PROBLEMS

IN

GREEK

HISTORY

PROBLEMS

IN

GREEK

HISTORY*

BY

J. P. MAHAFFY,
Fellow

Tutor

and

Cross)

of

of

the

Order

Trinity
of

the

Queen's College, Oxford'

to Ancient
'

History

College, Dublin',

Knight

Redeemer

Fellow

of

Hon.

Author

'

of

'Social

History'

D.D.

M.A.,

Life

Classical

Prolegomena

in

Greece,1

Greek

Literature,' "3r., "c.

UNIVERSITY

ILoniron
MACMILLAN
AND

AND
NEW

YORK

1892

\_All rights reserved}

CO.

(Gold
of

"jforfc

HORACE

HART,

PRINTER

TO

THE

UNIVERSITY

PREFACE

the

researches

and

Greece

the

to

have

C,

reader

in

Busolt's

of

the

German

in

few

fechuchardt's

former

in

"

with

the

by

text,

systematic

gifted

chapter
theory,
criticism

Mr.

Walter

the

great

consigned

to

discoverer.

not

of

to

Mr.

speak
Leaf,

of

body

is,

gathers
of

which

the

is

the

volumes
a

and

found

to

and

by

facts

be

first

compass,

discovered

acute

of

regard

moreover,

will

cavations
Ex-

revision

some

these

the

enriched

short

facts

large

many

There

(vi.) which

with

and

read

cite

to

This

into

been

still

that

it is there

apparently

bring

to

as

Leaf.

illustrations,

chronology,
hastily

and

attempt

the

form,

English

Introduction,

an

with

its

the

though

Schliemanris

of

see

second

the

prefer

to

just

those

to

account

"

has

of Greece^

weeks.

century

refer

can

other,

accessible

be

7th

one

The

History

will

press,

which

English.

poems,

beginning

are

mist.

of

books,

in

published

we

the

through

two

to

edition

and

the

in

its

life, and

Homeric

the

to

know

we

progressed,

light

some

East,

printed,

were

Greek

prehistoric

the

to

sheets

following

into

both

relation

B.

the

since

EVEN

the

separate
under

cautious
in

the

PREFACE.

VI

Introduction
Busolt's

to

the

to

volume.

History, of

courtesy)I

have

seen

The

which

(by

130

some

Introduction

author's

the

contains

pages,

evidence.
complete critical discussion of the same
is the general result in Busolt's own
Here
position
ex(G. G. 2nd ed. pp. 113 sq.):'The Homeric
culture is younger
than the Mykenaean, it is also
simpler and in better proportion. The former had
to

come

for

iron

use

tools,the latter

and

arms

is

in the age of bronze

l. If the culture of the
strictly
ment,
Epics does show a lower stage of technical developences.
we
perceive also a decline of oriental influIn
and

dress

the

armour,

Mykenaean,

epic

in many

but

which

threads

and

respects, in

many

of interment,

matters

the

with

contrasts

age

find transitions

pointswe

civilizations.

unite the two

The

palace shows remarkable

agreements with
heroes
Homeric
those of Mykenae and Tiryns. The
fightwith sword, spear, and bow, like the Mykenaean.
Splendid vases, too, and furniture,such as occur
Homeric

'

In the whole

been

found

in the

tomb

of

Vaphio,
Iron

ornaments.

kenaeans
Iliad

is

named

are

later metal

Epos betrays.
IV,

123;

VII,

undoubtedly
known

and

80

Iron

and

diffused

more

are

weapons

141, 144;

of later

throughout

times

25

the

and

origin.
whole

during the growth

unknown

were

weapons

279

the

opinion

to

times,

iron

beehive

than

the

contrary.
in

23;

the

the

conventional

34.

Books

Still the

use

Homeric

age, and

Epos/

of

IV

iron
was

In

for

Mythe

Odyssey
of

the

styleof

the

use

in the Iliad

only mentioned

indeed

the

to

but
respectively,

XVIII,

of the

in the

only

of iron, used
finger-rings

some

Beloch's

mentioned

far

was

of

tools

spite of

in

"

bronze

they

remains

city,and

of the lower

later graves

have

Mykensean culture,there

of the

range

and
for

VII

tools

are
was

creasing
graduallyin-

PREFACE.

the range

within

"

"

wealthy

the

the

splendour of

in the

still fresh

the

when

lonians

many

kindred

Doric

life of

the

Not

in

contrast.

features

find

the

nobles

do

serried

infantrydecides

"

It

fight

about

was

culture

of

Troy

may

though

both

the

intermediate

forming
and

Mycenae,
1

to

seems

thus

and

the
de

very

adds

have

to

earlytype

Spanish infantryof
la Roche

their

spoil.

and

his

in the

have

may

mainly

me

the

invaders/
civilisation

ruder

with

that

of

successive

Mycenae,

stages

"

stage of Tiryns, and

one

the

Prankish

with

the

of iron

of their

Catalan

at

knights,and

seized

by

victory. But

Orchomenus,

Company

this,

weapons

over
victory of infantry

day

deed,
in-

finished

more

use

cause

of the decisive

the Grand

and

sequel,the

been

been

chain

later

the

even

invaders

the Dorian

but

van,

replaced, as

unbroken

an

Probably, Busolt

The

(second)city of Troy approaching

later stage of the

to

open

1.

then

show

in

1150, that Mykenaean

to

the Dorian

of them

the

in

the combat

contrasted

be

harsh

in

conquerors.

that the earlier and

note

us

stands

chariots

was

and

Epos thus shows

of Mykenae, the

Dorian

1550

prevailed,and

^Eolians

fortresses, but

on

from

legends asserted,by
Let

the

that

to

strong

do

not

the

Peloponnesus

camps,

we

The

Epos.

in

of

memory

Epos arose.
pictured in

If the life thus

the

gold,"and the
of
In general the homes
are
prominent in the Iliad.
fore
thereMykenaean epoch was

culture

rich

"

Mykenae

Odeomenos.

Mykenaean

The

descriptionsof

the

too, knows

Epos,

even
Mykenaean culture,agree

of the

in details with

Vll

it

cavalry,
when

destroyedGuy
the

country

as

PREFACE.

Vlll

relics of

and
at
prehistoricart found at Menidi
geneous.
series is homoVaphio (Amyclae). The whole
The
long-misunderstoodpalace of Troy
in plan and
is of the same
kind
as
arrangement
that of Mycenae;
that of Tiryns and
the gold
of
akin
of
those
to
ornaments
Mycenae are
stand
in the
of an
old
Amyclae ; we
presence
and
broken
off or
organised civilisation which was
ceased
in prehistoric
on
days, and recommenced
a

different

model,

basis, and

somewhat

upon

the historical Greeks.

among

And

prehistoricdwellers at Tiryns and

features in common
certainlysome
Not to speak of details such
race.
in

pottery,

in

or

the

temples, they were

maritime
people, receiving
lands, and sending their own

the

Trojan

to

their

remains

Phoenician

importation,

objects from

Egypt,

Phoenicia

best

authorities
of

now

the

on

the

as

designs
simpler
and

products
;

later

of

above

far

all,

receptivityand
which
gives a peculiar
While
show

the

the

northern
the

other

ruder

traces

no

of

exhibit

Mycenaean

Syria,
hand

and

all the

of the
recognise in much
other
handicrafts, intelligent

can
production,which
exports along a line of islands
^Egean and as far as Egypt.

home

the

the

of

to

from

; while

from

pottery, and

said

with

abroad

successors.

are

had

Mycenae

mercantile

that combination
they show
in their handicrafts
originality

stamp

yet the

of the

architecture

historic

different

closer trade-relations

with

even

the

across

This

traced

be

in

southern

latter fact, and

Hittite

Syria than

PREFACE.

with

Egypt

in his

Phoenicia, are

or

relation

In what

order, stand
to

to

that

the

by when

tells

took

great

that of

to

centre, which

Mycenaean

the

to

existed

early wars

raids, as
piratical

Herodotus

kinds

advanced

inlaying

of

Homeric

nucleus

of

the

and

was

splendid
fire before

the later stages

Asia
from

faring
sea-

Minor

and

for
reprisals

of handicraft,such
have

work,

poems.

gone

confirms.

metals, which

light in Mycenaean
in the

arose

had

implies that

between

that

Some

also

Homer

art.

connections
and

prehistoric

destroyed by

perfectionof

tion
tradi-

true

in Greece

equally old

was

as

that the civilisation

of power

an

the

name

in

the lead, and

Troy,

however

attained

Greece,

(usingthe

of culture

centre

an

will astonish

rightlythat Tiryns

us

Mycenae
of this

it had

Homer

our

In the first place,however,

Homer

seats

great

to

ing
Accord-

has preserved a
abstraction)

He

kindred

for

which

generation.

our

convenient

days.

Busolt

reduced

poems

vindicate

they

it is certain

of

by

out

facts,now

the Homeric

of historical value

scepticsof

of

these

do

Schuchardt

amount

brought

Introduction.

new

some

IX

are

been

as

brought

the
to

speciallyprominent

It is hard

to

conceive

the

having originated elsewhere

than
in the country
where
Mycenaean grandeur
still fresh.
The
was
legend which brings the rude
Dorians
about
into Greece
B.C.
noo
(the date
need
for the disappearbe so
not
early)accounts
ance
of this splendour,and
the migration of the
Achaeans

with

poems

their poems

to Asia

Minor.

So

far

PREFACE.

Leaf

Mr.

agrees,

in

reduced

the

with

identifyit

dialect

by

late ^Eolic

of

which

to

their

home

permanent

reallyhave

may

been

been

that
with
for

composed
Asia

that

the

mercantile

war

so

it has

irreconcilable

seems

theory that the lays were

made
who
early yEolic settlers,

the

do not

Schuchardt

by

of

composed, not
Greece, which

Curtius5

E.

theory

(headds) we

It is added

Fick.

great body of Nostoi

the

were

called ^Eolic, provided

be

may

old

the

in

Ionic, but

the

with

as

earliest poems

the

Fick, that

well

as

Minor

Trojan War
of Mycenae

outside
the
Trojan pirates,who were
have
of the Mycenaean trade-route, but may
zone
seriouslyinjured it. Mr. Leaf justly points out

against

that

the

the obscure

along this

islands

Carpathus, together with

have

wares

Homeric
while
and

found,

far the
of

for the

case

Homer

the

between

society in
of these

Homer

have

Mycenae,

in

customs,

seafaring too

removed

seem

Mycenaean

to

me

the
of
at

seafaring

larger
historic

by

and

the aid of
of

differences

use

the

Greeks

the

great difficulty.Some

legitimate)
ingenuity, but
burial

the

by

and

date

Mycenaean

create

been

early

cenaean
My-

considerably strengthened
Nevertheless, the marked

seems

research.

recent

contrasts

not

allies of

Achaean

Catalogzieas

counted

(Carian)Cyclades, though much

populated,are ignored.
perhaps more

basis

The

are

which

in

the

So

by

been

Rhodes,

route, Cos, and

of

(perhaps
dress, of

iron, "c.,

remain.

Greeks

Homeric

all

what

we

to

have

been.

may

does

infer

Minos,

the
or

PREFACE.

prehistorictrading
in

the

suppressed piracy,and

have

else, must

somebody

XI

have

cannot

clusively
ex-

so

The

Phoenicians.

the

of

hands

been

perfectlyignorant of the art

to preclude any
of writing,a fact which
seems
tematic
sysdealing with the Phoenicians,though Busolt
of personal intercourse
rather infers from
it a want
with the Hittites,and a mere
reception of Asiatic
old

Mycenaeans

luxuries

leads

gradual transition

the

originalpoets

separated by

the

or

"

than

omission

and

strange

foreign

their

own

have

destroyed

day;

has

hitherto

It does

not

of the

This

published

Homer

last clause
in

my

been

therefore

is

Memoir

thirty-five
lines,five
p. 34

traces

of that Memoir.

of

by

already

bygone

to

age

editors
far

customs

to

appear
we

suggested by

unknown

the

old

more

more

suspected x.

which

on

far

Alexandrian

the

else

or

of

have

dialect,and

accommodated
habits

from

Dorians

was

of

matter

mere

alteration

or

recension

Ionic

Iliad

may

the

before

decadence

of

period

two.

of time

there

"

clearly

the

of

gap

describe

to

yet

as

the

between

gulf

considerable

they sought

trenchant

not

therefore

appeared

than

to

feel

life

been

but

me

that

to

epoch,

but

Either

the

seems

down

steps

I cannot

shown

were

Homeric

the

Sidonian

follow

can

we

its various

through

into

semi-hostile

and

thinks

Busolt

prehistoricart
such

rude

through

adventurers.

which

were

the
to

me

possess
the

Petrie
modern

that
is

fragment

quity
anti-

materially
of

Papyri, which
texts.

the

the

Iliad,

shows,

Cf. Plate

in

III and

xii

PREFACE.

established
earliest
has

lays

who

and

into

Mycenae
I

am

sorry

that

Ionic
who

one

any

will

will

and

quite

other

Greek

must

not

in

Mr.

these

likely

as

society

conclude

will

here

COLLEGE,

February

and

1892.

that

telligibl
in-

life

old

of

Minor.

Asia

calls

he

core.'

Any

records

heroic

to

legends

of

the
as

day.

Preface
of

without

my

Mr.

L.

knowledging,
ac-

leagues
col-

younger

what

improving

specify

DUBLIN,
',

love

to

of

make

when

the

far

did

aristocratic

was

help

Bury.

TRINITY

it

Iliad,

C.,

Pausanias

this

constant

correcting
I

to

even

that

of

great

the

the

Leaf

Mr.

the

and

life

democratic

see

B.

made

with

what

read

the

Of

'

society

800

Ionic

newer

that
into

together,
He

disagree

to

likely
unity

string

has

independent

on

near

old

very

critic, and

me

it

lived

poems.

were

sane

dramatic

the

its traditions
core,

any

think

merely
older

Iliad

by

now

have

may

than

more

brought

who

by

maintained
But

grounds.
man

doubted

been

the

in

the

That

researches.

newer

embodied

been

never

always

these

by

Purser

write.

and

OF

TABLE

CONTENTS

CHAPTER

Earlier

Our

I.

Historians

Greece.

of

PAGE

Definite

indefinite

and
in

"Examples

metaphysics

and

theology

in

Examples

problems

i
.....

literature

2
.

The

of

case

generally

history

.......

Special

claims

Greek

of

history

......

The

claims

~"Greek

of

Rome
in

influences

Jews

religion

our

4
4

......

Universal

Essay

histories

this

of

of

the

materials

Increasing
Plan

and

Gillies

7.

Effects

the

of

Revolution

French

on

the

of

writers

the

time

8
.

Mitford
He

writes

excites

Thirl
his

coldness

his

fairness

Clinton's
Contrast

of

theory

The

influences

His

be

Greece

8-

merits

10

and

Fasti

His

To

his

of

refutations

splendid

wall

history

Tory

accuracy,
his

Grote's

but

without

enthusiasm

1
.

merits

12

life

13

Radicalism

compared

eloquence

of

his
with

; his

13
time

14

Gibbon

panegyric

14
on

democracy
.

.15

CONTENTS.

XIV

PAGE

that democracies

Objections

that the Athenian

was

slave-holder

Athenian

and

Their

the ideal

not

of the

treatment

of the Greeks

of

Grote

practicalpolitician
of Alexander

Even

when

...

.20
20
20

later federations,and

despisestheir history

earlylegends

.22

less extreme

23

of Niebuhr

Influence

of them

Neither

24

Duruy

verifyingold authors

its

and

scenery

-25

26

accessible to all

now

Not

without
justifiable

27

II.

of

the

Greek

Myths.
.28

histories

newer

reasons
particular

suited
and

Return

to

English readers

to

29

Holm

29

Grote

3"

postulate

modern

.28
.

28

Duncker

Busolt

Pure

Treatment

The

The

background

art

Recent

Holm's

25

of Athens

CHAPTER

Not

26
.

landscapefor

Max

Greek

generally

of autopsy in

Its real size

No

23

later historians

which

in the theatre

Example

Greece,

Victor

and

Curtius
value

The

visited

historians

essential

regard as
Ernst

both

on

2 1

.22

be. fictions

plausible,
they may

Thirl wall's view

'

of the

treatment

the Great

His

19

of Thirlwall

ignoresthe

.18
.

.18
.

despotsnot infrequent

Grote

world
.

Good

Contrast

.18

in the Greek

despotism

treatment

17

despots

perpetualrecurrence

Advantages

His

ruler

16
.

Grote's

subjects

over

The

democrat

.16

short-lived

are

30

attitude

invention

rare

31
occurrence

31

CONTENTS.

XV
PAGE

fiction therefore

Plausible

generalsuspicionof
Niebuhr,

Arnold,

The

rex

The

king-archonat
of

stories

32

....

from

Roman

history
.

Rome

34

Athens

35

of art, but not

Explanation of myths by
of

analogy

Max

shown

of

language

35

...

Persian

and

on

wide

very

it

learning

"

40

The

transference

Old

anecdotes

but
The

doing
the

from

Example

myths

of

History not
Historical

value

Mycense
General

teachingof

.41
41

42

42
43
44

poems

legend only

the

44

epic poems

44

life in Greece

45

of the
Alleged artificiality

Examples

from

Pick's

poems

45

.,

the Iliad

corroborated

not

Schliemann

of the Homeric

preservedin

Social

science

exact

an

duty

false

of Dr.

contribution

41

Trojan legend

therefore

not

fresh

by

of the

account

Difficulties in the

38

39

...

O. Miiller's contribution

K.

37

implies sentimental

experience

our

mythology, expounded

Miiller,founded

is contrary to

37

theory

inadequate,because

which

savages,

the solar

Indian

by Professor

long since

35

legends in architecture

of

33

34

evidence

Corroboration

The

breed

foreignimmigrants

-Corroborative
"

marvellous

32

...

which

Mommsen
at

sacrorum

cause

Pergamum,

at

trustworthylegend

Example

of

Legends

adequate

an

invention,

deliberate

of

Cases

not

45

recent

discoveries

46

Homeric

dialect

46

theory

47

Analogies in its favour

48

Its

48

applicationto

Illustration
The

use

High
The

from

of stock

excellence
Homeric

the present argument

English poetry

49

epithets

49

incompatiblewith artificiality

poems

therefore

but

only generallytrue

and

therefore

mainly

variouslyjudged by

50

...

natural
.

.50

51
various

minds
.

52

CONTENTS.

XVI

CHAPTER

Theoretical

III.

Chronology.
PAGE

Transition
The

earlyhistory

to

Asiatic

53

colonies

53

........

for the details

Late

authorities

The

colonization

The

originalauthority

54

of the West

54

...

What

nobilityin

was

Macedonian

kings

early Greece

-55

55

56

56

Romans
Hellenistic

Glory

cities

of short

56

The

scepticscredulous

The

current

scheme

so-called

The

Plutarch's
.The

date

revised

56

pedigrees
in

of

chronology

earlydates

Olympic register

-57

58

of it

account

of Pheidon

bytE.

57

.58

of

Argos

-59

Curtius

60

since abandoned

.60

authorityof Ephorus

The
not

first-rate

.62
.

Archias, the founder

with

associated

Thucydides

of

downward

62

this

from

is not

-63

imaginary date

64

64
65
66

of

every

66

sceptic

in ancient

.67
68

critics
....

Hippias'work

Eratosthenes

Summary

66
.....

omniscient

Clinton's warning

The

Croton

Syracuse

probable occurrence

Even

illusory

Credulityin
Value

Syracuse

though supportedby Thucydides

Its

trustworthy

his dates

who

legends of Corcyra and

counts

of

Antiochus
not

.61

68
........

counts

downward

.........

of the discussion

stage of pre-Homeric remains

69
69
69
70

XV11

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Prototype of the Greek

Degrees

in this

Probably not

temple

stage
old

so

70

supposed

is often

as

"

72

Petrie's evidence

72

The

epicstage

72

The

earliest historical stage

The

gap

Old

and
lists suspicious,

of real

eighthcentury

Its

Despots

of the great

Grote's
Greek

on

the age

how

lyricpoets

of the

far

Reductio
The

despots

uses

of

an

78

78
"

81

despot
.82

of the

of

Thucydides

82-

together the opposing parties

umpire voluntarily
appointed

.82

popular view

Services of the tyrants to art

-83
84

...

84

....

-85

Examples
Verdict

85

of the Greek

theorists

86
.

-xPeisistratus

and

...

Solon

86

........

of
^Contrast

Greek

and

modern

democracies
slave-holding
Supported by publicduties
Athenian

democracy
....

assemblyan

absolute

87
.88

89

leisure
.

The

79
81

earlydays

of temporary despots
politics

tyrant welds

-77

despot

absurdtim
to

-77

in

exaggerated
ad

real

Cases

80

Questionable statement
The

of the Greek
Literaryportraits
How

Democracies.

The

"

of the

far universal

75

IV.

view
hatred

76

Sparta of Alcman's time

constitution
exceptional

E. Curtius

74

....

B. C. to be trusted

antiquity

The

The

-73

73

often fabricated

CHAPTER

Brilliant age

Archilochus

and

Homer

between

chronologyof the

Cases

71

Mr.

No

"

.89

89

sovran

XV111

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER

The

V.

Great

Historians.
PAGE

-^

Herodotus

and

Herodotus

superiorin subject

Narrow
His

Thucydides
of

scope

deliberate

Thucydides

Diodorus

92

93
93
93

of

of

Mycenae

Euripides

94

...

Lives

newly-found tract
of

94

......

^Eschylus,Sophocles,and
.

The

92

of Plutarch's

Effects

.".,......

Silence

The

inferior historians

of the destruction

Value

omissions

suppliedby
Date

.91

The

on

Polity of the

Thucydides'literary
genius
of

Peloponnesianwar

No

in
representation

No

outlyingmembers

world-

no

Greek

-95

96

Athenians
.

97

.....

wide

consequence

97

assemblies

98

.....

Athenian

save

citizens settled in

subject

towns

99

..........

Similar
Hence
The
His

an

extended

on

He

of

calmness

assumed

by
the

remains

critics of

The

Anabasis

The

army

the Ten

dispersed

real strategy

of
Injustice
Yet

was

specialfavourite

Xenophon

on

of critical scholars
.

long recognized
their return

on

...

literary
of Grote
.

Agesilausand Epaminondas "~"T-^

is

deservedlypopular

101

.102
.102

.103
.103
.104
3

05

.105
1

06

.106

.107
.107
.108

108

the Hellenica

Xenophon

.100

difficulties

comparison

Thousand

Xenophon's strategy
His

99

interest

Xenophon

of Persia

Reception of

Thucydides

weakness

101

specialproperty

of

maintainable

grammatical
in

99

.....

not

underrated

The

the scholastic

of his

account

empire

Thucydides
.

Herodotus

The

Republic

Athenian

glamour
is backed

He

in the Roman

defect

.109

CONTENTS.

XJX

VI.

CHAPTER

and

Theories

Political

in

Experiments

the

Fourth

B.C.

Century

PAGE

Literaryverdict

of the

"""Grote's estimate

policyof

war

His

miscalculations

Advantages
The

with

.in

Plato's
.

.in
112

citypopulationagainstan

of yeomen.

army

againstcitizen troops
necessarilyseparatists

States

.112

of mercenaries

smaller

113
.114
.114

at federation

Attempts
The

.no

Pericles
.

depended on

Pericles,compared

of

The

againstdemocracy

critics

of modern

Vacillation

He

Greeks

second

115
116

Confederacy

Athenian

116

its details ; its defects

Political theories in the fourth
Greece

and

Persia

Theoretical

century

117
historian
practical

the

to

even

.117

politics

inestimable

1 1

.118
.

118

Plato

118

Xenophon

118

Aristotle

Sparta ever
Practical

admired

model

State

imitated

never

wiser
legislation

Spartaa
small

but

119
in modern

than

in Greece

for the theorists

.

Europe
.

119

.120

preferred

120

Plato's

120

successors
on
suffrage
generalagreement; (i) especially
restricted
was
necessarily
though their suffrage

Their
even

Can

result
practical
real

Formal
Real

at the

.122

ever
new

be

disregardof
.

educated
sufficiently

it
.

force

of

.123
.123
.124
.124

religion
always demanded

the property
religion

122

Roman

in Rome

democracy

Christianity
gives us

.121

State affair

(2)Education to be a
Polybius'astonishment
The

by

the Greeks

exceptionalpersons

ba

.125
.

125

CONTENTS.

XX

PAGE

Greek

views
in

music

on

; discussed

in my

of

Evidence
Alexander

the

Mortality of

even

and

modern

largeideas

of

Demosthenes

another

in

the

the

importance of

quantity

.130

.130

Century.

culture

this

.131

.132

.132

history

Macedonia
.

different estimate

of the ancients
.

Philip's
victorycertain

Demosthenes

fightsa losinggame

blunders

of his later

with

Compared

Hellenism

in

ruinous

despised
feels he

author
and

politics

is

of small

Greek
Its

and

democratic

appear
from

be

internal

139

.140

cracy
againstdemo140

.141

Aristotle

141

.......

.141
142

transitory
essentially
causes

139

splendidresults
to

139

free States

137

fightinga losinggame

patriotism

135

Machiavelli

34

135

its advocates

education

.138

.......

The

134

.136

Phocion

often

men

policy

133

136

of the conflict
.

131

foreignpolicyfor Athens

129

Demosthenes

on

Conditions

The

Fourth.

figurein
a

.127

Demosthenes

on

Schafer

Old

of Greece?

ideal

.127

VII.

spreadingHellenic

againstPersia,or

The

made

incommensurable

an

policy

is to be the leader

Very

anticipations

Politics

Isocrates,his anti-Persian

A.

.128
.

practicalpoliticians

Grote

perfectconstitutions

of Greek

sees

Politeia

new

Practical

He

.128

CHAPTER

Who

ignore Alexander

to all the theorists

was

Contrast

ideal

Aristotle's Politics

No

Studies
.126

Aristotle's ideal

*Ar

and

Greece

Xenophon's

The

Rambles

142

.....

143

XXI

CONTENTS.

PAGE

The

of America

case

The

demagogue

143
.

Internal disease the real

Phocion

as

"

of decadence

cause

which

; but

saw

dark

His

character
professional

The

affair of

the verdict

The

modern

ignored

Demosthenes

as

an

ground

the Greek

of

just?

acquittal

have

above

our

.146

national

morality

of Greek

course

periodmuch

Nature

of

our

Alexander's
Grote's

Its

He
He
His

earnestness

149

149

"

history

place in historystill disputed

acceptingevidence

attribute calculation

development of
of

gold

153
153

valour

155
155

.156

againsthim

genius

to

155

to

50

Great.

the

how

151

157

.157

.158

.158

militaryantecedents

discovers

50

VIII.

neglectedby English historians

in

-152

apparentlynatural

des Hellenismus

learns to respect Persian

Diffusion

.148

spontaneity

Alexander's

Droysen'sestimate
to

.148

authorities

unfairness

Tendency

15

his art is to be

Droysen'sGeschichte
This

it

Alexander

further

147

CHAPTER

The

J45

century

own

effect of his rhetorical

perfectionof

Walpole

means

of Greek

average

145

"

of Demosthenes

case

the
justified

Demosthenes

The

.146

patriotsof
the

analogous to

Deep

advocate

againstDemosthenes

regardspracticewe

Low

*44

end

"

T44

expounded by Hypereides
Morality of politicians
Modern
sentiment
at least repudiatesthese principles

The

Harpalus

Was

and

"

144

of his later years

shadows

The

As

"

States all in this condition

Greek

The

159
159

and

fuse the nations

loyalty

.160
.

in Alexandria

.160
.

commerce

.161
161

CONTENTS.

XX11

PAGE

Development

of Alexander's

His

imagination

romantic

pupil of

No
His

.162
.

162

Aristotle

portentous activity

with

Compared

162

views

Napoleon

.163

.163

Cromwell

and

164

.........

Use

of

Vain

164

artillery

but

envious

not

questioned
assumption of divinity

His
An

in those

ordinarymatter
asserted

Perhaps not

their wide

area

liberation

The

Spread
New

Hellenistic

IX.
Greece.
.168

intricacy

169
.

shown

.169
.170
"I7i

by thinkingmen
purely

exceptions
Dignity and

kingdoms

as

.166

169

except

of

of Greece

problems

Rise

.........

Politics abandoned

.165

of monarchies

three

The

their

Post-Alexandrian

of the Diadochi

.166

days

CHAPTER

Tumults

the Greeks

among

171

question,with

theoretical

philosophers

fatal

some

of the

courage

.172

.172

suicide

by

principle

despots on

165

173
173

'

Probably

not

wholly unpopular

Contemptible positionof Athens

in mischievous

small

and

The
The

leading cities stood

and

Sparta and
A

Sparta in

the

new

obscure

of

the

State not

sovran

federation

Disputed alreadyin

"

to

the Delian

lesser members

coerce

74

.176

.176

experiment

^Etolians,or the Achaeans

the Achseans

righthas

this

74

politics,
except

successful

aloof from

whose
federations,

largerquestion

What

and

oppositionto

originwas
old plan

Athens

"

J77

.178

.178

its members

Confederacy by

Athens

and

.178
the

179

XX111

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Duruy's attitude
Greek

different

of the Achaean

League

of the

Statement

of doubtful

Cases

internal

Various

Radical

League

Roman

of Rome

the
the

of
interpretation

.183

.185

.184

.185

X.
in

Romans

towards

.182
.

