Friction Factors for Pipe Flow ‘Br LEWIS F. MOODY," PRINCETON, N. J. ‘The object of this paper ix to furnish the engineer with simple means of estimating the friction factors to be used in computing the loss of head in clean new pipes and in elored conduits running full with steady flow. The modern developments in the application of ‘theoretical hydrodynamics to the luid-friction problem are impressive and scattered through an extensive litera- ture. This paper is not intended as a critical survey of this wide field. For a concise review, Professor Bakhine- ‘efPs (1)* small book on the mechanics of fuid flow is fan excellent reference, Prandtl and Tietjens (2) and Rouse (5) have also made notable contributions to the subject. The author does not claim to offer anything particalarly new or original, his aim merely being to ‘embody the now accepted ‘conclusions in convenient form for engineering use. IN the present pipe-flow study, the frston factor denoted by {in the eooompeaying chars isthe coeiciat in the Dazey formula Ly ynrZe Jn whieh ye the lon of head in friction, in feet of fxd cola ofthe Muidfowing; Land D thelength snd injernal diameter of thesipeinfeet; V the mean velocity of fw in feet per e503; and g the acceleration of gravity in fost per seoond per second (on valu taken ax S210). ‘The factor fis » dimenionose quantity, and at ordinary velocities ia function of to and only two, other dimensionless quantities, the relative roughness of the ttc, (dng Baer gnc not open lhe sholateroughnes) and the Reynolds number R= “2 ( being tho cooliciont of kinematio viscosity of the fui in aque feat per second). Fig. 1 gives numerical values of fas a funtion of faa. ‘ten years ago R. J. 8. Pigatt (4) published a char for the same {fiction factor, using the same co-ordinates as in Fig. 1 of this paper. His chart has proved to be most useful and praction! and hss been reproduced in.« number of texts (5). The Pigott cart was based upon sn analysis of some 10,000 experiments from various sures (0), but did not have the benefit, in plotting or firing the curves, of Iter developments in functional forms of the curves. ‘ In the same year Nikufadse (7) published kis experiments on artfcially roughened pipes, Based upon the tests of Nikuredso nd others, von Kérmén:(8) and Prandtl (0) doveloped their ‘theoretical nalyces of pipe flow and gave us muitable formulas ¥ Profesor, Bydesulic Bngineoring, Prineston University. Morn agate # Numbers in parenthessrofor to the Bibliography at the end of the pape. ‘Gonteibuted by the Hydraulic Division and presented atthe SaminAnmual Meeting, Pittsburgh, Pa, June 10-22, 1084, of Ta ‘Summon Soonsry oF Mucuantou Beno, "Now: Statemente and opinions advanced ia papera are to be ‘usdarstood as individual expressions of thelr authors and ot thoes ofthe Society. ‘with numerical constants forthe eate of perfectly smooth pipes ‘or those in Which the ieegularities ere small compared to the ‘hicknoss ofthe laminar boundary layer, and forthe ease of rough pipes where the rougnnasses proirade sificiently to break up the Jaminer layer, and the flow booomes eompletely turbulent. ‘The analysis did not, however, cover the entire field ut ltt gp, namely; the transition zone between smooth aad rough pipes the region of inoomplota turbulence. Attempts to fil thie gap by the use of Nikurade's results forartifelal oughnose produced by closely packed send grains, were not adequate, singe the re- sults wore clearly t varianos from aotual experienc for ordinary surinces enoountered in practice. Nikuradse's curves showed a sharp drop followed by a. pooalir reverse eurva,* not oberved ‘with commercial surfaces, and nowhere suggested by the Pigott chart based om many tests, : ‘Recently Colebrook (11), in eolaboration with C. ML. White; doveloped a function whieh gives a practical form. of transition curve to bridge the gap. This function agrees with the tro ex- ‘tromes of roughness and gives values in very satisfactory ngree- ment with eotual measurements on most forms of commercial piping and usual pipe surfaces. Rouse (12)/has shown that i is ressonable and practically adequate salution and has plotted a chart based’ upon it. In order to simplify the plotting, Rouse adopted oo-ordinatad inconvenient for ordinary engineering use, since f is implicit in both oo-ordinates, and Fl values are repre sented by curved co-ordinates, so that interpalation ia trouble- ‘The author hes drawn up a new chart, Fig. 1 i the more con ‘ventional form used by Pigott, taking advantage of the func~ tional relationships established in recent years. Curves of ‘versus FR are plotted to logarithmic ccales for various constant ‘values of relative roughneks 5; and to permit essy selection of, ‘pa asompunying sats Fg. on tom wie cube ‘ead for any sizeof pipe of «given typo of surface Tn order to find the fiction loss in a pipe, the procedure is a follows: Find the appropriate + from Fig. 2, then follow the corresponding line, thus identified, in Fig. 1, to the value of the Reynolds mumber Ri carresponding to the velosty of flow. ‘Thefactor is thus found, for wei the Darey formula Ly WIS D In Fig. 2, the seales et the top and bottom give values of the ‘iameter in both feot and inches. Fig. 1 involves only dimen- sionless quantities and is applicable in any eystam of unit. ‘To daclitate the ouloulation of R, auxiliary sales are shown at the top of Fig. 1, giving values of the product (VD") for two fluids, Le, water and atmoepheri air, 60 F. (D" is the inside iametar in inches.) Aa a futher auxiliary, Fig. 3s given, from ‘whiel: Roun be quickly found for watar at ondinary vemperatares, for any sie of pipo and mean velocity V. Dashed lines on this chart have been sdded giving values of the discharge or quantity of fluid flowing, Q = AY, expressed in both cubic feet par seoond and in U. 8 gallons per minnte. * Rous, reference (8), . 250; and Powell, referense (10), p. 174. on‘TRANSACTIONS OF THE ASME. er NOVEMBER, 1944 ee rou Sw a tuama'38u a). Besa uaawinn sovonge Ge eet eto oe 2 be yop Ole og» edo slo oe» cua Ol oo i $1509 uv ohotly SoA} ose ea a cn (S3Hont ww Mane 0 ALooTan) $209 ay SSW As GGA) 40. Sarret } ‘MOODY—FRICTION PACTORS YOR PIPE FLOW era PIPE DIAMETER IN FEET, D 45 oO + 208 006 005 004 003 902 201 9008, 2008 ‘9005, 9008 9003 0002 £ D 001 20008 RELATIVE ROUGHNESS 888 ‘D004 ‘00093 200p2 ‘00091 ‘900908 900906, - 900008 NE 5 SEED 0 PIPE DIAMETER IN INCHES, D” 456. 3 8 & = & zg a 8 e 8 g os 5 : os os & a 2 a 3 450) 60 Fro For othor fluids, the Kinematic viscosity » may be found from Hig. 4, which with Prof. R. L, Daugherty’s kind permission hes ‘been reproduced.* “fo enable F to be quickiy found for vations fluid, Fig. 4 includes an ausiliary disgram constructed by Ds F, Wisiceaus, which gives R for various values of the protect YD" shown by the diagonal lines. . For any value of vin the le, hand diagram, by folowing a horizontal line to the eppropriste ingonal at the right, the eorzesponding FE aaay be eal the op ofthe auxiliary graph (Over a large part of Fig. 1, an approximate figure for Ris sulltien, sinoe f varies only slowly with changes ix Ry ancin the rourh-pipe sone fis independent of R. ‘From the act oom, ‘ideraton, it beoomes possible to bow, in the righthand mare of Fig. 2, values of f for rough pipes end complete turbuloree “Tsference (18) andraference (8). 