Section 9

Proppants
Table of Contents
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 9-3
Topic Areas............................................................................................................................................ 9-3
Learning Objectives ............................................................................................................................... 9-3
Unit A: API Standards............................................................................................................................... 9-3
Roundness and Sphericity...................................................................................................................... 9-4
Specific Gravity ..................................................................................................................................... 9-4
Bulk Density .......................................................................................................................................... 9-4
Sieve Analysis........................................................................................................................................ 9-4
Acid Solubility ....................................................................................................................................... 9-4
Silt and Fine Particles ............................................................................................................................ 9-5
Crush Resistance.................................................................................................................................... 9-5
Clustering............................................................................................................................................... 9-5
Unit A Quiz............................................................................................................................................ 9-6
Unit B: Proppant Types ............................................................................................................................. 9-7
Sand........................................................................................................................................................ 9-7
Resin-Coated Sand................................................................................................................................. 9-7
Sintered Bauxite..................................................................................................................................... 9-8
Ceramics ................................................................................................................................................ 9-9
Unit B Quiz .......................................................................................................................................... 9-10
Unit C: Flow Capacity............................................................................................................................. 9-11
Unit C Quiz: Flow Capacity................................................................................................................. 9-12
Unit D: Proppant Bed Damage ................................................................................................................ 9-13
Unit D Quiz.......................................................................................................................................... 9-15

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Stimulation I

Proppants

Use for Section notes

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Stimulation I

Proppants

Introduction
Propping agents are the essential part of any
fracturing treatment. Propping agents prop
open the created fracture to conduct reservoir
fluids to the wellbore. The selection of a
propping agent requires information on the
conductivity at stress of any material used.
Sand is a natural material that is used as a
propping agent in many hydraulic fracturing
treatments.

Learning Objectives
Upon completion of this section, you will be able
to:
List API specifications for proppants
Distinguish between different types of
proppants.

Topic Areas

List the physical properties of the different

proppants.

The section units are:

Compare flow capacities of different

proppants under loaded conditions.

API Standards

Avoid problems associated with proppant

damage.

Proppant Types
Flow Capacity
Proppant Bed Damage

Unit A: API Standards

API (American Petroleum Institute) is the major
national trade association representing the entire
petroleum industry: exploration and production,
transportation, refining, and marketing. With
headquarters in Washington, D.C., and petroleum
councils in 33 states, it is a forum for all parts of the
oil and natural gas industry to pursue policy
objectives and advance the interests of the industry.
The impetus for forming API in 1919 was the need
to standardize engineering specifications for drilling
and production equipment. API has developed some
500 equipment and operating standards used around
the world. The API publications dealing with
proppants are API RP 56 for frac sand, API RP 58
for gravel pack sand and API RP 60 for high
strength frac sand. These publications set limits on
certain characteristics of proppant and the
procedures used for testing them.

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Some characteristics of proppants used in

hydraulic fracturing that need to be
monitored are:
Roundness
Spericity
Specific Gravity
Bulk Density
Sieve Size
Acid Solubility
Silt and Fine Particles
Crush Resistance
Clustering
These properties and their API guidelines
are discussed below.

Stimulation I

Proppants

Roundness and Sphericity

Bulk Density

These two properties are particle factors that

influence particle packing and load bearing
capabilities. Roundness is the measure of the
relative sharpness of grain corners or a grain
curvature. Sphericity is the measure of how closely
a particle approaches the shape of a sphere. The API
recommended limit for sand for both roundness and
sphericity is 0.6. For resin-coated sand, the API
limits are 0.7. Figure 2.3 is a Krumbein chart.

Bulk density is the volume occupied by a

given mass of proppant - the amount of
material to fill a given volume. The units
for bulk density are lb/ft3 or grams/cc. The
API recommended maximum for proppants
is 105 lb/ft3.

Sieve Analysis
A sieve analysis shows the size distribution
of the sand within the designated size range;
90% of a sample must be within the
designated size range. Not over 0. 1 %
should be larger than the first sieve and not
over 1.0% should be smaller than the last
sieve. Table 9.2 gives U.S. standard mesh
screen sizes.