.186
.

CHAPTER

Position

Greece.

Leagues

'

187

libertyof

'

the Greeks

.187

the ^Etolians

Opposition of

188

Probably not fairlystated by Polybius

Rome

Mistakes

of

Philopoemen

Mommsen

takes

Hertzberg

and

Senilityof

the Greeks

on

excuses

question

The

party of moderate

Money
acted

of

with

counsels

would
Separatists

Democratic
Modern
and
The

therefore

Greece

modern

193

is

sides

both

tolerate

be set aside

historyof

193

194

not

tyranny

to

on

analogiesforced
not

extremes

Exaggerated statements
The

;
.

both

192

....

.192

191

Rome

considerations
upon

.190

complete independence

advocates

189

190

the Achaean

The

for interference

191

for union

advocates

Rome

.189

side

the Roman
Freeman

gave

Decay of the mother-country

The

189

the Achaeans

and

us

upon

.194

themselves

separationfrom
.

195
-195
.

modern
essentially

parallelsare

.196

surely admissible, if justly

.

spiritual
historynot

closed

195

196

.......

drawn

The

80

.181

of Cleomenes

The

179

adherence

questions

monarchy

of the several members

of the ^Etolian

bond

Looser

.......

enforced

or

182

Union

for coercion

Arguments

yet settled except by force

never

of the American

Case

.180

difficulty

new

its clearest form

In

question

very

sentiment

Nature

this

on

with

the Roman

conquest

197
197

XXIV

CONTENTS.
PAGE

The

Have

the Greeks

is it

The

Stoic

share

in

.199

200

....

200

religion?

our

201

....

the New

201

Testament

teaching

........

in Saint

Paul

elements

.......

altogetherSemitic

Paul's

Saint

studies
no

language of

period

Julian,Plotinus

Anthology, Lucian,

Theological Greek
Or

'

great bequestsof the Roman

The

exclusivelyGreek

202

202

203

.......

The
The

Stoic

sage

203

.........

Stoic Providence

203

........

John's Gospel

Saint

Neo-Platonic
The
The
The

Cynic

doctrine

of the

Logos

independence of all

Epicurean dependence
of
university

politicalhistory almost

in
especially

Importance

of

Greek

Its effect upon

Demands
Other
The
The

and

Theocritus

of

art

.208
.

209

210

Gothic, Renaissance
.

.208

and

Roman

in this

Essay

study of

the

give way

to

209

.212

.212

in the Greek

language
to

imitations

209

.211

properlyappreciated
.

be content

late flower

life

our

art when

qualityof
.

.207

"Winckelmann, Penrose,

detail of

Virgil

the

superior
.

of

"

hardly noticed

only a

revival

languages must
nature

modern

styles,

good knowledge

case

are

of ancient

Hellenic

literature

practical
politics

Germans

studying Greek

every

upon

private property

lived in

and

Dorpfeld

Greek

the

only recentlyunderstood.

art

and

art

revivals

Probabilityof

.206

history
literary

or

the French

Modern

themselves

in artistic

where

206

....

207

English writers,

so

friends

Greek

Not

205

.....

Athens

indestructible

have

205

.....

men

upon

Greece

who

.204

this

.212

.213
.213

pursuit

214

.215

215

216

garden of poetry

APPENDIX.
On

the

Authenticity

of

the

Olympian

Kegister

217

GREEK

IN

PROBLEMS
HISTORY.

CHAPTER

"

THERE

i.

which,
fame

at

least,admit

ever

of the

but

ever

difficulties and
and

to

newer

I will cite
vious

out

for

once

of final solution,to the

and

far

all,or

lastingblems.

well

as

There

man.

^ "^f"

to
are

interesting,
being solved,finally
perhaps in the
of his generadiscoverer,and even
tion,

numerous

are

GREECE.

Definite
problems and literary

benefit of civilized

more

opinion

worked

OF

that finds that solution,as

the permanent

which

be

can

of him

others,

scientific

are

which

tasks

HISTORIANS

EARLIER

OUR

I.

arising again,
fresh

more

offeringfresh

and

attractions

to

generationsof men.
the largestinstances,as

illustration of this second

other

the

ob- Examples

most

The

class.

minds

deep

j^i
meta^

physics,
mysteriesof Religion,the dark problems of Knowing and Being, which have occupied the theologian
and

the

metaphysicianfor

stillunsettled,and
which

men

there

does

is

not
B

thousands

of years,

hardly

an

attack

these

age

are

ing
of think-

questions

EARLIER

offer

afresh, and
for the

in these

feels there

mankind
contained

in

But

Examples

will

tendency
kind.

show

can

old

till

attained

the

loftyfor

too

we

my

pertinacious

same

literaryproblems of

re-solve

to

and

the

of

is

craving for that

instances
1,1

than

mystery

be

never

are

present purpose

that

face.

to

these

perhaps

covered,
dis-

it is rather

manipulation

new

in literatnre.

in the

satisfythe eternal

things face

been

have
;

we

can

accepted explanation,

once

which

rest

Nor

race.

adduced
more

solutions

new

facts

new

is

some

to

arguments
know

the

by

endeavours

mental

cases

evidence

new

or

and

human

of the

[i.

GREECE.

OF

systems

new

acceptance

that

say

HISTORIANS

far humbler

striking is the fact that the task

How

translatingcertain great masterpieces of poetry

seems
never
completed, and that in the face of
of

scores

of

attack

afresh

generation of scholars will

CornDivina
Iliad, Dante's

versions, each
Homer's

media^ Aeschylus'Agamemnon,
There
Faust.

How

many

there

Divina

Commedia,

I have

the former
we

may

there

be

not

generationfind
"

the

himself
the

same

but

Iliad
each

only

ideal

new

in

by Pope
new

made,

so

year
often

does

sion
ver-

each

translation,
is

now

aspirant

renderings of

best ; and

attempt

Not

of

of the latter

library,and

last.

the

but

\
of

and

certainty that the latest

the earlier

loves

Iliad

ascertained

not

of the
"

of the

are

whole

itself

for

scorn,

with

see

the

fine version
with

he

is

predict with

will

Faust

believe, forty English versions

are,

Goethe's

and

garded
re-

contented
is dis-

the passages

after
with

year

we

great but

I.]

HISTORY

NO

with

never
are

have

been
in

weaknesses

old

the

in

beauties

more

there

For

universallyaccepted success.

always

than

FINAL.

masterpiece
there are
always

conveyed, and
which
the translation,

after

show

littlewear.
eternal

This

masterpieces of

in great

freshness

The
of

1-1

...

poetry which

tempts

ever

great historical subjects,especiallyin

be

found

the

historyof those nations which

in

mark

the world's

on

prospect that

France,
have

for

even

long

evidence

of any

likewise

the

Rome.

No

discovered

the

with

the

is

well-sifted

materials

rearrange

old

facts

be

is

and

the

Such

and

material

month's

is

ging
digdoubt

of

appreciation even
serve
theory may
them

present

of

new

speculation.No

new

no

or

no

found.

in

may

in the

oscillation

an

which

frequentlynew

of

manent
per-

periods which

upon

can

excavator

find stuff for years

there

There

histories of Greece

there is

doubt
;

of the

importance

case

satisfied with

elapsed,and

since

left

of England
brilliant,

account

an

have

progress.

will remain

men

however
histories,

extant

also

translators,is

new

in

to
new

light.
But
to

quite apart

re-handle

sake
very

of

these

re-handling them.
to

the

the estimate

In

drawn
for this

'

existing records

placed
from
reason

will be found

this,men

great histories merely for the

latest of these attempts

nothing

and

all

from

their

upon

them
the

are

the

Though
of
value

we

Greek
and

of the
can

add

history,
the

clusions
con-

constantlychanging ;

story which
B

words

has

been

case

history
to
generally.

told

so

often will be told

as

it continues

that

Greek

his-

is,let

have

to

hope,

us

far greater,
than

that

other

schools.

our

higher

real

leading to

in the

knew

Roman
to

law

and

And

reduced

to

no

other

ancient

yet

gion.

owe

ment

its very

been

been

Rome.

"

reli-

has

to

the

Mr.

Evelyn

any

philosophy,
of politics.
was

and
a

can

the

corrected,

popular

be

named

that
Abbott's

the

as

in

and

Here

it has

the

is

among

Hebrews.

case

that while

truism

of intellectual
one

teachers

proportions,there

that

in

speculation.

Roman

our

modest

Greeks,

and
civilization,
1

Hellenic

great exaggeration,and

have

we

recognized

that this greatness

except

It is still

a^

It

respects great, every

some

from

nation

sifted

life.

attributes

the science

of
originality

schoolmasters

there

our

the

*s

our

in-

when

probably
various,

of
practicaltreatment
certainlyadmirable, the theory

derived

was

more

; if their

politicswas

of the latter

in

confessed

Greeks

the

due

becoming

in art, in
in

even

was

and

and

modern

now

Romans

sciences,nay,

people are

our

is

has

this interest, since

subtle

Nobody

the

If their literature

Greek

"

generationwhich has begun

general teachingof Greek in

agitateagainst the

to

Jews.

long

so

continues

Greece

its

upon

this truth
the very

by
universally

ofthe

mankind

as

certainlymore

of any

those

is curious

and

long

" 2. Perhaps the history of

right than any other to excite

claims

to time

interest for mankind,

an

so

time

the effects of that country and

tory-

The

from

anew

[2.

GREECE.

OF

exist.'1

to

Special

HISTORIANS

EARLIER

not

of
we

artistic refine-

great department

highest, we

owe

History of Greece, preface.

of

them

2.]

THE

nothing,but

are

debtors

clear revelation

the

truisms, this

such
but

the earlier

the

by

show

of the

has

Semite

"

contains

statement

how

many

truth,

some

When

have

we

shall

far the

revert

from

veyed
sur-

to

this

favour

prejudicein

the Greek

ousted

Like

Jews.

centuries,we

question,and

spirit,to
veyed
dogma con-

the tenacious

great deal of falsehood.

5
Semite

the

to

and

world

the

to

GROWING.

SUBJECT

his

rightful
serious
place. Even
history is sometimes
unjust,
the hasty generalizations
much
of theologians
more
mere
or
literarycritics. For the historyof religion
will be found
to rest, like everything good which
we
basis ; but of course
Greek
a
possess, partlyupon
mainly on that portion of Greek history which has
our
only recentlyrisen into public notice among
the spiritualdevelopment
the later and
scholars, I mean
"

the

of

Alexander
under

brought

when

the

the

whole

conquests

of

world

ancient

its sway.

So

the

evidence

speak
keen

had

nation

of

of
the

labour

lungen of

still

subject is
books

is

yearly
of

as

quite fresh,and

yet unexhausted,

increment

obtain

we

The

excavators.

many

the German

even

Institute

at

the Increasing
m

not

from

to

the

Mitthei-

tin
Athens, the Bulle-

the English Hellenic

Correspondencehellenique,
the daily papers
at Athens, teem
Journal, and even
de

with

the newest
with

of

accounts

the

wonderful

discoveries.

new

guide to Greece, the

older

books

increase

antiquities. These

of

in

our

recent

the

Guidekind

of

Joanne(\891),
will show

knowledge
books

comparison

of

and

the

pre-historic
reviews

are

EARLIER

following in
than
Plan

"

of this

the

researches

great
we

3. What

set

excels,and

I shall

deficiency.

well

of the

then

notice

additions
by interesting

to

last of

in

doing

disputed

generalway

may

for

room

seems

of

in

all be
in

but

subordinate
fact

the

upon

'some

of Greek

accessible

"

problems

4.

unjversai

to

the

need

still

there

lishing
estab-

better

but

of

not

yet

day.

our

will

occur

general plan, which

of Greek

Greek

history,
We

history.

reflections

the

upon
at

are

shall
artistic

last

becoming

the

period

largerpublic.
not

go

Histories, such

Rollin, which

fresh

any

where

upon

life which

on

from

teaching

not

are

in

for the

this

to

more

ascertain

digressions may

essay,

with

conclude
lessons

an

those

already discovered,

occasional

Whatever

; and

non-controversial

expected

current

since

which

shall

discovery or

the

corrected

appeared
on

conception
mis-

evidence, even

we

be

be

to

history,and

truths

accepted

is

what
Greek

in

attempt

current

and
practical

means

of

some

speculative questions
this

each

still shows

and

By

tions
genera-

them

errors
our

the

by

in which

this

in

this

in

followed

largerhistories has
shall specially
touch

our

principleomitted
books.

of

each

some

the

do

last three

points

as

as

present century.

general lines

where

whose

problems

new

therefore, to

main

the

more

solve in the

the

[3.

GREECE.

Schliemann,

us

of Greece

show

to

histories.

have

Dr.

purpose,

great historians

Universal

of

is to review

Essay

them

wake

likelyto

are

OF

HISTORIANS

were

back
as

to

that

of

only adequate

Bossuet
before

or

of
of

special

4.]

GOLDSMITH

FROM

accumulated

studies

had

records

of each

there

acknowledged

the

even

experience of
it

as

Mitford

the

only

the

down

by

the

to

of

is

but

the writer's

the

opening

of

antidote.

Augustus, when
in eight volumes,

edition,a statelybook
There

his famous

1786, Gillies,

in

later,

the author, thirty-five

years

reign

lack

no

merit

of

standpoint

and

it stimulated

Gillies,first published

of

work

Gillies

of

because

write

task

the

totally forgotten ;

now

remembered

enormous

larger Greek

first

those

are

former

to

continued

was

the

successor

Yet

me

The

day

19though

for

insufficient

were

to

3,"

latter

great

known

the

and

the

own

our

histories

genius

presents itself2.

now

histories
of

Ranke

In

nation.

universal

wanting

not

are

from

materials

vast

separate

MITFORD.

TO

will be

his Dedication

work

King

from

apparent
the

to

lished.
pub-

was

the

in

sixth

the

'

Sir,

the

the dangerous turbulence

historyof Greece exposes
of democracy, and
arraigns the despotism
of tyrants.
herent
By describing the incurable evils inof republicanpolicy,it evinces
in every form
the inestimable
benefits resulting to liberty itself
from
the
lawful domination
of hereditary kings/
1

More

they are
2

Mr.
3

The

in

much

better,in

France

of his work

has

recentlybeen

Prothero, of

King's College,Cambridge.

but

have

seen

Cast's

Goldsmith's

hundred

years

through at

and

Germany

than

England.

first volume

(1739),and
O.

and

numerous,

not

read

History in

History of Greece,published in

Handbook
ago,

Stanyan'sGrecian

is

all of which

least six.

They

of

one
are

have

number

forgotten.
LOW

no

translated

Dublin

by
vols.

(1793).

published about
Of

value.

these I have

looked

EARLIER

HISTORIANS

[4.

GREECE.

OF

One

Effects of

Revolution
on

ters

the

wn-

might imagine Gillies a Hellenistic author

dedicatinghis work to a Ptolemy or a Seleucus.
It is clear enough, though I know
the details
not
"f

that tne

1^

ms

^a(j sunk

deep

of the

the

case

of Mitford,
in Greek

education
Mitford

his

into

of the French

soul.

This

residence

long
with

St.

1777 from

Nice

of that

day.

France, he found

importance, in

and

of

fortune,whose

the

him

brought

Villoison,

and

Grecians

famous

gentleman

whose

but
early interrupted,

was

at

Croix

Revolution

is quite certain
^

\
m

time,

horrors

into
of

two

After

himself

the

most

his return
man

Yeomanry

same

contact

in

of leisure
corps

with

Gibbon, whose

friendshiphe gained,and at whose

suggestionhe wrote his once
popular history1.
Mitford
in a Tory spirit,
and with a distinct
writes
wrote
of Greek
history
feelingof the political
significance
tor7ofS
Greece
;
He
had upon
his
as
an
men.
example to modern
side the authority of almost
great thinker
every
produced in the days of Hellenic greatness. All
in their picturesof ideal,as well
these speculators,
a

their

as

criticisms

of

the

thorough-goingdemocracy
the

as

main

of the

cause

actual, States, regard

as

an

evil,and

early decay

its abuses

of Hellenic

point with respect and pride

and consistency of Spartan life
to the
permanence
as
likelyto proindicatingthe sort of government
duce
the best and most
enduring results. Mitford,
therefore, not only deserves the credit of having
taken
historyas a political
study, but he
up Greek

greatness.

so

They

It is remarkable

far

as

I know.

all

that he

never

mentions

his contemporary,

Gillies,

5.]

themselves

Greeks

the

far

literary classes, so

The

radical

their

of

is extant

what

as

it

were

was

subject.

judge from
not
usually

can

we

opinion

the

upon

works,

and

democratic,

or

of learned

the body

undoubtedly represents
among

MITFORD.

AGAINST

REACTION

in

natural,

very

generationwhich had witnessed the awful results of

democratic
a
upheaval in France, to appeal to this
evidence
as
showing that the voice of history was
and
to the masses,
taking it
against giving power
classes,of

the

from

popularityMitford

What

be inferred from

of Thirlwall
It

" 5.

is very

of them

by

that

author

each

satisfied with
not

have

entered

his rival's

began
1

his

The

to

the

death

by

the

Lord

edition
of

the

many
of

himself

task, had
that

1829

he

that

other

has

his younger

had

an

so

would

known

he

of

hard

seems

Thirlwall's

earlier than

vols.,published in

Davenport.

anti-

strong

This, however,

Mitford

both

and

It is also remarkable

years

Redesdale,

Agesilaus,where

R. A.

the

for

dates,seeing

in 8

time,

same

of the

work

(second)edition

historyby

the

he excites

(likeGillies' refutations.

explicitlydeclared
upon

appear

new

cabinet

at

famous

two

undertaken

been

undertaking.

fit in with

to

the

called

he

monumental

these

that

curious

of Mitford.

republican views

l,

of Grote.

and

of correction

way

now

demanded

that

"

nearly
Mitford's)

and

of his work

refutations, the

have

histories should

only

can

all-important fact

tremendous

forth two

attained

the editions

the

with

coupled
works

society.

any

book

that

of

defence
interesting
brother.

1835,

There

and

continued

stopped,

to

of

is also
from

that of Alexander,

10

HISTORIANS

EARLIER

Grote1.
kind
of

of

In any

work,

the former

case

therefore

[5.

GREECE.

represents

rather

I should

or

and

work,

OF

say

different

earlier

an

logicallyas

comes

stage

well

as

chronologicallyfirst.
Thirlwall

Bishop of St. David's was a Fellow of Trinity

College Cambridge, a scholar trained in all the
of the public schools, a
precisionand refinement
The

accustomed

man

of form

accuracy

He

had

what

and

Oxford

to

the classics and

teach

and

him

separates

contemporaries

judgment.
then rather a novelty,
was
from
his distinguished
Gaisford

"

enforce

critical

of

correctness

also what

to

and

Clinton

"

knowledge of German, as well as of other

languages,and a consequent acquaintance with the

competent

his

of

studies

recent

the

who

Germans,

were

then

instead
beginning to write about classics in German
of using the Latin language.
longed
bea
John Stuart Mill, who, when
man,
young
to a debating societyalong with
Thirlwall,
thought him the very best speaker he had ever
Mill were
The
merits; heard.
qualitieswhich attracted
not
passion or imaginative rhetoric,but clear,cold,
of
reasoning powers, togetherwith a full command
the language best suited to express
accurately the

speaker's
argument.
all Thirlwall's
which made
the qualities
These
are
work enduring and universally
respected. His epis1

The

dates

are,

volumes, 1846.
some
once

years.
confessed

But

Upon
his

Thirlwall's
Grote
the

says

history, 1835, Crete's

he

had

publicationof

and
inferiority,

wrote

collected

for

volumes, Thirlwall

at

his materials
these
no

first two

more

upon

trie

subject.

5.]

COLDNESS

copal charges

were

day, and

his

enthusiasm,

has

his

II

THIRLWALL.

OF

certainlythe best delivered in

exciting any
history,without ever
its high
so
steadily maintained
rather

that of recent
it is perhaps
position,
years
in popular esteem1.
risingthan falling
But the absence
of passion,since it checks
in the

siasm
The

reader, is

before

case

is

us

learningand fairness

the

It is difficult for any

wondering

his

which

evidence.

Of

the

classics,lay

Greek

nothing

since

been

proved by further
of

body

before

desired,

him

materials,

our

pioneersof

the

Wolf, Hermann,

as

accessible

left

he
of

student

In

him.

to

materials

the

and

dence,
evi-

modestly suggesting

criticisingthese

be

his fairness

^a^00

avoid

to

receivingdoubtful

were

his coldne

Both

conspicuous,

reader

philologysuch

and

to

in

in

O. Muller, Welcker,

ordering

are

the great

course

German

modern

of Thirlwall

competent

solutions

historian.

instance.

acuteness

have

in any

remarkable

his caution

at

and

K.

fatal want

enthu-

to-day

butwithout
enthusiasm.

who

boast
the

he

that

main

has

burning force

The

auction

..i

adorn

or

the

expensive.

editor of which

in the

history
.

velopment
social de-

and
political

away

nation.

But

with

enthusiasm

delight great

histories

proof

of

second

of Gibbon

this is the

suggestedthe work.

edition

price of
in

will

he

; he

passages

or

(octavo)edition

first is the cabinet

may

of all

view

accurate

picturesque beauty such

catalogues. The
The

and

with

obvious

most

m
Thirl walls

sound

carried

"

-ri

with

Hellenic

remember

never

which

the

been

have

will

questions
of

never

...

really intimate

is

as

of

those

of Arnold.

the

is both

Lardner's

book
rare

in
and

series,the

12

EARLIER

He

has

its

readers.

the

the

that

by

lenici)a civil and

*

"

of

Hither

it could

been

Hel-

Greeks

the

of

have

not

passage
seen

but
is

serious

to

this work

the

astonishinghow

detect

several

quote

his

the

volumes

ordinary habit

all the passages

for

quite unsuited
enquirer

will wonder

author

into

the

that
fifteen

appeared.
finds it to

that Clinton
is not

to

schoolboy,but
Greece

cate,
indiThe

verbatim.

history of

parallel.

no

difficult the student

in the obscurest

; and

know

accomplished within

which

with

tabulated

which

to

care

during

years

book

this,

"

the Fasti

mean

and

Asia, arranged
examines

has

gests
sug-

mention

student

literarychronology of

patience and
Any one who

It is

torret.

properly speaking, a
for the fullest possiblehistoryof Greece, with
offshoots, such as the Hellenistic kingdoms

all its

merits,

Mitford

Lumen

some

similar

very

modern

Thirlwall

omit

to

he

Augustus1.' It
terials
history, but the ma-

is not,

His

not

of

say

offenditet

the earliest times to the death

from

Bacon

qualitiesin

ought
of

great work

too, stimulated

of

words

of these

to

for
passionless

ingenia madida

mention
me

and

dullest

Thirlwall

to

like

instructive

the

it not

unfair

cold

use

et aridum

to

Clinton's

is too

To

The

of

be

historian

the most

be

period, were

[5.

GREECE.

of

type

would

would

dull,but he

OF

the

work

whose

possible on
writing. It

siccum

him

before

Hallam,

is

HISTORIANS

to

any
it is

indispensable.The influence of Gaisford,

positively
then
probably the greatest of Greek scholars,ob1

Published

effect upon

him

by the Clarendon
in his

Journal.

Press.

". linton

alludes

to

Mitford's

6.]

THIRLWALL

book

for the

tained

Clarendon

knew

had

have

been

able

abridged him
Even
supersede him.

to

obsolete, he

or

be corrected

can

has laid before

he

style,make

of all

abnegation

to

except
$ 6. For

passion,the

able
unapproach-

specialist.

the

ness
perfectcold-

the

book

the

never

he is wrong

of all

absence

lated,
trans-

full materials

the

But

his

have

when

by

the reader.

reasoning,the

of his

indeed

they

he

though

mastered

since

re-edited,and

the

calmness

and

completely

so

the Germans

subject that

13

with

worked

quite exceptional;

German,

no

CONTRASTED.

adequate setting of

the

Clinton

Press.

deliberation

and

GROTE

AND

Thirl wall's

reason

same

great

Contrast

and

of

G rote's life.
1-111

solid

by

ousted

was

they

unlike

can

both

were

knew

Instead

cautious

statement

highestof
Liberal
business

ditions,a

in

as

of

well

i-

public

favour

Two

minds

history.

Greek,

as

cold,calm

and

virtues

both

from

once

hardly be imagined, admitting that

hard
and
honest
workers, and that

German

French.

at

of Grote's

the appearance

more

both

book

of

religionand

and

collegedon, loving

accurate

; instead

Latin,

rendering
mild

as

the

orthodox

and

politics,we
"

have

foreignto university life and its tra- His theory

Positivist in philo-is^
a
sceptic in religion,

man,

lc

above
all an
advanced
sophy, and
politics,
invading the subject hitherto

Radical

in

thought the
and
of the
pedagogue or the
preserve
apanage
he occasionallymissed
the exact
pedant. Of course
force of an
optative,or the logic of a particle; he
excited
accuracy

the
in

fury of
Greek

men

prose

like
was

Shilleto, to
the

one

whom

perfection,

EARLIER

14

HISTORIANS

all the

containing

he

far worse,

was

Law

The

from
He

in-

from

the

^rom

days

its horror

reaction

at

Europe

when

the

of, the

because

States.

Greek

old

what

would

He

of the

one

with

be

com-

G^onWlth
history among
this

to

Gibbon's

as

on

book

the

century

monument

There

are

the

Greek

the Homeric

voted

for

and

Decline

many

It is

argument

States,
all

of

the

rule

ples.
princi-

marshalled
and

when

and philosophy,
religion

and

probably
very

Fall, will

ever
that, how-

it will
criticised,
the

great histories

though
and

only

not

remarkable,

so

be corrected

superseded.

in

verdict

in

his Radicalism

it may

be

never

which

idea

its fire to his

facts,but lent

produced
To

spite

variety of these

of democratic

in vindication
this

was

much

its

of

enlightenedfew ; and he wrote

called a great political
pamphlet in

be

combined

who

suaded
per-

in

not

the

accept

not

was

results
political

and

number

theorists

volumes
It

his

He

the

or

may

twelve

the

of

and

restorations

because
of, and
history were
prevalenceof democracy among

Greek

the

Revolution,
in.

setting

was

recov-

was

monarchical

that the great social and

and

dishonesty,

world

the French

the

against

central

in

was

prejudice.

lived in the

hiTtime^
ermg

dence
evi-

theories, and

quite capable of being unfair,not

but

misstated

and

his

against

What

Prophets.

mistook

even

bore

which

the

and

[6.

GREECE.

OF

greatest

produced

inferior in

style

rank

to

next

it

English historical genius.

such as those
chapters of speculation,
myths and their historical value, on
Socrates and the Sophists,
on
question,
of

6.]

VIRTUES

THE

mark

which

moulding

the

even

been

have

subjects,and

obstinate

most

of

he

where

his

There

Syracuse,

at

the

tragic gran-

the consummate

art

his

somewhat

predecessors,that

Greek

great

with

events, and

of the

deur

with

himself

saturates

so

who

the battle

on

defeat

Athenian

the

Platsea, or

gradually

scorn1.

that

as

tive
respec-

opponents,

with

rejectedhis theories
chapters of narrative,such

are

their

since

ever

first

at

history of

in the

epoch

an

DEMOCRACY.

OF

of

unpolished style takes their colour and

rises to the full dignity of his great subject. But
adorn
which
the many
the greatest novelty among
is his admirable
work
his immortal
apologia for
democracy,

the

are

discussion

defined

masters,

with

magistracies,and

liable to indictment

abusing

these

of the

book

body
the
1

alternation
Thus

Jebb,
of

the

Theodor

who

Bergk,

Zeller's latest edition

work,
Both

treats

the

the recent

acknowledge
the Greek

book

recent

scholar

the

in

in

on

now

Homeric

histories

is indeed

maintained

of

reference

Grote,
by

to

Professor
the views

theory.

Thus

Philosophy, a masterly

of Greece,

fullythe great merits

myths

Grote's

mainly

constant

commanding

inclined

History of Greek

Sophistswith

of

voluntary
this kind,

theory, by

primer had

advocates

of the

German

the

.earlier

an

of

men

same

whole

the

the

control

of the

exceeding

occupied

to

of

terminable

for

how
illustrating

of the free citizen

submission

to

powers

He

powers.
in

the

decision

in the

the

not

servants,

His

whose

Holm.

to

Holm's

pane-

Democracy,

where

the administrators

where

nation, appointed

or

quei

where

government

acquiesce

to

; and

majority

of

of

result

feels bound

minority
law

form

that

for

"

is the
legislation

the

elo-

and

clumsy

of the

His

Grote's
and

attitude

views.

Busolt's,
towards

l6

EARLIER

HISTORIANS

[7.

GREECE.