1 it s seen that che conditions of any problem clesy fallin the ove of complete tarbulanee shove and tothe ight ofthe deaies Tine in Fig. 1, then Fg. 2 wil give the value of f directly wakes further reference to the other gharts Tiosmariox op Usm ov Caants Example 1: To estimate the lois of head in 200 ft of 6-in, asphalted casbiron pip earying water with a een vest of S fos: In Fig 2 for 8 in, dim (bottom scale), the dngooet for “aephalted cation” gives £m 0.0008 Gef-band margin). In ‘ie 8, for 6 in. dinm (of-hand margin), the diagoaal for F = 6 {peaives Rt 25 (0° (bottom scale) (or, instead of using Pig 8, compute YD’ = 6 X 6 = 38). In Fig 1, locate from the ight,om ‘hand margin the eurvo for & = 0.0008 end follow this curve to a D point above FE = 25 (10) on the bottom sele (or below VD" = ‘36 on the top seale). ‘This point gives f = 0.02 (loft-hand mar- sen); then LY gq 200) (0 ars 8 = BE = 000 OS gag #5 # fltion loss Ezample 2: To estimate the loss of head per 100 fin 15+ new cast-iron pipe, carrying water with a meen velocity of 20 fps Tn Mig. 2, for 15 in, diam (bottom sealo), tho diagonal for “oust fron gives S = 0.0007 (left-hand manga). In Fig. 8, for 15 in ‘iam (lft-hand margin), the diagonsl for ¥ = 20 fps gives R= 2 (10% (or, instead af using Fig. 8, compute YD" = 20 X 15 = 300), Tn Big. 1 the curve for & = 0.0007 Gnterpoating between 0.0006 end 0,0008, right-hand margin) abe point above RR = 2 G0" (bottom sotle) (or below VD" = 800, top scale) gives f= (0.018 eft-hand margin). Ta this ease the point on Fig. falls aston the boundary of the region of “eomplate turbulence, rough ripe!" Here Fi or YD" need only be approximated suficintiy {ones that the point fal in the complete tarbulence region, and f tan then be found directly from the right-hand margin in Fig. 2 ‘without farther refrenge to Big. 15 then Ly (400) 20} 15 3g ~ 8 ae) cea ‘= 8.05 o, say, 9 ft fretion lous Te must be recognized that any high degree of sovurney in do- termining fis not tobe expected. With smooth tubing, it true, good degross of aoouaey aro obtaingble; a probable variation in f ‘within about 5 per cent (14), and for commercial steel and ‘wrought-iron piping, a variation within about 10 per cent. ‘But in the transition and rougi-pipe regions, we ack the primary ‘nd obvious esrenial, «technique for messuring the roughness of f pipe mechanically. Une such a technique is developed, we encase B 888888 DIAMETER IN INCHES, D" nv s00 08 & Loe seseal 2 345681 2 oe: o of REYNOLDS NUMBER R-¥ FOR WATER AT 60°F (V mi ; D acrEEr; V=i26(0%); R--6880 v0" ‘TRANSACTIONS OF THE ASM.E. vassal 2 & NOVEMBER, 1944 rato lng wt sie in opt ae: {SE may irc nuh late Th tno Pg ‘Sst be me poly mpromnn by bead ans or thn nm ft ha trl eo rear enh lan, ove nly oe eta ot hon reno awe oN dyn ore han thew etal ew ho ‘charts that a wide variation in estimating the roughness affects f {Situ sua gee upelean, the ast etn nf sa bl po i Sag ltr of ata ae Ties py ny om el cr ping in i iofoto a aly fs wht oa un uo So mute acl re [es ay nnn nn ue te Saying appa oon in eerie tenga oie prince pea “lbh we hw ven eo rt enema ot hug any cw woe en of Slots er srt nt ath abr he thn hip nay enw, it tat dh sgl eon perenne wee ses or mig tn gh ‘nips "nano! tn abe wrt ota aay, cups ae mera “Sn of ase se Th ad sere yi isl it oe aren sway a hy ne in ee itn ony apo se nie 00 oe Rly sboe!otbsnt ors ‘st day ot lpg» somal Patna lon, ‘eval aber sien by aaa se = inp gh veg Hager Pali en ie ny uns 0 hen aiken Seu ltrs toh rae itr ele sgn loco ar SED LIN ier he ch pe aes c 82888 DIAMETER IN FEET, D ‘os Sees el 2 34568 8 io Fra.675 MOODY—FRICTION FACTORS FOR PIPE FLOW yout (saxon nia x 28N1 A) (0A) 40 S3MWA » g = z bo x ; a i z oro f = i S ecno® 8 loo uw Loe & °o > jsoora 8 or 3 Zz - ae er @ = Y3ISWNN SCIONAZSY678 4nd tho conditions are probably also aoc by presture waves Initioting inntebilty. This region has been ealled a critical nono, and th indefnitenes of behavior in thi region as been indiasted by a hatched area mithout definite flnen. ‘The minizaum limit for f values is the dotted continuation of the laminar flow line, corresponding to véry smooth and steedy initial ow. "When {here is cistinet turbulence in the entering uid, the Sow in the sxitical zones ely tobe pulsating (2) rather than steady. The effects of strong intial turbulenew may oven extend into the laminar-fow sone, raising the f values somewhat, as far a to a Reynolds numberof aboat 120, Above-a Reynolds number of 3000 oF 4000, conditions again Decome reasonably determinate, Here. we fiod two regions, namely, the transition tone and the rough-pipe sone. The transition tone extends upmard from the lise fr perfectly smooth pipes, for which the equations Z Ryj uv mi (Gcéema, Prand, Nikuredse) tothe dashed line indiating ita ‘pper limi, plotted from the relation 1 Re Vi~ 300 D- (Gollowing the corresponding line in Rouses char, reference 12) Jn the transition zone the eurves follow the Colebrook function 1 = 2 og (2 + loge Fa i OF 1/ vj = Blog Rv7—08 ‘These curves are asympiotio at one end to the smooth pipe line ‘nd at the other to tho horizontal lines of the rough-pipe tone Actually,"the curves converge rapidly to these limits, merging ‘withthe smooth pipe lin at the left, and atthe right, beyond the asked line, becoming indistinguishable from the constant nes for rough pipe. ‘Tun Coursnoox Funicrrox ‘The basis of the Colebrook function may be briefly outlined. Von Kérmén had shown that, for completely turbulent flaw in rough pipes, the expression 1/\/7— 2 log (D/2e) is equal to constant (1.74), or, as exproaied by Colebrook, 2 log 222 = 1/vj is equel to-zero. In the transition region of incomplete ‘clic on ins expen nt eal 0 os Iv tntomefontone hens oes of nga 8h lca fn lina Sana ie, Seer isi ind peal xine acing seuss roles by noting 1/4? lg (2) es inn se iia by ‘skne "By die tn Polina ps ow nl deer ot ‘ere alors ttl ont sale ure,” Chg earns a ‘Retnownipe eve en nln soe ca rouge curves tcyein aig nr Chichen (i), ae ov orn led in hi "ig. 3 he pine! wi sal ay pe at ison vaso op o sisi pipe sso Eo act ath clot omer ie gro more i eae fara tsi ithe evo ar qe eet ew Manes oo fr ea ty agente sean ns ce ‘Sroming ui Stn fences “a8 may te pre! In ate oma as prepa to Bo mwtr= D2, cco tor 2 ig taf ipegehaing sr he pion ral ho nam dey moveoaihsithsne ganpewal ‘TRANSACTIONS OF THE ASM.D NOVEMBER, 1944 Ra.o Rouse (12), also using equivalont eo-ordinates, bas plotted in his Fig. 6, here reproduced as Fig. 6, « large number of points ach of which represents a seris of teste on a given see of com, ‘mercial pipe, together with the Colebrook curve. As he paints ‘uty the deviation of the points from the Colebrook curve ‘evidently not much greater tasn the experimental seater of the ‘individual measurements ia any one serie." ‘When the thickness of the laminar layer, which decreesos with {creasing Reynolds number, becomes so smal, compared to the surince iregulaitos, that the laminar flow is broken up into furbulesse, the flow conditions pass over into the zone of "sough pipes,” with complete turbulence established practioally tvugh- ‘ut the fow, Viscous forces thea beeome negligible compared to indrtis forces, nd f cesses to bea funetion of the Reynolds mum. br and depends only upon the relative roughness giving hori ‘onl lines of constant fin tho ahart. ‘These lines ageve with the ‘Yon Kérmn rough-pipe formula wt (8), wir sain) Since f depends upon the relative roughness, the tatio of the ‘absolute roughness to the pipe dismeter, even a faisiy tough sie {aco in avery lxge pipe gives small relative roughness ‘Thus Colebrook plots the results obtained on the penstocks of the Ontario Power Company, where metal forma and specially laid conorete produced a very