., Demosthenous G. A. and Ioannidis M. B., The
Deformation Mechanism of Thin-Walled Non-circular Composite Tubes Subjected to
Bending, Comp. Struct., Vol. 30, pp. 131-146, 1995.
[17] Mamalis A. G., Manolakos D. E., Demosthenous G. A. and Ioannidis M. B., Analysis
of Failure Mechanisms Observed in Axial Collapse of Thin-Walled Circular Fiberglass
Composite Tubes, Thin-Walled Struct., Vol. 24, pp. 335-352, 1996.
[18] Mamalis A. G., Manolakos D. E., Demosthenous G. A. and Ioannidis M. B.,
Analytical Modeling of the Static and Dynamic Axial Collapse of Thin-Walled
Fiberglass Composite Conical Shells, Int. J. Impact Eng., Vol. 19, No. 5-6, pp. 477492, 1997.
75 mm
100 mm
95.49 mm
50 mm
60 mm
50
100 mm
13/19
Paper: ASAT-13-ST-34
t
b
Dimensions of
the test specimen
L = 450 mm
b = 100 mm
t = 2.8 mm
Fig. (3) Gradual crushing of the square tube US-2 [1] using the
present ABAQUS solution.
1
2
14/19
Paper: ASAT-13-ST-34
7
Energy
Load(kN)
80
60
5.6
4.2
Load
40
2.8
20
1.4
0
0
50
100
150
200
Energy (kJ)
100
0
250
Displacement (mm)
Fig. (5) Gradual collapse and crushing results of the cylindrical tube.
450
45
36
Load (kN)
Energy
270
27
Load
180
18
90
Energy (kJ)
360
0
0
50
100
150
200
0
250
Displacement (mm)
Fig. (6) Gradual collapse and crushing results of the elliptical tube.
60
5
Energy
36
3
Load
24
12
0
0
50
100
150
200
Displacement (mm)
Fig. (7) Gradual collapse and crushing results of the hexagonal tube.
15/19
0
250
Energy (kJ)
Load (kN)
48
Paper: ASAT-13-ST-34
45
4.5
Energy
3.6
27
Energy (kJ)
Load (kN)
36
2.7
18
1.8
Load
0.9
0
0
50
100
150
0
250
200
Displacement (mm)
Fig. (8) Gradual collapse and crushing results of the pentagonal tube.
40
4
3.2
24
2.4
16
1.6
0.8
Load
0
0
50
100
150
200
Energy (kJ)
Load (kN)
Energy
32
0
250
Displacement (mm)
Fig. (9) Gradual collapse and crushing results of the square tube.
40
5
Load
24
16
Energy
100
0
250
0
0
50
150
200
Displacement (mm)
Fig. (10) Gradual collapse and crushing results of the triangular tube.
16/19
Energy (kJ)
Load (kN)
32
Paper: ASAT-13-ST-34
120
100
Side breadth
80
60
40
20
0
0
20
40
60
No. of sides
55
55
50
50
Initial peak load
45
40
35
30
45
40
35
30
40
No. of sides
60
80
100
27
27
24
24
Mean crushing Load
Fig. (13) Variation of the initial peak load with the number of sides
(left) and with the side breadth (right) of the polygonal tubes.
21
18
15
21
18
15
12
12
2
40
60
80
100
No. of sides
Fig. (14) Variation of the mean crushing load with the number of
sides (left) and with the side breadth (right) of the polygonal tubes
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120
Paper: ASAT-13-ST-34
18/19
Paper: ASAT-13-ST-34
Parameter
Peak load (kN)
Mean load (kN)
Ref.[1]
337.12
100.98
Ref.[2]
357.23
101.32
F.E.M.
348.25
102.78
Cross-section
Triangular
Squarer
Pentagonal
Hexagonal
Circular
Elliptical
Max. load
(kN)
34.07
34.43
38.64
52.59
92.92
268.98
Mean load
(kN)
23.53
16.84
19.47
22.76
37.82
162.71
19/19
Max. deformation
(mm)
191
234.73
217
218.92
235.39
233.29
Absorbed energy
(kJ)
4.41
3.75
4.22
4.90
6.42
40.59