OF

and

obeying, and the loyalty and patriotism thus

far higher social factors than the
engendered, were
enforced
of the masses
or
unreasoning submission
the dictates of

to

Objections:
that

"
*

demo-

cracies

are

To
7.
'

Greek

that

"

the fickle and

contemplated human
must

be

more

might

subject
he

^on

democrat
was

slave-

holder

its

tna^

exhaustion

of their dreams

and

urged that

that

done

Another

that the

to

for the

nothing

the brief bloom

and

long life,but

was

high culture

Spartan
world

of Attic

of the
tability
respec-

in

parison
com-

genius,

objectionto the positypicaldemocracy, and that

serious

more

Athens

of

Still

decay.

not

centuries

and

permanent,

as

State

ideal

never

the real test of the excellence

and
body politic,

with

themselves

theorists

the

have

great life,was
had

rapidlydegenerate into
of a mob, he might have

institutions

that

assumed

even

greatness of democracies

rule

these

that

result of its political

the direct

was

and
.

...

ruler

the

of

"

must

violent

close aristocracy.

objection, that

the

transient,and

answered,

or

first great

the

theorists,

short-lived;
js j^

monarch

over

subjects,

he

institutions,

Athenian

ignored. The
indeed

succeed

to

seems

practically

citizen,however

had

poor,

equal rights with every other citizen,could

and appeal to the
to the same
high offices,

same

laws.

poor,

was

But
a

the

Athenian

slaveholder,

imperial class,rulingwith
over

have

to

me

of

communities

inferiors

even

the
after all, he

the

was

one

and

the

more

or

resident

wealth
of

of

member

an

less absolutism

subjects,treating as

many

mercantile

citizen, however

manifest

aliens, who

of his

moted
pro-

city. Hence,

a
minority, controlling

7.]

with

slaves

majority of subjectsand

vast

17

DEMOCRACIES.

ARISTOCRATIC

more

or

tells us that
Redesdale
Lord
despotic sway.
Mitford
his
brother
the
this was
point which
thought of capitalimportance,and which prompted
his history. He
write
him
to
met, all through

less

revolutionaryFrance, and
among
assertions
in England, perpetual
the ideal at which

was

felt that

he

aim, and

the

neither

essential difference
the

and

as

it is to

well

as

of

should

had

enthusiasts

size of modern

sidered
con-

the

States,nor

the Athenian

between

juststated

cracy
demo-

Europe

of the virtues

certain,that many

me

the vices of the Athenian

aristocrat

being an

that Greek

modern

these

democrats

democrat.

modern

And

the

from

arose

in the strictest sense,

the

"

his

ber
mem-

privilegedand limited societyrulingover

with the leisure obtainable
inferiors,
by the poorest
from
slaveholder,and the dignity always resulting
a

the consciousness

superiority.And yet
perfectionwhich the Greeks,

of inherent

with all this,

the type of

The

Athe-

niannotthe
i

as

people,

polished democrat
of

crat
so

far

Sparta.
he

as

English
nations

held

ever

be

them

of the world,

was

been

like

and

because

because

he

he

shows

as

by
lives

wealth

In his Editorial

the

all the
under

in him

the
to

the ideal of the

copied,

manner

admired

.,1

aristo- Greeks-

the blunt

not

"

not

was

admired

copied, in

has

free institutions,but

ancient

before

This latter

aristocrat

accustomed

j_i

of Athens, but

could

traditions and

the

race
breeding of a dominant
long
the
dignity and the splendour of
and importance.

Preface

to

the 2nd
C

ed. of Mitford's Greece.

As

could

Grote

OF

HISTORIANS

EARLIER

aristocracyover

[8.

GREECE.

in
superioritywhatever
pletely
democracy, so he ignored comno

see

this,the aristocratic side

of all the

Hellenic

democracies.
Grote's

8. But, when

"

he

overthrew

tyrants, who

or

pots.

themselves

rulers,he
irresponsible

the

accusations

writers,

represents these despots

country1.

He

as

them

made

falls in with

Plutarch,

an

unmixed

in

all

Greek

aristocratic

Xenophon,

Herodotus,

"

the

of

despots,

and

governments

of the des-

stock

of the

treat

to

comes

"

and

evil to their

specialchapter as
of epidemic at a certain epoch of Greek
sort
a
that through the
the facts show
history, whereas
series of centuries, from
of history
the dawn
whole
Their perto the conquest by Rome, despots were
a
constantly
all over
the Greek
world.
currence6
"inrecurring phenomenon
the Greek
We
find them
mentioned
by scores, and in every
Even
and
Minor.
Asia
of Hellas
corner
Sparta
ceased
in time to form the almost solitary
exception.
This
persistence of tyrants shows that either the
fools,or
people who tolerated them were
politically
that despotic government
had
really some
good
itself at least as an escape
points,and recommended
Advanfrom
of this
value
political
greater evils2. The
of Greek
life I shall treat more
fullyin the
despotism,phase
sequel.
1

This

Grote.
to
to

curious
The

treats

contrast

and
justified

should

reasonable

ultra-democracyhe ignores;
the despotshe adopts without
2

am

glad

to

in Mr.

see

E.

this

be

of
objections

their violent
one

pointdwelt

Abbott's

carefullynoted

recent

word
on

and

of
with

in

Greek

estimating
historians

personalobjections

qualification.
great justiceand

History of Greece,i. 368.

criminatio
dis-

8.]

hear, of

We

IN

TYRANTS

THE

of many

course,

despots

in Greek

always

cited

history ;

of the

who

of

culture

vicious

the

are

cases

be

the

or

and

probably
The
good

number
of names.
comprise an immense
specimens passed by without notice ; the criminal
the
were
cases
paraded in the schools and upon
stage1: and so a one-sided estimate has passed into
taken up with warmth,
history. This estimate was
and
paraded with great amplitude by the Radical
And
historian.
yet the very historyof Europe since

has

he wrote

But

system.

will of the

The

had

on

long

the

ruled

part good

most

Sicyon

for culture.

monster

Whether

he

by

Aratus

for the

and

this accounts

It

was

Lycophron,

us

suppose

the character
in

of

critic

he

as

in his

for the

were

high reputationof

tragedy entitled

assignsto
the

borrow
that

the

his Federal

the inferences

III

from

have

these

whether

other

no

the

on

his
parative
com-

evidence, for

features without

century the evidence

depended

Government,

painted,and

as
generalimprobability,
against

traditional

in the next

Napoleon

was

blood, "c., depends

human

stage portrait.We

the late historians

let

bad

reallyas

was

veracityof

truth?

its liberation

the tyrants who

who

weight the

would

speaking of Sicyon,that

guards reallydrank

Galatian

But

by

painted the typicalportraitof a tyrant in the

Apollodorus. (Cf. my Greek Life and Thought, p. 283.)

Casandreans,

the

managed

citybefore

men

that

doubt

to

reasons

parliamentary
this point Grote had no misgivings.
the inspired
to him
majority was

says, when

Strabo

Thus

strong

us

is best

nation

every

l'

shown

and

Mr.

upon

upon

V.

great writers

criticism.

concerning

Freeman's

sions
allu-

Hugo's monograph,

be

even

near

des-

frequent,

procured

manners

subjects,it would

Good

that

of

governed wisely

improved

their

and

unsoundness

tyrants who

numerous

moderately, and
the

these

and

if a list could

But

of government.

form

19

violent

the

proving

as

LITERATURE.

the real

20

HISTORIANS

EARLIER

he

voice, and

experience
which

not

trusted

to

the

correct

the

even

education

better

to

[9.

GREECE.

OF

and

occasional

fullest debate

larger
from

errors

will

an

save

cited
ex-

populace.
Grote

These

Q^

practical
politician,tures

the

upon

Radical

which

enthusiasm

to be

understood

not

of his work.

has

led

him

completely misunderstood
professors
; for he
the

in the

He

alone
in the
His

treat-

"

with

the

of

more

must

the

libraryof
Far

io.

Alexander

last volume,

the Great.

Great.

which

to

him

the

all to

So

and

mere

ness
persuasive-

for

; and
a

educated

an

more

this

reason

prominent placeeven

are

the

objectionsto

his

conquests of Alexander

unequal, indeed,

was

practice,

practicalpolitician.

mere

the life and

on

and

of

case

writer

serious

more

tinental
con-

innovating theories.

most

occupy

to

practicalpolitician,

tradition

power

other

any

his book

and

learned

many
a

effects of

has, therefore,put
than

was

siasm
enthu-

accommodations

or

by

detracting

as

"

face

democracy

Grote

parliamentary life, above

to

conservative

even

of

understand

to

stric-

as

It is this very

interpret politicalmovements

accustomed

meant

sanguine

views, are

the charm

from

though

observations,

this

is

appendix

to

episode,

the story of

independent Greece, that a fabulous anecdote

vails
preof his publisherhaving persuaded him against
his will to pursue
Contrast

of

Chseronea1.

Here

of Thirlwall
1

The

which

he

his narrative
it is that

stand out

originalprefaceto
duly attained.

his

beyond

the

the calmness

in marked
first volume

battle of
and

contrast.
marks

out

the

dour
can-

The
limits

io.]

VOLUME

LAST

THE

history of the great

which
Grote

all

mark

led him

democracy

impossible and

braces

government
to

therefore

for

rich
but

and
too

But
covers

days

he

of

it

he; shows

Grote

em-

Greek

and

j^r feder-

has

interest

no

world's

history
"

the earlier

on

"

the reader

the death

of

in other

for schoolmasters

from

the

itself,
or

wonderful

of Greek

limit

he

and

even

any

of

influence
!

judgment
the work
be added

historyshould
and

of
as

stop

read

the

It is indeed

necessary

the

of

bounds

de-

^tory.

pre-

generation

may

Philipof Macedon,
to

face of

in his

complete

periods,this

age.

themselves

point ;

in

books.

in the

assertion

and

favourite

popular government

showed

the bold

he

course

of

decay,

ations"

the

before

Hellenistic

ig-

is

the

this weak

history

work

great

panegyrize his
to

poverty

great therefore
is

of

volume.

His

weaknesses

by

remainder

to

came

his retreat

warning,

with

it hard

confess

However

But

made

and

plan,and stops
his subject. Of

he will not

the

Grote

Greece,

powerful monarchy
manifestly.

Alexander
on

who

in

of

when

that

face

work.

; his love

man

all.

it at

treat

the inherent
in

his

ness
fair-

and

subsequent history,which

found

democracies
There

treated

are

care

of his twelfth

page

incomplete

have

would

of

the

absurd

conclusion

proper

rest

recovered

all-important development of federal

throughout Greece, he does not con-

the

descend

same

Alexander

hate

the

regards

of the

the

to

to

this bias in every

As

the

unfair
distinctly

is

21

was) of Greece,

it

scholar-bishopwith

the

GROTE.

and

conqueror

independence (such as
by

OF

Greek

22

EARLIER

literature

HISTORIANS

school

in

OF

[n.

GREECE.

studies, and

with

so

common

they have admitted

nothing later than
the golden age.
But
the vast
interest and
mount
paraideas in the culture
importance of Greek
of the Roman
world
have
to sketch
tempted me
the subject in my
Greek
Life and Thought from
consent

Alexander
under

Life

the

to

Roman

will

volumes

Roman

C cnque st

Sway.
least

at

reader

Any

the

concede

Greek

and
of

these
the

vastness,

importance, and the deep interest of the period

Grote
which
despised. But so intricate are the
and
little arranged, that to write upon
it
so
details,
is rather pioneer's
work
than anything else.
Mistreatment

"
*

of the

early
legends.

Let

TJ.

us

back

turn

cessors,

before

now,

the

to

passing

his treatment
which

to their historical annals.

of the

man

remarkable

results.

deliberation
of the

and

stories

all their acts

that

argue

when

He

argues

that

quantity of
theySmay'
be fictions.

and

the

to be

as

there

Here

of

the

of

the

Greeks

fixed
pre-

the Positivism

fruit and

produce

some

all

a complete recital
detail,
gods and heroes, telling

adventures,
are

the

suc-

with
gives,accordingly,

fulness of

unconnected

from, and
Even

He

about

they

bear

to

sure

was

his

beginning

very

subject,and say a word on

elaborate
mythical system

to

and

then

regarded
with, any
is in the

as

proceeds to
quite distinct

historical

facts.

legends

large

plainlyfalse and incredible,

but; intertwined
indissolublywith plausible and
have
credible statements, we
no
right to pick out
the

assertions

latter and

facts.

There

regard
is such

them
a

as

thing

derived
as

from

actual

plausiblefiction

ii.]
and

have

we

plausiblekind

this

invent

therefore, all historical

inferences
them

mind

of

of the

of

state

well.

as

legends,he merely regards

authors

credible
of in-

their miracles

and

gods

23

the

that

guarantee

no

stories about
not

NIEBUHR.

OF

INFLUENCE

Rejecting,
Greek

the

from

dence
evi-

conclusive

as

did

their inventors,

"

Comte
called
in what
mind
picture of the Greek
the
theologicalstage.'
how
It is remarkable
fully Thirlwall states this
'

of

view

Greek

the

all such

of

of

bodies

in

legends

which

legend

to

come

we

that

assert

sistent
per-

Oriental

Cadmus, Danaus, Pelops,"c. brought

"

"

Greece, Thirlwall,with

civilization to yet barbarous

all his

and

affording proper

when

But

trustworthy evidence.
immigrants

clearly his

ness
appreciates the indisputableweak-

mind

cautious

how

and

myths,

Thirlwall's

doubts, with all

his dislike to vague

make

stories,cannot

up

his mind

to

ing
shift-

and

regard these

idle inventions.
Moreover,
agreeingmyths as mere
omitted
Grote
to
he urged the point,which
sider,
conthat early art might so corroborate
a story as
its originin fact morally certain.
to make
both historians were
No doubt
considerablyunder Influence
the influence of Niebuhr, whose
rejectionof the old
torians.
often plausiblefiction,
Roman
legends,which were
in the
literary
produced a very
great sensation
did they live to see
the great disNor
world1.
1

The

first edition

second,a wholly
and

translated

quotes

Niebuhr

History more

of Niebuhr's

different and

into

enlargedwork,

English by

and
constantly,
than

from

any

history appeared

Thirlwall
takes

other

and

from

modern

was

Hare

in

The

publishedin 1827,
in 1828.

his Lectures
source.

1811.

on

Grote
Ancient

of

EARLIER

24

in

coveries
have

earlyart

since
to

seems

HISTORIANS

been

little

from

its passage

archaeologists.It
bula
regards the incuna-

as

the

construction

any

other

the

point

mental

in

of the

men

history of the

way

myths he would
further

some

but

for

admit

not

Here, then,

subjectivecauses.
which

in

nation

scepticism was

utter

masterly

the

at

came

negative attitude

faith to

easy

than
on

than

more

by Grote

expounded

the

history these great

when

[12.

GREECE.

prehistoricculture which

by

made

possible. The

was

and

therefore,that

me,

of Greek
moment

OF

advance

was

might

fairlybe expected.
"
with
the
Neither

of

There

is.

the

another

was

appreciationof

Grote,
e^Greece*'
nor

though each

been.

pictu-

Thirlwall

possessed ample
have

to

ever

made

and

Neither

of them

seems
leisure,

and

means

time, which

facts less keen

the

might have

it

than

resque

of the

habits

life and

also, connected

matter

thought

of

the country and seeking to comprehend the

visiting
geographicalaspects of their histories from personal

experience. They both

the

earlier travellers
the

traveller
from

the

Hellenic

who

had

historian,who

"

and

in those

from

wrote

tured
pic-

days

different kind

as

especially cite

explored

peninsula;but

regarded

was

Thirlwall

"

of

books

the

man

in

his

closet.
which

It

later

tati"n
generally"
regardas

ance

is in
"f

with

last

the

features

two

legends, and

tne

the

country

"

the

that

"

spent

excel

several

the

the

more

older

years

masterpieces.
in

interpre-

personal acquaint-

cssential.

tempts

the

Greece, and

recent
++";."*+..."

Krnst

at-

Lurtius

published

3.]

VIVIDNESS

ERNST

OF

25

CURTIUS.

of the

Peloponnesus
he
before
produced his history. Duruy Ernst Curhis narrative
colour
to
often gives life and
by vktor
Duruy.
references
to his personal experiences in Greece.
of great events
visit and
is
To
study the scenes
complete

so

now

and

easy

it

count

may

scholarly account

and

habitual

so

of

one

the

scholars, that

to

we

conditions

necessary

for

future

historywhich is to take a high place in

the everincreasingseries of Hellenic studies1. In
his opening chapters Ernst
such
Curtius
breathes
freshness and realityinto the once
dry preamble of Tne value
have
"nverifyi
feel we
geographical description that we
attained
led to expect great oldauthors.
a fresh epoch, and
are
the spot,
things from an experience gained upon
which
can
verifythe classical descriptionsby the
any

local features

think

that

which

remain.
of

this kind

directness,

acquaintance
rivers of

from
the

ancient

from

speaks
Thus

that he

be

of

never

avoided

at

personal
the

mountains,
wrong

inference

by knowing

that

It is

in- Example

commonly

Symposium^ which
citizens being addressed

the

chapter on
Olympia,

in Plato's

thirtythousand

was

by

new

precludes it.

example.

passage

Duncker's

many

they

certain, that

attained

that

may

an

is

themselves
what

seen

coasts, the

of the events
is

yet shown

never

are

the

and

texts

13. Here

ferred

with

Greece,

scene

"

not

Nevertheless, this

force, and

idle to

course

familiaritywill compensate
modern
Greek antiquarians,

for'imperfect
study. The
livingupon the spot, have
who
have
equal to many
discuss.

It is of

and

Olympic

does

not

games

understand

shows

at

once

the site.

in

26

EARLIER

by Agathon
number

HISTORIANS

in his

OF

the theatre

plays,that

of spectators.

[13.

GREECE.

This

is

held

that

into book

copied

after book,

Itsrealsize.

though I have long ago called attention to

the impossibility
of maintaining such an tion1.
interpretaI need
the absurdity of speaking
not
urge
from
an
open-air stage to thirtythousand
people.
The

actual

who

has

To

expect

voices

of freemen
the

is that

Athens

drama,

Other

moment.

in

the

tion
popula-

in the habit

were

fancies,which

What

the whole

all at

not, of course,

"

performance

any

ridiculous.

be

therefore,means

passage,

hear

ple
peo-

contained2.

have

ever

to

would

common-

fifteen thousand

it could

largercrowd

of human

about

one

any

reasonable

possesses

utmost

and

recovered,

now

perceivethat

the

was

is

it and

seen

will

sense

theatre

of

the

joying
en-

same

quent
given rise to elopicturesqueview of the
have

musings concerningthe
and islands enjoyed by the Athenian
landsea
as
No
a natural
kTback-background to his tragedy, can be disposed of in
the same
the top
ground.
on
by simply sittingeven
way
and making the experiment3, not to speak of
row
"

Rambles

of the
this

the last time

me

every

available

exceed
to
3

of Athenian

space,

his

10,000.

map

was

at

Athens,

such

as

gangways,

crowding or

want

of

remember
room

Op. cit.,
pp. 108-9. Duruy,
has

before

new

I cannot

i,

also
the

on

lie

reached

never

him, estimated
found

that

"c., 16,000
an

the excellent

frequentexaggerations

which
citizens,

therefore,highly probable that

It seems,
not

See

in Greece, p. 107.

number

high figure.
Dr. Dorpfeld,with

for

Studies

Duruy's History,ii. chap. vii. sect,

in

note

and

average

in Attic

the

area

counting in

was

the limit.

audience

would

literature any

sion
allu-

his twentieth

ter,
chap-

in this theatre.
at the

given excellent picturesand

opening of

plans of the theatre in

question.

13.]

VALUE

false

the

citizen

notion

If the

its benefits.
of all the

fresh

tius.
been

epoch,

Greek

too

of view

even

Society,

beyond
of
now

in

the

will

familiar
them.

reach

process
both

make
to

has

of all the
which

any

of

student

least in repro-

splendid monographs
the works

the

But

fortunes.

treasures

student

who

and
of

as

these

The

lery
galand

expensive,

Greece

chooses

are

Hellenic

the
less

the

Schlie-

Stillman,

Mr.

by

publication by
varied

such

of Dr.

Tiryns.

tanti
Dilet-

of the

volumes

begun

more

hitherto

interestingGreek

the
at

seen,

of moderate

photographs

Society,are
and

and

Mycenae

on

and

there

special discoveries,

on

the

of Cur-

have

as

country,

that

Art

richly adorned

original and
mann

or

the

with

that

specialbuildings,such

and

museums,

marks

are, of course,

There

the

history of Duruy

collection

to

of

equivalent ;

compared

and

have

published

now

in Greek

aware

history ought

and

to

expected

some

the

as

not

am

or

generation has brought

our

find

can

Nature

in

duction.

be

throughout

accessible

any

things

on

For

is bound

history

cannot

scenery

point

scenery,

heterogeneous

two

objects of interest

finest

this

picturesque

the fine illustrations

In

general public
from

of

Athenian

interests.

this

for him

But

reader.

the

love

of Greek

Greece,

visited

the

attributing to

aesthetic

writer

27

ILLUSTRATIONS.

combine

to

incongruous

of

of

conscious

attempt

an

MODERN

OF

perfectly
to

acquire

cessible
a

to

CHAPTER

TREATMENT

RECENT

The

"

newer

We

14.

of

treatment

Greece.
since

shorter

and

other

Germans,

various

the

that

Greek

of

Holm,

not

to

first
fact

history

requires

Duncker's

recently

Busolt,

volume

they

Sir

of

that

so

George
of

Mr.
and

many

work

new

special

some

Hertzberg,

of

are

of

First

more

speak

several

Grote.

still

of

then

production

par-

ticular

Curtius

In

Abbott.

of

of

history

essays

work

the

and

the

English)

histories

modern

more

mythical

us

Ernst
into

history

justifi- Evelyn
so

of

that

the

and

monumental

MYTHS.

the

to

before

are

GREEK

THE

pass

myths

translated

Cox's

out

the

the

is

(both

Not

now

There

there

OF

may

histories.

men

II.

on

justification.

reasons.

For
to

the

has

time

complain

merely

of

Max
Duncker.

to

]arge

WOrk,

history

forms

book,
if I may

But
it

was

the

regard

clear

doing

worth

up

of

and
venture

that

old
to

facts

what

particular

which
the

when

come

histories

new

reproduce
without

really

closing

to

translating

the

and

specialists

be

speak
into

period
is

old

ments,
argu-

have

been

an

English.

portant
im-

easily.

so

do

Greek

of

indeed

dismissed

out,

but

new,

Duncker's

questions.

part,

begin

may
not

are

earlier

the

cannot

we

not

think

Scholars

I4-]

DUNCKER,
and

earnest

hardly

patientenough

fail to

have

HOLM.

BUSOLT,

learned

29

through

read

to

can

therefore

and

German,

it

Not

suited

readel.13

believe
I cannot
that
English version.
read it,nor
the English-speakingpublic will ever
in the
be expected. For
do I think this should
is sadly deficient in style,
first place the book
seldom
of style,
which
are
not merely in the graces
attained by professionalscholars,but in that higher
qualityof style produced either by burning passion

require no

"

delicate aesthetic taste.

or

is not, like most

Duncker

of the
and

To
English historians,a politician.
mere
things to be
democracy are

Nor

does

he strive to advocate

views, like Ernst

that

he

and

mind

is

His

Curtius.
takes

rather

novel

him

despot

analyzed.
picturesque
tive
conserva-

so

step backward,

and

reverts, especiallyin his

which

chronology,to statements
late seemed
as
likelyto be discarded
is always sensible
He
and
instructive ;
excellent habit of making his authorities

of

obsolete.
he has

an

well
as
verve
speak for themselves : but he wants
as
originalityin treatingold, unsettled problems,
remarkable
tions
re-construcsome
though he has made
of history from conflicting
myths.

The

best

two

histories

recent

referred,Busolt's

in

as
as

Duncker
Grote

Holm

but,

as

is

by
as

no

means

advanced

I shall show

scepticism is still spasmodic,

with

touches

necessary

of

credulity,which

relief of all

so

Holm"

(I speak
scepticism

sequel,their

shall I say

varied

probably the
scepticism. Nothing strikes
are

Busolt

conservative

in his
in the

or

I have

which

in 1886

1885, Holm's

of the firstvolumes),
are

to

and

RECENT

3"
the reader
than
Return

to

TREATMENT

of these

OF

Greek

new

their abandonment

histories

bly
forci-

more

of the combinations

of E. Curtius, and

the school

['5.

MYTHS.

their return

of

to the

tude
atti-

Grote.

of Grote, whose
untrustworthiness

decision

concerning the

utter

of

legends for historical purposes

they all quote with approval. The ground taken
the possibilityof
by Grote was
plausiblefiction
which
could
not
possibly be distinguished,as
miraculous
stories can, from
sober history. Holm
'

adds

this

to

excellent

some

strong temptations
have

must

deliberate

to

the

actuated

old

invention

Busolt

devotes

and

izmo

200

histories'

8vo, of their 'short

100

the

which

chronographers

Nevertheless,Holm
genealogists1.
pages,

showing

arguments

'

to

coveries
analysisand discussion of the legends and disGreece,in the course
concerning pre-historic
of which
avoid
inferences from
they cannot
many
evidence.
Holm
very doubtful
very justlydemands

the

Holm's

postulate. that

historians

should

let the

statingof it,what

has been

what

hypothesis, and

is

modern

this

observed

distinction

which

traditions

such
Arktinos

and

registersin
accepts

" 15.
1

now

without
I

that

Eumelos,
the
a

due

there

and

tells

that

i. pp.
earlychapters,
especially

in the

exhaustive

contains

But

fixes

caution

think, moreover,

press,

to

which

eighth century

an

to

to us, and

claims

himself.

Cf. his

discoveries.

down

manifestly late

are
as

handed

in the

know

reader

and

B.C.,

are

worthy,
untrust-

the
us

have

dates
of

of

written

which

he

his readers.

even

the most

43 sq. Busolt's 2nd

analysisof

all the

tren-

edition,
recent

I5-]
chant

of

there

must

though

UNFREQUENT.

sceptics does
be

we

able

be

to

Grote's

The

legendary history,
disentangleit from

misunderstandings. And

abandoned

have

in

truth

not

31

consistentlydeny that

not

some

may
and

miracles
we

INVENTION

PURE

when

position,and

once

hold

it

old

probable that

legends are based on facts

than
purely invented, nothing will prevent the
from
sanguine student
strivingto pick out for
himself the facts and
making a probable,if not a
more

of the

certain, sketch
of

nation's

This

view

these

of

number

in

of

it

knows,

invention

almost
1

human

work

to

set

and
is

so

The

main

synchronisms,

and

with, and

case,

related
older

with

or

more

fraud, as

the

as

new

the

desire

to, those of another.

better known
or

Holm

has

artificial that

may

for old

times,

by

former

to

latter there may

all old

learned

it is generally

case

is transferred

suspicious
part,because
and

obtain

place contemporaneous

one

Of

legends* ;

chronographers to

; in the

argued.

we

the glorification
of
first,

In the

story which

less modification

itself to

Pure

of

of

attach

popular

series of facts.

legendsare

heroes

nation
combi-

new

in

old

an

before,rather than

gone

likelysource

secondly, the
make

always

and

of invented

comparativelylate
people.

rare

very

chronologyis the most

in

so

has

invent

causes

heroes

idea ;

new

will

what

to

torture
a

small

perpetually

simply invent

race

lay it aside

national

an

for

sounds

legendsthe
what

than

fiftyways

Pure

Greek

not

new

liberate
be de-

legend

this has been

men,

the

inven-

Recurren

of all human

their

rather

an

upon

accommodate
to

will

and

based

are

psychology

words

distinct

increasingwants,
root

the

in

truth

attempts

Just as people will

societies.

bula
incuna-

unrecorded

history.

and

ascertained

otherwise

the

invented

by, but for,

TREATMENT

RECENT

plausible and
fiction
therefore
not

an

quate
ade-

we

facts,or the adoption

of

previous

materials

why

reason

hesitation
fiction may

look

for

"

of

deliberate

invention,

6. There

some

own

an

are

adhered

not

out
with-

for

why

rejectthem

to

reason

cases,

reasons

example, where
in

people

gether.
alto-

we

can

historic

links to attach

invented

have

should

is the

scepticaltheory that plausible

for all the Greek
myths, and we

stronger

some

have

This

the

to

account

distinct

see

our

later students

we

of real

record

adaptation of the legends

real,though treacherous,

and

as

age,

loose

[li.

MYTHS.

truth.
guessingpre-historic

for

cause.

Cases

either

assume

may

OF

age

themselves

to

splendidancestry. Just as the heralds of our

of forging the geneday are often convicted
rations
which
connect
some
wealthy upstart with
ancient
house, so it is in Greek
history. No

signalinstances of this can be found

than the barefaced
genealogiesmade by the learned
in the days of Alexander's
successors1,when any
largerand

of the

foundations,

new

fine

more

"

specimen
and

Dionysus

Miiller,Fragg.
follows
and

From

is the

Antioch, Seleucia, "c.3

"

pedigree of
the

Heracles, given by

Graec., iii. 165.

Histor.

Althea

and

Dionysus

from

Heracles, Hyllus,and

him

was

the

Ptolemies

historian
The

Satyrus.

substance

born

direct

Cf.

of it is

Dejanira,from

in direct descent

from
C.
as

her

Kleodaos, Aris-

tomachas, Temenos, Keisos, Mason, Thestios,Akoos, Aristodamidas,

Karanos, Koenos, Turimmas, Perdikkas, Philippos,Aerope, Alketas,
Amyntas,

Balakros, Meleager,

Soter, "c.,

down

adds,

derived

were

to

Arsinoe.