smooth example of consrete surface, ‘This im combination with the lange dismeter gave ra roughness comparable to drewn brass tubing, with] values falling ‘practically on the “smooth pipe” line of Fig 1. Sach specially fabricated welded-ote! pipelines as thoee of the Coloredo aque uct system would probably give value along the samo curve, ‘On the other hand, at very high velocities in drawn tubing ofI i | i ‘MOODY—-FRICTION FACTORS FOR PIPE FLOW or ‘small diameter, even the small absolute roughness is suliient to break up the laminar boundary layer, and the tubing becomes in effect = “rough pipe.” Vary fow experiments have cacvied the ‘velocities and Reynolds numbers high enough to permit close estimate of « for drawa bras copper, or salar tubing; but by applying the Colebrook funstion to the evailale date (14, 18), for the smoothest surfaces reported upon, « was estimated aa of ‘the order of 0.000005; and a line eorresponding to this value has ‘been drawn in Fig. 2, sarving at a minimum Himit for surfeoee Iikely to bo enoountered in practice. ‘Pon Fatorion Factons Avritan 10 Oray-Caannest, FLow Pipe fiction factors have sometimes been applied to open channel fow, and more commonly te ftition losses lnspo pipes and other cloted/conduita have been computed from opea. ‘channel formules. ‘The Chezy formula for apen channels is F = CyvinB in which ¥-is the mean velocity; m the hydzaulie mean depth or “hydraulic radius," the seotional aree divided by the wetted perimeter; 5 the slope, the loss of head divided by length of channel, and C a coeficiet.” The Chety formal is equivalent ‘0 the Darey formula for pipes, the Chany coeficient C being cone vere Foy etn = 8 Hae, ‘however, that the Chery eoefieients have been derived principally from observations on relatively wide and shallow channels of Jange area and rough bottoms, far from eizculrin shape, and that they involve a free water surface not presen in closed conduits, 0 that; even when the flow is uniform, the problem is highly compler. Consequenty, such formulas as Manning's ere recon ‘mended for open channels in preferunce tothe use of values of © the average dep Glivided by ‘the curface breadth; the later form representing the xatio of mean velocity to the gravitational eritical velocity or velocity of propagetion of surface waves, ‘This proposed oriterion defines whether the flow falls in the ““ranquil” “shooting,” or ertical state, The neglect of this {actor may st least partially account for inoonistencies between vatious open-channel formulas, and betwean open-channel and pipo-hiction formulas, and easts partioular doubt on wecepted {formulas for open-channel friction in the erteal or shooting-flow rogions. ‘These considerations suggest the plotting of open: channel friction fsotors 2s & function of the relative roughness ‘nd the Froude number, i aimilar manner tothe plotting of faa function ofthe relative roughness and the Reynolds number for led conduits For the foregoing reasons, Fig. 1 is not reoommesided with ‘uch confidence for general applicetion to open channels, for hich’ formula such as Manning's better represents the availble {nformation. ‘The chars can however be applied, atleast as an ‘approximation, to noacireular closed conduits of not too eccentric form or not too diforent from a circular section, by using ao equivalent diameter a) ‘anath of perimeter, Since civil engincars usually clasiy surface roughness by the ‘Kutter and Manning roughness factor n, it would be helpful in selecting a value of efor such variable surfaces a conorete if we could correlate « and xn. P. Panagost has applied the Colo. brook function to the test date ealloted by Scobey (16) and finds the following values of « corresponding to the Kuster m ratings «sven by Seobey, which may be at last tentatively tlie Felten cage 0010S 0.01 0.012 0.018 0.014 0.18 8.018 Mgrs! O,00015 0.0008 0.002 0.405 g.011 0.02 0.00 Accordingly, on the basis of Seobey's data the lines given ia ‘ig. 2 for eonerete may be somewaat more definitely deseribed as follows: UD eatin oe mi oor nw it HACE cena ecto Although the curves in Fig. 1 re plotted from definite fune- ‘tonal forms whieh ean be aocoptad with some eonfdence within th degree of accuracy required in engineering use, further ia formation wil be welcomed which would improve thetocetion and definition of the lines in Fig. 2, or which would ad¢ new lines for other materile. Any test of friction head in pipe of any mate. ial can be applied to Fig, 1, and earresponding points can be readily located in Fig. 2.” A 45-deg line through point 20 Joouted oan than be added to Fig. 2, to represent a particular kind of pipe surface, Acnownmesmnre ‘For helpful suggestions and assistance, the author is parti: lesly indebted to Prof. B.A. Bukhmetet, Mr. Raiph Watson, ‘Dr. G. P. Wislionnus, Dr, A. T. Ippon; and to Mr, P. Penagos for collecting date and numerical checking ‘BIBLIOGRAPEY 2 “The Moshaaics of Turbulat Flow,"-by B. A, Bakhmetat, Prinootgn Unlearity Pres, 1086, 2 (Applied Hydro- and Acromesbanios” by Ty. Prandtl and 0.6. Tiotins, ginearing Societies Monographs, McGrail Book Gampany, Ine, New York, Ne 1096. 8 Phuid Mechaaiee for Hytraue Basineere" by H. Rows, Englnosring Bodesies Monographs, MaGrew-llil Book Company, Inc, New Yor, N.Y, 1038 4 “ithe low of Fluida in Closed Conduits," by R.J.$. Pigots, Mectanieal Bnginserng, vol. 8, 1089, pp. 447-501, 51S 5 Bvdratlics,” by B. L. Daugherty, MeGraw-Hil Book Com. pany, Ino, New Vers, ¥, 1087 16" “A"Buuly of tha Date on the Flow of Fluid in Pipes” by 'B, Kemlar, rats, ASCE, ol 68,1093 paper Hyd-65-2, yp. 7-2, 1 ‘Scmungrgsesi ik" Mauhon Hohren,” by J. Nikwradas VAD. Forechegthefe 863, Bestin, 100, 9p. 5 'Meohanleche. Absllebkel? tnd ‘Turbulots;" by Th. von Bats, Nadie on der "Cuatca dr inoue ce ‘nge, 1080, Facheruppe 1, Matheney 10. 8 yp. Se76 (*Mockanical Siniitade and Tabulanes," Took. Meas 5.A.0.4: ho. 611, 1081). 9 Nouste Brpsbniow dor Turbulensorastung" by L. Prandtl, estos ten Veeines descr Innis, val 771088; 92.105 115, 10 “*Machanies of Liquide” by i. W. Powell, The Macnilon Company, New York, No, Toto, 1. “Furbulant How tn Pipes, With Pectiouar Referenas to the ‘Transition Haglos Betworn to Smooth and Hough Pipe Lame! he Gr, olerk, Hunal of aon of il Basis (oadon, Meghan), vals, 1998-1030, pp 183-186, 12" Mbvaluaton of Bossdary Roughnes.” by H- Rowse, Procaed- ‘ Aniatant fa Moshenioal Eugioering, Prinslon University, Prisaeton NJos ‘TRANSACTIONS OF THE ASME. {ngs Second Hydrasie Confernes, University of Towa Bulletin 27, 13 "Some Physical Propertin of Water and Other Fluide" by RL, Dangharey, Trane. A'S ME val 7, 1985, po, 195-106. ‘3d “The Friction Pastors fr Clan Rosina Pipe,” by TB, Drew, B. ©. Xoo, ant W. H. Meddans, Trans. Amerioan Tnstiate of Ghamieal Bostnoers ol. 28, 1093, pp. 72, 15), "Bxperimente Upon the Flow of Water in Pipes and Pipe Fit- fines." by Jo. Yreomea, pubiched by "me Ancentoa Soorerr 0 Mxeuasens Berens, 104) 16) “The Flow of Water in Concrete Pipe.” by F.C. Seobey, ‘Bletn 852, U.3. Department of Ageoultare, otober, 1920. Discussion RL. Davcamery.! The writer has nothing but commenda- tion for this excallent paper, ‘The author haa presented tho Istest theory combined with the avilable experimental data in a ‘manner which makes it more convenient for use than has been. ‘the ease heretofore. His evaluation of relative roughness for dierent types and sizes of pipas isa step forward. ‘While this paper doala primarily with pipe friction itis inter- esting to note the suggestions made oonosraing the treatment