Figure 9.1 Chart for visual estimates of

sphericity and roundness (From Krumbein and
Sieve 1963)

Several samples of a particular sand should be

observed, then an average roundness factor
comparison can be made. In some select cases,
angularity may be advantageous because the
proppant will tend to bridge in the fracture and be
less likely to flow back into the wellbore. This is
especially true in a formation where the fracture is
slow in closing back completely.

Specific Gravity
The specific gravity of a proppant is the measure of
the absolute density of individual proppant particles
relative to water. The recommended API maximum
limit is 2.65 for sand.

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U.S.
Series
Mesh

Sieve
Opening (in.)

U.S.
Series
Mesh

Sieve
Opening (in.)

0.187

25

0.0280

0.132

30

0.0232

0.0937

35

0.0197

10

0.0787

40

0.0165

12

0.0661

60

0.0098

14

0.0555

70

0.0083

16

0.0469

100

0.0059

18

0.0394

170

0.0035

20

0.0331

Table 9.1- Standard Sleeve Openings

Acid Solubility
The solubility of a proppant in 12% HCl 3% FE acid is an indication of the amount of
contaminants present and of the relative
stability of the proppant in acid. It may also
indicate the tendency of proppants to
dissolve in hot brines. Acid solubility is
measured by percentage by weight. The API
recommended maximum for sand is 2%,
while the limit for resin-coated sand is 7%
maximum.
Stimulation I

Proppants

Silt and Fine Particles

This measure indicates the amount of clay and silt or
other fine material present. Properly washed and/or
processed proppant will not have excess silt and fine
particles. The API recommended maximum limit
for proppant is 250 FIJI (formation turbidity units).

5,000 psi until the maximum fines limit is

reached.

Crush Resistance
Crush resistance indicates the relative strength of a
proppant by measuring the amount of material
crushed under a given load. It is expressed in units
of percentage of fines. API recommended maximum
limits for sand are:
for 12/20 - 16% at 3000 psi
for 20/40 - 14% at 4000 psi
API recommended maximum limits for high
strength proppants are:

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12/20 mesh- 25%

16/20 mesh- 25%
20/40 mesh - 10%
40/70 mesh - 8%
These tests are performed at stress levels of
7,500 psi, 10,000 psi, 12,500 psi, and 1

Clustering
Clustering is measured by percentage by
weight. It indicates the degree of attachment
of individual proppant grains to one another.
During processing, the grains were not
broken apart. The API recommended
maximum is 1 %.

Stimulation I

Proppants

Unit A Quiz
Fill in the blanks with one or more words to check your progress in Unit A.
1. List 6 characteristics of proppants used in hydraulic fracturing that need to be monitored.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
2. Bulk density is the _________ __________ ___ ________ of proppant
3. ______ True ______ False: The maximum API recommendation for % fines of 12/20 sand
at 3000 psi is 16%.
4. The specific gravity of a proppant in the measure of the ______________ _____________ of
individual proppant particles relative to water.
Now, look up the suggested answers in the Answer Key.

96
2005, Halliburton

Stimulation I

Proppants

Unit B: Proppant Types

Sand
Two major sands used as proppants in hydraulic
fracturing is Ottawa Sand and Brady Sand. Ottawa
Sand, from the Jordan Deposit, is a high-quality
sand from the northern United States. Its pure quartz
composition, white color, lack of dust, high
roundness and sphericity, make it an ideal sand. The
grains are made up of mostly monocrystalline, which
results in high individual grain strength.
Brady Sand from the Hickory Deposit, near Brady
Texas, is another high-quality sand used for
fracturing, characterized by its slight angularity and
presence of feldspars. Also known as Brown Sand
because of its color, it is considered to be of lesser
quality than Ottawa Sand. Although sands are
available from other areas, these two provide the
majority of material used in fracturing operations.
The physical properties of commonly used types of
sand are listed in Table 9.1