Philopator,the then
the

names

of the demes

Alexandria, viz. Dejaniris,

Ariadnis,"c.
Here

is

most

instructive

fabrication.

From

her

Lagus, Ptolemy

reigningking. Hence, he
in the Dionysiacphyle at

7.]

DELIBERATE

wanted

themselves

to prove

re-settled upon

spiritwere
only invented
but

mum,

which
the

connected

Ilians and
these

which

I have

set

great record

of

late date

Messene.

by

to

learned

inventors, Lobo

told

which

conflicted

with

In

only because

the

same

we

they found

historymust

case

list

by adding

which

Greeks

know,
them

climate
were

and
over-

cion of marstories.

real

many

marvellous.
to

come

and

where

will desire to

hear Example

than

the

multifarious

cases

gend
Roman

leadj

it may
1

Cf.

of

legend has conveyed acknow-

ledged truth, rather

where

more

inquirerswho

peculiartemper of their minds.

" 17. But perhaps the reader
a

Argive,

varying evidence for older

be expected to differ according to the

estimate the doubtful

of

some

us

tales of distant

Hellenic
the

modern

way,

few

at

of Elis and

augmented

wonderful

experience. But here too

and
rejected,as
sceptical,
truths

up

the

"

travellers who

shall

instance,

show

historydoes

themselves

made

was

in honour

and

of

out

already,where

games

Messenian,

the

capitalboth

remarkable

man

Greek

deliberate
the

another

Olympic

the Greeks

lands

What

before the world

Later

Euhemerus

the

hero, ^Eneas, with

Pergamene

people of Pergamum made

mendacities, is well known.
course

Per-

Sicilian fables

enlargedthe

of Rome1.

in due

which

cities,

the

bold

of these

and

return

Hellenic

ancient

gaiE
mythical history for Perga-

adopted

foundation

33

Not
ent
differmythical foundation.
the Pergamene fabrications,
which at

in
not

FABRICATIONS.

us

-11
I will
T

M.

into

error.

R. G. i. 466-8.

Mommsen,
D

give

an

t0ry.

from

his-

RECENT

34
instance

from

from
That

Mommsen.

the

able
remark-

more

it is found.
used

who
of

kings

to

commence

of

apology.

would

find

of them

most

The

modern

who

know

to

official chapter. I

names

tuously,
story contemp-

casual

one

not

am

and

that

sure

than

more

the

in

once

passing mention.

any

does

But
ever

it follow

kings at

were

laws

were

and

times, which

Rome

that

be

from

whose
his

reformed

by

lasting

reasonable

title

very

office

"

there

For

there

it.

historical

into

created

The

legend,that

is established
man

rex

by

of little

sacrorum

"

perform
once
performed by the
otherwise
provided for

was

constitution.

the famous

kings in Rome,
usages.

from

denies

had they
wholly inexplicable
Thus
there remained
a
monarchy.

priestlyfunctions
abolished
kings, and not
asserted

Far

those

in the

Mommsen

priest of great dignity,though

importance,
s^ows

that

ordinances,

would

down

come
a

any

seven

whole

his book

to

were,

partiallist,no

not

word

one

refers

Mommsen

the

omits

Rome

of the

account

further, and

reader

an^me*

all know,

we

pretty full

without

rex

in which

connection

history,as

goes

The

the

history,all

Roman

[17-

MYTHS.

OF

kings,who
diffistated periods. The
ruled for very definitely
first shown
culties *n accepting this legend were
by
told again
Arnold, who
Niebuhr; and then came
the legend as a mere
tale, refusing to call
nursery
in his very
brilliant work,
it history. Mommsen,
with

Niebuhr,

TREATMENT

the

to

to

fact
there

therefore
were

once

the satisfaction

evidence

of

of

surviving

8.]
In

BASED

LEGENDS

the

same

have

we

way

ON

at

35

FACT.

Athens

legends of

The

king-

kings,but all of such antiquityas to make us hesi- Athens.

into
there not survived
tate in believingthem, had
and
historical days the king-archon,whose
name
functions point clearly
to their being a survival of
pensable
those kingly functions which
were
thought indisafter
on
religiousor moral grounds, even
had passed away1.
the actual monarchs
The
legends,therefore,which tell of a gradual
change from a monarchy to an aristocracy,and a
embrace
to
gradual widening of the Government
members
more
by making its offices terminable,
but an obscure, and
mere
are
no
plausiblefictions,
of what
perhaps inadequate,yet still real account
did happen in Attica
written
in the days before
records

existed.

" 1 8. Larger and more

important is the great Legends
body of stories which agree in bringing Phoenician,
Egyptian, and Asianic princes to settle in early
Greece, where they found
a
primitivepeople, to
whom
they taught the arts and culture of the East.
To
now
deny the general truth of these accounts
would

of

ascertained ;
scientifically
it is perfectlycertain that the Greek
alphabet is Corroboraderived from
the Phoenician, and it is equally certain that many
of the artistic objects found
at art" but not
Orchomenos, in Attica, and at Mycenae, reveal a guage.
1

We

be to contradict

have

not

thenes,Calymnos

few

occur

magisterial(3affi\"isand
30;

facts

in Greek

instances
to
even

me

"

where

novapx01-

ix. 286.
D

polities Megara, Borys"

there stillexisted in late

Cf. Bull,

de Corr.

days

hell. viii.

36"
foreign

and

Duruy,

in

Oriental

that, however

certain

hardly

added), in

Greece

Semitic

their

He

names.

therefore,that although early Asianic

trace

thinks,

Greeks

of this culture,they

the real intermediaries

were

merely

spark in the natives, which

itself in certain originalnonAsiatic features
But those
mark
pre-historicGreek remains.

shows
which

latent

the

stimulated

who

any

the

querors,
conlanguage of any non-Hellenic
there is, for example (he might have
of the letters,which
the names
mostly

as

in

devoted

of the

in Greece

bear

time

same

he has

the East, there is

with

early contact

the

discussion

luminous

the

[18.

MYTHS.

At

origin.

subject1,shows

the

to

OF

TREATMENT

RECENT

for Greece

in their enthusiasm

further in

even

go

rejectingany foreignparentage for the higher Greek

art2,will now
no
longer deny that the occurrence
of amber,
surely
ivory, which
ostrich-eggs,and
all

not

were

condition, prove
which
without

Holm

(G.

G.

i.

Grande

leugnet man

sonders

deswegen,

Leuten

The

weil

and

cited from
to

tone

history.

put the
of

many

3.
for the

this motive

admits

nicht

man
'
"

will,

opinion in Germany

Duruy

in the

English
of the

reader
most

text.

upon
learned

seems

The
his

Griechen

He

Greece

upon

words

guard

modern

Germans

Griechenland

die

dass

that is to Semites.

their influence

thinks
of

exist

cannot

phonizischeSiedelungen in

generalbody

I have
serve

125)

Wichtiges verdanken

earlycontacts,

which

in luxuries

far-reachingconnections.

of Greece,chap. ii. sect.

Hist,

unmanipulated

or

livelytraffic

existed, and

other

many

rude

least the

at

have

must

in

imported

to

himself
but

'Im
be-

jenen
asserts

trifling.

agree with

what

justquoted

may

againstthe
studies

on

tive
subjecGreek

I9-]

COMPARATIVE

THE

There

are

lesser

even

ology finds that there

the

Perseids

the

the

that there

fact

in the

extant

19.

older

Pelopids

in the

strikingagreement

with

re-faced

with

But

have

we

adventurous

the ruder

the

blocks

hewn

square

has

work

cal
dealingwith politilikelythan genealogical
excite

from

of these

the

facts.

imagination,

Let

us

as

the

turn

to

rape

of Explana-

latter.

approach

we

been

less

are

distorted

some

When

here

legends to

be

to

so

consider

such

story

Helen

by Paris, the consequent

Greeks, and the siege of Troy,

expedition of
we

the

are

least

at

we

theory which

as

great phenomena

language.

"

few

years

The

or

expressed

in

stories

pictorial

of

day, the conquest of the

the morning mists, his apparent defeat at

over

night,and
all this

the

victory of

the

Powers

of Darkness,

supposed to have affected so powerfully

the imaginations of primitive men
that they
repeated their originalhopes and fears in all manner
"

of
1

On

was

metaphors,
this cf. Adler's

which

remarkable

lay

and

by became

prefaceto Schliemann's

theory.

misunderstandings of the

of Nature
break

ago, with

professedto explain all such

modifications

mere

Sun

confronted

were

-.

^h"

the solar

confronted.

'

or

archl"

tecture.

stylesof wall-building
that

and

legends,which
and

later builders1.

of the

or

the

two

are

remains,

actuallybeen
"

is in

Mycenae

archaeyet
*

and

that

asserts

supplanted by the

of

dominion

something real implied.

is

legend which

were

legendsCorroboraof legends
difficulty

where

matters,

might seem
only to set before us
harmonizing conflictingstatements
Thus

37

MYTHOLOGERS.

misTiryns.

38

RECENT

TREATMENT

OF

[19.

MYTHS.

and
interpreted,

appliedto the relations,

friendlyor
the various
known
superhuman powers
heroes.
the
Helen, if you please,was

hostile,of
The

gods

as

indiaiPand
Dawn,
Persian

anc[

or

off

carried

by Paris,the Powers
in Troy.
Achilles
was

imprisoned

of

Night,

only the

mythology,

Sun-god,

who

period

of

It

strugglesagainstthe Night,and after

to his enemies.
brilliancysuccumbs

appeared

that

in

the

which

may

be

regarded

Avesta^
the

Vedas

the

and

older cousins

as

Greek

of the
mythologies, the names
pointed clearlyto their originalconnection
solar phenomena, and
of the Greek
some
were

shown

same

words.

to

It is not

expounded

be

merely
for

necessary

this
full""
f2sor"Max
Miiller,

Zend-

the

Greek

here

me

to

forms

gods
with
names

of the

expound

celebrate^

more

theory, seeing that it

acquired great popularity in England from
brilliant statement

of it

by

Professor

Max

of

has
the

Miiller in

his

early Lectures on the Science of Language. It

learned
was
a
theory,requiringa knowledge of the
various
languages as well as the various mythologies
of the
even

founded

on

Indians, Persians,Greeks, Romans,

other
It

family.
derful

branches

great

which

was

which

Helen

disposed
to

names

of
as

reallyakin.

surprisedat

the scientific

to

was

to

identified

accept

have

made

with

great deal
such

of that

won-

comparative mology,
etydiverse as possible

be

shown

be

two

Indo-European

knowledge

science, the science

new

reader

claimed

the

required,too,

by
could

of

and

The

ordinary

legerdemain by

Sarama"
from

and
men

was

who

astonishingdiscoveries.

20.]
"

PSYCHOLOGICAL

THEIR

It is

20.

now

wholly inadequate

variety of the Greek

the

legends. On

mental

daily that the

condition

as

and

that occasion

showed

length, and

at

case

false, but

as

great wealth

the

explain

to

39

I first declared

long since
theory1, not

very

myself against this

argued

ASSUMPTIONS.

more

I long

espe-

since

adequate,

in the

presupposed

not
by this theory was
primitiveIndo-Europeans
contradicted
by every- because it
provable,and was, moreover,
of the psychologicalcondi- sentimental
thing which we know
tion of any such people. The
theory impliessuch savages,
a
a dailyjoy and
nightlyterror, when the sun rose

and

set,

as

primitive

coloured
and

race,

wholly occupied
have

must

men

invented

of savage

imply
that

the

Cf. my

reductio

ad

for

be

indeed

shows

good

that

us

absurdum

Ancient

which

used

they

which

wonder

not

know

wonder

at, but
A

1872.

attention, in spiteof

serious

of the

Dublin

exceptionaland

ing
alarm-

early number

an

UniversityKottabos.
2

Accordingly,some
phenomena,

more

terror

reasonable
and

such
and

use
as

made

was

thunder-storms

adequate cause

griefto joy,which

regular dailyphenomena

of the

the

which

comparative mythologers.

and

is

to^ur^

development, and

History, Longmans,

attained
in

do

we

surprise and

does

primitive savage
to

they

persistenceof experience,

what

deal of intellectual

Prolegomena

before

before

even

simplicity2.Moreover,
men

that

time

marvellous

patent jocoseness,appeared

its

long

Seeing

ever-recurring astonish-

and

fresh

topic which

one

imaginations.

legends, perhaps

would

childish

their

language of the

them

gave

existed

language, such
ment

whole

the

eclipses,to supply

for the violent

theory demanded.
figuredin the

transitions
But

it

from

was

leading rdle of

the
the

OF

TREATMENT

RECENT

40

ignores, those

which

phenomena

[21.

MYTHS.

interest

higher

men.

It is

much

reasonable

more

view

discard

to

the

changes of the day, and adopt those of the year, as

tiful
having suggested earlymyths of the death of beauof those that loved
youths, and the lamentation
them.

I do

of this

K.

O. Mill-

for

cause

Adonis,

of

opening

of K.

turetr[bution~

views

in

K.

O.

shows
of

that

the

the

burning

that

nights

the

have

great

for her

climates

; but

the

sleepof

torrid

sunshine

than

were

We

rest

of

the

in

this

provides

drought

thus

bloom

and

semi-tropical summer.

Nature

under

and

green

cited
ex-

their

seems

in

rest

white

pall of
suggested myths

the

to

long

northern

of violence

cruelty.

"
1

of

less natural

winter, and
and

poignant regrets

of

up

meridional

vegetation in

plants in

the

express

know

far

Miiller's

that

nothing could antiquate the genius

with
which
he
Miiller,or the grace
the
plaintivelays of shepherd and

heats

men

advanced

our

But

fierce

now

much

and

old,

fiftyyears

many

vine-dresser

by

of

(inEgypt), than the

History of Greek Litera-

now

so

death

the

as

points antiquated,as
re-writingthe history of the same

subject1.
of

has
in

are

shown

book

such

Maneros

of

Miiller's

O.

masterly treatment

more

early myths,

Linus,

It is

knowledge

know

not

2i.

1891.

These

History of
The

things,however,
Greek

historyof

K.

by Heitz,but

Classical

Literature

O. Miiller has
in

very

only

(3rd ed.),Macmillan,

since been

different

for

account

re-edited

style.

and

plemented
sup-

22.]

TRANSFERENCE

THE

fraction of the great volume

small

is indeed

It

MYTHS.

OF

the

newed,

that

true

the

ideas

same

43

of Greek

legend. The

story will be

same

repeated, by

modern

society

ridiculous
and

time,
number

who

character

in

any

them

of

question,and

Old

our

{"^duty2

anec-

long

his name,

much

as

the

character,'a

'

will

the

ways

which

peculiarities.Any

stones

new

odd

societyfor

is called

these

of

man

in

with

and

cluster about

hears

recognize some

haunts

illustrate his

to

stories

scenery

what

of anecdotes

person

new

habits

becomes

told

are

under

old

same

If, for example,

characters.
and

of the

recurrence

re-

succeeding

is such
a
principle as
generations. There
to
spontaneous transferenceof myths, similar
constant

trans-

old

be

certain

older

than

to

the

having been told about

other oddity long passed away
some
we
; and
may
predict with confidence that by and by they will
be fitted on
is a
who
new
again to some
person
suitable subject for them.
be
But
what
would
inferred that the story
thought of the logic which
be

must

false from

the

down
in each

be

must

unreal

which

does

could

show

assumed

"
will
"

22.

beginningbecause
time, making itself a

by

he

because

to

that

this has
of the

some

take

an

to

been

names

and

to

home

new

it is fitted

hero

the

him

of

Yet

tale
I

attitude

very

comparative philologers.
instance

which

find discussed

legend of the siegeof Troy.

that old

it wanders

whom

is the

originallybelong

not

I will

that the person

naturallyexpect

the

true

the

lapse of

epoch, or

as

old

the
in this

It may

be

reader

Example
G

Essay Trojan
quite legend,

metaphors about

the

RECENT

42

sun

the

or

heroes.

from

and
but not

lie hidden

summer

It is to

taken

in the

fitted

take

of the

names

newer

of this famous

be

to

were

the

to

on

circumstances

all this

But

wan

place and

celebrated

[22.

MYTHS.

that older stones

certain

me

their

more

OF

TREATMENT

inconsistent

not

therefore
.

false.

with

fact, but

there

the

date, and

so

Dr.
mann.

The

contri-

Schlic-

formed

the obvious

that the

demonstrated

in the next,

re-settled
a

Locrians,

These

once

show

for

ever

lesser

that

itself about
of historic

remain

strikingdiscoveries by

for

was

on

that

these
to

they

the
matters

other

theory,
have

been

will

not

of

where,
else-

as

historic site,

much

"

the
And

site.

writers

here,

too

are

the site

total

accept the

mistaken.

They

His-

in
settled,

has shown

absence

Duruy
often

(is it

be

never

Schliemann

Dr.

city,and
prehistoric

city upon

committed

evidence

Ajax

subjectof dispute1.

which

sent

outrage

fact, how

the

the

for

historic

earlydate,

an

in

right,because
if

nucleus

some

Hissarlik

evidence

at

speaking of the controversy as to

Bunarbaschi
?) says that even this will

Duruy,

that

facts

legend formed

probably

spiteof

obscure

the

virgins to atone
mythical ancestor, the

with

sarlik,or

in

of

the

the

in

Iliom, was

or

settlement
prehistoric
conquered and burned, and
over,
again. There existed, more-

which

Iliad.

will

and

not

shrine

their

and

was

have

legend was

Troy,

venerable

donations

the

that it

again

to

town,

site of

place the

it.

Schliemann

of the

that

certain

for all the

around

Dr.

locus

random, but

at

the first

of

of

of

nucleus

clung

which

war,

Greeks

all the

of

which

necessity that

such

been

brilliant researches

chosen

as

minds

poeticaladventures
The

imply

to

even

really have

must

excited

is

of any

probably

pedants,who,
most
seem

ing
convincto

think

23.]

HOMERIC

THE

history were

If

conclusion

might

which

this

leaves

large

hypotheses

supply

to

originof

the

summary

of modern

to

care

my

Greek

this great

be

can

extracted

from

that there

very

site

the chief merit

of

and
be not
E.

that in the
doubt

that

but

holds

the wrong

been

themselves
1

The

It has
third

the other

since
edition

an

may

been

discoveries

himself

be inaccurate.
not

show
of

can

Homeric

This
certain

peccability,
of im-

mistake

to

inclines to follow

(i.96)

Holm
there

the

alleged

was

clearly

sees

hardly remain
poets had

would

conclusion
scholars

in

pledged

site.
treated

of my

(1891),gives additional

truth

Homer.

outward

confession

opinion.

universallyaccepted,had
to

It

poems.

the site which

was

historical

great struggleround

disgraceful.Duruy

view, though their details

have

of

before

comes

so-called

our

the candid

lightof Schliemann's
Hissarlik

now

is to maintain

hold

therefore

honourable,

Curtius,who

scholar

full conspectus

of

was

the

in

given

adopted, may
which
the English

What

amount

It is certain

the

found

the

desire

I have

Liter atiire,in

estimate

is to

who

great field,and

in this

research

controversy1,

problem of the

Those

poems.

first time

for the

reader

framing

in

explanation of

the

with

conclusions

what

consult

which

Homeric

know

it

full-grown,without

us

here

concerned

not

rational

that

recorded.

beginnings being

am

legend as imaginary.
of probabilities,
in

imagination

before

come

Grote's

pursuing

greatest charm,

the

to

room

results which
their

is the

perhaps

strict History not

step, this \

every

our

science

history is really a

But

us

warrant

at

rejectingthe whole

and

course

required

were

43

science, in which

exact

an

demonstration

QUESTION.

in

Greek
material.

separate

form

by Professor

Literature, being still

more

Jebb.
recent

RECENT

44
to

be

when
wealth
Historical
value of the

TREATMENT

Greek
chiefs,at a time
struggleof many
the richest capital,
Mycenae was
against the
of the princesabout the Troad,
and discipline

of whom

chief

the

of Ilion

too, is remarkable, that

poems.

wealth

and

poems.

spite

of

Asia

head.
the

This,

superior

Minor,

the

the Greek

For

the

massive

remains

of the fortifications,

guides to the
knew
historical Greeks, who
Argos only as the
head of that province,and
earlyforgot the splendour
of Mycense so far as it was
not
kept alive in
their epic Bible.
" 23. Quite apart from such particularfacts,
of Greek
teach us that the statements
which
legend
to be
are
never
despised,there are large general
of us
think warranted
conclusions
which
most
by
infer the political
We
the Homeric
may
poems.
ideas
composed ; the
prevalent when
they were
and

teachingof
epic

the

peninsulaover this greater

and
richer land is plainly asserted.
The
whole
of known
course
historyhas verified the broad fact
has
taught by the legend. Greece
always been
of Asia Minor.
the poorer
sister,and the superior,
That
Mycense was
reallythe most powerful city
in the Greece
of some
earlyperiod,is another fact
have
which
ever
suspected but for
nobody would
Dr. Schliemann's
the teaching of the legend. Even
of its truth, by the display of
demonstration
new
in the
and
of high art which
he
found
wealth
have been attempted had
royal tombs, would never
assertions of
he not been guided by the consistent
the Iliad.

the

in

was

larger population of

superiorityof

General

[33.

MYTHS.

Homeric

Mycense
preserved
in legend
only.

OF

the

tombs, proved

no

23.]

HOMERIC

importance of king,nobles, and

relative
the

of peace

usages

social

side ; the

questions
obtain

from

poems

better

than

in

the

to

expressed their
probe
done,

sketch

the

it

be

to

here.

have

my

in

age

We

and

cannot

desire

to

recent

Homeric

of them

subject was

fuller

without

the

Until

and

often

from

these

may

ofthe^1^

have

poems,

asserted
to

their

to

be

represent
own.

poets describe

by Examples

anythingwhich we know in historical Greece, without

for
The
making very large allowances.
games,
in the
of
example, described
twenty-third book
the Iliad,are
totallydistinct in character from the

Olympic
the

games,

same

Agamemnon

"

kind
and

the
known

oldest

historical

to

The

us.

of Menelaus

is

Alleged

picturesof

by the poets

societydifferent

defend

inquiry

imagine that

now

is

Odyssey
to

credit to the Homeric

verify what

that

the

recent

to

aristocratic

it is unnecessary

to

indeed

undertaking

Iliad

Social Life

Life inm

Social

my

down

set

given of the

life,seeing that they are

and
constructed
artificial,
an

other

the

on

arguments.

students
much

too

such

stray critics have

some

just,and

some

slaves ;

we

none

"

Perhaps, however,

led

attached

view

this

on

there

society described
claims

chapter

dissent,

refute

and

of

people. Every

the

chapters of

which

in its

chapters of Grote.
say

opening

Greece, from

point of

the

I had

What

has

this

if

answered

livingpicture of

; and

day

men

and

women

the

be

must

as

war

of

commons

; the life of

positionof

history of Greece

or

and

religiousnotions

the

45

SOCIETY.

contests

monarchy

of
of

totallydifferent

46

of

Sparta,which

that of

from

and

history;

the

of their

men

notcorro-

as

found

remains

in recent

years,

admit

must

at

we

find

that

the

Probably the life of the great

do
whose
not
rnen
splendour we have unearthed
of the same
things
correspond to the descriptions
This has been the subjectof a special
in Homer.
book
by W. Helbig1, and the general result at
zation
civiliwhich
he arrives is merely negative. The
is apparentlynot
found
by Dr. Schliemann
neither

Is the latter then

"

Pick's

24.

artificial

For

now

of Fick" that
ofCthent

the

cannot

which

embraced

jumble

the

of dialects in the

originallanguage

any

all the dialects,far less

due

scribed
life de-

assured, by the researches

aPParent

each

selection from
rather

are

Is the

language ?

possibly be

poems

but

we

the

as

purely imaginary,

historic?

prehistoricnor
as

ect'

such

not

men

stantly
con-

dress'and

tne

that of Homer.

Homeric

of

ancient

very

Mycenae, Tiryns, and Troy

clear corroboration, and
no

arms"
ty'recent
discoveries

the

from

support

light

day, but greater,stronger, and

seek
for
other hand, when
we

own

the

On

happier.

the

into

poets themselves

they speak

that

tell you

survived

the

even

[24.

MYTHS.

OF

TREATMENT

RECENT

the

to

incongruous

genius of

result of the

judicious
the poet,

adaptation

(^olic) to the wants of a newer

different (Ionic)public. This
and
rehandling of
is an
almost
them
to make
intelligible
great poems
universal phenomenon, and now
affords us the first
of

an

older

reasonable

by
1

Das

form

theory

for the

Homer's

Homerische

Epos

extraordinary

language.
aus

Of

den Denkmdlern

course

facts presented
there

erlautert,1884.

are

TICK'S

24.]

imitated

by

merely accepted

and

these

But

body of the

it

for

rehandled

been

to have

seems

guage.
lan-

epic

insignificant.The

are

passages

poems

received

the

as

deliberately

was

already achieved,

it

found

who

men

in the old

passages

this artificialdialect

where

poems,

possiblylater

and

later poems,

47

THEORY.

of making them
intelligible,
practicalpurpose
justas Dryden rehandled Chaucer.
he has defended
In this theory of Fick, which
Difficulties
have
and learning,
with extraordinary acuteness
we
"
in
made
advance
the greatest
our
day as regards
it has not yet
Of course
the language of Homer.
I myself
been accepted by the world of scholars1.

the

think
the

Pick's weak

Kirchhoff,

layers by A.
that

the

therefore

do

elsewhere

to

here; but

soon

thinker.
the

on

both
of

show

Fick

and

the

and

hand,
to

that

their

of dialects

at

even

arguments2.
appreciated;

by

future

some

disapprovingit,but chiefly
of these

are

committed,
the

specialresearches,to

own

Mr.

W.

Leaf,

generallywith

the Provost

accept it.

by

forms

Smyrna,

the

border

theory

town

of

settlements.

understand

authorities,
agrees
other

in

which

right

it is

before

philologers.Most

the

mixture

Ionic

histories agree

newer

his

be rediscovered

oblivion,to

into

be

may

away

pass

were

of older

traces

persuaded by

not

am

the

found.

be

tradition

natural

way

not

authorityof

by

^Eolic
2

All

accretions

as

the

pass

show

to

exactly the parts which

later (Ionic)dialect, and

Probably a generationwill

it may

or

successive

attempt

the older

to

also

are

in

composed

his

and

adherence

three

into

from

parts severed

by Kirchhoff

Iliad

the

of

dissection

close

is his

point

of

Oriel,as

Fick
he

of

one
on

the

this

informs

highest English

problem.

me,

does

not

On
see

the
his

48
But

Analogies
favour

TREATMENT

RECENT

when

OF

the conservatives

supposing

of

rehandling

[25.

MYTHS.

that in pre-

retorted

the

dialect, and

an

forms, he was
imperfect translation into newer
assuming a fact unique in literature, certainlyin
Greek
them
literature, he smote
hip and thigh
by showing parallelcases, not only in mediaeval
lyric poetry.
poetry, but in the collateral Greek
"

'

'

"

He

showed

altered

make

to

form
be found
Itsapplica-

"

tion to the

present

argument,

for

allowed

was

I have

5.

novel

epigrams,for example, had been

them
while an
sional
occaintelligible,
which
metrical
no
equivalentcould

that old

to remain1.

delayed
"i\

theory not unduly,

over

this
"

because

and

important
"

adoption

its

/*"

affects

of the poems.
If,as
artificiality
was
thought formerly, the poets were
distinctly
composing in an artificial dialect,into which they

fae

question of

foisted forms
of

from

appearing

various

learned
such

fairlysuspect
tricks with

the

manners

dialects for the purpose

in archaic

language,we might
a
pedantic school of playing
and
and of omitting
customs,

accentuatingas they fancied, in

or

archaic

the most
Thus

at

in Laconian
TtTop"s

the end

of most

Greek, and
because

theory to
of them

I have

criticised the

of my

Greek

of

the
in
newer

famous

epigram

reformed
reaaapes

into

to

make

lights. And
of having

they are accused

recent
English historian

remained,

appliedhis
text

to their

fact what

is in

by

pictureaccording

order

an

this
done

of Greece2.

Thermopylae composed
literarylanguage, xt^afcs
on

would

not

earlyLyric poets, and

Fick

scan.
even

has

printed

now

revised

Bezzenberger's
Beitrage,xi, xiii,and xiv, "c.
developments of

his

theoryin

the third ed.

Literature.

Evelyn Abbott, History of Greece, i. 158

seqq.

I cannot

but

25.]

