ANALOGUE

ELECTRONICS
& CIRCUITS

Short Course

Dr. Sohiful Anuar

OBJECTIVES
To become proficient in analog circuits
To understand and analyze the Bipolar Junction
Transistor
To analyze the single stage amplifier circuits in
term of their frequency response
To understand the AC & DC analysis

COURSE CONTENTS

TOPIC 1 Basic Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

TOPIC 2 BJT Operation Mode
TOPIC 3 BJT Single Stage Amplifier
TOPIC 4 Bipolar Transistor Biasing
TOPIC 5 Bipolar Transistor Configurations
TOPIC 6 DC Analysis
TOPIC 7 AC Analysis
TOPIC 8 Frequency Response
TOPIC 9 BJT Design Example
3

TOPIC 1

BASIC BIPOLAR JUNCTION

TRANSISTOR (BJT)

Overview of BJT
Has 3 separately doped regions and 2 p-n junctions
Single p-n junctions has 2 modes of operation
Forward bias
Reverse bias

Both electrons & holes participate in the conduction process

Modern bipolar transistors replaced the germanium with Si
& replaced the point contacts with two closely coupled p-n
junctions in the form of p-n-p & n-p-n structures
Bipolar junction transistor (BJT) used extensively in highspeed circuits, analog circuits and power applications

Ideal BJT Structure

3-D BJT Stucture

Perspective view of a silicon p-n-p bipolar transistor.

7

Actual BJT Cross Section

BJT Layout

BJT Schematic Symbol

10

BJT Schematic Symbol

11

BJT Collector Characteristic

12

Collector Characteristic

13

Base-Emitter Voltage Control

14

Transistor Action

15

Diffusion Currents

16

Transistor Breakdown Voltage (VCBO) and

Effective Common-BaseCurrent Gain (F)

17

Cont

18

BJT Current

19

BJT : Avalanche

vBE / VT

iC F iE F I S e

vBE / VT

20

Origin of F

21

Collector Current
Majority of E current is due to injection of electrons into B
(No. of electrons reaching the C per unit time no. of
electrons injected into B) function of B-E voltage
vBE / VT
IC e
IC Independent of the reverse-biased B-C voltage

iC F iE F I S e

vBE / VT

F 1 (but less than 1)

F : Common-base current gain

22

Base Current
Holes from B flow across B-E junction into E
i B1 e vBE / VT

Electrons recombine with holes in the base

i B 2 e vBE / VT

Total IB:

i B e vBE / VT

23

Emitter Current
Base-emitter junction: forward biased
iE I S e vBE / VT 1 I S e vBE / VT

Most cases: vBE>>VT (thermal voltage), (-1)

term is valid
IS : multplying constant (contains electrical
parameters of the junction)
IS active B-E cross-sectional area
Typical values of IS 10-12 to 10-15
24

Electron & Hole Currents

iE

iB2
iB1

iC

iB

Electron and hole currents in an npn transistor biased in the forwardactive mode
25

Ebers-Moll Equations
The emitter & collector currents in terms of
internal currents at two junction

26

Ebers-Moll Equivalent Circuit

27

Forward Active Region

28

Simplified Ebers-Moll

29

Cont

30

Transconductace, gm

31

Cont

32

BJT Current

33

Comparison with MOSFET

34

BJT Base Currents

35

Small Signal Current Gain

36

Input Resistance r

37

Output Resistance ro

38

Graphical Interpretation of ro

39

The Early Voltage

40

Cont

41

BJT Small-Signal Model

42

BJT Capacitances

43

Complete Small-Signal Model

44

Parasitic Elements in BJT

45

TOPIC 2

BJT Operation Modes

46

BJT Forward Active Mode

p
n

VCB
RB

n
b

Depends on voltage polarity

BASE-EMITTER JUNCTION
COLLECTOR-BASE JUNCTION

+ IC

VCE
VBE
FB

saturation

FORWARD ACTIVE
MODE

cut-off

RB: Reverse-biased

FB: Forward-biased

+
VCE

npn
VBE +ve FB
VCB +ve RB
VCE +ve

IE
IC

IF

VBE VT

VBC VT

FB

RB

F I F FI B
47

BJT Saturation Mode

p
n

VCB
FB

n
b

depends on voltage polarity

BASE-EMITTER JUNCTION
COLLECTOR-BASE JUNCTION

VCE(sat)
VBE
FB

+ IC
saturation mode

FB: Forwardbiased
n-p-n
VBE +ve FB
VCB -ve FB
VCE +ve
VCE(sat)