Compatibility includes the effect on fluid

pH, crosslink time, breaker concentration,
and foam stability. Resin coatings are
available on sands, ceramics, and bauxite
proppants.
Pre-cured or tempered products have a hard
coating or shell around the proppant grain
and they are most compatible with our
fracturing fluid systems. This coating will
not bond grains together but it imparts a
higher level of conductivity performance
when compared to uncoated proppants. This
is most significant with resin coated sands
and less significant with resin coated
ceramic or bauxite proppants.
Partially curable and encapsulated materials
provide proppant grains that will bond
together under closure stress in a fracture.
They are also more compatible with our
fluid systems when compared to fully
curable resin coated proppants.
Borden Chemicals, Inc.
Oil Field ProductsPrecured

Premium Sand
(Jordan/Ottawa)

Standard Sand
(Hickory/Brady)

12/20

20/40

12/20

20/40

Product Name

Roundness

0.8

0.8

0.7

0.7

AcFrac Black Plus

Sphericity

0.8

0.8

0.8

0.7

2.65

2.65

2.65

2.65

Bulk Density (lb/ft3)

96

102

100

102

Acid Solubility

1.3

1.2

0.9

1.6

AcFrac SB Prime

Phenolic Resin-Coated Sand

2.4

1.8

11.1

11.0

AcFrac SB Excel

Phenolic Resin-Coated Sand

Ceramax P

Phenolic Resin-Coated Bauxite

0.3

0.1

0.8

0.3

Properties

Specific Gravity

(% by Weight)

Crush Resistance
(% Fines)

Clustering
(% by Weight)

Furan Resin-Coated Sand

Borden Chemicals, Inc.

Oil Field ProductsPartially Curable
Product Name

Description

Borden Chemicals, Inc.

Oil Field ProductsFully Curable

Table 9.2 Physical Properties of Sand

Product Name

AcFrac CR 4000

Resin-Coated Sand

Description

Phenolic Resin-Coated Sand

Santrol Tempered (precured) Proppants

Resin Coated Proppants (RCP's) have evolved over

time. They are more compatible with our fracturing
fluid systems compared to early generation products.

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Description

Product Name

Tempered LC

Description

Multiple Coat, Phenolic ResinCoated Sand

Stimulation I

Proppants

Sintered Bauxite

Santrol Curable Proppants

Product Name

Description

Super LC

Phenolic Resin-Coated Sand

Super DC

Dual Coat, Phenolic ResinCoated Sand

Super HS

Multiple Coat, Phenolic ResinCoated Sand

Super TF

Phenolic Resin-Coated Sand

OptiProp

Encapsulated Phenolic ResinCoated Sand

MagnaProp

Encapsulated Phenolic ResinCoated Economy Ceramic

DynaProp

Encapsulated Phenolic Resin

Coated Premium Ceramic

HyperProp

Encapsulated Phenolic ResinCoated Bauxite

PolarProp

Encapsulated Phenolic ResinCoated Sand (low temperature

formations)

Super HT

Phenolic Resin-Coated Sand for

Gravel Packs and Frac Packs

High-strength sintered bauxite and

intermediate-strength sintered bauxite are
produced by essentially the same
manufacturing process. Bauxite ore is
ground to a fine powder and formed into
green pellets. After drying and screening,
the pellets are fired in a kiln. The firing, or
sintering process, fuses the edges of the
individual particles of each pellet. The basic
difference in the high strength and
intermediate strength materials lies in the
raw material used.

Curable resin coated proppants offer the highest

bond strength and the greatest potential for
interference with our fluid systems. The tables below
list some of the RCP's currently available.
AcFrac PR 6000

Phenolic Resin-Coated Sand

AcFrac PR 4000

Phenolic Resin-Coated Sand

High-strength sintered bauxite is formed

from almost pure bauxite ore to create
corundum, Al 2O3. This imparts the highest
density (approximately 3.7 specific gravity)
and strength for this proppant. Intermediatestrength sintered bauxite is formed from a
less pure bauxite ore. The processing of this
ore produces both corundum and mullite
(Al6Si 3 O15).
This mineral composition results in a less
dense (approximately 3.25 specific gravity)
and slightly weaker compound than the
more pure sintered bauxite compound.
Below is a list of some of the bauxite
proppants currently available.
Norton-Alcoa Proppants

Ceramix I

Phenolic Resin-Coated
Premium Sand

Ceramix E

Phenolic Resin-Coated
Economy Sand

Product Name

Description

INTERPROP

Intermediate Strength Bauxite

SINTERED
BAUXITE

High Strength Bauxite

Carbo Ceramics, Inc.