of ‘the flow in open channels. The latter as aot been given the atiention from the standpoint of rational analysis that has been devoted inthe past to pipes. Ibs to be hoped that developments in tis eld may be made along tho lines uggested by the author. ‘The author calls attention to the well-enown fact that in the ‘transition sone the Nikurndeourves for his ariel send-grain, roughness are quite diferent from those obtained with commer- ial pipes. "Tho writer would Hike to kaow if the author has any ‘explanation to offer for this marked diference, C. W. Husnano! This paper is of interest to engineers who ‘must esimate fuld-fition lous elosely for gartain types of prob Jems. Ordinarily the Manning type of formula is prefered, ines the roughness value may be determined from the type of surface of the wall as eontrasted to the Darcy formula where the Toughness coeficient varies with tho size of pipe and is dificult to fesimate. The author's Fig. 2 allova a quantitative wall ough ‘ness estimated from the typo of wall to be used. ‘During some recent tasts made to select a protective paint for steel which would also have a low fiction loss, it was found that several coatings, particularly those consisting of certain bitumas- tio constituents which required tham to be applied thickly to the wall, geve low fow-resistaneo values, The testa, made in in. pipes, which were split longitudinally to allaw proper applica tion of the coating, showed roughest values ofthe order of those obtained with drawn-brass tubing, However, the appearance of the coating was not as smooth a drawa tubing. ‘The writer had previously experienced this eect with similar eoatinge ‘There seems to be little published material on the friction loss produced by various protective paints and coatings on pipe wall, ‘particulariy on amall pipes when the flow ia likely to occur in the ‘transition range where tho fiction losa i dependent upon Reyn~ ‘olds number. Apparently the roughness of such surinces is of ‘the wavy typo which cannot be evaluated on the same basis oo ‘the same magnitude of roughness whieh i of the granular type. AT. Irrms.! ‘The author has ably antistiod the object of his Dper stated inthe beginning with en extremely timely end prae- tical summary of the letest information available on pipe fre- tion, Academic esearch in this eld over the last 30 years com 3 Profesor of Mechanical Englaserng, Californie Institute of Technology, Paseda, Cal, “Liautonsns, Commander, US.NJ Assistant, Professor, Hydralie Bethlehem, Ps Mom. ASME, sboratory, Tallgh ‘Unirrsity, ‘NOVEMBER, 1944 ‘ducted on s fundamental basis has finally yielded a satisfactory. explanation of the nature of tho laws of pipe friction and has cleared up the concepts of energy dissipation in conduits and chaznele, ‘The evidence for the adoption of the methods for determining the pipe friction factor as presented by Colebrook in rather ac- tonishing. Bome experientes in this connection may be con- fuibuted here. Tho waiter has oomputed two comprehensive sets of data on pipe frieion, one by Jon R. Freeman and aa- other by L. Hl, Kessler. ‘The former completed his experiments uring the years 1859 to 1898 and his data were published by this Society in a special volume (16)! in 1941, ~The second set of date was obtained from pipe-fration experiments at the Wis- caasin Experimental Staton, the results of which were published {in 1985, “Both experimenters performed tests on ¥/sin- to 8 in- iam wrought-iron pipes in new condition covering the maxi- ‘mum range in Reynolds numbers possiblo under their experimen ‘al conditions. After plotting thoso results every ona of their rrnsshows essentially the versus Rcurvo indiated by Colebrook and « values caleulated for all the various sos come ont very close to the average value stated for wrought-iron pipe in the present paper. Tt must be remembored that Kessler's data were obtained 40 years after those of Freoman and that it ean hardly tbo assumed’ that manufueturing prooesses rumained identical uring that period. Another fact of importance to the practiaal enginear from this analysis of Freeman's and Kester’ data is worth mentioning. Rouse and Moody in ther fversat R aurves terminate the tran sition range from smooth- to rough-pipe flow along a line corre- sponding to a ratio of absohite roughness to the laminar bound. ary-layer thickness 3 of 6.8." Kassler’s and Freeman’ da donot give a single value that high in all thir uns; ther highoat values obtained were about {= 2.5. Under practical eonditions of use therefore the fow of water in pipes ovcurs well in the ‘rmnstion range from smooth to rough-pipe ow. ‘This fact easly explains why a final solution of the pipet tion problem was possible only after the concepts of smooth pipe” and “roughpipe” flow had been established separataly. ‘While Nilcuradse's results on uniformly sund-coated pipe were helpful in this respect, they also resulted in maro complicated ‘transition curves then are obtained from tests with the statistical roughness patterns encountared oh most eotmercal pipe sur- faces, ‘The Colebrook universal funetion seems to Gt the betier in this transition rango; the more the roughness iregularities are statistically distributed as far as size and shape are conosrasd sand vice versa, the more regular the sie and pattern of the erogu- lasites the closer Nikuradse's transition curves are approached, ‘where finally the ecitial velocity forall roughness bodies isthe ‘sme in the ideal ease of eomplotely uniform sine, ‘The familiar functions for the pipe friction factor f may be ‘writen i the following form 4 1 186 oe tt 2 tog eT vi RV for smootb-pipe flow 1 ‘ Ay = ht creel vi r {or rough-pipe flow 186 : 2S. = 02! co) Rvp Oe for laminar boundary-layer thickness, 3 Numbers in parenthous throughout the dissin refer to the ‘Biigephy’ atthe ond of she author's paperMOODY—#RICTION FACTORS FOR PIPE FLOW om According to Colebrook, Bauations [L] and (2} are combined into the following universal function 1 ws 3 Se a rc ereerteet Vi = (Et) is ‘This function revert to liber Bqustion [1] or Bqustion (2) if either the influence ofthe relative roughness disappears or when {the viscous inflienes bocames insignificant. By use of Equation [8], the Colebrook function may be written in the alternative form foaming (1 +0008) ‘This equation clerly brings out the dependence of the pipe {ition phenomena upon the thickness of the Inminer boundary layer, ie. on the viseoity of the uid. It willbe found in prac- ‘ical ealeulations thet this iniuaneo is vary seldom absent. The propined imate rate ot BE 400s equivalent to a vilue of fof 08. {is evident that aging of pipes under varying conditions of use vill result in new values of absolute roughness which at present fre not easily predicted. From experiments on galvanized steel, pipe of 4 in. diam at the Hydraulic Laboratory of Lehigh Uni- Yorsity, an initial ayerage value of « = 0.00045 ft was obteined. ‘This value of eae doubled within 8 years asa result ofthe change {in surface conditions with aging under moderate conditions of tuse. It must be remembered hore that this change in « repre sents oaly about s 20 per cent increase in the Darey-Weisbach {actor f, sine the « value is » much more sensitive indicator of pipe roughness then the factor j. ‘In conclusion, it may be hoped thet this psper will bring the ‘goneral edoption of thie relatively ensy end reliable method of determining pipe friction and thereby establish a standard pro- ‘cedure in practice which is based upon sound analytical and