ALLEGED

But

the

on

ARTIFICIALITY.

before

have

theory,we

new

49

merely niustra

us

changes, perhaps made with all care

the original
work in the parts which are
serve
genuine. It is as if some
Englishman were
verbal

of Burns's

one

Scotch

which

poems,

are

to

pre-

old and

poetry.

make

to

difficult

so

ordinarypeople,accessible by turning the hard

words
into their English equivalents,
leaving here
to

and

there

those which

destroyingrythm
doubtless
but

The

metre.

or

without

be removed
version

new

of the

sacrifice the flavour

rude

in

would

original,

called
be
deeper sense
composition, and would
probably
mongrel jargon all the facts set down

could

in its

could not

no

ficial
arti-

an

preserve

by

the

poet.
There

cialityof
greater
forms
the

point alleged for

is another
Homeric

the

weight. It is the
evidentlydetermined

shackle, perhaps modern

by

artifi- The

not

any

of

epithetsand

of

the

convenience

of

of all ages
rime

"

than

use

all poetry

In

metre.

has

which

poems

the

is

is

metre

gpithS

tyrannous

more

the

Yet
these
quantitiesof the hexameter.
the efforts of the poetaster,
shackles,if they mar
into clearer light the exto bring out
cellence
only serve
of

the

suspect that the

meals

of roast

which
earliest
a

meat, and

the

all

present days.

meat-eatingrace,

(cf.my

Rambles

for
fishing,

and

it appears

is

"

know

we

and

diet of the

fish

no

even

of any
The
the

Homeric

historical

Greeks

chiefs

The

upon

from

on

poets knew

in

no

great

"

probably
trained

case

Homeric

the

archaism,

Greeks

were

early athletes

simile,and yet

great delicacyof Attic days,appear

longer

pieceof deliberate

Studies, p. 290).
in

the

And

poet.

of the

account

contradicts
to

true

does
table.

the
never

cheese

all about

fish,the

use

High

with

ex-

Homeric

poems

all

critics

good

This

cellence
in-

OF

TREATMENT

RECENT

read, the

are

it is which

makes

are
cellence.
ex-

supreme

systematic artificiality

any

firmly

more

their

of

persuaded

toi.

MYTHS.

mind
most
to
compatible
my
artifi- between
ciality. the learned

The

difference
improbable. The
epic of a reallyreflective age
the Iliad is illustrated by comparing with
it
and
the Argonautics of Apollonius Rhodius, a great
poet in his way, but unmistakably and lamentably
artificial. I agree, therefore,
with Thirlwall,that the

Homeric

Homeric
poems
therefore

mainly
natural ;

poets described

an

age

not

different

very

in which

that

they lived, and that the reason

cratic
why widely varying societies,such as the demoAthenian, or the modern
European, can appreciate
is that they are
these pictures,
not
artificially
constructed, but adapted from a real experience,
from
human
drawn
reflecting
nature, and
very
human
unreal
most
passions1. The
permanent
is of course
their theology;
thing in the poems
in after days perhaps more
and
yet this became
real than the rest by its universal adoption among
from

Holm

givesa

very

which
ingenioussolution of the difficulty,

think, quite original. He

who

driven

were

recollections

and

out

by

thinks

the

Dorian

Orchomenos,

glories,clothingthe old kings and

they had

day.

left,in the dress and

Thus

their

palacesof Greece
manners

were

actuallylived.

pictureis
were

true

in the

splendour of

Asia

In

the ^Eolic

and

immigration

of the

traditions
"c.

that

Minor
heroes

manners

of the
of the

sense,

of the

with

Ionia
we

them

of these

land, and

for
traditionally,

is,I

settlers

pre-Doric Mycenae,

sang

places they describe

also true, in another

carried

the

they

Ionic

the cities

of their
know

; their

societyin

old

that

own

the

picturesof
which

they

26.]
the

Greeks

authoritative

the

as

STANDPOINTS.

OPPOSED

of their

account

gods.
" 26. The Homeric
general pictureof the

therefore

poems

of the Greeks

state

shortlybefore

the dawn

the rest ; and

in many

give
at

us

but

time

of

history; for such poems

could hardly be composed and held togetherwithout
diffused,history
writing,and when writingbecomes
the poets lived in an age not controlled
begins\ Still,
of study.
or subjectto the verifications
by criticism,
omit
Hence
they could deal looselywith particulars,
details that suited them
describe
not, and
places
poeticallyrather than topographically. So it is
that the Catalogue of the Ships will not agree with
that the

other

there is evidence

cases

lays brought togetherwere

of

weeded

not

composed, they could be easilyenough remembered

and the
by trained guildsof reciters. It is therefore the composition,
transmission
as
largeunities,which imply,in my opinion,that use
of

When

once

writingwhich
as

fluent

of the

one

past. If

could

we

date of the creation

it

justlypointed

out

for

have

we

use

have

found

by

the

of

such

extant

no

to

may

have

have

been

writingbeen
evidence
was

either
been
no

E.

on

the

reader,that

inscription

stone

on

600

in

B.C., and

common

use

Probablythe

of it.

that of the
papyrus

composed

and

or

with

contemporary

At

he need

first stage.

the

of the

This

which
am

we
earlier,

records
E

on

stone.

very

tributed
surelyat-

should

long since
and

Thus

perhaps on
and yet
writing,

the aid of

assume

been

that had

traders,who
wood.

same

convinced

firstwritingseen

Phoenician

the

important ;
be

can

the

not

has

it is here most

first

also determine

could

artistic whole.

an

Abbott,

date earlier than

Greeks

accounts

by

Mr.

as

we

pict
societythey de-

the date

determine

think

of the Iliad

right to caution
to mark
lapidaryinscriptions
I think

time

the

to
attributing

writingin Ionia,I

of

use

poets avoid

the

learned

kept

their

the

Iliad

there may

only

52

TREATMENT

RECENT

mutual

their

inconsistencies,

strictly
and

there-

lay

ously
judged

by

stress

feeling

these

jn

that

according
of

consistency

great

will,

they

poems,

form
con-

critics

as

character
Mr.

as

and

Gladstone

various

minds.

to

plan.

certain

the

on

compelled

or

final

the

therefore

is

it

to

[26.

MYTHS.

OF

does,

exaggerate

them

down

other

spirit

flaws

in

have

these

sober
and

prevails,
and

either

like

false

Yet

drawing
and

we

attend

treacherous

to

of

Mr.

worth

pictures

of

epics.

the

many

the

ing
deny-

omissions

sceptics
Greek

shall

we

Abbott,

anything
such

even

set

the

detail,

Evelyn
or

and

When

history.

assertions

evidence

purpose.

from

value,

inconsistencies

the

are

poems

historical
refrain

almost

scholars,

acute

that
the

as

plot

historical

their

in

for
will
life

any
not

from

CHAPTER

III.

THEORETICAL

"

We

27.

early

the

of

state

invasions

and

the

dawn

of

their

their

The
of

settlers

islands

Ionian,
to

be

founders
We

the

to

Dorian.

and

led

who

have

no

Their

Heracleidae
of

invasion
the

and

by

Greek

cities,

cities

these

Greece,
the

were

and

coasts

"

of

The

waves

^Eolian,
claimed

mythical

East.
of

account

taineers.
moun-

always
told

and

invasion

drove

produced

with

traditions

Bceotia

Dorian

the

the

to

what
have

where

them

early

from

Minor,

But

from

colonies

the

in

us

movements

the

so

covered

were

meets

"

Peloponnesus

Asia

population

widely

Thessalians,

pressure

after

important

what

of

history7

from

shortly

of

that

return

"

the

of

conquest

Homer,

various

quasi- historical,
by

in

differs

These

name,

Phocis

and

that

so

history

sober

mythical

and

and

Greece,

describes.

Homer

held

Transition

legend

students,

dislocations

consequent

throughout

began

have
described

things

so-called

All

history.

downward,

Thucydides

from

pass

now

may

so-called

to

CHRONOLOGY.

these
not

Asiatic

apparently

ments.
settledis-

54

of ^crates,
fortiM^
and

details.

in Strabo

which

Tour"

of Chios1

Scymnus

the

all this

put these
before

the West,

of

the

Eubcea
to

Black

Sea;

these

but

the

in

the

seventh

second

our

kind

facts

late and

of

of
very

hesitate to

not

eleventh

or

to

account

our

century

evidence

colonization,

the

details,come
a

we

apparent

general

date

in

famous

of

out

and

the

reasonable
must

we

the

two

be

in

of

waves

...

..

.,

credibility of

settlements

is

in

of
Sicily,
given by Thucydides at
book

this

and

it is

Greek

Printed in C. Miiller's

no

doubt

and

account,

author, which

Sicilyand

earlyportions of
1

and

precision of

this colonization

such

these
.

of

Thrace

placed at

between

of his sixth

accuracy

of

rich

easier credence.

brief account

opening

the

Eretria) went

both

from

and

century, that

of the

tenth

coasts
are

disposed to give them

" 38. Intermediate

the

did

(Chalcis and

colonies

the

in his

attributed

from

settlements

Asiatic

more

which

that

say

what

on

vantly,
irrele-

additional

derived

the

into

till

some

may

quotations

Achaia

on

presentlydiscuss.

dates,
colo-

us

antiquarians. They
events

cities in

The

we

Christ, but

From

nization

gives

whole

book

geography

earlyhistory is

theoretical

shall

metrical

days

given,rather

composed

not

was

The

century.

on

in the

Pausanias

by

said from

the account

from

and

Alexandrian

to

he

part of what

Ephorus, the pupil

of

lived close

who

know

we

but

time

till the
critically

cussed

Late

[28.

CHRONOLOGY.

THEORETICAL

has

Southern

the

made

Italyone
historymost readily

Geographi Graeci.

28.]

THE

accepted by

the

even

general seriousness

the

literaryskill

author

who

one

will

Thucydides
from

he

and

far

The

authorit

research, but
less
doubt-

authority,

worse

of

account

possibly be

cannot
or

the

say l.

the

care

knowledge

own

older

some

with

to

and

quite

practised

even

chooses

that

see

his

from

writing

reads

make

may

anything he

critics believe

Any

an

It is

sceptics.

newest

extraordinary how
of

55

CHRONICLERS.

OLD

"

who
story-tellers
the early legends of
uncritically,
gathered, most
It has long
various
portions of the Greek world.
chroniclers2

of the

one

or

bility,
suggested,and with the strongest probathe Syracusan
that Thucydides' authoritywas
Antiochus, who compiled the early annals of Sicily
intention of enhancing the glory
with the evident
since been

of his native

city.

principlesdid

what

On

The

and

great

any

Greek

tion

by

or

the

or

"

city of early

ceed?
pro-

respectability in

of

patent

house

hero

only

chroniclers

these

times

direct descendant

founda-

was

of

hero ;

Wh*t

nobility
in early
Greece

grandsons of the gods,

The
derived.
all Greek
whom
from
nobilitywas
in making or
Homeric
defining the Greek
poems,
directly
theology, also told of the great houses
Heracles
Zeus
from
descended
so
a
or
royal
; and

for the heroes

which

house
1

We

The

means

which

shall
Greek
a

were

was

soon
name

sons

descended

to a

come

is

or

from

similar instance

seldom
\oyoiroioi,

speech-writer.Cf. below, "

also

applieshere.

these

in

personages,

Xenophon'sAnabasis.

which
\oyoypd"f"oi,

31,

passage

from

usually
Clinton

was

56

Mace-

torical
kings.n
their

instances

claim

showing

their descent

the

the

into

the

contact

from

the hero

The
with

civilized

good

men

by

^Eacus, whose

prominently in
Romans, when first they

figure so
Greek

culture, and

felt at

their

superior strength and their

social inferiority,
at once
accepted and promoted
the story invented for them at Pergamum or adapted
for them
that they were
in Sicily,
jans,
a colony of Troled by -^Eneas, the child of Aphrodite by a
same

mortal
Hellenistic

Glory of

time

and

dig-

cite late his-

kings made

Greeks

^Eacids

legendary wars.

came

To

race.

the Macedonian

being

to

descendants
Romans,

for itself a

secured

by them,
nity recognized by all the
city founded

or

[28.

CHRONOLOGY.

THEORETICAL

hero.

If these

thingstook place in

the

dry tree of sober

history,what must have taken place in the green ?
to have a heroic founder,and
Every citywas bound
in almost
been established
to have
mythical times.
in late and reflecting
Even
days, as I have already
mentioned
of Alexander
(" 1 6),when the successors
founded
in Syria and Asia Minor, stones
towns
new
continued
be invented
to
alleging old Hellenic
settlements
in these
of mythical heroes
places,
whose
shrines were
accordingly set up, and their
of
worship instituted,to produce an appearance
in upstart polities.
respectability
It is not usuallyfelt by modern
readers that in
of these

pedigrees, consequence
was

but

to

not
to

have

have

founder.

as

To

sentiments

the

great thing

long pedigreefor a familyor city,

short a pedigree as possiblefor its
be the son
or
grandson of a god was
a

29.]
splendid;
cling

branches

remoter

how

will indicate

strong

early originfrom

an

of the gods

their

or

English

of great

the

was

fortunes

history and

of
it

vulgar, provided
Heracleid,
Temenus

their

from

the

or

than

the

of

matter

accept

But

shown

can

strong

Curtius,

mind

and

any

think

he is

death, and

date

main

for the

quite

put

Greek

scep-

|^^dll~

epic chronobe

to

materials
whom

ogy*

of

I here

quite too

the

on

ready

where

dates

the

in

credulous

too

The

more

invention

scepticsto

which

for

reasons

the

earlier than
But

in

us

source

topic on

even

right.
so

that

upwards

to

rate
accu-

no

ascertained1.

be

little favour, in

down

not

pure

of accurate

solitary
exceptionis

found

left

earlychronology,and

is the

This

habit

downwards

and

believe

the very

statements

dates

The

not

in my

are

from

systematic

wary

manners

copious

or

early poets.
allude

by

descent

scepticalhistorians

I do

has

in

modern

poetry, that

founded

was

declared

life and

natural

paratively
com-

already

picturesof
a

Trojan

sequent
sub-

days.

own

I have

29.

faith

The

city were

the

Hence

derive

to

sons.

third

or

This

descendant

early chronologers of counting

Heracles

from

second

Hyllus.

or

of all

"

the

"

families.

known

acknowledged

and

younger

tendency

great and

only to

was

the

nobility like

real

to

on

descendant

be his remote

to

57

UNTRUSTWORTHY.

QUITE

660

B. c.

as

whose

reader

Grote, ^^

worthy

at the very

will

not

set

of acceptance ; and

theory of

outset

the

myths

of his work.

earlydates.

Greece

History of

originality.He

he also rides the solar

repelshis

The

sceptical historians

Cox,

spiteof its

have

to

rejecting what

recent

Sir G.

I claim

I
to

58

THEORETICAL

have

[29.

CHRONOLOGY.

such

accepted. They have all agreed in giving up

dates as
1184 B.C. for the siege of Troy, or

1104

B.C.

for the

of the

Return

Heracleids1;

and

yet they accept 776 for the first Olympiad, and

The

so-

Olympic
register.

for

the

the

same

first

colony (Naxos)

kind
the

spite of

of evidence.

most

Olympiads

edited

Hippias of Elis. This

of Htmia, which I cited
the Olympiads
upon
Studies

which

I have

And

no

this in

that the

list of

and

Plutarch's

from

passage

in

expounded
the

in

nearly

compiled late (after400

convincing evidence,by

or

and starting
C.),
from

B.

Sicily,on
they do

evidence

express

was

in

736

Journal

reprintedin

Life

article

an

Hellenic

of

the

Appendix to
this book, is so capitalthat it shows either ignorance
its importance. To be accuto overlook
or prejudice
rate,'
says Plutarch,'as to the chronology [ofNuma],
and
is difficult,
what is inferred from the
especially
Olympic victors, whose
register they say that
Hippias the Eleian published late, startingfrom
'

Plutarch's
Of itt

The

will be
now

of Busolt

arguments

antiquatedby

lightof evidence

his

important work.

should

has

But

for the

Holm's

views.

appears

7),Diodorus
Apollodorus(ii.
(Archidam.

just as
than

119) are

historical
the accounts

(Sagen) which
attitude of

period.

can

as

able

been
to

accrued

me

I had

of his 2nd
the

discusses

which

probably have

i. 86) which

the appearance

which

in the press, and

the

(G. G.

intended

which
edition,

strike (November, 1891) I

printers'
to

quote

reasonable

the other ; the current

neither

Grote, pure

and

be

by

since the first publication

of

his revised
view.

and

After

'

of Isocrates

proved

or

traditions
;

are

all

they are

refuted/

simple,but applied to

Here
a

amended

statingthat

(4,33),Plato (Legg.iii.6,
7),and
(i.1 81) : One

and

is

conditions
prehistoric

all at variance, he adds

of Plato

cuss,
to dis-

we

Isocrates
of these is
not

better

mere

tales

have

the

quasi-historical

30.]

that this

in

find at

could

things

Olympia

dated

no

the

of

was

he

the

old
have

mentioned

author

it, nor

began, that

such

no

be

found, and

was

verified 2.

extant

thing existed.

excavations

of

fragment

or
list,

an

certainly
any

the recent

when
predicted confidently,

seen

most

that such

direct evidence

any

older

had

I find in

can

strongest,

monument

If
Olympiad.
thirty-third
stone, he would
registerupon

than

old

very

whose

antiquarian Pausanias,

the

that

length

interest

; for I showed

usuallybelievingPlutarch

in the
at

and

sudden

some

was

possibleto
undue
cism
scepti-

is it

Nor

nothing reallytrustworthy1/
hold

59

REGISTER.

OLYMPIAN

THE

prediction

negatively at least, my
that

would
list,

point The
been
and
this traditional chronology had
rejected,
history revised,
an
important date in early Greek
"

It is curious, moreover,

30.

Ernst

by
1

Will

ovSevos

It is

their

an

and

the Homeric
tells

and

us

axiom,

with
record

side ;

(an-'

wissenschaftlich

zuerst

who

poems,

takes

so

with
can

that

find

we

will not

we

revert, that

I shall

and

to

of foot-races

true/etc.

A.D.

221

faith

the

scepticshave

Evelyn Abbott,

accept anything

childish

read

Mr.

all

as

list in Eusebius,

the

of the actual

names

real fact from

victors

That

only be

accounted

would

for himself.

be incredible

if it

touching upon
for

by
as

the

any

theory

Duncker,

not

were

should

critical historian

such
authorityhe respected,
out

'

remark

able man,

that there

the tradition

to

paraphrasesthis

E. Curtius

which

to

dogmatically,without
can

'

one

(Historyof Greece,i. 246.) And he adds,

years'
charming naivete, that the alleged fact of one thousand
776 B.C.

from

is

Hippias

credulous

learned

that

by
dvaytcaiov
irpos iriariv}

opfjuupevov
von

yet he holds

and

it be believed

bearbeitet
2

Curtius

on

tell

us

true.

these

But

it

things

of the difficulties involved,

that he

without

was

followingsome

thinkingthe

matter

date

60

THEORETICAL

in every

other

who

and

The

case.

tyrant who

the famous

celebrated

work

in

money

Argos,
Greece,

Olympic contest in spite of

placed by most of the old
B. C., the
eighth Olympiad, I

Pheidon

counted

pointed to

made

from

All the
his life

from

later date1

much

the tenth

as

king of Argos.

rational inferences,
however, to be
and

of

an

the first Heracleid

Temenus,

of Pheidon

date

firstcoined

Sparta and Elis, was

chronologers in 747
believe,because

[30.

CHRONOLOGY.

that

; so

by

the twenty-eighthOlympiad
simple emendation
also an
festival,
irregular
according to Hippias'list

revised

by

"

substituted

was

"

E. Curtius

and

instructive

most

which

Curtius

thus

; and

has

made

interestingcombination, by

Sparta become
Peloponnesian

his relation to

this tyrant and

part of the rational development of

history.
There

historians2

recent

back

go

to

Since

step would

abandoned.

the

to

abandon

this

even

probably

imperil many

other

"

into

views.

the
For

in

agreement

an

the old date,

historians

traditional

be

to

seems

more

gain, and
such

because

old dates, and

turmoil
when

the

you

of

cast

revising their
root

once

up

one

earlydates, many others are bound to follow.

The uncertaintyand hesitation of the critics seem
now
about the authorityof Ephorus,
to arise from doubts
of these

and

I notice

that older

Mitford,show

date,which

such
scholars,

quitea

they are

wholesome

as

Newton,

in his

Chronology',

scepticismconcerningPheidon's

disposedto bring down

even

lower

than

Curtius

proposes.
2

E.g. Duncker, Abbott, Duruy,

literature cited,Holm

(i.256).

Busolt

(i.140)

with

the

recent

30.]
whom

from

of

most

derived1.

for

useful

theses

But

for honours.

really trace

accept his word

other

or

evidence

what

secondly, with
them?

use

which

inference.

believe

fathered

There
There

contempt.
accepts

him

because

he

even

he

did

him

believe

by

who

him

treat

class

rejectshim

fit in with

ful
doubt-

very

third

sometimes, and
will not

Ephorus

to

who

him

others

is

documents

implicitlystatements

upon

are

such

satisfied

be

judgment

scholars

are

even

have

they

and

honesty

There

implicitly,and

accessible

were

The

date

other

what
first,

can

we

the

Ephorus, concerning
reforms of Lycurgus, and
separate inquiriesmust

questions,two
we

highly
candidates
philological

regards what

as

way

therefore

to

Pheidon, the
before

of

exercises

or

convenient

and
learning,

and

airingacuteness

than

more

ultimately

said, I regard this

elsewhere

little

is

knowledge

our

I have

As

as
Quellenkritik

of

6l

EPHORUS.

their

at

with
which

others,

preconceived

opinions.
The
did

question
Pheidon

put

about
so?

Had

he

from

that

which

I will here

The

add

Ephorus,
cited

him,

(i.97

and

and
with

accuracy

the

elsewhere)or

Holm

If

Ephorus

and

criticise?

which

for himself.

which

our

conclusions

(i.11-15).

to

on

extant

be

do

different

many

tracts

or

upon

name

long list of

with

general

go

the

to

consult

can

consult

may
the

opinion

my

to

still

can

we

of German

reader

evidence

any

eighth Olympiad,
authority did he

what

upon

is this

us

the

in

B.C.,

747

reader

before

now

the

Ephorus

the

of
credibility

Greek

inferred,in

authors
Busolt

62

not

first-

THEORETICAL

[30.

CHRONOLOGY.

pupil of Isocrates, brought up to

style and effect the main objectsof the

consider

was

To

he

this

the

usual

prejudices of the
Greek
for his native city,Kyme, which
he glorifies
Thus
occasion.
it is to Ephorus that
every
upon
the absurd
date of the founding of the
owe
we
Italian Cumse
of the
(1050 B.C.)as an evidence
early greatness of the JEolic city. It has been
shown
and
by A. Bauer
by Busolt that, in telling
the story of the Persian Wars, Ephorus (asappears
in the second-hand
Diodorus) not only rearranged
facts in such order
but
seemed
to him
as
effective,
often

added

historian.

invented

narrative

of

details.

Herodotus,

Whenever
this

he

adds

to

seems

be

to

the

the
case.

night attack of the Greeks on the Persians at

Thermopylae (Diod.xi. 9) is a signalinstance of this,
not
to speak of the rhetorical
display,which is so
and
widely different from the admirable
simple
of Herodotus.
All
such
narrative
early history,
therefore,as depends upon Ephorus, is to me
highly
suspicious.
is another
tenth Temenid,' specially
There
conArchias,
in the legends with
Pheidon
nected
porary
contema
as
oflyracuse!
of Corinth, who
and
is
opponent, Archias
said to have
led the first colony to Sicily. I have
doubt
that the same
no
chronography which placed
in the eighth Olympiad
Pheidon
(747 B.C.)placed
Archias
there, and, allowing for a few years of
him to Sicilyin 735 B.C.1
domestic
sent
struggles,
The

'

Though
in

1 1

the

Return

of

04 B.C., older

the

Heracleids

authorites,
just as

was

placed by

sthenes
Erato-

competent, placed

it

30.]
To

my

it

may

this

mind

may

Antiochus

of

magnify

their

vanity

of

situation

points

of events.

course

his way,

on

settle at

helped the

national

list,the whole

the

Archias, when
to

the

suited

for

history;

Syracuse and other old historians to

or
own
city by putting it first,
tically
prac-

different

party

real

falsified

have

have

first,in
a

quite unhistorical,nay,

is

legend

possibly

though it

to

63

ARCHIAS.

Corcyra

founder

is said

he

is also said

Croton.

of

left

have

to

associated

^gends
of

have

to

Corcyra

It is surely im-

andCroton.
1111^11

that

probable
land

and

the

Locri.

is shown

the

not

Greek

sacrifices at

the

the Dorians

Return

Greek

of the

760-730

of Archias
Dorians

Greek,

This
and

cannot

and

put him

held

had

from
be

may

Pheidon
have

below

in

Will

prejudiced
un-

any

improbable
chronologers

this

was

legend
generation

the

the old

The

obtain

from

time

1000

for Temenus,

the tenth

Duncker
B.C.

B.

c.,

ponnesus.
in Pelo-

years

1066-1042

for

generation, according to

computation by

fixed.

to be

we

tenth

this date

before

B. c.

four hundred

number,

the very

were

come

700

the

orations,delivered 366-342

been

now

Heracleids.

Pheidon

over

his

this round

counting,down
B.C.

which

ships arrivingin Sicilyoffered

temple of Apollo Archegetes at

in three of
Isocrates,

Applying
the

get

Sicily,

on

fullyappreciated

all this most

fact which

one

good

Sybaris, Croton,

were

founded

believe

immemorial

repeats that

fix

origin of Syracuse.

Syracuse could

Thus

sites

been

the

The

history?

should

Tarentum,

of

search

in

flourishingcities

man

later.

harbours

these

have

to

succeeding

of

adventurers

sites of

That

by

asserts

Greek

convenient

passing by
and

'

would
which

(i.139)

give
thinks

If he reasoned

Temenid, he would

us

the dates
the

like

way
straight-

64

THEORETICAL

Naxos.
Thucydi-

settlement.

downward

Syracuse

from

this

Naxos

Hence

wnich

In

the

copies from

he

have

must

following year,

founded

was

[30.

CHRONOLOGY.

his

first

the

Thucydides,

says

then

and

been

all the

authority

dates

likely

most

"

'

imaginary
date.

Antiochus
of

"

usual, downward

as

are,

almost

Syracuse,and

from

all in numbers

the date

divisible

by

five.
I will

of the

summary

moment,

and

conclusions

to

pause

give
which

the

reader

critical scholars

in

It is conceded
generalhave given their assent.
have
that Thucydides must
used Antiochus
in narrating the
of Syracuse as his principalsource
archaeologyof Sicily. This opinion,first stated
by Niebuhr, has been argued out fullyby Wolfflin,
and

accepted

(thebest

Antiochus
se

with

reluctance

some

sen
Clas-

by Holm,

Thucydides),and Busolt1.
Even
the language of Thucydides in these chapters shows
phrases which we recognizein the fragments
editor

of

of Antiochus
of

also

that
in

some

him

upon

all the

support
or

upon

of

wrote

The

last has

224,

241, and

That

Hippys

given a

nence
promithe

and

cities,are

new

Antiochus.
with

great

authorities,cited

by

Thucydides' data, reallyrest

?

He

Rhegium

2. What
was

of the

summary

in the Rhein.

of

later

Antiochus

of this author

pp.

of the

constitutions

pointing to the work of

specialarticle Busolt has shown

acuteness

The

Strabo.

features

his

In

by

Syracuse,the city of Antiochus,

of the

mention

cited

Museum
lived

2i/c"\iKa,is stated by Suidas

an

early contemin his

arguments
for

1885,

during

only and

the

the character

was

pp.

461

Persian

without

any

History,
seq.

Wars,

and

evidence.

30.]

ANTIOCHUS

of

porary

ancients

OF

Herodotus,

65

SYRACUSE.

is

and

cited

never

specimen of critical acumen,

possessing special knowledge on

as

as

opening

but rather

part of the Greek

words

world.

quoted

nassus1, which

We

have,

by the

outlying

an

his

moreover,

by Dionysius of Halicar-

important in the present

connection
:
'AVTLO^OSSevcxpdveosra8e orz/e'ypcn/fe
T"V
"K
JIraA.t?]9
7t"pl
ra
Trtororara
dpx.ata)z;
Ao'ycoz;
/cat
most

are

o-a(/"eorara.In other words

for his

he

facts,and this he also

used

did

oral tradition

in his account

of

of the most
early Sicily2. He was, at best, one
of the logopoioi,
serious,if you please,
or
chroniclers,
who are always being contrasted
with critical historians
such
the

as

Thucydides.

facts,we

Such

compelled

are

to

being the
accept

as

state

our

of

nottrust-

only worthy

authorityfor the early traditions concerning Sicily

this solitary
who
to have had
seems
chronicler,
no
in fixingdates centuries
before the first
difficulty
In a loose thinker of
immigration of the Greeks.
this kind, patriotism may
be fairlyassigned as a

strong moving

in

cause

dates.

Indeed, when

chus

have

determining

Archias

is said

his

by

facts and

this Antio-

aided at the

and

founding of Croton, Grote

Holm
sire
are
to his dequiteready to set it down
to magnify Syracuse. When
Ephorus of Kyme

sets

down

to

1050
the

B.

same

Arch.

Diod.

ago, from

the Italian

of his

city (Cumae) at
c., all criticalhistorians rejectthis date upon
ground. If this criticism be indeed valid,
i.

colony

12.

xii. 71.

the recent

now

repeat these facts,which

summary

of Busolt

(pp.cit. p.