Tempered DC

Dual Coat, Phenolic ResinCoated Sand

Tempered HS

Multiple Coat, Phenolic ResinCoated Sand

Tempered TF

Phenolic Resin-Coated Sand

EconoFlex

Phenolic Resin-Coated
Economy Ceramic

Product Name

Description

CarboProp

Intermediate Strength Bauxite

Carbo HSP

High Strength Bauxite

Sintex Minerals and Services, Inc.

Product Name

Table 9.3 -

Description

SinterLite

Intermediate Strength Bauxite

SinterProp

Economy High Strength Bauxite

SinterBall

Premium High Strength Bauxite

Table 9.4

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Stimulation I

Proppants

Ceramics
Ceramic are one of the large classes into which all
useful solid materials can be divided, i.e., metals,
organics, and ceramics. Generally, a ceramic is any
non-organic, non-metallic solid formed by high
temperature processing (above 875F). Example
ceramics include glass, refractories, whiteware
(dishes, pottery, etc.), structural products (brick),
abrasives, and cement.
Ceramic proppants are produced in a different
manner than the sintered bauxite proppants using
fluidizing bed processing. The composition of the
ceramic-type proppants shows mostly mullite
(aluminum compound) with some additional silica
compounds. This produces a compound only slightly
denser than sand with specific gravities of
approximately 2.65 to 2.75. These ceramic
proppants have greater strength than sand but less

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2005, Halliburton

strength than the intermediate- and highstrength sintered bauxite proppants.

Below is a list of some of the ceramic
proppants currently available.
Carbo Cermics, Inc.
Product Name

Description

CarboLite

Premium Low Density Creamic

EconoProp

Economy Low Density Ceramic

Norton Alcoa Proppants

Product Name

Description

NAPLITE

Premium Low Density Ceramic

VALUPROP

Economy Low Density Ceramic

Table 9.5

Stimulation I

Proppants

Unit B Quiz
Fill in the blanks with one or more words to check your progress in Unit B.
1. The four main types of proppant used today are:
1)
2)
3)
4)
2. The three types of resin coated proppants are:
1)
2)
3)
3. Intermediate-strength sintered bauxite is formed from a ________ _________ bauxite ore.
4. Generally, a ceramic is any ______-____________, ______-________ solid formed by
_________ ________________ processing
Now, look up the suggested answers in the Answer Key at the end of this section.

9 10
2005, Halliburton

Stimulation I

Proppants

Unit C: Flow Capacity

proppant strength and size

The purpose of proppants is to help prevent the

fracture from closing once pumping is stopped.
Proppants are added to the fracturing fluid and
are introduced into the fracture along with the
fluid.

hardness of the formation being

propped closure stress being applied to the
proppant bed

A main factor affecting the outcome of a

hydraulic fracturing treatment is obtaining an
adequate propped fracture. The propping agent
should provide and maintain a highly permeable
path for fluid flow toward the wellbore. The
need for a propping agent to help provide that
path has been verified by numerous field
experiments. When proppants are used,
production is usually higher and the production
decline rate is much slower. This suggests that
an unpropped fracture is subjected to a
combination of forces that tend to close the
fracture which reduces its flow capacity.

If the particle either crushes or embeds, the

fracture flow capacity will decrease. If severe
crushing or embedment occurs, the fracture flow
capacity may decrease so low that not enough
contrast exists between the conductivity of the
proppant bed and the permeability of the
reservoir rock. If this were to happen, results
from the fracturing treatment may not be
satisfactory because of the loss of fracture
conductivity.
One of the first propping agents used in fracture
treatments was screened river sand. However,
such angular, poorly screened sand contained
some particles that were too large to enter the
fracture. Also, bridges formed in the wellbore,
subsurface tools, and within the fracture itself.
If the proppant is too large, or if bridging occurs,
screenout can result and the treatment will have
to be ended prematurely. This results in a
smaller propped fracture than had been designed
and additional expense for cleaning out the
proppant in the wellbore.