ex= perimental evidence. W. S, Pannos.!! Tn the following tests on pipes of vasious diamoters and materials, he exponent m in the exponential for- mule veRes ‘varied from 0.885 to 0.546, thus ebocking Willams’ and Tszen's formula ¥ = 1818 Cts very dlocely. The maximum value of R was about 1,250,000 for 8in. Neoprene dock-loading hose (very smooth) which is such below the “eomplete turbulence zone.” The tests in- sluded:| (in, Halitecoment-asbeatos pipe (predecessor of Tranite) ‘Gin, Ruberoid cement asbeefon extruded pipe ‘Gin. Aber ood 22g, snd Sia Neoprone donioning bow for Bs 1. du Post do inv to 12in, stool pipe ‘Sim ruber dockloading bow with T-in. X 1/ein elon metal band ‘nade In no onde except the last did tho exponent m show even & ‘tendency of deoreasing, lot alone epprosehing a value of 0:5 oF complete tarbulenee. Thismnst be due to the smoothness of the 7 Doptrtinnt of Civil Rasinwrng, Univers of Peansstrani, ‘Philadelphia, Pa. a ‘materiale and the low value of Reynolds number, Tn the lst ‘nse, the values off id chow a tondenty to became constant, the ‘value of ¢/D being quite large. "The writer bas not conducted a suficiont number of tests on pipes and is far from a pandie on thi eubjet, At some time in the future, he wil attempt to workinto the “complete turbulence tone,” if euch there is, even i he must use s bit of in, turberea- lated onst-iron pipe. ‘Mr. Pigott in his discussion has mentioned my insistence on te fact that the coolcients af Venturi meters become constant, ‘This couficient may be approximated by the formula panna O= Via wER in which pith ameter aio ad Ke the eit of ean we % ‘The valuo of I on the flat part of tests of 85 cast-iron Venturi smetere approximates y 0.0185, - as _As the absolute roughness is constunt, the proportional rough= ‘ness varie inversely aa the dismotor of the coefficient ineeases with the diameter. ‘The tects ran fo quite high values of Reyn~ olds number in terms of“, tnus indiating there is suck & thing as complete turbulence, Solving the foregoing expression “Hence a constant value of gives constant K, or yvariosas 7%, ‘This ie of course arguing from the writers experience with ‘Venturi meters to make up for his lack of adequate experimental ‘knotledge of the subject under discussion. ‘Professor Moody aye fis a function of “two and only two's imoncionlass quantities «/D and “2°, ‘The writer has found in ‘nis work on Venturi meters a variation of over #/: per eent, due to the effect of the ambient temperatare.* ‘Aste variation of 1/: per eant in eoquires a variation of 25 per cent in fit seme to the writer the elfoct of a diferenos of tem= perature of 20 deg F on at low value of R might be considerable, ‘This efec is brougit about by a change in the boundary shear; tins 1f Q ie kept vonstant de/dy will slso be constant, and » corre sponds to the temporature of the inside wall ofthe pipe, which vill lie between the ambiont temperature and that of the water. Te will decrease ae the velocity inerooses us a result of the heat being conducted away mare repidly. This the writer wil check. in future experiments; it may throw some light on the upper Timi of the criticel or unstable tone.. The effect isa function of ‘Roynclds end Prandt?’s or Nuseel's numbers, and the writer is ‘not certain “hat the price of chesse in Denmark: does to effect w fect of, High Temperatures and, Prosures on CestStosl Yentari Fuben” by W. 8 Pardoe, Treas. ASME, val. 6, 109, . a60 Professor Moody is to be congratulated on producing a very tuseble pla of frotion fastora which in due time may reploae the Pigott and Kemler curves which hava to data been extensively ‘quoted and used by engineers. ‘Thus do we progress. BR, 1.9, Paoen "his shidy oft tai 8 ios pari nterting ot wae abit a alae far oe pepe tere ape gee ee pi —.—Llrrt—~”t—r™—*=“ (1988) there was almost complete lack of uniformity between tro fovlatins npn un, mening a ie ayo Eutar, an snd Wallan toy Abastaa's vege = re watgent eo repr tain ta won wot suitor fo al nds of ea rm bran fing ik Shot or a ‘De Roney ther ono witr’'s sadth boron pr of lr ——“ tio hatte sling owe with rsmpie data). Tha oo ,r——™—“CP ty, koi te ooghoer set rar ene ee Tilton going ion Tin pret an ft autor shay in tha pate rouge nent foo at nono uch ota uel bs Tor tol Bucinghna (Pig Lafond do telnet Shar fl pp eure hey apposed he vison ogy ee -abows them straight and intercepting. ‘Tm ir mull wad ly the tlic tov tat ter ro cxrreiAnothee portant pte etl hy te ahora Shei ell roghnes Sally rns constant vale Die okt at whish ir endon olan ny shown fo Yo {incon of rate songs, aad sy wnlvs © ifeaty De rr —— aS of the expert Fru towed ata at ‘tints tnt ree unending of mart ough Bis oont vat os conlte! by Proto Fede’ Antng on Von’ Geng coetioenHeba bmnpntng ut yar hu he conn oc os valu a ore of. rT Fegan pony Ne ped peer tl) {bens ae ntl vopemnted ty pipe foo, ais Stun cnreapnds fot fel ys ofa camp fb Inn andl durum fhe aloof ih domes of rughnee ‘Sans ny So need nth oo nt a tale gots cement asi ty tha Lae ti tropic properties (quoted from the rheologists), that is, they orr,Tr——— felboryoredr ip Meoral fs gubewigep ree Hi when toy daly ech trae dow, behave te ros liquids of rather low viscosity. Such activities as oil-well drilling, tunes-pun and grouting eatiogninmotv grensng my Sin bal beings atv uch ota noo ae Fr T—r——=s=isSC8“ napa and ami operate, an aon quero. Shrine gon ond paragon or those nt, 2 ppm hy tho te! pert oreo ew 4 rate! mton ‘ete hm gue sosanly spo by Ste Th Fe 1, tn or han dn died ln of comple tare Somewhat i advo of he Heys number lus Gio aio, Gf Rayne nk Deronpmex? Consey, TE ETE Egg nt reson ome Mud Plow ia Deine” by J. S. Pigott, Dring and Pro= ution Precio APL, 198, pp. 01-208 2 ‘TRANSACTIONS OF THE ASME. NOVEMBER, 1044 ‘a which the fiotion factor botomes a constant quantity. ‘The ‘weiter ide thatthe expreson 3300 wae, D represents, as closely as ean be determined from the small-scale Gagram, the point at which the fiction factor becomes ubsolutely. constant, It is curious and probably only accidental that the ‘value 2500 corresponds about to the upper limit of the eritical Hureur Rousn.!* Important resuite of laboratory reeesrch frequently do. not reach the hands of practicing engineors until ‘many years after the original papera have been published. “A salient case in point is the discovery by Blasi in 1918 of the ‘dependence of the Daray-Weisbach reistance cneiient f spon, ‘the Reynolds number B, which did not come into general engi ‘neering use until perhaps a decade ogo. Tt often happens, how= ‘over, that once engineers have accepted anew idea they ere loath ‘to modify tin any way. The peper under discussion ia a very commendable endeavor to make recent experimental findings ‘immediately useful to the engineor, but the writer fools that it stil eators to a rogrettable dagree to the engineers innate eon sorvatiam. [TE the writer's boli is earrect, this paper is intended to fal6ll the same purpose as that which prompted the miter fo present a somewhat similar paper (22) and resistance chart at the Seoond Hydraulics Conference in 1912, Tho wuthor olaims thatin shart, whichis rproducod horowith in ali tho writer adopted co-ordinates inoonvenient for ordinary an neering use, Such criticism rorulted from the writer's deliberate advancement beyond the now familiar Blasius fermue-R nota- tion inthe belef that both greater convenience and greater sig- nifcance would be attsined thereby. Since these tro papers of ‘identical purpose thus difer in their besie method of approach, 