I had

224).

urged long

'

66

THEORETICAL

it when

choose, or

apply
shows
Busolt
ft generally?
(in his article)that
of the founding of Syracuse (and
the actual year
be reSicilian colonies)
of the other
cannot
hence
garded
certain.
as
Surely he and his brother critics

are

his dates

only

[31.

CHRONOLOGY.

we

stop

short

their

doubts

to

use

we

and
illogically,
far as
as
they

refrain

from

bound

are

to

pushing
To

do.

to

only the exact year, but the exact generation

numbers
that
it is by generationsand round
counted
Antiochus
is quite uncertain
we
; and
from general probathrown
back on arguments
are
bility
not

me

"

"

such

"

though

It is the

31.

imposed
byPThucydides,

The

learned

is often

scholar

indicated,

authorityof Thucydides

the

upon

I have

which

those

as

an

wanting

which

has

artificial chronology,
There

in acuteness.

plenty of philologerswho believe

Thucydides far more
implicitlythan their Bible,
and
he appears
because
careful and trustworthy in
that he must
affairs,
actuallyassume
contemporary
be equally credible in matters
wholly beyond his
I suppose
ken.
they imagine,though they do not

are,

I suppose,

it,that

state

in

or

what
is not

omniscient.

historian
shall

passed

from

before

the

know
and

historian

consulted

State

archives

from a
and set down
his conclusions
Sicily,
We
have
no
analysis of their evidence.
of any
such systematic archives
mention

if the

who

the

this?

we

indeed
say

to

confined

himself

his assertion

Italyto Sicilyjust three

advent

of

But

the

his habitual

the

Greeks

solemn

reticence

that

to

; and

these,

years

could

How

concerning

trace

the Sikels

hundred

manner

ful
care-

of

the

he

man

his authori-

3i.]

CREDULITY

ties have

IN

67

SCEPTICS.

wonderfullyimposed

the

upon

credulity

of the learned.

Nobody
wherever

he

is

really competent
His

opinion.

of the

and
trifling,

document.
him

he

give

an

biassed
un-

mind,

my

is found

do,

to

have

public document
lately
the Acropolis1. The variations,
though

on

are

many,

that

to

is not, to

accuracy

impeached by the fact

of
made
a slovenlycopy
recovered

higher than

Thucydides

rates

do

Yet
the

with

not

affect the substance

this may

do

pedants than

what

credit
dis-

to

more

to

seems

in largerquestions. He is
dangerous credulity
hardly to be blamed ; no man
entirelyfrom
escapes
me

the

prejudices of his

age.

The

most

scepticalin

points,as I have already noticed 2, let their

credulitytranspirein others. Sir George Cornewall
Lewis, whose whole life was
spent in framing sceptical
some

against early history,is found

arguments

accept the unity of authorshipand

of the Homeric

Grote,

poems.

so

unity of design
careful and

in

accepting documents, subscribes

genuineness of the Platonic Letters, which
scholar

competent

admits;

and

so

to

cise
pre-

the

to

other

no

I suppose

that

in every

nook
of
sceptic,however
advanced, some
belief will be found, often far less rational than the

faith he has

rejected.
truth, which appliesto

This
1

with

It is the
which

mutilated
2

Cf.

treaty which
the reader

text in C. I.

above, "

he

modern

scholars

professesto give verbatim

the actual,though
may
compare
A. i. Suppl.46b.

29.
F

in

v.

so

47,

somewhat

Credulity

68

Its

THEORETICAL

signally,applies no less
the Greek
legends. When
currence
ancient
accepts a piece of ancient

the

to

able
proboc-

in

[at

CHRONOLOGY.

find that

we

critics of

ancient

history like

Thucydides
this account

critics.

of the Greek
be

that he

sure

in

of

settlement
is not

Aristotle

and

and

we

the victim

chronicler.

older

an

we
Sicily,

firstof all

must

of

fit of

When

cence
acquies-

hear

we

that

Polybius, two
sceptical
great and
first know
accepted the Olympiads, we must
men,
exactly what they said about the earlier dates1,
then

assured

they did not

Value of
simply acquiesce in the work of Hippias. For this
Hippias'
Hippias was
clearlya man
writingwith a deliberate
work.
policy. He must
produce a complete catalogue;
he
so

be

must

his documents

must

make

there

is evidence
in his

succeeded

did

suit his purpose.

such

The

merely
that

asserts

were

the Elean

time

to have

the

called

recorded
and

won

Olympiads
Lycurgus

I refuse

refuse

till the

he

not

only

modified
may

put faith in

to

to

accept

place in

the whole

belonged

to the

shows

of

Ol. 33, and

describes

this he

given in

the

The

I think

victor which
as

of

Appendix.

it

book,and

had

not

Pausanias

when

to

reported

was

not

later
to old
as

important
Coroebus
really

some

likelythat

776, and

a)

stated

of the 28th

recurrence

that this number

twenty-eighthafter

it was

Aristotle is

stillit is to his

the

vi. a,

as

Aristodemus

(fr.
490).

refer.

discussion.

oldest actual record

are

and

as

first victor ; from

the

reckoned.

then

were

the founder

text

of Elis

as

or

suppose

twenty-eighthOlympiad,

recorded

was

writers

the Greek

improper Olympiad

details

we

of Aristodemus

Hippias (cf.above, p. 58) ;

that
registers,
an

that in the book

victors

Coroebus

than

And

excerpt alludingto Polybius (printedin his

no

which

that

which
inscriptions

authority,and

an

it.

but that he

purpose,

certain

to

conform

in Pausanias

re-wrote
not

that

that year.

The

find

from

could

was

extraordinaryantiquity.Other

32.]
first real date

in Greek

all the

chronologers in

Greek

from

the

Trojan

scientific and

the

war,

written

Greek

science,in

at

be

may

seen

in

even

His

frag-Even

reallyexisted

there

when

by

tion
calcula-

Eratosthenes.

time

downward

as

"

fixed

epoch

history an

accurate

ments,

69

INVOKED.

ERATOSTHENES

day rich with all the learning of

counts

downward.
...

Trojan

of

Lycurgus,
in

to

for all the

basis

day

relation

of

early

real

and

dates

eras,' says

ing, the authority

binding

his

upon

after him

come

his

predecessors ;
for

taken

are

down

for

repeated

three

yet the

the

of

Return

times,

and

critics try

authority of Eratosthenes/
" 32. What, then, is the

these

Clinton
in

in

Clinton's
Wl

reason-

is made

while

be

to

those

who

dent
indepen-

they reallyderived

given by

Heracleidae2

the

are

trustworthy ;

more

are

correct

to

In

the

to
(

numbers

The

of

as

serve

originaland

which

chronology.

Isocrates

and

to

Fynes

of Eratosthenes

in matters

witnesses
from

and

passage1,'by a singularerror

remarkable

the

absolutely

records.

contemporary

and

both

centuries

succeeding

the

in

guardianship

fixed

another,

one

"

faith

Heracleids,

the

be

to

"

old

the

Ionia, and

events

as

the

of

Return

the

war,

colonization

and

.r

centuries, still manifest

previous

them

the

by

of all this discussion

outcome

The

first three

stages of Greek

speak, isolated,and
one

of which

separated by

to this

has
1

Fasti

Cf.

day

Hell.,vol.

above, "

history are,
two

remained
ii. p. vii.

30, note.

blank
a

so

to Summary

periods,

great gulf,

[3*

CHRONOLOGY.

THEORETICAL

bridge has yet been constructed.

Over the second, which immediately precedes proper
elaborate
a
history,the Greeks made
bridge,
very
with sundry figuresrecovered
which
they adorned
which

over

from

But

fancy.

epoch

it is

of transition

and

arranged according

only

after this reconstructed

that

of pre11 omeric

be

can

we

first stage is that

The

stage

tradition

vague

their

The

no

sure

represented by

remains, which, though they

in age,

without

the

historic
pre-

plainly

are

development,and therefore probably

of us
classed together as
are
yet by most
father,mother, or descent,'
discoveringto

the

us

facts.

our

various in

very

'

of

to

earliest

civilization

Greek

in

this

foundling character
scepticala position. For there can

lands.

But

is

perhaps too
hardly be any
likelihood that the Eastern
parentage of this early
luxury,suggested by the legends,will hereafter be
the most
vocates
adextreme
now
even
disproved. And
allow this early
of Greek
must
originality
assert

to

with, and

intercourse
As

to be

fortress-wall

or
a

'

Prototype
of the

planned
from

of

vases

like

which

Greek

temple.

gap

the

and

are

the bee-hive

art,
tomb

pillaredtemple, which
Schliemann

found

was

the

palace of Tiryns. They are all

temple in antis, the earliest form,
peripteraleasilyfollows. And early

the
a

the

adorned

"

with

copies of

old models

But

intermediate

the

historic Greek

between

great gulf fixed,'till Dr.

doorways

tions.
of,the older civiliza-

their effects upon

to

there seemed

influence

such

rude
as

steps

figureswhich
those
are

found

at

may

be

Mycenae.

scure.
still hopelesslyob-

32.]

earliest and

The

but

Greece,

in

fort of

1.

Schliemann

Dr.

architectural

Degrees

of Santorin, under

the

stoge*

Ilion

(Troy) excavated

by

more

developed,

The

skill and

remains

not

island

the

at

in the

lava, and

of these

rudest

ILION.

AND

SANTORIN

ornamental

in

are

both

in

designs, are

Argolis (Mycenae, Tiryns)and in Attica (Spata,

zation
Menidi). As I have already mentioned, this civili-

in

does

the

epic

not

the

and

poems,

the

same

verdict

of

be

to

appear

that of

as

learned

the

declares

that

What

epoch of this
ported
pre-Hellenic and, partiallyat least,imin Greece

occurred

curious

culture, and
can

yet do

as

that the

show
and

Mycenae,
'

that

was

or

recent

so

the

us

fact

of its

scenes

culture,
pre-historic
of

importance

either

Tiryns

'

epic time,

the

of

none

But

for the

chose

sites of this

the very

to

Homer,

guess2.

than

more

epoch.

the

of

the age

anterior

long

between

popular poetry

adventures
seems

from

it dates

lasted

hold

to

as

down

Troy,
the

to

the

popular

imagination.
the whole, therefore, I

On
1

those

incline,with
of

in

Hissarlik,even

development.

keep

not

the

from

disturbed
of

Troy,

far

43) ;
2

with

pace

though they

the whole
is to

me

that

of

another.

so

Many

changes of

are

of

mention

But
the

proof

than

that

the

the

the

Mr.
other

total

with

E.

the

put

the

population,and

Dorian

Asia

have

who

must

be

refers to

(History of Greece,i.
Holm.

immigration

emigrationto

must

livingmemories

Abbott,

Duruy (vol.i. chap.ii. " i) and

writers

disappearance

its destruction

view

rior
supe-

place need

one

eruption which

the latter and

former.

of

before

respects

some

obvious, the culture

^Egean Sea, compared

a

in

be

is

Cyclades,is disposed to
and

may

con-

of Santorin

remains

As

legends of any

recent

more

Bent's

Bent, to place the

Mr.

disposed to

am

and

Minor,

the

resulting

in the gap.

72

THEORETICAL

[33.

CHRONOLOGY.

sider these

pre-historic
splendoursas not so extraisS"ften
B.C.;
vagantly old, surviving, perhaps, till 1000
supposed, though of course
be far
the Trojan remains
may
older than the Mycenaean.
Duncker, in his very
of this period
careful discussion1, thinks the end
Probably

"

as

about

came

who

author

substantial

lce*

coming

look

with

me,

fresh from

his

but
Mr.

corroboration.

this, in

upon

liberal with

always

agreement

remarkable

Mr.Petrie's

is

B.C.

noo

figures,as
can

add

now

Flinders

prolonged and

an

Petrie,

scientific study

with care
Egyptian art-remains, has examined
collections in Greece, and has esthe pre-historic
tablished2
cation
(i)a very earlyand widespread communibetween
the peoples of the ^Egean and
both in materials and
Egypt ; (2)a close similarity,
the Mycenaean ornaments
workmanship, between
The
the Egyptian of about
and
B.C.
1200-1000
Egyptian pottery, "c., from dynasties earlier or
this epoch show
later than
marked
contrasts, and
are
time,
easilyto be distinguished. At the same
of

of pottery in

protest againstmaking the rudeness

proof of great
antiquity. For there is such a thing as neo-barin pottery; and moreover,
barism, especially
simple
making
people will go on for a thousand
years

without
itself,

The

corroboration,

any

their

plainhousehold

with

the

"

epic
I

same

33. As

have
1

i. 131.

In two

utensils in the

form

same

and

decoration.

regards the

already, in
Busolt, as
remarkable

second

my

he informs

Greek
me,

now

stage,

'

or

epic age,'

Literature, shown
agrees

with

articles (HellenicJournal for

this view.

1890

and

1891).

33-]

DATE

ample

The

view.

early; and

rather

made
described

century

before

gone

since

personages

ninth

the

it very

dating

not

researches

further

to

for

reasons

73

ARCHILOCHUS.

OF

before

this

confirm

Christ

belong

to

seem

but

it

was

poets brought together their work

the

epics which

opening of
literature. The Iliad and the Odyssey therefore
Greek
to me
to describe the second, then already
seem
bygone, stage of Greek history,which was
certainly
separated by a gap from the third. This last begins The
into

the

with

the contemporary

famous

poets, Archilochus,
whom

allusions of the earliest

Callinus, Tyrtaeus,
than

700

who

B.C., and

lyric^storica
of stage,

none

"

earlier

were

the

were

more

1.
probably lived from 660 B. C. onward
According to the theory of the Greeks, which is
not
yet extinct, three centuries separated this real
the
the
history from
epic period, when
Trojan
heroes
and
their singers lived ; .and even
among
critics there are
who
wish to place the
recent
some
composition of the Iliad as far back as 900 B.C.
I do
in so
believe
not
huge a gap in Greek The

The

Greek

among
of

date

of

poets, used

Gelzer, Das
and

wrong,

Zeitalter
be

must

Gyges

names

Archilochus, the earliest of the historical

in

an

inscriptionas
terminable.
to

be that in

175,

recent

des

reduced

the vassal

Moreover,

to

least

at

of

B.

years.

c., which

Even

709

The

c.

B.

it certain

670

that this date

appears

was

Archilochus
total at

on

English ed.) adopts these arguments.

histories still acquiescein the

exploded

form
cunei-

time

mentions

Thasos,

the conservative

is

for Archilochus

B.C.;

Gyges

researches

Assyrian king whose

an

eclipsewhich

an

April,647

Gyges, make

fragment,and

extant

poet spent his later

p.

be fixed about

to

figures

Duncker

is deseems

where

the

(vol.ii.

Nevertheless, some
date !

gap

THEORETICAL

74

It

between

literature.

Archilo-

stream

of

elms.

before

Archilochus

seventh

century

inscriptions
;

is not

senian

Old

"

lists

the

the

to

from

down

us

The

late

and

from

But

before

he

fought in

that

the

first had

bad

or

with

been

gives

us

down
my

It is

modern

How

fixed

Mes-

double

The
at

am

known2.
then, but by

down

historian,Myron,

what

now

we

the prose

of these

is the

worse

(Pausanias,iv. 6),
historians

in the

wars,

both

know

author

since

face

loss

Coming

not

set

not

by

waged

late prose

for these

dates

when

as

nameS

writing was

it

B.C.

700

the second

^st "f

however,
a

severely,
saying that

Tyrtseus.

of

wars,

of these
he

of this

beginning with

conflicts
passage

785

B.C.,

comprehension.
perhaps the
pointedout

Greek

and

incomplete authorities

set

passes

when

historywas,

Pausanias, who

criticises

trust

can

dences
real evi-

remained,

that

time

connected

to

Assyrian
Athens,

other

many

stray facts

epic poet, Rhianus,

whom

can

we
a

In the

allusions

grandfathersof his fellow-soldiers1.

kingshipof Sparta was there,though I
^ow

the

of the

history.

us

struction
con-

by

events

the

tO ^now
anToften^
fabricated,

it is that

contemporary

rely.

to

and

war,

of

yearly archons at
priestessesat Argos ; presentlywe

Some

so.

middle

historymade

known

long

the elaborate

by

of

the

up

have

we

Tyrtaeus tells

"

have

which

on

here

of the earliest

historical colonies

have

dried
the

between

Lydia,

series of

void

we

of

Gyges, king
and

deceived

the events

and

And

centuries

fill the

to

have

towards

B.C

been

of four

Iliad

impossible that

me

arose

century

have

moderns

Greeks

to

seems

originalepic should

seventh

the

[33.

CHRONOLOGY.

tombs

or

to

treasures

early writing,though

fact
extraordinary

most

both

me

in the results of the

by Mr. Sayce,that
discovered

have

we

in

none

of the

cavations
ex-

early

singlespecimen

Egyptians and Phoenicians,who

of

supplied

33-]
Nay,

have

we

Hellanicus

lists.

marking the
The

of the

date

list reached

of the

solemnly

was

the

recognized

it started

name

war

this
as

war,

The

of Zeus.

lo, paramour

days

But

fixing events.
beyond the Trojan

far

back

in after

"

for

standard

fabricated

concerning the list of

wrote

priestessesat Argos,

of

examples

distinct

even

75

INVENTIONS.

CHRONOLOGICAL

with

priestess
set

down.

lists of the

straightdown
Spartan kings came
has been
from
Heracles.
Again, at Halicarnassus
of twenty-seven
found a list on stone
priests,
starting
of Poseidon, and
from Telamon, son
bringing back
The
tail of
the founding of the city to 1174 B.C.1
this list also was
historical ; the beginning must
have
From
been
!
such
deliberatelymanufactured
data the early history of Greece
constructed2.
was
Lycurgus is a half-mythicalfigure,and probably
of several
represents the wisdom
lawgivers. ButNochronbe judged, in chron- eighdi"c
individual
however
cases
may
ology all the early dates are to be mistrusted, and tury B.C. to
to

the Greece

reconstruct

requiresas much
to

as

age.

much

so

author

of the

strange

or

have

not

been

C. I. G.

These

of the Homeric

two

capitalfeatures in
eighth century, the

that

have

must

Sixth

account

histories of the

Book

used at the

of

been

long

familiar

the

Iliad

refers

originof

yet

on

with

or
writing,

to

once

folded

that art.

writing as

tablet,which

indeed

The
a

could

till far later times.

2655.

inventions

therefore
in

real

mysteriousthing,and

and

Greek

them,

to

convinced

the usual

eighth century B.C.

and as much
tion
imagina-

combination

construct

am

of the

do

not

were

produced

conflict with

primitiveage

which

had

what
no

at

comparativelylate period,

I said of

the

rarityof

theories to support.

tion
inven-

76

THEORETICAL

reign

Pheidon

of

belong,not
Cases

of

quity.

Let

of

history,and

who

There

example, those
which
place
Pyramids in an epoch
in

Egypt,
sculptured art

even

Christian

to the views

I allude

they

history,and
of M.

G.

were

the

records,
of

monument

before

years

Greeks

vincing1
con-

at

written

any

to

most

are

it remains

the

duration

Sphinx

thousand

many

But

era.

in ancient
1

that

so

in

great

before

whose

nations

are

arguments
the

date

recent

more

undervalued

be

to

seems

for

me,

the next.

to

the

advocate

controversy.

culture

Sicily,

of

imagine that he finds in me

delight in reducing the antiquity

who

"f those

every

colonization

the reader

not

one

in

the

and

that century, but

to

[33.

CHRONOLOGY.

the

children

mere

it2.

knew

in his admirable

Maspero,

Archeo-

logieegyptienne.
'2

their
has
as

have

We

publicacts
the

to

stone

on

found

been

positiveevidence

now

(in 1884)

Athens,

sq. where

Foucart

Corresp.hell. xii.
Three
Athenian
bound
a

colonist

who

reside,or

and

taxes

Salamis

had

gone

while

he

(This

G. i. 548.)

(Foucart
was

on

to

and

not

the
novelty,and distinguishes

the State.
G.

reside

comments

or

did not, he must

ibid.). (3)
"

Salamis

to

in the

If he

upon

the Bull,

his land.
cleruch

Athenian

Grsecia.

Magna
pay

of cleruchs
defaulted
small
states.

This
from

was

in his

is
no

the older

(2) If
and

to

he

was

specialabsentee's
Koehler

de

inscription.)

is assimilated

military service,though
leave

its

Mittheilungen

the

upon

cleruch

differently
by

originalnumber

a very
thirtydrachmae
of the earlyGreek
means

fine of

the modest

Pontus

is understood

The

op. cit.

to

the

Acropolis
the decree

vol. ix. p. 117 sq., and

implied: (j)

are

citizens,as
to

doubt

not

conditions

registered

the

contained

sent

article of Koehler

Institute at

On

B.C.

slab which

first cleruchs

the

(See the

conquest by Athens.

the Athenians

earlyas 570-560

the broken

of

legal status

of the German

as

that

he did
tax

to

by Busolt,

apparently500
payment

penalty,even

there

regarding

CHAPTER

THE

"

DESPOTS

last

AT

34.
and

day,

(more

Alcman

and

enough

of

show

to

of

the

character

sing

to

the

the

of

point

The

funeral

reader

Lyric

lyric poets

who

Age
in

in

my

'

in

History

described

fuller

Social

of

Life
Greek

details
in

may

Greece,

Literature.

and

the

in

early
as

do

the

time.

art

also

Hero-

chapter

chapters

The

not

so-called

by

consult

into

did

of

direction,

same

ancient

he

the

remains

customs

desires
my

the

had

evidence

that

resembling
The

the

passing
is

poetry

all

Lycurgus.

strange

'

at

are

of

the

There

ephors.

have

which

gradually

Alcman's

Sparta

there

found

the

of

Sparta

of

oligarchy

Sparta,

merce
com-

condition

them

beside

and

of

they

yet

governments

monarchies,

twin-monarchy

Greek

poets.

the

We

us

Brilliant

^eat

tur-

Sappho,

carried

general

"

displaced

and

guide

to

the

us

brilliant,

Mediterranean1.

the

aristocratical

country,

the

and

century

produced

Alcaeus

of

facts

scanty

seventh
that

in

of

light

open

which

society

poetry

most

but

B.C.),

650-550

the

the

in

Terpander,

over

still

into

ourselves

lyric

DEMOCRACIES.

emerge

enterprising

splendid

THE

we

find

strictly

bulentj

IV.

on

on

the

lyric

78

THE

dotus

DESPOTS

the

on

that there
that

society.
later

staid

growth,

Doric

than

in
explicable,

the

its

if we

At

ex-

tion.

in all the
the

Greeks

ancient,

changes of

what

rather
of

is far

this
more

its

trast
con-

it to

take

had

which

of the
before

respectable and

be

the

would

race,

them
a

the

brilliant

remarkable

most

constitution

States, amid

various

this type

branches

It is nevertheless

monarchy.

therefore

seems

primitivetype,

the

an

simplicityof

exceptional circumstances,

in other

all events
of

this older

in

states, if we

of

regard it as

const?"example

license

so

Dorian

naturallyappear

artistic taste,

exceptionalseverity,and

all other

seem

originalcondition

And

gradual growth

than

its

the

aristocracy.
to

life

It would

was

sobriety and

Spartan

as

there

considerable

The

is known

kings1.

luxury, that

was

[34.

DEMOCRACIES.

of the

death

was

there

THE

that

attempted through
universal

respect in

the

ever
held, no attempt was
Spartans were
in practical2Greek
made
their
history to copy
The
institutions.
distinct resemblances
to Spartan

which

in

institutions

probably

were

they
did

not

The

E. Curtius

in the

as

possess

them.

Spartan

State

oftheeage
standing
despots,

ideas,for the

well, such

know

we

outside

the

sense3.
political

Herodotus,

The

The

vi.

theorists
two

the

imitations,

not

Dorian

were

of

some

Cretan
nor

communities

can

we

Dorian

many

that

say

States

Argos, Corinth, Syracuse,

may

therefore

development
In

one

be
of

regarded as
Greece,

respect only was

even

its

58.

were

accounts

after Spartan ideas.

always framingpolities
of

earlySparta which

are

cited with

general

35-]

aggressive

policy an
took

aristocracies

the

of

side

the

up

their noble

Peloponnesus
growing

The

There

themselves.
to

the

adopted
Grote's

mistake

The
must

be

when

this

need

be

kind

urged

further

at

was

When

the

approval
additional
1

Above,

permanent

tyrants
those

are

Die

If

were

of Duncker

this

feature

such

that

nothing
form

But

of

be

ment
governworld.

Athens

Busolt's

there

an

can

Greek

history,and

age

objection

no

expelled from
in his

the

mean

in the

cf. Busolt, G. G. i. 95.

literature,
8.

likelyto engender

we

Lakedaimonier( Leipzig,1878).
"

Tiew"

implied

For

in Crete's

chapter in
Despots.'

first arose,

if it be

truth.

who

chapter

of the

cAge

definite moment,

any
the

from

but

the

to

title is

of monarch
;

aspirant

nobleman

is such

there

carefullynoticed.

ceased

age

alluded

such

which

nobles

people.

entitled the

"

cities.

Dorian

successful

more

the

with

anti-Dorian

an

often

the

of

subjects,

Ionic

out

renegade

indeed

"

histories

most

no

already

history1

can

their

were

of the

cause

I have

" 35.

was

than

tyranny

as

of the Asiatic

wealth

and

though they

policy,even

partly
severally

conflict

rising in importance

commerce

tive,
attrac-

aristocracies

Doric

tyrants generally carried

The

historyso

Doric

opposed by

were

States

Ionic

by

or

and

Ionic

as

such.

called

be

far

so

brilliant

of those

one

Curtius'

make

who

despots

people against

interprets this great

he

of race,

one

the

common

It is

the

interferingon

against

oppressors.
which

in

"

of the

cause

generalviews
that

one,

79

POLICY.

THEIR

AND

TYRANTS

THE

is

and

graph,
mono-

host

of

8o

DESPOTS

THE

[35.

DEMOCRACIES.

THE

Peloponnesus3they stillflourished In Sicily,

Sea
coasts, and
Italy, the Black
Cyprus, till
There
no
was
they reappeared again in Greece1.
in old Greek
moment
not
historywhen there were
of such despots. The
scores
closingperiod,after
the death of Alexander, shows us most
of the Greek
the

from

States

that he freed his

Aratus

brought

neighbours from
the

at

this

therefore

may

of

them, and

constitutional

more

period a despot,if

large dominion,

we

the great boast

was

himself

called

add

the

to

list most

kings, who close the history of

it in the
independent Greece, as they commenced
legends.
The
despot, or tyrant2as he is called,has a very
kac* reputation in Greek
history. The Greeks of
have
not
only loved individual liberty,
every
age
but are
a
singularlyjealous people, who cannot
of

Greek

over

and

the

But

League.

ruled

king ;

It

their cities under

Achaean
he

their control.

under

that

endure
the

so-called

told

endure

me

that

Greek

as

could

and

should

why

not

receive

such

There

likelyenough
Peloponnesus or in the
the

is

good

that

honour

they
one

and

that at

time

no

lesser towns
upon

were

over

have

moment

among

profit.
wisely and

equal,
them

This

is

ately
moder-

hatred

they reallyextinct

of northern

this word

it

all feel

always regarded with

note

CEdipus Tyrannus.

for

not

any

lord
Greeks

present day

tyrant, however

he ruled,was
It is

shall

they would
king,because

tolerate

the ancient

themselves

in the

Even

rest.

often

of

one

by
in the

Greece.

in the Greek

argument

to

36.]
the

THE

aristocrats

he

had

deposed

the

killingof him was

by all their society. I
in

the

early days
such

Iany
from

LITERATURE.

IN

TYRANT

of virtue

act

an

much

very

that

so

them

to

approved
whether

doubt

them

individual

oppression. Of course
a
particularwrong
might avenge

insult,and

in later

severer

democratic

share

in the

old aristocratic
Greek

of accusations

from

so

have

fact

Greek

to

which

ruffian who

according

usurps

in order

power

gratifyhis lusts at the expense

Feeling himself the
mercy.
he

is

perpetuallyin
himself

behests.

He

with

great democratic

the virtue

indictment, of which
has been

historian of

been

seems

he may

justiceand
mankind,

carry

out

rounds
sur-

his

violates the

of the young.

the climax
indorsed

was

by the

our

completeness of
and who
goal of all civilization,
it

tyrant

century1,to whom
politicallibertyis the great

the

But

who

plunders,confiscates,and

terrible

upon

that

of

enemy

through

the

of all

mercenaries

Lycophron's Casandreans^

horror

all

panic of suspicion,and

sanctityof the family and

This

hands

Literary

long catalogue

in

or

Alcaeus, Herodotus, Xenophon, despot.

"

is

the

in

was

Plato, Polybius, Plutarch,

literature ;

any

of the usurper.

hatred

we

davs-

literature

of the aristocrats ; and

far

despot overthrew
lower classes might

days, when

constitution,the

" 36. But

how

people generallyhad

common

the tyrant usually saved

as
feeling,

much

those who
to

me

handled,
fairly
1

and

retard

therefore
its

growth.

that

the

that

there

Cf. above, " 8.