cut+ Voff

F IB

IC

CE

VBE VT
FB

VBEsat

VBEon

VCE VCEsat
48

BJT Cut-off Mode

n

VCB
RB

p b

depends on voltage polarity

BASE-EMITTER JUNCTION
COLLECTOR-BASE JUNCTION

+ IC

VCE

VBE
RB

cut-off mode

e
0

npn
VBE -ve RB

IE

I ES

VCB +ve RB
VCE +ve

IC

I CS

cut+ Voff
CE

R I CS
F I ES

basically leakage
currents
49

Mode of Operation (npn Transistor)

+VBC

NOT used very often

INVERSE ACTIVE REGION

SATURATION REGION

C
IB > 0

VCEsat

IB > 0

IE = R IB

R IB

VBEon

VBC > VBEon

-VBE

VEC > VCEsat

E
VBE RB
VCB FB

IC = F IB

VCB < VCBon (RB)

SWITCH OFF

e
VBE FB
VCB FB

IB > 0

IC = IB = IE ~ 0

VBE < VBEon (RB)

VBEsat

+VBE

FORWARD ACTIVE REGION

CUT OFF REGION

VBEon ~ 0.7V

IC > 0
IC < F IB
VBE > VBEon
VCEsat ~ 0.8V

SWITCH ON

c
F IB

VBE > VBEon

VCE > VCEsat

VBEon ~ 0.7V

VCE = ? V

-VBC

VBEon

AMPLIFIER

VBE FB
VCB RB

50

TOPIC 3

BJT Single Stage Amplifiers

51

Basic BJT Amplifier

Amplifier
DC bias potential divider
sets the Q point

LOAD ?
VCC DC voltage

RB1

powers the amplifier

RC

sets the DC operating

point

VCC
RB2

provides the energy for

the output ac signal

RE

emitter resistor
stabilises Qpoint
52

Signal & Load Coupling

ensures the load does not affect transistor bias
to provide only ac output to the load

RB1
CC1
RS
vin(ac)

RC

C2

C
RB2

VCC
RL

vout(ac)

R
E

ensures generator does not affect the bias

(Q point of transistor)
transistor DC voltage does not affect the source

53

Basic DC Analysis
DC analysis :
replace capacitors with open circuit

CC1

RB1

RC

Vin(ac)

CC2
VCC

VCEQ
RS

RB2

DC analysis :
replace ac source with internal impedance

RE

RL

54

DC Analysis of Transistor Circuits CommonEmitter Circuit

Assume B-E junction: forward
biased V drop is the cut-in /
turn-on V [VBE (on)]
IC represented as a dependent I
source (function of IB)
Neglect reverse-biased junction
leakage current & Early effect

VBB VBE (on)

IB
RB
VBB>VBE(on) IB>0
VBB<VBE(on) IB=0

(a) Common-emitter circuit with an npn transistor

and (b) dc equivalent circuit, with piecewise linear
parameters

I C I B

VCE VCC I C RC

VCC I C RC VCE

55

Load Line
-help us visualize the characteristic
of a transistor

Fig. 3.22: (a) base-emitter junction characteristics and the input load line and (b)
common- emitter transistor characteristics and the collector-emitter load line

56

Cont

Fig. 3.19: Common-emitter circuit

57

Cont
Based on fig. 3.19 above,

Kirchoffs voltage law equation (around B-E loop):

VBB VBE
IB

RB
RB

Both load line & quiescent IB change as either

or both VBB & RB change

Kirchoffs voltage law equation (around C-E loop):

VCE VCC I C RC
IC

VCC VCE
V

5 CE (mA) IC & VCE relationship represents DC

RC
RC
2
load line

58

59

TOPIC 4

Bipolar Transistor
Biasing

60

BJT Bias Circuits

i. Single Base Resistor Biasing

ii. Emitter Biasing

iii.Voltage-divider Biasing

iv.Collector-feedback Biasing

61

Single Base Resistor Biasing

+VCC
RC

RB

VCE VCC I C RC

VBE

VCC VBE
IB
RB

VCC VBE
I C DC
RB

62

Cont
CC (Coupling capacitor): acts as open circuit to DC- isolating signal
source from DC IB
If input signal freq & CC : signal can be coupled thru CC to B with
little attenuation