Flow capacity (or fracture flow capacity) is the

ability of the fracture to convey the reservoir
fluid to the wellbore. It is generally expressed
as the product of fracture permeability and the
fracture width:
Fracture Flow Capacity = (kwf)
where:
k = Permeability (md) of the fracture

Figure 9.1 is a sample fracture flow capacity

curve. This data were generated using steel
plates. All measurements were made with radial
flow cells and nitrogen gas, and were conducted
at ambient temperature.

wf = Fracture width (ft)

Proppant particles must support the closure
stress. In so doing, some of the particles may
crush, or in a soft formation, embed into the
rock. The degree of crushing or embedment
depends on:

9 11
2005, Halliburton

Stimulation I

Proppants

Effect of Proppant Type

20/40, 200 F, 1.0 lb/ft

3000

Proppant Type
H Brady
H Ottawa

2500

2000

1500

1000

Conductivity (md*ft)
500

0
0

3000

6000

9000

12000

15000

Stress (psi)
Customer:
Well Desc:

Job Date:
Job Type:

Ticket #: 2
Fracture Job

StimWinH v3.1.2
26-May-99 11:45

Figure 9.1 Fracture Flow Capacity Data 1 lb/ft2

Unit C Quiz: Flow Capacity

Fill in the blanks with one or more words to check your progress in Unit C.
1. Fracture Flow Capacity = (kwf), where:
k = ________________ ____ ______ ______________
wf = _____________ __________
2. One of the first propping agents used in fracture treatments was _____________ __________
_________.
3. If the proppant is too large, or if bridging occurs, _______________ will result and the treatment
will have to be ended ________________.
Now, look up the suggested answers in the Answer Key at the end of this section.

9 12
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Stimulation I

Proppants

Unit D: Proppant Bed Damage

particles when they are completely embedded.
The flow capacity may be partially or entirely
lost due to the closure.

Several factors will be discussed in this unit that

may influence the flow capacity resulting from a
bed of proppant under load:

The particles may embed in the rock surface

if they are stronger than the rock and the
closure stress is sufficient to cause
embedment.

A large percentage of the grains may crush

if the rock is strong and the stress is greater
than the grains can withstand.

The proppant bed may become plugged

because of the invasion of formation fines.

Unbroken gel and residue may remain in the

proppant pack plugging pore throats.

The crushing or embedment (sinking into the

fracture face) of proppant particles may cause a
fast decline in productivity because of the
reduction in fracture flow capacity. If there is
significant embedment, the flow capacity may
be partially or entirely lost because of fracture
closure. In many cases, the closure may crush
the formation instead of the proppant. The
formation may then release debris that partially
plugs the proppant bed.
Sand may be crushed by the action of the
formation stresses in hard rocks; however, it
does not usually crush to a very fine powder.
Sand may shatter into smaller grains and,
eventually, produce enough small particles to
give some support. The result may be a propped
fracture of a slightly narrower width and a
poorer range of proppant sizes than expected.
Therefore, the proppant bed would have less
flow capacity.

Figure 9.3 Partial Monolayer

Propping Agent Not Crushed

Propping Agent Crushed

Figure 9.4 Multilayer System

Selecting the proper type and size of proppant to

use in a particular formation requires the
gathering of laboratory data.
Of these three, only proppant crushing can easily
be modeled in the laboratory.
Figure 9.3 illustrates what may happen in a
monolayer or partial monolayer system of rigid

9 13
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Stimulation I

Proppants

The flow capacity may only be reduced due to

the outer layer of grains embedding, while the
inner layer of grains remains effective. The net
result is to reduce the effective fracture width.
The crushing of the formation due to embedment
may release formation debris that could partially
plug the proppant bed.
Recent studies have shown that probably the
greatest influence on proppant pack conductivity
is our ability to break, clean up, and flow back
the carrier fluid used to place the proppant. Gel
residue, unbroken gel, and high gel-loading filter
cake on the fracture face can reduce the flow
capacity of the proppant pack by as much as
80%. The influence of gel damage became clear
when studies were conducted based on gel
loading, base fluid type, and crosslinker type.
Figure 9.6 shows testing done through a specific
proppant pack with different carrier fluids.