G

looks with

problem has
is

not

great deal

8s
be

to
How

tyrants, in the face of all this

said for these

literaryevidence1.

far

aSP^"

Of

of tradition

shackles

the

or

their

course

abused.

often

were

powers

Greek

usurped throne, the same

jealous of his neighbour was
his

at

own

his unsuccessful

of

But

Reductioad
"

from

if the

Herodotus

to

tyrannis was
have

it to

it to the

I surrender

historians

if

And

overthrowing

tyrant

and

been

so

who

was

so

feel insolent

to

sure

success,

rivals.

irresponsible

Coming without the

scruplesof legitimacyto

elation

[36.

DEMOCRACIES.

THE

DESPOTS;

THE

deep suspicion of
a

case

be found

can

stitution,
fairlyworking converdict of the jury of

Grote.
unmixed
and

constant

evil,how

an

of "the

comes

popular

Man
?
indeed,
phenomenon in Greek politics
may
of all animals,
as
Polybius says, be the most gullible
though professing to be the most
sagacious,and
be ready to fall into the same
ever
snares
may
that he has seen
successful in entrapping others2.
of human, not
But surely it exceeds
all the bounds
to say
should
Greek, stupidity that men
ally
perpetuset a villain over
them
to plunder,violate,and

exile
The

The

real

and

men

temporary

of

despots.

1111.

Greek

had

the

in

poor

even

for the

wrote

Cf. my

The

word
Greek

in the
down

for absolute

Life

and

at

was

one

time

moment,

in the march

aristocratic

governments

111

many-headed

rule of

high fashion,brought
2

tyrant

valuable

substituted

Mitford, who

sayinghis

the

culture.

only

permanent

women.

fact is that

and
politics
of necessity,

singleking,who

days when
a

sovranty

torrent

government

tirades
of

censure

might

againsttyrants were
upon his head by

against democracy.

Thought, p. 416.

over

36.]

VIOLENCE

THE

be touched

But who

by compassion

could

who

the

thought

slaves,and

the

swore

reached

or

by persuasion.
clubs of young
cians,
patri-

the

with

argue

preserved: el will

and

will do it all the harm

be at

which

oath

solemn

their

Aristotle

enmity with the Demos,

I can.' To these gentlemen

differences with
political

the

than

better

no

poor

has

83

FACTIONS.

OF

the

people had

quitebeyond argument ; whatever they urged

false : each
was
was
true, whatever
against them
side regarded its opponents
as
morally infamous.
Whenever
reach this condition,it is time to
politics
gone

abandon

discussion

enforce

can

When

the

revolutions

drawn

his
and

the

often
a

day,

cry

famous

and

disregardof

violences

The
and

him

real Greek

that

well

this

problem

death

or

of

that of party

of his times.

That

that these frauds

enough

those of
to

politics.
Theognis,

him,

must

was

as

of factions

war

by coercingboth

with

Thucydides has

known

were

price'

at any

thing in Greek

new

and
history,

this terrible
peace

that

more

many

Question-

their violence,fraud,

features

no

ac-

factions
political

the

of Alcseus, stillmore

poems

taught

were

peace

obligationbut

every

clever rhetorician knew

and

'

State.

declares

novel

be

interests to

of the

he

and

consequently ^entSof
Thucydicounter-revolutions,mas-

pictureof

in which

who

were

that
so
confiscations,

and

umpire

gained wealth

cohesion, there

violent

an

arms.

had

commons

some

was

with

his decision

quired
sacres

appeal to

and

have
old

as

that the earliest solution

the

was

tyrant, who

sides to his will and

exile those
G

that

were

of

made

ing
punish-

refractory.

84
The

THE

Athens

gather the

opposing

the

In

" 37.

tyrant

before

ognis.

even
"

out

interval

an

shocking

so

go
.

during

[37.

DEMOCRACIES.

condition

or
Peisistratus,

may

we

parties.

THE

DESPOTS;

far

the

of

Megara
to

as

1-111-

which

cities like

that, with-

say

both

of The-

parties

were

taught simply to obey, no reasonable politicallife

be taught
was
possible. The haughty noble must
had a master
that he too
be taught to
must
; he
his plebeianbrother
another
and not
treat
as
man,
The poor must
learn
merely as a beast of burden.
that they could be protectedfrom every rich man's
oppression,that they could follow their business in
ruled

they could appeal to

sympathy and would

that

and

peace,

by their

sovran

who

listen to their

voice.
Cases

of

an
There
few cases
even
were
a
umpire
voluntarilying parties voluntarily elected
.

appointed.

as

where

the

oppos-

pjttacus

trust

was

thenes

man,

umpire, and where

in less
nobly requited. But even
or

such

cases,

I make

Solon,

single

bold
would

to

as

say

have

as

that

of Peisistratus

that

the

constitution

succeeded,

had

such

their
tional
excep-

of Athens,
of Cleis-

the

people
received the trainingin peace and obedience
given
them
by the Peisistratid family. The despots may
have murdered
exiled the leading men
or
; they at
all events
welded
the people into some
unity,some
dens
burhomogeneity, if it were
merely in the common
they inflicted,and the common
antipathies
And
this is the most
adverse view
they excited.
that

recent

can

be

not

urged.

The

picture we

not

have

of Peisistratus,

of
especiallyin the Polity of the Athenians
fame, is that of a justand kindly man, wield-

37"]
ing

TYRANTS

THE

of his

generalhappiness

subjects.
then

This

feature

Their

overlooked.

less

therefore

which

them

in

services

the

to

literature

and

in art

of Greece

of the

value
political

the

was

tyrants, and

and

for the

of coercion

his power

85

ART-PATRONS.

AS

works, such

the

as

generally""^fts

is

artistic progress

day

castles

to

art.

manifest,

more

are

The

ignored.

early Services

tectural
of great archiof

tombs

and

Copais, had passed

times.
with the absolute rulers of pre-historic
away
his fellows,who
and
Even
Agamemnon
probably
society,would not
represent a later stage in Greek
have
dared to set their subjectsto such task- work.
in each city
masters
So long as there were
many
and
were
impossible.
State, all such achievements
Argolis,the

With

of Lake

draining

the tyrants

temples,the organizing of
colonies, the

promoting
old

other

people to

of all the

to

so

that

handicrafts, the

clever
It

the

was

of Homer,

and

prepared

of Pei- Examples,

care

doubt

no

for

Athenian

the

^Eschylus. Nay, this tyrant

the nascent
favoured
drama,
specially
led the way
to the splendid results

have

us,

upon

Athens.

in liberated

with
The

and

for Greek

art

commerce

and

Orthagorids, the Cypse-

they organized

they

had

intimate

suddenness,

apparent

single tyrants such as

of Argos, did
Pheidon

lids, and

definite

study

the

understand

come

Samos

arts.

literature,which

is said to have
and

of

patronage

for the

sistratus

buildingof large
fleets,the sending out of

began again

Polycrates
similar

fleets and

personalintercourse
kind

with

one

of

services

promoted
of

another

more

than

86

THE

States
the

of

theorists,

such

as

THE

can

knowledge

and

[37.

DEMOCRACIES,

possiblyhave

wealth

lower

of the

increased

they

classes,as

positionin the State ; and so

real good1.
of apparent evil came
out
Even
after all the full experience of Greek democracies,of the complete libertyof the free citizen,
of the value of public discussion,and of the responsibility
of magistrates to the people,we
find all the
later theorists
deliberatelyasserting that if you
the rightman,
could
secure
a
single-headed State
the most
was
perfect. All the abuses of tyranny,
had
therefore, so carefullypictured by literarymen,
seemed
not
to them
equal to the abuses of mobcompeten
rule, the violence and the vacillation of an inbut repeat,
or
needy public. I cannot
that if we
regard the world at large,and the general
well

Verdict

DESPOTS

their relative

as

"

fitness

of

hesitate

to

of the

instructive

.with Solon, the

father

theory,therefore,of
well

as

also

of

poor,

by Solon,

and

reflect that

even

by

vote

to

Hellenistic

have

in which

influence, and

wealth
which

rights and the burdens

only alive, but represented

Peisistratus

this

The

democracy.

the

not

was

Greek

Peisistratus,

contemporary

was

constitution

regard

when

I shall return

later and

of

birth should

should
the

to

enlightened of tyrants,

the most

as

discussion

by

races

majority.

It is very

Peisistratus

majority of

the

pronounce

shall

liberties,we

democratic

fit for government

now

"n'

for

men

subjectof tyrants

features.

Cf.

himself

made

in connection

below, " 71-

master

with

their

38.]
of

the

by

his law

Solon's

State.

87

REVOLUTION.

AGAINST

SAFEGUARDS

theory, though

supported

unable

against neutrality^was

to

come
over-

of faction

turbulence

the

and

it

required

the
whole
generation of strong rule to prepare
people for the revival of Solon's theory,with many
further developments, by Cleisthenes.
a
Nevertheless, Solon remains
capital figure in
to us
not
history, known
by legends
early Greek
and legislation
only, but also by the fragments of
his

poetry2.
" 38. This
of

nature

whose
sudden

ministers

quietand
with

appeal

to

to

Solon's

established

the
the

the

usurpationof

Ostracism, which
far

Grote

expounds

failed when
bolus.

the rivals

It is from

(3)

cases

leaders

two

citizens

the

date

and

only

of the ypatpT) irapavofjLcuv,

a

or

history.
be
2

It

was

appliedin

These

have

good
been

no\iT"ia,
'AOrjvaiow

quotationsin

democratic

the

ffraais,

but

when

engine

expedient

the vote

416

B.C.

the
So

hand.

at

was

this

also

againstHyper"

that I

find

can

prosecutionfor making illegal

still earlier stage.

safeguard replacedOstracism, and

the

had

lished
(2) estab-

But

about

"

indeed

He

danger

turned

this

place.

the

development;

at
proposals,thus interfering

to

before

that

combined,

that

took

all

that

saw

late,and

too

is

conflict,would

Cleisthenes

Peisistratus

showed
the

a raa

side, calculatingthat

came

interfered

actual

an

to join in the

compelled

cracy,
demo-

clearlycorrelated by

been

some

mocracy.

their control, from

at

that where

Government.

of the

body

take

must

tyrants, and

the Athenian

save

to have

never

(i) ordained

orderlypeople,if

failed when

rivalryof

me

to

standing-army

no

law

citizen

arisen,every

side

had

overthrow, seem

the historians.
had

laws, all intended

lasted
often

to

This

the end

abused,

last form
of

but

of

Athenian

always

safe

time.
increased

from

which

Life of Solon*

for

us

Contrast

by

Plutarch

the text

of the Aristotelian

cited,but

not

of

^Oedeekm

followed

that
and

aristocrats

the

consider

to

democracies

of

expulsion

remarkable

Three

right place

Greek

those

the

upon

is the

fully,his

THE

that

DESPOTS;

have

The

been

panegyric

is also

THE

lauded

so

of

Grote

[38.

DEMOCRACIES.

in

is well

known

chapter l in which
being intimate, apparently,with
a

only quotes
defended

Thirlwall

and

Athens, but

praised
of

were

in

the

for each

least three

be

very

at

of all recalcitrant
The

democracies

as

in

Hist,

manual

preface to

far

of much

sense

an

Rhodes,

or

slave

to have

ago, when

2.

poor

and

aristocrat
small
Still

the democracy

Imperial one,
smaller polities

He

claims

attained

they were

the

an

allied with

ii. chap. xix. "

any

so

he

when

to

some
trouble-

and

when

even

this the case,

the last edition

independentlythirty
years
dangerous paradoxes.

hardly

belonged to a
greater population.
:

or
subjects,

of Greece,vol.

have

kept

labour

serious

like Athens

ruling over

have

the worry

cracy
demo-

the modern
who

Athenians

poor

in

eminently was
was,

with

at

were

Greek

labourers

and

democrat

minority ruling

Hence

Tarentine,

was

there

vote

compared

saved

were

the

or

over-worked,
well

with

degrading

Athenian

of

drudgery, and

own

they

or

more

only

not

confederacy.

case

slaves.

wise

Even

servants.

as

(forhe

government

coercion

Delian

of artisans

all their

two

four
no

democracies

or

freeman

or

in

can

do

Grote

stated.
brilliantly
first place let me
repeat that they
al* slave-holdingdemocracies, and

and

one

that

cies.

of

out
with-

ably and

But

democfa-

the

has, therefore,the

Greece
Slave-

this form

there

Duruy,

has
support),

the
justified

even

members
student

in his

and

fine

very

histories.

modern

in his interesting

Grote's conclusions

regarded in

France

as

38.]
which

that

argues
was

paid by public money

and

was

bread1.

thus

above

But

when

he

his

by this

that

adds

^tP^bll(

daily
means

Athenians

the

making

in

citizen

poorest

concerning

care

Supported

doing public duties,

for

all

succeeded

'Pericles

the

Pericles

under

Holm

subjects.

than

little better

were

89

LIBERTY.

AND

LEISURE

ATTIC

in

equal to the Spartans,

(materially)
be (ifthey performed public
in that they could
and
noblemen
gentlemen like the latter,he
duties)
respect

one

the

surely

overstates

landed

aristocracyare

of

salaried

wielded

that

they enjoy.

Still it is
which
them

our

Greek
have

use

can

poor

of

instance

far freer than

he

not

was

secured

laws
the

societybecoming

State

he

theory required that

G. G. ii. 391.

There

is

very

draw

class,

water.

ancient

of civil servants

or

justice;
had

artisan

but

against The

redress.

no

all citizens

curious

publicemployments on which
Aristotelian
Ilo\iTfia, " 24.
'AOyvaioov
classes of

total number

inferior

against his brother-citizen,the

equality and

of the

demands

Greek

him

Nor

home.

counterpart, in another

his modern
As

so.

Athenian

helping
granted to the

at

reallyrefined without the aid of some

and
some
Gibeonites,to hew wood
But if from this point of view the
was

aids

efficient in

as

the leisure

as

privileges

all the modern

slave-labour

by

yet any

as

not

the

be

may

those

from

the

latter, or

are

culture

democrat
we

great

quite possiblethat

attain

to

these

by

of

traditions

different

wholly
however

paupers,

power

The

case.

should

The
be

of the various

summary

the Attic citizen lived in the

The

pensionersat

author
over

estimates

20,000.

the

assem-

^en
sovran.

al"

DESPOTS

THE

90

simply

regarded
such

thing

regarded

been

indeed

of

'

the

the

tells

of

Assembly
The

but

and

of
would

Demos

was

the

in

sovran

ruler,

irresponsible

or

the

Court

High

absurd1.

people/

State

sense

as

Aristophanes

of

Greek

Athenians.

These

features

always

not

are

with

urged

not

general

the

are

which
and

to

decree

as

sovran

tyrant,

appeal

the

the

of

property

an

as

against

Judicature
have

the

as

[39.

DEMOCRACIES.

THE

understood

by

clearness

sufficient

cracy,
demo-

by

foreign,
English,

historians.

of
acts

This

Rome.

may

has

for

Our

annul

the

first

time

been

irresponsible
any

law,

are

and

very

clearly
final

put
Houses

dangerous

by

Duruy
of

modern

in

his

Parliament,

analogy.

History
whose

V.

CHAPTER

THE

"

39.

nesian

two

NOW

is

narrated

given

foreign
world
older
war.

who

us

in

so

lands

the

anecdotes

pictures

and

record

his

the

two

mere

he

own

and

made

to

wars

applies less

criticism
up

the

his great climax

mind

history,
of

on

that

his

civilized

the

with

passages

from

chronicle

of

great

disdain

of older

greatest

Herodotus

"

account

century,
a

these

perhaps, after

earlier

unauthorized

and

have

to

delightful digressions

general

sixth

does

of

leading

their

history, than
Nor

this

many

and

is rather
in

but

subject ;

Herodotus,

book

ancient

historians, they have

most

chief

produced,

Unfortunately,

of

manner

fortune

respectivelyby

Greece

that

Thucydides.

has

Pelopon-

and

by

treatment

peculiar good

our

historians

to

their

and

the Persian

to

critics.

wars

their

HISTORIANS.

on

pass

wars,

modern
It

GREAT

to

tell

gossip,
"

and

the

piquant

us

all

time, if

giving

not

an

us

curate
ac-

history. Making, therefore,

Herodotus

^dides11

92

THE

allowance

every

for

there
in

of
subject"

be

can

he

doubt

no

often

the

always honest1, view

Herodotus

[39.

HISTORIANS.

GREAT

uncritical,though

took

of

that

the

and

men

affairs,

greatness

very

far above
subject puts him
Thucydides,
whose
mighty genius was unfortunatelyconfined to
/ a tedious and generallyuninterestingconflict,consisting
his

yearly raids, military promenades, very

battles,and only one largeand tragicexpedition,
of its five-andthroughout the whole course
of

small

twenty

years.

undertaken
Thucy"f
dides.

is it that

Still sadder

Narrow

narrate

to

this

great

having

man,

small, though

very

very

magnifies its importance as to make

it out the greatest crisis that ever
happened, and
his history almost
from
therefore excludes
thing
everylong,war,

so

would

which
1

Sayce will

Mr.

be
admit

not

Sayce,whose
Greek

ideas

are

often

seldom

historians

it,and

to differ from

so

sq.\which

ii.90

their

name

have

I feel

seen.

bare facts,from

many
the

suggestionof

and

Egypt

of great

was

for his valuable

Office.'
Holm

feels
with

as

the
I

It is for this
travels

But

shows

most

were

Thucydides (G. G.

that with

ii. 346).

great

pleasure

the extended

Pontus, Persia,

upon

pointto

important

has

self
him-

that the story of the ten

may

immediate

Herodotus

(e.g.Busolt, G. G.

great deal,even

information

But

that I

reason

I call attention with

the Athenians

great and

clo,that

Mr.

about

lands he describes he must

value, and
practical

reports,which

Hence

censure

Athens,

given him by

talents reward

it.

330),who
(ii.

Holm

to

originalinquirerlike

of Herodotus'

other books.

trade relations of Periclean

of appropriati

literary
honesty seems

that he borrowed

sure

the habit

authorityunless they are

that whatever

assumes

per-

without acknowledgment.
pilfered

criticise or

distrust the usual enumeration

the

to

indeed

this,and

even

previouswork, which Greek

allowed, must
naturallyoffend an

have

to

of real interest

to

real reward

their

popularityof
been

'

Foreign

his work.

underrated,in

parison
com-

39-]

the

over

detailed

He

deeply interestingbut

now

rise

have

indeed
He

posterity.

been

originof
the

yet he

elapsed
Wars.

boon

to

silence

contemptuous

His

de-

omission

The

development of Athens.

all this is

us

war

sculpture, Pheidias, Ictinus, the

the
Parthenon, of the temple of

does

give

his

preceding

inestimable

an

power.

of

growth
building of
"

quite obscure

drama, ^Eschylus, Susarion, Cratinus

the

Theseus,

briefly

passes

Athenian

in

passes

all the artistic

over

the

of

historyof the fiftyyears

would

93

life.

period of the

to

Greek

study of

manent

MYCENJE.

ON

DIODORUS

think

not

the famous

the

between
He

it inconsistent

of

sketch

in his narrative.

blank

Persian

his

with

plan
that

fiftyyears

Peloponnesian

and

the inaccuracies

correct

to

proposes

And

of

Hellanicus, his only predecessor in this field,and

there

be

can

give

to

But
his silence
we

his

are

he

has

descended
con-

able.
valu-

and

accurate

details,so

frequent

really important public events, that

on

fain

are

what

is both

us

scanty

so

that

doubt

no

to

turn

to

inferior author

any

to

fill

the gap.
Of

there

these

and

tant, Diodorus

long after
sources

Plutarch.

used

conclusion

poets)two
these

The

to

whole

eleventh

it adds

to

value

tone

book

what

of

supplied

hi

literary

Ephorus as his chief authority.

Ephorus by other authors make
The

ex-

lived

men

beholden

were

of Diodorus'

unavoidable.
when

the

Both

for their information.

citations from

account,

(apartfrom

the events, and

the arrangement
that he

are

and

show
The
this

Diodorus'

Thucydides

has

Diodorus.

THE

94

said, is therefore

to

[39.

HISTORIANS.

GREAT

be

estimated

the

by

value

of

On
this I
Ephorus as an independent historian.
have already declared
opinion ("30),to which
my
that I fullyagree
Busolt
I need
with
only add
he says that for the early years of the period
when
Ephorus had no other authority than Thucydides
Date of the of
The
fact that Diodorus
value.
only new
any
of Myis the alleged destruction
for us
cenae
ofMycense, preserves
at a moment,
464 B. C.),
by the Argives (circ.
in the crisis of the
he
infers,when
Sparta was
and unable to interfere.
Helot insurrection,
I have
long since explained (in Schliemann's
is
Mycence) why I discredit the whole story. Holm
the diffithe only writer who
culty
to feel with me
seems
of supposing such an event
to have been passed
with indifference
Greek
States,
over
by the patriotic
whom
the Mycenseans and Tirynthians had joined
in the great Persian

crisis.

when

And

Holm

urges

terference,
for Sparta'snon-in-

political
expediency to account
of
he surely forgetsthat the literary
men
restrained
Athens
were
by no such considerations.
Thucydides (i.102)mentions Argos at this moment:
torial
is it likelythat even
he would
this terripass over
aggrandisement of Argos without a syllable
Silence

of

Swkoclts
and

of notice

what

Euripi-on

of
the

But

apart from

^Eschylus,the

this

comrade

field of battle,what

of

mass

of reticences,

of the

Mycenaeans

Sophocles,what

of

ought to have celebrated

Euripides,all of whom
Mycenae, and who celebrate Argos instead ? They
to have
seem
absolutelyforgottenMycenae ! What
of the absolute
found
reticence of the remains
by

39-]

Schliemann,
sixth

or

not

The

centuries

too

if

Ephorus

belongs to the fifth

all to a long anterior
is,therefore,placed two

C., but

affair

late,and, for all

Ephorus
the

was

know,

we

from

all,but

at

Diodorus'

from

or

source,

B.

whole

from

derived

95

of which

one

century

period ?

THUCYDIDES.

AND

PLUTARCH

not

may

inferior

some

combination.

own

I refuse

source,

be

Even

accept his

to

authority.
When
indeed

rather

in

are

turn

we

artistic and

far better

of Themistocles
material
know
the

of

from

which

trustworthy

the

researches

not

kind

has

he
sources

what

the

with

collected

much

lost to

phrases of

the

not

speeches

Plutarch.

His

brilliant sketch

in

much

in

Thucydides

Thucydides have
Curtius

and

number

of

Athens,

of

Grote, by the

gods.

fragments
lists of

of

quotas

the

of

the

various

offeringsrecentlyfound

at

of

days of

large

from

paid

lists,
together with

treaties with

as

Acropolis

the

allied cities to Athena

These

the

narrative

the

recovery

inscriptions,
chieflyfrom
recording the

from

her

preserved by

since
illustrated,

been

of the several

other

and

us,

Our

name.

so

deeply interesting facts

the

Value

have

Germans

specifying by

is derived

moment

we

case

now

the

much

us

beyond

is not

of

give

picture of the splendour of Athens

vague

tribute

in

succeeded

greatest

from

from

his Lives

although

do

this

object was
historical,
we

than

For

Cimon

and

information

even

whole

the

plight.

Thucydides,

all

not

the

moral

Life of Pericles,in which

valuable

at

Plutarch, whose

to

and

the
to

several

cities,and

Delos, have

of

g6

THE

afforded

Holm

the

The

But

newly-

stitution

important

of Athenian
Aristotle

fascinating

l.

(1889)a

of his book

recovered

moments

of

in the work

of

the Athenians*.

himself

concern

his

of the obscure

review

growth has been

The Polityof
on

indeed

not

for

since the appearance

even

anc^

OnikeCm- new

materials

ImperialAthens

chapters upon

[39.

HISTORIANS.

GREAT

He

either with

the

foreign
the city.
bringsus

policy or with the artistic grandeur of

But as regards her internal development he
several

and

new

of the
for

public duties,not

The

whole

before

former

several

years

is

at

his

reduced, that

preference for
should

We

Aristotle
there

with

is in his

ii. u,

I call it the

completed
The
political

power.

we

also

is

almost

suspect

rejoicecould

Thucydides,
departure from

and
our

in

side
we

confront

this
truth

what

see

his

politics.

histories.

received

constantlyin

the work

uses

shows

elsewhere

conservative

animus

an

the

Life

16-20.

12,

of

work

Aristotle,in spiteof

the

many

critical

tions
ignore the persistentcitaexpressedin England, for I cannot
and
quarians,
antiof Plutarch
and of many
good Greek grammarians
do the peculiarities
of
of doubt, nor
who
express no word

styleseem
or

the

indeed

Plutarch, who

doubts

at

in the author, who

against him

Aristides.

is in fact

reform

arrives

salaries

on

to

tion
crea-

prolonged for
it
had suspected, and
later than we
that Ephialtesattacks the
instigation
The
politicalrole of Pericles is in

Areopagus.
so

Pericles,but

Themistocles

activityof

fact

to

democratic

the

even

livingat Athens

Demos

sovran

ascribes the

facts. He

curious

does

to

perhapsthe

me

to

work

prove

of

anythingmore
pupil under

than

carelessness in revision,

the master's direction.

Cf. " 53

39-]

NEW

97

EVIDENCE.

he

Solon, evidentlydisregardsit when

of

treat

of Themistocles

dides

been

had
little fuller,

trouble

to

be

better

in

have

the

historical

new

reallygreat period

of

has

he

his

literarygenius, such

his

was

force,that,crabbed

been,

this

face

Athens.

yet such

rhetorical

his

estimate

given himself the

should
we
details,

he

more

position to

problem, and
the historyof
And

few

preserve

Thucy-

Had

Pericles.

and

to

comes

and

sour

his

impressed

so

subject'simportance

the

upon

he

as

Effects of

may
and

own

world

learned

much
into
The Pelobring the Peloponnesian war
of?"0"*1"
the
greater prominence than
greater events
to

as

Greek

Thus

history.

world

of the

event

whether

whereas

kind

one

in

Athenians

had

when

crushed

was

had

even

the

Athenians

certain

that

world

would

have

inherent

which
and

The

Rome,

Plato

or

tic
domes-

If the

the

thaginians
Car-

northern
of Persia
indeed

decisive event.

broken

down

from

in all Greek

Aristotle

explained.
H

have

of the

But

conquered Syracuse, it

their domination

weaknesses
and

nate
domi-

singlenationality

destroyed the civilization

growing under
Cyrus, there

quite
the

Greece.

import.

great battle might be called

question

should

of Asia
it

history,quenc~e.

another

the limits of

of this transcendent

not

hordes

or

world-wide

Syracuse figuresas

it only settled the

perhaps in

quarrelswithin
are

the world's

at

of Greek

and
Sicily,

selection

well-known

battles from

of fifteen decisive
the defeat

in

is

Greek

within, from
democracies,

long ago analyzed

98
No

"

repre-

This

40.

trati"n
Greekas-m
semblies.

to

the

was

no

was

no

government.

such

thing

at

so

at

once

Second

or

delay their decisions

Court

of

Appeal
of this

the

proposal of
result

The

ing
outly-

had

and

'

Nullam

nis

esse

enim

illinostri

voluerunt

summota

quae

Crown

no

High

againstthe State.
formed
the Assembly.
the jury to try cases
either

in act

without

were

formal

defect

grave

the Roman
act

passage

voice

in Greek

distinct time.

(pro Flacco,

sapientissimiet sanctissimi
scisceret

cracies,
demo-

plebes,aut

promulgata
sedentis
totae respublicae

The

Roman

concionis

is

vii.):

cap.

concio-

populus juberet,

quae

temeritate

the

Here

viri vim

et

de-

centuriatim

cognita,juberivetariquevoluerunt.

autem

in

precautionof making
at

condone, distributis partibus,tributim

et

in

or

ordinibus,classibus,aetatibus,auditis auctoribus,re
scriptis
dies

to

outlying provinces,even

this as

little-known

important and

this

votes,

centuries

or

all

it with

compares

tribes

debate1.

laws.

mentions
specially

Cicero

voting by

formed

that

obtained

they

save

they did

Higher Council

no

constitution

new

was

and

come

the

of

or

citizens

body

of the

of the

settle claims

to

body of Athenian

of violation

bers
mem-

Chamber

revise

Sections

No

conclusion

was

The

free resolve

imperialdemocracy
the first place,there

In

There

no

suppose

tution.
representationin their consti-

as

the

upon

illus-

stable of governments

only had votes who could

the general Assembly, and

Those

give them

the

upon

such

thinks,I

most

the Athenian

But

nation.

and

surest

based

is that

whole

reader, who

modern

rightly,that

further

requiressome

statement

tne

[40-

HISTORIANS.

GREAT

THE

multos

Graecorum

administranttir

of

the course
as
safeguardswere, however, quiteinsufficient,
historyproved. The Athenians also had some
especially
safeguards,

in

preparingresolutions

these too

were

almost

for the

useless.

assembly by

previouscouncil

; but

40.]

the government.

But

votes, for the

no

Athens

CHECKS.