*See example
3.13 page 138

Fig. 3.50: (a) Common emitter circuit with a single bias resistor in the base, (b)
dc equivalent circuit
63

Emitter Biasing
+VCC
RC

VEE VBE
IC
RE RB DC

RB

VC VCC I C RC
RE

-VEE

VCE VCC VEE I C RC RE

64

Voltage-Divider Biasing & Bias Stability

+VCC

R1

RC

R2
VB
R1 R2

VCC

VB VBE
IC
RE
R2

RE

VCE VCC I C RC RE

65

Cont
RB

Current mirror

is replaced

VTH [ R2 /( R1 R2 )]VCC

RTH R1 || R2
Parallel resistors

Around B-E loop:

VTH I BQ RTH VBE (on) I EQ RE
added

Forward active-mode:

I EQ (1 ) I BQ
(a) A common-emitter circuit with an emitter resistor and
voltage divider bias circuit in the base; (b) the dc circuit
with a Thevenin equivalent base circuit

I BQ

VTH VBE (on)

RTH (1 ) RE

I CQ I BQ

*See example 3.15 page 142

(VTH VBE (on)

RTH (1 ) RE
66

Collector-feedback Biasing
+VCC

RB

RC

VC VBE
IB
RB
VCC VBE
IC
RC RB DC

VCE VCC I C RC

67

TOPIC 5

Bipolar Transistor
Configurations

68

BJT Amplifiers Configuration

3 basic single-transistor amplifier configurations can be formed:
COMMON EMITTER (C-E configuration)
COMMON COLLECTOR / EMITTER FOLOWER (C-C
configuration)
COMMON BASE (C-B configuration)
Each configuration has its own advantage in the form of
INPUT IMPEDANCE
OUTPUT IMPEDANCE
CURRENT / VOLTAGE AMPLIFICATION

69

COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER

Common-Emitter Amp. (CE)

RB1

RC

CC1
RS

RB2

vin

CC2

RL

b
input
base-emitter

vout

RE

emitter common
(to input & output)

CC2

CC1
RS
vin

output
collector-emitter

COMMON EMITTER MODE

RB2

RB1

RC RL

vout

RE
70
Prof. R T Kennedy

Basic CE Amplifier

71

Cont

72

C-E Amplifier with Emitter Resistor

VCC

Ri

Rib

RS
R1

vO
Vs

CC
vs

Ib

RC

RS

R2

RE

(a)
CE amplifier with emitter resistor

Ro

R1 || R2

Vo

+
r

Ib

V
_

Vin
_

RC
RE

(b)
Small-signal equivalent circuit

73

Cont
Assume Early voltage is infinite, ro is neglected
1. ac output voltage

Vo I b RC

Vin I b r I b I b RE

2. To find the small-signal voltage gain

Rib

Vin
r 1 RE
Ib

Ri
Vin
Ri RS

Ri R1 R2 Rib

Vs

If

3. Combining equations in (1) and (2)

and if

1 RE r

Vin 1
Vo I b RC

Av

RC
Vs
Vs
Rib Vs
RC
Av
r 1 RE

Ri

Ri RS

Ri RS

Av

RC
R
C
1 RE
RE
74

C-E Amplifier with Emitter Bypass

Capacitor
VCC

R1

RC
vO

RS

CE provides a short circuit to

ground for the ac signals

CC
vs

RS

Vs

R1|| R2

R2

RE

CE

gmV

ro

Vo
RC

75

COMMON COLLECTOR AMPLIFIER

Common-Collector
Amp. (CC)
RB1
CC1

RC

CC2

RS

RB2

vin

RE R L

b
input
base-collector

vout

collector common
(to input & output)