Partial Embedment

Figure 9.5 Multilayer System

2400
2200
2000

BORATE
XLINK
30lb HPG BORATE
w/ persulfate/ XLINK
40lb HPG
amine
breaker w/ persulfate/
amine
breaker

1800
1600
1400
1200

2128
1971

1000
800
600

20/40 Sand
2
Con.=lb/ft
Closure=2000psi
T=100F

808

400
200
0

30
40
50
TI TAN TE
XLINK
40lb HPG
w/ enzyme
breaker

430

*STI M-LAB Data

10
20

BORATE
XLINK
40lb HPG
w/ enzyme
breaker TI TAN TE
XLINK
ANTI40lb HPG MONA TE
w/ enzyme XLINK
breaker
40lb HPG
w/ enzyme
1500
breaker

1115

60
70

% Conductive Impairment

*Conductivity (md ft)

Figure 9.4 shows the crushing of rigid particles.

Figure 9.5 illustrates the condition that may exist
in a multilayer system as a rigid particle tends to
embed into a soft formation.

80
90
100

Figure 9.6

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Stimulation I

Proppants

Unit D Quiz
Fill in the blanks with one or more words or circle the correct answer to check your progress in
Unit D.
1. Name four factors may influence the flow capacity resulting from a bed of proppant under load:

2. The crushing or embedment of proppant particles may cause a fast decline in productivity
because of the reduction in ____________ _______ _____________.
3. The crushing of the formation due to embedment may release formation ________ which could
partially _________ the proppant _______.
4. Gel residue, unbroken gel, and high gel-loading filter cake on the fracture face can reduce the
______ __________ of the proppant pack by as much as ______%.
Now, look up the suggested answers in the Answer Key at the end of this section.

9 15
2005, Halliburton

Stimulation I

Proppants

Self Check Test for Section 9

Mark the single best answer to the following questions.
1. Name the two properties that influence particle packing and load bearing capability.
2. Define specific gravity of a proppant.
3. Define bulk density of proppant.
4. ______% of a proppant sample must be within the designated size range.
5. The degree of crushing or embedment of proppant depends on.
6. Name four factors that may influence the flow capacity resulting from a bed of proppant under
load.

9 16
2005, Halliburton

Stimulation I

Proppants

Answer Key
Items from Unit A Quiz

Refer to
Page

1. Roundness, Spericity, Specific Gravity, Bulk Density, Sieve Size, Acid Solubility, Silt
and Fine Particles, Crush Resistance, Clustering
2. Volume / mass

9-3
9-4

3. T

9-5

4. Absolute Density

9-4

Items from Unit B Quiz

Refer to
Page

1. Sand, Resin Coated Sand, Ceramics, Sintered Bauxite

9-9

2. Curable, Partially cured, pre-cured

9-8

3. less pure

9-8

4. non organic / non metallic / high temperature

9-9

Items from Unit C Quiz

Refer to
Page

1. Permeability of the fracture / fracture width

9-11

2. Screened river sand

9-11

3. Screenout / permeability

9-11

Items from Unit D Quiz

Refer to
Page

1. The particle may embed in the rock surface

A large percentage of the grain may crush
The proppant bed may become plugged
Unbroken gel and residue may remain in the proppant pack

9-13

2. Fracture flow capacity

9-15

3. Debris / plugs / bed

9-13

4. Flow capacity / 80%

9-14

Self-Check Test

Refer to
Page

1. Roundness
Sphericity

9-4

2. The absolute density of individual proppant particle relative to water

3. The volume occupied by a given mass of proppant
4. 90%

9-4
9-4
9-4

5. Proppant size to strength

Hardness of the formation
Propped closure stress being applied to the proppant bed

9 17
2005, Halliburton

9-11

Stimulation I

Proppants

6. The particle may embed in the rock surface

A large percentage of the grain may crush
The proppant bed may become plugged
Unbroken gel and residue may remain in the proppant pack

9 18
2005, Halliburton

9-13

Stimulation I