0, criticism af the ane point of view must necessarily valve & de- Tense of th other. ‘Although Bisciue’ original dimensional analysis of the vati- ables involved led to his adoption ofthe form VD/» aa the most significant grouping of terms upon which f should dapend, it ‘ust be realized that the following three diferent combinations of the samo variables are all equally valid for the basi caso of a t we. (2) = (82) - wav ‘The combination now most familiar to the engineer, of course, is ‘the fis, elthough it has log since been proved that i¢ will yield ‘linear plot on logarithmic paper for only the laminss zone. ‘The second, on the other hand, isthe basis of the Kérmdn-Prandtl snalyss ofthe turbulent zone, the general furietional relationship simply being written in the spedifie form % Dirostor, Jowa Institute of Hydraulic Research, University of ows Cty, Tow Te iBigmentaty Mechinis of Fluids.” by Hunter Rouss; Job Wiley & Soot, Ine, New Yor N.Y. (a Prev) "8 hgelving Pipe Row Pratlen With Dimansiclem Nussber,” by A AL Halil, hpinsring News-Record, val. 128, 1899, p. 28, ToSounday mere Pi ‘rend (feet Giassidrawn brass,copper,Jead “Smooth” ie copes Achaea canton 0004 Ceti en 20008 test ren cones Wo seve get Corre ioe Fete sie) Sao" os YVi = A+ Blog BVA, ast he author’ idan to the conta, J nt ne coaiy enti ia tin ound tne of ls ey a5 may be seen from the identity RVF = \V QgiyDY/La. It tbe Elon randd prunes orth wee hao enor carte ti sober StS, eee anil sre ote soo tn fat ahs a {i thn en intrplaon (al Sent comrnens) sith genta dpc ha te Blah pce elo een of inter o rane oo 8 ‘ood the sever of carta oes tat oe po "To ter’ econ nw via fafa pee sina! fngg hole isn ete 2p lb eyes grap frm pe roy ‘ais fon Hnowar there tin dni! rues ae SE ula om the gon ely tog oe eee etal rer Wee core a on he ce hanya phat sso ese Ries WH ale th dase tenes innate eae Ure todo nda tart wil wea se Boia ‘Savion tu‘ spt ordi es i TF ater big opera othe Cary 0) ana scales of both R= VD/v and RWf = Vigh,/L Dis, Sines ‘the parameters 1/-V/f and log.(RV/7) were salectad by the waiter for the primary ordinate and sberssa soales, the alternative ‘abecisa peramater log R is neoessarly represented by eurved lines over a portion of the writer’ chart. Had log f and log R ‘been chosen as the primary parameters, log (R-Vf) would still hhave required sloping lines in the 2id; ‘euch aboies therefore in- volves no particular advantage aver the writa’s but rather de- fonts tho writer's purpose owing to the secompanying distortion of the entire eystam of transition eurves, ‘The euthor graph, of couroe, conisine no secondary grid system simply beoause it parmits direot solution for osly one of the several variables, Brief mention might he made of the third posible combination of variables, which is evidently appliuble-to probloms in whioh ‘he diameter is the. unknown quantity. So long as the pipe ie smooth, such plot wil bo of ute, but the adoption of a similar {anction fr the case of rough surfaces will stil require a trialand- error solution, unless the graph is made hopelessly comple, ow. ing to the fact that for a given boundary material the pipe di- ameter must be known-before the relative roughness may be evaluated, Solution by trial might therefore proceed just as ‘well from cither of the other two functional relationships cone ‘tained in the writer's dingram. ‘The writer commends the author's presentation in graph form. of tho values of absolute roughness given in the writer's paper, Dut notes with interest that this plot is eansiatent with the writer's ruther than the author's choice of busio parameters, Such ezaph would therefore have ita greotaet value when prepared asose ‘2-marginl extonsion of the writer’ resistance chart, for then no relative-roughness computations would have to be made, ‘So far as the euthor's diseassion of open-channel ressianoe is concerned, the writer takes exception to two points of fundamen. ‘al importance: First, the author states that euch relationshipa ‘a the Manning formula shouldbe used ia open-channel compute ‘ious in preference to values derived from pipe tests, implying thet the familiar empirical open-channel forma are inherently more valid. Tt is known, however, that the Manning formula (not to mention those of Bazin and Kutter) is notin aecordance With the logarithm law of relative roughness upon which the author's paper is based. So far as tho waiter can aacertain, the ‘aly reason pipe tests could not gmorally be used in evaluating ‘open-channel resstanco les in the faot that few open-channel Doundary surfaces are suitable to testing in pipe form. Aside from the moot question of the effect of crosaectional shape (which the empirical open-channel formulaa in no way anawet), it would appeer to the writer that a goneral resistance graph for uniform open channels should differ tle from that for pipes, x opt in that the familiar paramotars C and S might convenientiy bp included in tho co-ordinate soles; thie has ben done in the resent form of the writer's chart. "The writer's second objetion to the authors closing rection is in regued to his implication that the Froude number should re- plaee the Reynolds number as the fundamental resistance pa- rameter for open-channol flow. So far as boundary resistance ia conceruod, the writer ean see no possibility of the Froude number playing a comparable role. Tt is true that viscous shear is of litle significance in comparison with boundary roughness in meet ‘open-channel problems, but itis also true thet the effect of sur- aco waves upon the interns retistanee to flow has not yet been socertained. ‘The open-channel problem is infact, quite analo- gous to that of ship resistance, in which the matter of aurfae drag {s oonsidored wholly independent of the Froude number, If 40 ‘bo sure, th phenomena of alug flow, atmompherio drag, and alr entrainment prove to govern tho resstancs in the eomparstively infrequent case of supercritial flow in open channels, ten the Froude number may well become an appropriate ‘resistance criterion, as it elreedy is for eases of channel transition, But to ‘ply thet it should replage the Raynolds number a a resistance ‘parameter whenever a free surface evista sooma rather untimely ‘to the write, in that it could lead to serious misinterpretation ‘of those fow principles of boundary resatanoe whieh have been Aefinitely established, P. H, Scawarrane*| Lest the author's charts, prosented in dalightfully handy forms, be used indiscriminately, it ia perhaps ‘in onder to add one note of caution. Most of the statements, formalas, and charts are valid only for “long” pipes. For abort pipes, the rules controlling turbulence are diferent, and Reyn- lds sumber is not the sole or deoiding ertarion for the eate of flow. IF the velocity of flow in a long tube ie decreased below the “ertioa” value, a change from turbulent to laminar fow takes place rather abruptly. ‘The author sets the indeterminate rgion Detween 2000 and 4000 Reynolds number, ven that represents 1 rethor narrow stzip in the total range covered by the ow of fob liquids aa water or Uh ofl, Outside of this indeterminete region, the low is either completely laminar or decidedly turbu- Tent, ignoring the rather thin laminar boundary layer. ‘While this is true of relatively long tubes, for short tubes or ‘aozzls itis not. Ina short tube, as was shown by the writer, * ™ Profesawr of Hngincariag Research, ‘Tho Pennavlvaaia State School of Engisecring, State Calo, Raha "Mechanism of Dsiegration of Lig Jl," by P.H.Sakowet- 0c, Journal af Applied Pye, val 8, 1037, 93. 