CC2
CC1

RS
vin

output
emitter - collector

COMMON COLLECTOR MODE

RB2

RB1

RE RL

vout

RC

76
Prof. R T Kennedy

Basic CC Amplifier

77

CC Amplifier Anlysis
VCC

RS
R1
RS

+
r

CC
Vs

vS

R2

R1||R2

Vin

vO
RE

Emitter-follower circuit

+
V
- E
RE

Ib

ro

+
Vo
-

Small-signal equivalent circuit

78

C-C
Amplifier
Cont
Another small-signal equivalent circuit
Ri

Rib

RS
Ii

Vs

Ro

+
Vin

Ib

+ V -

Io

R1||R2

Ib

Vo

Ie

ro

RE

Ri R1 R2 Rib
Vo 1 I b ro RE

I o 1 I b

r R1 R2 RS
R r
Ro

E o
1

Vin I b r 1 ro RE
Rib

Vin
r 1 ro RE
Ib

Ri
Vin
Ri RS

Vs

1 ro RE Ri
Vo

Av

Vs r 1 ro RE Ri R79S

Cont
Current gain

Ie
Ai
Ii

where

ro
I e
ro RE

I o

R1 R2
Ii
I o 1 I b 1

R1 R2 Rib
R1 R2 ro
Ie

Ai 1
r R
Ii
R
R

R
1
2
ib
E

If R1R2 Rib and ro RE then Ai (1+)

80

RB2

COMMON BASE AMPLIFIER

Common-Base Amp. (CB)

e

RC

RB1

CC2

input
emitter-base
v

output
collector-base

out

b
RS

CC1

RB2
vin

RL

base common
(to input & output)

vout

RE

COMMON BASE MODE

CC1

CC2
RS
RB1

RS

vin

CC1

R C RL

vout

vin

CC2
RC

RB2

RB1

RL

vout

RE
81
Prof. R T Kennedy

Basic CB Amplifier

82

CB Amplifier Analysis
CC1

RS

CC2
vO

Common-base
circuit

RB

VEE

RS

Small-signal
equivalent
circuit

RC

RE

vS

Ii
Vs

CB

VCC

C
-

RE

RL

V
+

gmV

Vo
Io
RC

RL

Ib

Input resistance

Ri = re

Output resistance

Ro = RC
83

Cont
Voltage gain

RC RL r

Vo

RE RS
Av
g m

Vs

RS 1

If RS approaches zero, then

Current gain

Av = gm(RC||RL)

RC r
Io

RE
Ai g m
Ii
RC RL 1

If RE approaches infinity and RL approaches zero, then

g r

short-circuit
Aio m

1 1
current gain
84

Summary of Two-Port Parameters

85

TOPIC 6

DC Analysis

86

Amplifier DC Equations
RB1

RC

RB1
VCC

RB2

VCC

VCC
RB2

RE

RBB

VBB

RC

RB 2
VCC
RB1 RB 2

RB1 RB 2
RB1 RB 2

RC

RBB
VBB

RE

VCC

RE
87
Prof. R T Kennedy

Cont
IC
RC

IC

VRC

VRBB
IB
IB
VBB

RBB

VCE
VBE

input
loop
RE

IE

VRE

output
loop

VCC

GUSTAV ROBERT KIRCHOFF

1824-1887

IE

88
Prof. R T Kennedy

Cont
VBB

I B RBB

VBB

I BQ RBB

VBE

VCC

I C RC

VCC

I CQ RC

VCEQ

RC

IB
IB

VCEsat VCEQ VCC

VBB

I E RE

(1 ) I BQ RE

IC
IC

VRC

VRBB

I E I B IC

I E RE

(1 ) I BQ RE

VBEon

VCE

RBB

VCE
VBE

input
loop
RE

output
loop

VCC

IE

VRE
IE
89
Prof. R T Kennedy

Q Q-Point
POINT
+ IC

saturation
FORWARD
ACTIVE MODE

ICQ
cut-off

VCEQ

+ VCE

90
Prof. R T Kennedy

Q-Point
Q POINT LOCUS

Locus

VCC

I C RC

VCE

I E RE

VCC

I CQ RC

VCEQ

I CQ RE

I CQ

1
VCC
RC RE

1
VCEQ
RC RE

assume ICQ=IE

y mx C

+ IC

saturation

VCC
RC RE

ICQ

FORWARD
ACTIVE MODE
1
slope
RC RE

LOCUS:
STRAIGHT LINE
DC LOAD LINE

cut-off
0
VCEQ

VCC

+ VCE
91
Prof. R T Kennedy

DC Load Line: Vcc Change

saturation

VCC

VCC
0

constant slope

+ IC

FORWARD
ACTIVE MODE

cut-off
VCC

+ VCE

1
RC RE
92
Prof. R T Kennedy

DC Load Line: Rc Change

+ IC

FORWARD
ACTIVE MODE

saturation

RC

RC

cut-off
VCC

+ VCE

SLOPE CHANGES
93
Prof. R T Kennedy

TOPIC 7

AC Analysis

94

Analog Signal

4.1 Analog Signals & Linear Amplifiers

Signal- contains information
-eg:sound waves
Analog signal electrical signals are in the form of timevarying
current & voltage such as o/p signal from compact disc, signal from
microphone & ect.
Analog circuits electronic circuits that process analog signal
- example: linear amplifier magnifies an i/p signal to
produce large o/p signal
Dc voltage
source

Signal
source

Amp

LOAD

* transistor is heart
of an amplifier

Figure 4.1 Block diagram of a compact disc player system

95

Bipolar Linear Amplifier

Traditionally-BJT is used as linear amplifier

DC biased transistor @ Q-pt ==> transistor biased in forward active region.

A time-varying signal (eg. Sinusoidal) is added / superimposed on dc input voltage
(bottom ac)
Output = ac on left.
Linear amplifier - output follows input shape but with much larger amplitude; if output
shape is different = distortion (measured as Total Harmonic Distortion, THD)
96
Circuit above functions as inverter - output is amplified but inverted by 1800

Cont
Summary of notation
Variable

i ,v
I ,V
i,v
I,V
B

BE

Meaning
Total instantaneous
values
DV values

BE

be

Instantaneous ac
value

Phasor values

be
97

Definition
Small signal : ac input signal voltages and
currents are in the order of 10 percent of Qpoint voltages and currents.
e.g. If dc current is 10 mA, the ac current (peak-topeak) < 0.1 mA.

98

Rules for ac analysis

Replacing all capacitors by short circuits

Replacing all inductors by open circuits

Replacing dc voltage sources by ground
connections
Replacing dc current sources by open circuits

99

Basic AC Analysis

RB1

RC

CC1

VCC

RS
vin(ac)

CC2

RB2

RL

vout(ac)

RE

ac analysis :
replace DC source with internal impedance
100

AC Equivalent Circuit

RC

ic
vO

RB

vs

ib

+
vbe

+
vce
-

AC equivalent circuit of C-E with npn transistor

101

Cont
Input loop:

vs ib RB vbe

I BQ
ib
VT

vbe

0.026 V

Output loop:

ic RC vce 0

ic ib
102

Small-signal hybrid- equivalent circuit

gm=ICQ/VT

r=VT/ICQ

Transconductance parameter
103

Cont

ib
(Ib )

Current gain parameter

104

AC Operation
VCC

R1

vO

RC

RS

vO
RS
CC1
vs

RC

CC2
RL
R2

vs

R1 R2

RL

RE

RE

(a)
CE amplifier with emitter resistor

(b)
AC equivalent circuit

105

AC Load Line
+ IC
icsat I CQ

RC RL

VCC
RC RE

ICQ
i

VCEQ

VCEQ
RC RL

0
VCC

VCE
v I CQ ( RC RL )Q

+ VCE

vcut off VCEQ I CQ ( RC RL )

106

Analysis&&ACACEquivalent
Equavalent
4.2.1Graphical
Graphical Analysis
Circuit

Circuit

Fig 4.4 C-E transistor characteristics, dc load line, & Q-point

107

Cont

108

v
IS
iB
exp BE
1 F
VT

Cont

v BE VBEQ v b e

IS VBEQ
IBQ
exp
1 F VT

on
VBEQ VBE

quiescent base current

This base current cannot written as an ac current superimposed on dc

quiescent value, unless.if vbe VT then the exponential term can be
expanded via Taylor series and keeping only LINEAR TERM which leads to
the SMALL SIGNAL approximation

vbe
iB I BQ 1

VT

109

Cont
Using the appropriate substitutions for the various voltages and currents,
and making the assumption that the ac signal source, vs=0 then we get a
term for the base-emitter loop when all dc terms are set to zero.
Similar re-arrangements will lead to an equation for the collector-emitter
loop, with all dc terms set to zero.