7 o ‘TRANSACTIONS OF THE ASM.E. NOVEMBER, 1944 the normal state may be doseribed as “cemiturbulent ow," ‘hich moy be visualized as a turbulent core in the center and a Jaminar envelope near the periphery. The thickness of the laminar envelope may vary betwroen wide limita, ‘The change from turbulent to laminar flow or the reverse takes place in a short tube so geedually that the intermediate stage usualy overs the whole prasteal region. OF course, in both long and short tubes, turbulent flow is pro ‘moied by high flow velocity, lurgo tube size, curvature of the ‘tbe, divergunco ofthe tube, rapid changes in direction and erose- sectional area of the tube. "Laminar fow is promoted by high liquid viscosity, lminar approua, rounded entrance to the tube, slight convergence of the tube, absence of curvature and disturb” Irrespective of the langth of tho tube an originally turbulent ‘low will main turbulent, if ita Reynolds number R= ed/y is seater than the critical’ Reynolds mumber. Conversly, an originally laminar fow will remain laminer if Ris lower than the umber. ‘the flow at the entrance is turbulent but its Reynolds num- ber in the tube is lower thsn the eritieal, the Sow wil turn parely laminar if the tube is straight, recsonably emooth, and sufcienty long. If the ow at tho entry of the tube is laminar but its Reyn- ‘lds number is above the eritial, its hard to prediot the eharae- tar ofthe ensuing low. If the entry is amooth and rounded and the tube free from disturbances and irregularities, the fow will romain laminar even at Reynolds numbers" as high as 15,000. Incomplete absenos of ell disturbances, a laminar flow proba- bly nevor turas turbulent, no matter how high its Reynolds umber, but the slightest dietarhance wil ultimately oayse tir Dulenoe’ if the Reynolds mumber is above the eritieal. The higher the Reynolds number the greater the disturbance, the shorter the tube travel necessary for turbulenee toset in. Tina short tube the eritioal Reynolds number is not the one above which the flow generally or in partiular ease is turbulent, ‘The flow is frequently laminar at Reynolds numbers above the critical and it may be turbulont or somiturbulent at Reynolds ‘number below the extioal, ‘Tho ortionl Reynolds number is the one below which, in a straight long cylindrica tube, disturbances in the dow will damp out. Above the critieal Reynolds number’ disturbanees (ap- proach, entry, ete.) never damp out, no matter Bow long the ‘ube is, “The eritical Reynolds number so defined wes found by Sehillr™ to bo approximstaly 2820, ‘In short tubes, or nozzles, the length is not nearly enough for tho flow to assume astable condition. Under th eiumstances, 1 Reynolds number higher thon eritioal will have a tendency to- vrard turbulence and vioe vers, but i may tale a tube travel of 60 times diameter before stable velocity distribution ie do- veloped. ‘The antual flow in the nozzle will be infienced con- siderably by tho state of fow beforo the orfie end the disturb- ‘ances in the approach and within the nozzle. The combination of these factors in addition to the Reynolds number will deter- ‘mine the stato of turbulence at the exit of the short tube, For ‘a given short tabe or nozale, the infuenoe of the nogble fastare ‘ean be considered the same; therefore the Reynolds number ‘lone wil doting tho character af the flow. With desreasing Reynolds sumber, the thickness of the lami- ner layer ineroasos and tho turbulent inner portion decreases until it finally disspponrs. Tt 2 peouliar to nozsle or short tubes that the change from turtulent to laminar flow (or vice versa) "With a convargant tubs of 10-dog done angle bon (Proosed- ngs of the Royal Soeety of London, vol. ABS, 1010, p- 16), olnorved Ieimiaae dow tk = 97.000. H"Untarsuahtagea ber lamiaaro und turbolente Stmung,” by 1, Soler, VDI Forechmgearblem, vol. 248, 1922,MOODY—FRICTION FACTORS FOR PIPE FLOW 088 ‘takes place gradunlly rather than sbruptiy. The semiturbulent state extends over a wide range of Reynolds numbers, difering only in the relative thickness of the turbulent eore snd laminar envelope, Avmoa’s Cuosums ‘The paper was intended for application to normal conditions| of engineering practise and spocfies & number of qualifications limiting the soope of the chars, such as Ueir restriction to round (ctraight) new and eloan pipes, running ful, and with steady flow, ‘Under such conditions it was etatod, as noted by Professor Par= ‘doe, thst the frietion factor fis a dimensionless quantity, and at ordinary velosties is.» function of two, and only two, other dimensionless quantiis,—the relative roughness of the surface ‘and the Reynolds number” Under abnormal eonditions f could of course bo affected by cother dimensionless eriteri, In clased conduits at very high Yelociies or with repidly varying prestures it depends on the ‘Mech or Cauchy number introducing the acoustic velocity. In ‘open hanes, as pointed out, froo surface phenomens, gravity waves, make it logically dependent on Froudo's number. At ‘Very low velositi fa shallow open troughs it would eonesivably be controlled also by the Weber number for surface tension and capillary waves, "Capillary foreee while important to insocta, as toa iy on Sypeper, are nepligible to usin problems of enginesting ‘magnitude, "Under usual conditions of pipe flow only the two dimensionlass ratios mentioned need be considered and itis possi- bile to present the relations betwown the factors in «est such as Fig. "The discussions have brought out a nuber of other departures ‘rom normal conditions and further limitations to the seope of ‘tho charts, Professor Pardoe reminds us that © considerable ‘temperature differenee betwoon tho fuid and pipe wall may have ‘measurable efect on the shenr stresses, due to ambiait currents ‘which would inerease the momentum transfer in similar manner ‘a turbulent mixing. This effect would probably be of impor- ‘ance only at.the lover Reynolds mumbers end with material temperature differences. ‘Mr, Pigott reminds us that tho seopo js limited to simple duds ‘and doss not cover “queer materials like gresces, muds, cement Slarvie’” and suixtures with euspended roids. Professor (now (Couumander) Hubbard and Professor Pardoe mention some tn- ‘usual forms of pipe surfaces, ‘The author thinks that most of these inelading paint coatings, will follow the lines ofthe charts closely enough for prectioal purposes if the proper roughness figures are determined; but the rubber dock-loading hose with [lial internal band will probably fellow a curve similar to eurve V in Fig. 6, which Colebrook and White obtained far spiml- riveted pipe ‘Dr. Tppen mentions the rate of increase of roughness from comsion and givee come useful test information. Colebrook, found thet corrosion usualy increases the value of « at subaten- tially « uniform rate with respect to time. Professar Schweitzer calls ettention to the point that the pipe must be long, with an totablished regime of flow, and thet the charts do aot apply to the entrance or “smoothing soction” whieh require separste sllowances. Fortunately we are seldom concerned with close cvtimates of friction lass in short tubas, whore frition is « minor flame in the total love of head. ‘Dr, Ippen'e disousion admirably summers the basic struc- ‘ture of the charts end. gives supporting evidence. His own studies of the problem bad, the author believes, Jed him inde- pendently to conclusions similar to Colebrook’. "Tue Colebrook function has given us prectioully satisfactory {Formulation bridging the previous gap in our theoretic structure, s reo in which th major of euoesng potas fT tan rer ntl propery ef covering inser a Mol fld of pipe ow sve tenn an ial sone ough. ts Sid nse it beret as cay can be ‘reo’ dunandod iin he sng of sry sla a {Rotmnenranont ardcly an ealnton of bundy =a tere toa qustonmicod iy Proanr Buber, thn ne comin bts arias Ut hs ten Poneto ‘Rowe commer pp analy asiated arto to tht apacg of the nil opp sand pin sash ta oe perth na le inthe wake tind ante, oto the wlnaty ot Neda patria cost vo the waa conte ea face whlch ioprobbly ania of re and al ooghnenes ‘iene anton "To nat eration maa rte iss leahia” see fow ins prottbeaot mtd i ‘ae oes eld prj far enough ino Sh aaa boa iijer to trait up vile ual layer ot potion of r= fs ae wo Soma wal wih the smb thine of tage ‘Thue Nika eure cng col tothe soon ie Tap tah fart thas the crv fet commune aes, At ay moe earl tharotrof Nika ran he texan ibe rf valuta ts oon whee Scepances noe i gut evo the propos in hating tos tor aa tives evidence ruporing eines adopted At teen ia SSoucon be teins sp introning quan the frm and inoston ofthe dad Hoe nF] mtking the onary the ‘Resi pipe soe for umplletarbulne, Dyed ich he Ton ik teooas pacaly hroulal With hie it for ‘tctng tongs be wes ta moded equi forth ‘ofonag to Tig § and 6 it wil be noted tint Nica cxpalms on arial rine pave ncrve sh Groped Sloth woud pipe line ad ten apgehed ran, 20 rina Socasrca sa iv pout wish approach ts oooh pean rm above td tat Lot ws of pot ost merge wth the so rive eo boat PLT = np, ih Rowe accor adopal asthe equation fhe bounary ot to rongh pe foo, edhe oo showa inHg, Howe twer we opt the Cosben fnfn for ie tion ois {ote tot ie bonary carve sey epatng the Caso Serv nvercompllly merge th the cosant ont are tsympio otha ay tnt ca tin bs ofthe Colon fe: {i thereto dt bounty to the up pero rota however the Calboak ase, converge 99 rap too rao tn that beyond oun dae oes Be dltenee wo indent, Condeing hn rata! {ieee of norte und eoomquot claro tat care es thant tat ta Cont Tenant emp Siac uly tafactory aprocmaton, i amt hry nda t dew fn dts rom na exes of Fezotions tthe fantom sould bw aospted x eomplely ona! ¢wuld be more lol lal he boundasy eer a0 TEatit woul areyend tetome tnd protag feta er tho lr cme tbls, Promried by i Pigott appt, tho aon bas nyse tas Gas ogo rom is pout of vow. Caing 7 tha ue at te eon tert aording to okwea, Ad, The rule for ome creas szordagto von dem, Cotton guton ca bo expremed , arxs Via Vi = te (DEP)ot 3.72. ating 87 «(DR ‘he order of 0.08 Tain tho region of th boundary curv) then = 5 w small quantity compared to 1 (of log (1 +2) can be expanded in » series giving wae #42.) entire ve ay vi 0.88860, ‘Hf now we denote by 4 the proportional change in f, thet is 6 = 85, nal ep ti ViVi <0 VV TED) TU Vite) hich expanding by the binomial formula i very neasly UV} 0 42-0 = 0A Vi Henee o.so86 x 3.7 281 avi DR “DR {s tho proportional change in fcaused by the Colebrook function. Inplotting Fig. 1, the author, instond of continuing indofinitaly with the insiguiieant effet of the amall tera, and favoring the view thet f should become substantially contant in the ugh pipe zone, adopted the compromise of ignoring the variation when {tfell below about ane half of one per eet; and beyond this point the flies were drawn horizontally at the Kérmén value, ‘Th fs the chart spplied the Colebrook: formula only to the transition 86862 = sands = is m tel Mtn: wo al om perce rie Saal asareamnate san, tan ce cone inte tm = 22. eh to en Se ith he Cle ston, i fo rh Sy sans tet ne" ro cas a Saye hem oro maar aal pe cesta td npr ter a eas ‘Sowers flees coats ei in i to ene oe ue ris om te 15 rt happen ya Oe aE estan a tae eh Sto of thse nnn mr gon cc in Sali esa. T sven bl for i at i ow nn aioli pin wo edo tno fata ad ‘cv snr a cg ingpeton iashae L Wleebwinat ate ‘can be expressed in terme of the frictional loss of head in place of, Sissel we tin wy we an etn bined ure uh na gn po Putting « = 005 = ‘TRANSACTIONS OF THE ASME. NOVEMBER, 1944 where the totel hosd is given and the velocity is to be found. ‘The total head almast always includes not only the ftistion loas in a pipe syatem, but alo the ext loss, and the loses at entrance and in fittings, bends, and changes in section; and wecan seldom ‘assign in advance the value of the ftietion head or slope of the hhydranlic gradient; so that succassive approximations or trial- sand-error solutions ate still required. While Rouse's chart is casior to construct, for the reasons explained the author adopted ‘th form of Fig, 1 as easier to we. ‘Regarding the author's suggzstios as to open thannols, the ‘questions raised by Professor Rouse are probably due mainly to ‘the omission of fuller explanstion in the paper. Tt was not the intention to imply that at low velocities in relatively smooth ‘open chennels the friction loss would be independent of Reynolds ‘number, and it may well be found that in this region the loga- rithmio laws may continue to apply, at least in modified form, ‘end thet ss Professor Rouse states, ‘a general resistance graph for uniform open channels should dite litle from thst for pipes.”" ‘The author was speaking of another rogion, “open channels dealt with in engineering prectice...usually rough-surfuoed and of large cross section, corresponding to large Reynolds numabers ‘and falling in the sono of complete turbulence.” With fairly high volocitice, corresponding to large Reynolds numbers, in tho * presence of a free surface, dimensional eonsideretions require us to include the Froude number ass criterion; and in the region of compete turbulence we can fortunately afford to omit the Reyn~ olds number as controlling factor so that we do not have too. many variables to handle. ‘The author did not intend to imply that the Froude number "should eplsce the Reynolds number as «8 resistanoo factor iohenover a free surface existe” but only in the: region described, which however is within the range of ordinary practioe. Professor Rouso recognizes thet fre-surfiee phenomena com- prise a factor in the problem; bis objection to including the Froude number is merely that “the effect of surface waves upon ‘the interaal resistance to flow has not yet been ascertained —" ‘hich calls on us to investignte the effect rather then to ignore it Certainly wavemaking resistance is a very real factor both in ship resiatanos, end in open channel fow in the region of tho gravitational critical velocity, Even in tranquil flow it, still ‘may have a messurable effet; the location of the meximam ‘velocity point below rather thin at the surface suggests an in- ‘usnoe ofthis factor. ‘Tho author is confident that Professor Rouse will agree with hhis belief thet further research on open channel friction is much needed; and he commend such a project purtiularly to the civil engineers. Neither the f versus Ri charts nor such formulas ‘as Manning's, Kutter’s or Basin’s are believed to tak into ae- count all of the major controling factors, and & statistical analy= tis of available deta slong. the Hnes suggested, supplemented by’ further experiments, may yield working ehstts or formulas of ‘great valuo to engineors. Tei regretted that Profesor (now Major) Colabrole who hea ‘boon serving in the British Army since 1990, was unable to sub- mit disousion. The author wishes to thank all ofthe discussors for their useful contributions, and aso to, thank Mr, Richard B, ‘Willi for his able presentation of the paper at the Pittsburgh ‘meeting on behalf of the author.