BOTH EQUATION RELATE THE AC PARAMETERS OF THE CIRCUIT

AND
HAVE BEEN OBTAINED BY SETTING ALL DC CURRENTS AND VOLTAGES
TO ZERO OR IN OTHER WORDS
DC VOLTAGE SOURCES = SHORT CIRCUITS
DC CURRENT SOURCES = OPEN CIRCUITS
THIS IS A DIRECT CONSEQUENCE OF SUPERPOSITION

110

Cont
Below is the ac equivalent circuit, due to the equations derived
previously.
All currents & voltages shown are time-varying signals.
Although this is an ac equivalent circuit = = > the implicit
assumption is that the transistor is appropriately forward-biased

RC

ic
ib
RB
vs

+
-

+
vce
-

+
vbe
-

111

TOPIC 8

Frequency Response

112

Amplifier gain vs frequency

Midband

Gain falls of due to the

effects of C and C

Gain falls of due to the

effects of CC and CE

113

Definition
Frequency response of an amplifier is the graph of its gain versus
the frequency.
Cutoff frequencies : the frequencies at which the voltage gain
equals 0.707 of its maximum value.
Midband : the band of frequencies between 10f1 and 0.1f2. The
voltage gain is maximum.
Bandwidth : the band between upper and lower cutoff frequencies
Outside the midband, the voltage gain can be determined by
these equations:

Amid

1 f1 / f

Below midband

Amid

1 f / f2

Above midband
114

Cont
Gain-bandwidth product : constant value of the
product of the voltage gain and the bandwidth.
Unity-gain frequency : the frequency at which the
amplifiers gain is 1

fT Amid BW

115

Low Frequency
At low frequency range, the gain falloff due to
coupling capacitors and bypass capacitors.
As signal frequency , the XC - no longer
behave as short circuits.

116

High Frequency
The gain falls off at high frequency end due to the
internal capacitances of the transistor.
Transistors exhibit charge-storage phenomena that
limit the speed and frequency of their operation.
Small capacitances exist between the
base and collector and between the
base and emitter. These effect the
frequency characteristics of the circuit.

C = Cbe ------ 2 pF ~ 50 pF
C = Cbc ------ 0.1 pF ~ 5 pF

117

Basic data sheet for the 2N2222 bipolar transistor

Cob = Cbc
Cib = Cbe

Output capacitance
Input capacitance
118

Millers Theorem
This theorem simplifies the analysis of feedback
amplifiers.
The theorem states that if an impedance is
connected between the input side and the output
side of a voltage amplifier, this impedance can be
replaced by two equivalent impedances, i.e. one
connected across the input and the other
connected across the output terminals.

119

Millers Theorem
Miller equivalent circuit
I1

V1 V2
Z

V2

A V1

I1

V1 (1 A)
Z

I1

I2

I2

V2 V1
Z

V2

A V1

-A

V1
Z

1 A

V1

V2

I2
I2

1
V2 1
A

V2

1 1
A

120

Cont
I2

I1

V1
Z
1 A

V1
I1

ZM1

Z

1 A

-A

V1

ZM1

ZM2

V2
V2
I2

1 1
A

Z
1
1
A

1 1
A

ZM 2

V2

121

Miller Capacitance Effect

C
I1
ZM1

Z
1
1
A

V2 X CM 2

XC
1
1
A

1
CM 2

CM 2

I2

Z
1 A

-A

V1
X CM 1

ZM 2

XC
1 A

1
CM 1

1
C (1 A )

CM 1

C (1 A)

-A

V1

CM1

CM2

C (1
C (1

V2
122

1
)
A
1
)
A

High-frequency hybrid- model

C
B

C
+

gmV

ro

C = Cbe

C = Cbc

123

High-frequency hybrid- model

with Miller effect
B

CMi

gmV

ro

CMo

CMi C 1 A Cbc 1 A

CMo

1
1

C 1 Cbc 1
A
A

Cin C CMi

Cout CMo
A : midband gain

124

TOPIC 9

BJT Design Example

125

C-E Amplifier - Design Example

126

Cont

127

Cont

128

Cont

129

Cont

130

Cont

131

Cont

132

REFERENCES
Donald A. Neamen, Electronic Circuit Analysis &
Design, 2nd Ed., McGraw Hill International Edition,
2001 (ISBN 0-07-118176-8)
Adel S. Sedra, Kenneth C. Smith, Microelectronic
Circuits, 5th Ed., Oxford University Press (ISBN 0-19514252-7)
Thomas L. Floyd, Electronic devices: Conventional
Current Version, 7th Ed., Prentice Hall (ISBN 0-13127827-4)

133

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Prof. R.T Kaneddy, UniMAP
Assoc. Prof. Basir Saibon, UniKL

134