CONSTITUTIONAL

NO

as

became

tributarv

merely

were

which

States

they had
subject to

of fact

matter

99

and

nothing

Athenian

settie"jS
subject

was

towns,

further

the

them

make
the

from

that

sense

present American
This

it

which

was

its domination

ruined

been

In

conquered.
wholly
The
in the

adventurer

the

hands

earnest,

and

take

of

to

the

Roman

RC.

public.

city

the

were

erned
gov-

city crowd.

which
injustices
such

were

the

manage

the outsiders

cases

executive

could

Owing

de-

their troops had

kingdoms

for the benefit of the

Roman

when

and

Similar

perfectlyincompetent, even

vast

both

mistakes

great Roman

unshaken.

was

in

real

in

of the

government

the

representation,the Empire of the

of

Republic was
population,who were
they

of the

member

militaryreverses,

any

Roman

had

even

of the world

the absence

to

Republic.

Republic,without
to

State is made

new

than

Imperial Republic in

of their

members

Athenians

of the

ideas

that

resulted
able

any

of the world-wide

advantage

Hence
Athenian

emPire.
not

discontent, and

could

off

play

one

city

faction

againstthe other. It is not conceivable that any

other general course
of events
taken
would
have
the ruler of the
place at Athens, had she become
Hellenic

there

can,

pressure
was

would
there

Her

Demos

rulingsubjectsfor

sovran,
;

world.

the

its

therefore,be
of that

primary

regarded itself as a
fit
own
glory and bene-

no

doubt

widespread
of the

that the

discontent

ternal
ex-

which

Peloponnesianwar,
have
co-operated with politicians
within,if
enemies
were
no
without,and that ambitious
cause

an

mam-

tamable.

militarychiefs,as
from

power

the

would

Rome,

at

[41.

HISTORIANS.

GREAT

THE

,cc

have

people either by

sovran

the

wrested

force

or

by

fraud.

nesian

war

history. That

in the world's

battles, the

of

defeat

modern

criticism,is due

and

minuteness,

the

little import

had

the little raids

couple of hundred
twenty ships should

with

and

Pelopon-

produce

solelyto

still be

libraries of
of the

the power

just preeminence

of

and

tans,
Spar-

studied

historian

famous

the

language in which he wrote his book.

" 41. This is, I think, the most
signalinstance

The
"

Thuc"^ron
dides.

of

capture

the

or

largest crisis

in its

even

result of the

the

that

I contend

Hence

falsification of the

of the

record

per spec-

proper

history by individual literarygenius. It

and
in old days that Achilles
a commonplace
was
Agamemnon, Ulysses and Diomede, all the famous
in
died
of the Trojan war,
heroes
would
have
obscurityand passed out of sight but for the voice
is it that
of the inspiredpoet.
much
How
truer
and
Phormion
Brasidas, Gylippus and Lamachus
tive of

would

have

for the

eloquence

would

have

virtuallydisappeared
Attic

of the

remained

an

important

beyond
whom

these
the

supremacy,
are,

except

Athens
which

it

day

The

of that
no

Pericles

historian !

and so does
figure,
whether
beyond the period),

in their

limits.

history but

historic

Lysander(who is almost
any singlehistorian intended
were

from

and

to

their

rest

city,not

from
reallygreat spirits

day

Lysander

Pericles, never

The

not.

or

derives

her

eternal

could

take

away,

in

all his

mentioned

42.]

THUCYDIDES

work.

No

could

one

yet

poets the' world

'

in the

other

of Athens.

streets

It

severe

: '; ; ;
^np"^slDletitJitJ
j

jostlingeach

then

were

seen

the

dramatic

architects,sculptors,and
has

this

suspect, from

ever

narrative,that

business-like

and

JOI

GRAMMARIANS.

THE

AND

thankless

seems

has

dides

of

done, instead

not

of what

Thucyacknowledging what

complain

to

His

calm-

sumed.

ordinary
performed with extrathe history of a
was
ability. Never
written with more
judgment, and,
long war
power,
I was
going to say, impartiality.But I honestly

he undertook

believe

has

Grote
Greek

will

which

one

of

make

classical

English

of his decisions1.

calmness

estimate

This

supplemented in my
strong personal feelings

that

the apparent

" 43.

but

its way

world,

by

"

interest

so

literaryjournals that
ter

to

there

traditions

scholastic
also

as

all those

the outcome

as

For

completely
any opinion
is
of

Thucydides,

in

Greek

whom

to

is the most

divine

Cf. my

Hist.

Gk.

school-

the

which

our

runs

coun-

to

be

set

rashness

or

of

his

to

enlisted

grammar

of all

classics to

commands

sure

with

chap. 5.

He

tic interest,

ance.
ignor-

fluence
just in-

cies
its intrica-

is

^eschola

down

in his favour

pursuits.

Lit. ii. i,

the
that

mean

and

addition

great writer,has

teach

"

in

slowly

which

and

master

is, however,

Thucydides

important body who

schoolboys and college students,

large

I think

and

I have

what

shown,

far inferior

been

have

coldly impartial;

been

Literature,

underlie

has

would

his book

that

it indeed

had

and

do

to

102

if lifeSpeakers,as

ccount

of their

cleverness

they

in order

forms,
startling

plays

both

ancient

what

he

with

task

to

with

and

To

modern.

speakers to

shade

of

which

many

of his intricacies
love

passing the

affects the

of
critical

worthy

; the

study

devoted

considerable

natural

love

to

so

amoured
en-

with

them

and

this

that

become

should

consequently

depreciationwhich

of

subject is always praise-

of any

insistence

minute

upon

for slovenliness

contempt

English,is
have

but

it

of their idol.

importance

Enthusiastic

lie remains

render

to

very

word

exactly

out

men

as

of intellectual

grammarians,

modern

of women,

love

bitterlyany

resent

to

the

success

It is
reputations depend.
school, or these schoolmen,

the

Thucydides

make

nicety into
its

upon

and

new

sort

say, and

acute

strove

in smartness

outrun

with their critics,

so

his

and

years,

to

under

to say

hide-and-seek

means

every

had

audience, and play a

hide-and-seek
himself

tells us,

of them

one

what

.rcltc conceal
difficulties,

[42.

HISTORIANS.

GREAT

THE
,

in

and

accuracy,

always

writing, are

to

scholars.

be admired

and

in the

scholars

minute

precision in thinking,

our

clearness

of

for it

encouraged,

and

that
and

class,therefore, let Thucydides

of

foremost
into
his
are

the

belief

therefore
a

to

but

let

because

decide
and

to

we

these

the

style.

any

sense

To

this
the

bully

not

they

of

forever

remain

them

ties
quali-

much

owe

still more

carefullythan

narrator,

historian.

that

more

grammar

as

books

is

in

correctness

,.

have

us

studied

other, they

less
absolutelyfaultabsolutelytrustworthy as

that

he

is

HOLM'S

42.]

here

am

given
and

in

of his

border-raids

only

tedious

histories

modern

our

apt

field he

covers

is

observation

in

should

will

reader

it is

this

that
satisfaction,

for

me

comparative

great historians which

ihe

error

inc0mpaiison-

he

would

Minor

be

epic ?

prose

pardon

what

Asia

or

of

Herodotus
underrated

,-r^

impossible

But

wrong.

hand,

days,

the chances

and

are

modern

earlier Greece

of

other

these

found

describes

the

on

great, that
be

he

wide,

chronicle,"

tedious

events

in

his marvellous

without
The

so

so

often

not

notions

our

underrated

petty feuds

the

to

Herodotus,

be

to

often

the

because

completely trivial.
is

point1;what
exaggerated place

is the

with

concerned

103

this latter

already dealt with

I have
I

ESTIMATE.

expressing

my

of the

estimate

published some
twenty
is still regarded by many
which
of
years
ago, and
paradox, has now
English critics as a mere
my
become
a widely and
solidlydefined belief among
critics.
Of course
the best German
they began by
view.
Muller-Striibingespeexaggerating the new
cially,
has been
as
freelyexposed by his opponents,
two

from

has advanced
to

contempt

no

whoever
proper

cannot

reader

newest,

and

This
a

the

this kind
passages

masters

summary

of
1

of

of the

of

course

that

he has

genius. But
in

which

Greek

the

histories,

researches

and
historiography,
Above, " 28.

The

censure

silly
great historian,

recognize it,shows

consult

from

is of

very

perhaps the best,

Holm's, gives
contrasted

was

appreciationfor

let the

to censure,

Thucydides.

Thucydides

pedantry.
and

of

criticism

on

he will

the
see

critics

104

THE

result is much

that

the

have

long advocated.

that

Herodotus

has

[43.

HISTORIANS.

GREAT

the

same

Holm

been

that

as

which

(ii.
pp. 346 sq.)

argues

underrated

he

argues

rated.
over(ibid.
pp. 369 sq.)that Thucydides has been
call particular
Let me
attention to the details
I thoroughly
of the latter estimate, as one
to which
But let no one
subscribe.
charge me with despising
the great Athenian
his great; I believe I appreciate
ness

than

far better

"

Let

43.

us

pass

of

case

due
The

The

Ana-

Xenophon.

world

panegyrists.

to
by anticipation

another

markable
re-

perspective, likewise

literaryability.

great author

next

by

his random

distorted

transcendent

to

do

the grace

and

who

vividness

has

fascinated

of his

style is

the
the

Athenian

In his famous
Anabasis, or
Xenophon.
assist the
Thousand
to
Expedition of the Ten
insurgentCyrus,he has told us the story of what
have
must
happened (on a smaller scale)many
times before, of Greek
mercenaries
being induced
in the quarrels of remote
by large pay to serve
Asiatic sovrans,
and findingtheir patron assassinated
defeated.
or
They had then their choice of
his rival (withthe chance
of
taking service under
of cuttingtheir way
of the
out
or
being massacred),
Hellenic colony. It seems
to have
country to some
been
mainly due to the abilityand eloquence of

that

Xenophon
body
latter
he

the most

present

of mercenaries
His

course.

claims

the

chose

narrative

largeand
and

carried

able
formidout

the

of this Retreat, in which

played the leading part, is one

delightful
chaptersof Greek history.
to

have

very

of

43-]

THE

in all the modern

But

both
what

the

events

seem

to

least true

the

this

the

exception,The

have

narrator

assumed

that the Greeks

dependent

were

campaigns

of

divided

Greek

iongrecognized,

upon

of the weakness*

knowledge

weak-

persia

It is not

gigantic proportions.

me

for their

source

without

accounts,

and

105

DISPERSED.

THOUSAND

TEN

of

Agesilaus
in Asia Minor, which were
almost synchronous,and
not
know)
suggested (so far as we
by any means
the same
facts clearly
by the expedition, showed
of the
Empire
military weakness
enough. The
Its financial power,
was
already a commonplace.
the

Persian

in the

face

the

of

real

the

was

The

Empire.

and

poor

difficultyin

the

of

way

States,
Hellenic

conquest.
The

which

in

manner

the

their return

received, upon

all this plainly enough.

Ten

Thousand

Greek

to

of

Instead

Reception

were

lands, shows
bein^ hailed

as

Thousand*
"n

their

turn-

pioneers
what

of

conquest,

new

dreamed

nobody

of

as

u
who

heroes

hadj

doing before, they

j
done

were

merely regarded as a very large and therefore very

had
dangerous body of turbulent marauders, who
and
acquired cohesion
disciplineby the force of
a dangerous attack
adversity,and who might make
on

any

city, unless

civilized

their

gained, during which

would

give

way

themselves.

Their

squandered, and
new

to

service

intimidate
This

to

strength

defections,and
wealth
ill-gotten

they

must

then

and
not
separately,
their employers.

is the

little time

rational

account

be

and

were

harmony

quarrels among
would

soon

induced

in such

of what

be

to

seek

mass

as

historians

re-

106
The

often

army

represent

dissipated.

/-IT

conduct

of

prudent

as

the

melted
but
into

Xeno-

phon

So

" 44.

policy they adopted

hardly hope that

the Ten

gathered ;

leisure

was

sand
Thou-

of them

many

cultivated

and

leading

retired
Xeno-

as

in after years.

did

phon

the

quickly as they were

as

innocent

so

111.

then

successful,and

was

away

can

we

The

infamous,

even
i

Lacedaemonians,

it

as

or

"

Greece.

in

power

shabby,

the

as

[44.

HISTORIANS.

GREAT

THE

for the

much

expedition ;

now

word

strategy,

two

or

expedition had

histories,who

in modern

recognized

been

leaders
in the

of

the

age

he

market, that

of

one

as

that

doubt

can

figure in the

temporary
con-

in his Anabasis

it does

that

If his

Xenophon.
the

made

indeed

world

have

famous

this

concerning

and,

as

the

he would
tary
mili-

chief

his services

were

been

once

have

would

and

at

general or as a minister
in
memorable
of
the
campaigns which
war,
after his return?
Why did
occupied the Greeks
command
he never
an
again1? Why was
army
either

employed,

of

of the historians

Some

but
to

the

commanded

or

it

was

he

the

from

In

that

He

could

his native
other

words

chosen

who

Holm,

the

it

Xenophon

is

Xenophon

perhaps

have,

city,and
a

very

but

with

he

would

despised the
ambitious

Wonderful
me

young

deed,
in-

reallyawake

favourite

great spirit.His
commanded

of
man,

men,

surprisingway.
authority,

very

not, because
career

the art

strike learned

his

again

never

to

seldom
in

performance

learned

never

seems

182)
(iii.

againstall attacks

defends

questionwhy

is this

for

accounts

the

previous campaign.

difficulties which

premise

may

whom
to

real fact?

naivelyenough,that

note

in any

common-sense

feels this, but

wonderful, seeing he had

is very

Xenophon

of war,

as

answer

an

he

was

army,

exiled
chief !

mercenary

who

professionof foreignadventure, when

had
he

ately
deliberhad

sue-

44.]
he

CHARACTER

OF

tried

never

as

THE

strategistagainst Epamin-

ondas, the risingmilitarygenius

simple fa'ct is that
of his Retreat

failed to put

not

light;

and

counts

given by

him" in

so

his

preeminent
and

under

of

the spur

after the
his

and

has

the

when

and

ready

is

rivals

and

and

of

cuse,
Syra-

composed
were

at

many
but

him,

long blown

over,

scattered

were

lite-

brought

contradict

to

^s

the

candid

there

affair had

in the

companions

it

was

real

rai7-

ac-

Anabasis

"

nor

His

place

not

plainfacts,perhaps even
Themistogenes
name,

memories

interest

did

apparently

an

of the moment,

fresh

with

that

probable

the illusion ;

help

to

"

false

he

favourable

most

mercenaries

story

graceful self-panegyricof

author, disguised under

out

view

position. The

The

age?

the whole

us

into the

than

more

the

of

point of

own

the other

simple narrative

told

himself

it is

artistic

most

has

he

from

IC"7

ANABASIS.

or

dead.
It

is of

course

excellent

an

for

text

Grote

develop into his favourite historical sermon,

broad
literary and
philosophical culture
Athenian
to
democracy fitted any man
ceeded

and

despises

that

Xenophon
would
a

shown

not

mercenary

could
he

had

know

Is

not

with

him

profession.
home

brought
have

been

leader

and
popularity,
because

his transcendent

he

required to
he would

have

become

could

and

excited
for certain

any

great

why- he

or

was

stops short

the

take

up

he

because

battles of his native

have

recovered

but

It

was

because

he

obscurity.There

is

lastingodium

Athens.

banished.

of

Had

he
reallyfirst-rate reputation,

soon

not,

that the

improbable?

most

leadingAthenian.

would

not, that he retired into

this

fightthe

very
a

powers,

to

at

no

cityas

himself
not

in

fore
there-

would

and

to

think

reason

We

hardly

special

108

THE

suddenly

GREAT

[45.

HISTORIANS.

important duties, even

any

the

management

true

or

of

false this

be,

may

But

campaign.

special as

so

it is certain

however

that

Xeno-

phon's contemporaries did not accept him as a

militarygenius,and that he spent his after years
of soldiering in attendance
second-rate
a
upon
Spartan generalas a volunteer and a literary
panegyrist.
For

in

suspicion that

the

Xenophon
in
have
been
guilty of strong self-partiality
may
kus and1"
Epamithe Anabasis
first awakened
was
by the reflection
show
that his later works
the strongest partiality
for his patron, and
the most
niggardly estimate of
of them
the real master
all,the Theban
Epaminondas.
If instead of spending his talents in glorifying
and no doubt
the Spartan king
a respectable
able but
he had
undertaken
ordinary personage,
with his good specialknowledge to give us a true
of the militaryperformances of Epaminaccount
" 45.

Xenophon

me

"

ondas, then
share

of

gratitude from

world's greatness.

being
of the
injustice
lenica

He

contemporary,

greatest

have

he would

indeed

of the

man

no

all students

in the

was

earned

nary
ordiof the

position of

rare

standing before
specialist,
age, and capable of both
and
explaining it to us

understanding his work

with literary
perfection; yet his Hellenica is generally
regarded as a work tending to diminish the
achievements
1

This

is stoutly
denied

Breitenbach's
He

of the Theban

Edition

regards Xenophon

and
as

by Holm,

hero1.
G. G. iii.15, and

Stern's researches

181

sq., who

in support of his

impartialto
perfectly

others

cites

opinion.

throughouthis

45-]

EDUCATION

WIDE

Happily
and

justice. Shall

with

discuss, he

is

?
impartial
Xenophon

and

never

and
politics,

he

popular figure,

added

generalintelligence,
specialtraininggiven

art, the

in

of occasional

thinking.

abstract

of

paigns,and

close intimacy with the best

and

trainingby

aristocratic

togetherwith that
Spartan life,

to

which
field-sports

is

so

far

literature he

of Greek
of

most

devotion

gentlemanly and

more

In the whole

improving than trainingfor athletics.

range

"eSvedly

various

and

appears

the

life he

authors, in his external

most

tivated
cul-

combines

man,
gentleeverything which we desire in the modern
of judgment
and
though his superficiality
lesser giftsplace him far below Thucydides, or even
Polybius.
Hellenica.
course

Whether

another

he

was

question,which

so

to

Holm

that
insists,
perfectly
true, as Holm
the
author
been
ever
proved against
demonstrate

that

he

was

himself
has
not

in the marshalling of his

suppression,
that disguisedpartiality
to have
seems

Anabasis

touched.

not

singlefalse

of the

?
impartial

in the

statement

Hellenica,but

It is in

the

shown.

does

selection,in

facts ; it is in his
been

is of

It may

Xeno-

popular.

exciting cam-

admirable

his

completed

only Yet

was

knowledge of

by travel and

war

tincture

the
this

But

learned

He

part of his education.

and

full education

the

to

of Socrates, and

the world

strictly

more

by the conversations

to

citizen in

Athenian

an

be

to

cease

deservedly ; for

most

of
in

will

had

he

merits

own

been

have

likely to

held

not

when

his

him, and

contradict

to

one

no

has

that

believe

we

he

which

09

him,

correct

to

means

balance

the

redress

to

here

have

we

XENOPHON.

OF

be
has
this
the

perspective

CHAPTER

POLITICAL

THEORIES

the

Greeks

against de-

" 46.

What

historian

CENTURY

and

pause

revise
is the

his

IN

BC.

the

properly make

most

may

EXPERIMENTS

AND

FOURTH

THE

Literary

VI.

of the Athe-

judgment

dislike

evident

modern

njan

democracy,

most

thoughtful classes,represented by

the

which

mocracy.

historians, and

displayed

this form

to

accustomed

to

by

who

or
we

men

which

democracy
and

established

tract

phon'sworks,
who
war.

lived

phon, though
ii. p. 47.

Repub.

is now,

and

form

wrote

it before

not, therefore,express
it is

of

that

its

handed

Athen.

an

attack

upon

bitter aristocrat.

plea

that

the
liked
dis-

thinkers

it

tried to
had

what

been

the

was

of

abuses

whereas

that
politics,

of them

some

dental
acci-

democracy

genuine greatness

down

by general agreement,

earlier,and

It does

determined

de

and

the accidental

or

disgustedthem,

The

authors

Pericles,and

under

decay

the

which

and

their

out

Radicals,

modern

by

off with

debased

was

put

these

derided,

overthrow,

think

not

be

perhaps

may

which

histories written
do

great

professed pupils of Socrates,

of society1.
We
now
so
are

the

by

these

to

us

assignedto

the close

of the

Xeno-

among

author

some

Peloponnesian

the individual

opinion of

Xeno-

the Athenian

democracy

by

Upon

the

details,cf.

my

Gk.

Lit.

47-]

THE

been

had

Ernst

which

proof

of

singleman,

But

of

condition
their

Cleon, is

"

on

critics.

Pericles,
State

their

sion
voluntary submis-

proof of

highest Vacillation

voluntary

single man,

hardly expect

can

we

to

he says

another

on

to

people
the high

the

the

that

saying

of the

submission

whereas

him

close.

subject that

this

out

to

of

savant

thought

find

we

great century

sadly

come

now

Ill

the

by

German

little

so

page

had

Curtius,

type, has

was

PERICLES.

OF

clearlymanifested

of progress

one

POLICY

its

real

any

racy.
degene-

tion
apprecia-

of the

working of a democracy from a German

professorbrought up in the last generation. Indeed
his inconsistencies,
and his hypotheses of decay and
regeneration

in

moments,

ably

are

to his

appendix

dealing is

our

the

tried

one,

to

all her

"
and

whole,

the

out

would

would

by

was

at

Holm

Athens

in

in

360

Grote,who
without

knew
He

policy of

have

various

valuable

B.

c.1

argues

p^f* "f

military ability,
Pericles,and that
and

sound

preserved Athens

Athenian

judgment
have

soon

that

far-seeing

through

she

of the
my

But

perfectlyCrete's

to it.
steadilyadhered
at
already discussed
length

I have

expressed

Demos

problem.

and

of Pericles

basis

But

the

dangers, had

47.

narrow

of

carry

which

dissected

rather with

the

policy

Athenian

chapteron

conditions

Cleon, on
the

the

the

imperial democracy,
that

brought

even

about

great

cesses
suc-

its fall.

join issue with Grote, and side with Plato,compared

in thinkingthat the policy of Pericles,even
within
the conditions
him
imposed upon
by the circum1

G.

G.

iii.pp.

221

sq.

112

THEORIES

POLITICAL

just mentioned,

stances

difficult that
could

AND

Pericles

had

dangerous

so

and

called it secure.

have
that

was

cautious

no

provident

Plato
made

[47.

EXPERIMENTS.

the

thinker

far

so

goes

and

to

as

Athenians

lazy,
Without
frivolous,and sensual.
actuallyindorsing
warranted
of history
this,,we
are
by the course
to
by
say that the hope of holding a supremacy
and
merely keeping up with all energy
outlay a
naval
acknowsuperiority already existing and
Pericles
The
ledged, was
truly chimerical.
thought
*^at ^7 making the city impregnable which
was
Pericles^
of attack, quite
then, against the existing means
feasible
and
by keeping the sea open, he could
amply support his citypopulation and make them
independent even of the territoryof Attica.
perfectly
While
and food from their
they could derive money
they might gather in
subjectsand their commerce,
the rural population from
and laugh at
the fields,
say

war

"

"

the

exhausted,

or

of

purpose

their

from

enemy

he

walls

his

until

compelled
protecting his own
was

means

retreat

to

were

for the

against

coasts

hostile fleet.

Thucydides

Hismiscal)ns'

this
the

misery

sheds

of the

up

with

proper
nooks

and
farmers

in

when

flames, and

ruthless

reckoned

with

in

us

affectinglanguage

actually turned
country people

experiment

city without
the

tells

houses

of streets

they
the

or

labour

completeness.
the immediate

what

out,

"

was

into the

crowded

furniture, sleepingin

; what

saw

how

their
of

the

was

homesteads

years

Pericles

of

rage

go

devastated

had

effects of his

not

even

singular

48.] NATIVE

AGAINST

policy.

Still less had

in any

have

case

113

he

thought of the sanitary

overcrowding his city,which must
fore
produced fatal sickness,and there-

of

consequences

SOLDIERS.

MERCENARY

those who
suffered
indignation among
could have
even
visitation,
though no one

deep
from

its

anticipatedthe frightfulintensityof
which

the

plague

ensued.

But

largerand

far

be based

may

the

upon

objectionHe
philosophical

more

money

for

sailors,is likely to

hold

trustingmainly
population,
of soldiers

and

that

consideration

permanently against

to

no

city

supply lation
its

own

afmySof

agriculturalpopulationyeomen,

an

fighting,not for pay, but for the defence of its

with
the spiritof personal ism.
and
liberties,
patriotIf you
and

merely

trust

secure

was

makes

the

if

; and

no

outlay

soldiery is

yeoman
and

country,

destroy the

artisan,you

victory

your

of any

yeoman

fightingpower

well handled.

felt in Thucydides' day ; for he

perfectly
the Spartan king, when
invading Attica,

speciallycomment
was

power

the

into the field against you

brought
This

to

of your

backbone
will

abolish

the

on

acquired by

on

extend
a

of

this he

fact that

money

Athenian

the

native1;

rather than

his

anticipationthat the army

of Peloponnesian farmers
will prevail. It would
surely have been a safer and a better policy to

and

the

bases

of Athenian

area

supply of hardy

and

devoted

yeomen,

soldiers

and
as

secure

the basis

lastingmilitaryand naval power.

" 48. It will be urged,and it was
urged
a

de-

wvrjr^jj.a\\ov ^
I

OIKCIOS.

in those

POLITICAL

114

that

days,

Advan-

merce"f

must

mercenaries

without

lurch

when

turned

the next

at

sea

farmers, who

after their subsisis

but

quite true;

citizen force

to

them

keep

always

defeat

mercenaries

the discussion,the

of immediate
in

proved

event

Macedon

to

rose

under

under

leaders

force

mercenary

the

as

Philip of

century, when
a

chance

new

any

Besides,

up.

power,

by

of

kept

were

and

gain

be

lent
turbualways a failure,they became
unmanageable, and left their pay-master

in order

the

This

their fields-

work

[48.

EXPERIMENTS.

could

forces

mercenary

and
tence
zfnTroops."

in

AND

permanently than a body

frequentlyto look
go home

more

naries

THEORIES

will

monarch

directed

hesitation,the vacillation of

debating assembly1.
The
therefore, for Pericles' policy
only excuse,
the impossibility
of doing anything else with
was
a

the

materials

materials

of

the

his

at

as

subject

the confidence

States.

long

In

fact, so

the Athenian

oppressionin any
of panic or
of passion, no
no
solidarity,
real union
could
no
feelingof patriotism,
be

Grote's

Spates

been

influence

has

prevailed,to

of all attempts

free Greeks

to

separatism

at

Pel"i"din

no

ne-

Cf.

Greek

on

this

Life and

the

the

small

world's

point Polybius, xi.

Thought, p. 416.

these

as

moment
common

possibly

fashion, since
the

attribute

empire among
jealousyand the love
I fancy that
States.
at

incurable

in their

the

rather

breakdown

of

The

to

It has

attained.

his

crippledbecause
rulingpower had not

liable
subjects,

were

and

disposal;

thus

were

democracy

had

he

an

history could
13, whom

I have

any

small

quoted

in my

48.]

have

communities
this kind

to

narrow

worked

persuaded to

easilybeen

of union, which

foundation,

for the

115

LEAGUES.

ABORTIVE

and

built

was

far

was

far too

on

cessarily
se

distinctly

too

benefit

exclusive

almost

submit

of

the

leading city.
things, the
of representationin a common
want
assembly,the
of scope
for talent in the outlying States,
want
the
of redress
against the dominant
difficulty
people if they transgressedtheir State-treaties,
holds
that
especiallyfor a practicalwriter, who
historical analogiesare
most
serviceable,and help
ancient
to explainboth
and modern
history. But
must
we
see
clearlythat the analogiesare genuine,
and
that we
not
are
arguing from an irrelevant
It is necessary

these

insist upon

to

"

"

antecedent

Yet
and

of

or

irrelevant consequent.

an

the

so
was
necessityof combination
great, Attempt
keenly felt during the tyrannical
ascendency **t[

so

Sparta at

several

after
seems

passed over
and

was

coins.

We

opening
were

century, that

of the next

made

obtain

to

avoiding the evils,of

The

supremacy.

which

the

attempts

while

is

to

first,which

tages,
the advan-

the old Athenian

was

made

diately
imme-

(394 B.C.)and
been
to have
originatedby Thebes,
in silence by all our
ties,
literaryauthorionly discovered upon the evidence of
the

battle

know

that

of

Cnidos

Rhodes,

Samos,

Cnidos, Naxos,

Ephesus, belonged to it, and that they

adopted for their common
coinage an old Theban
emblem
Heracles
the snakes.
The existence
throttling
of this confederation
to justifythe
seems
"

I 2

II

THEORIES

POLITICAL

hopes

of

Epaminondas
thus

and

power,

AND

make

to

[48.

EXPERIMENTS.

his

city a

protects the great Theban

naval
from

vanity,often repeated1.
charge of political
The

The

second

Confede-

second

^ederac7 of" 377

well-known

the

was

of which,

B-c-

Con-

Athenian

however, the details

only preserved in an important inscription

(No.
Hicks'
8 1 in Mr.
collection)which gives us most
its details, interestinginformation.
It included
Byzantium,
racy;

are

Lesbos, Chios, Rhodes,

Western

Eubcea,

islands

tribes and

mainly

to

protect these

tyranny, and
in Asia

brought up

But

seventy in number.

to

also Thebes.

and

the members

its declared

objectwas
againstSpartan

members

it acknowledged the Persian

The

Minor.
which

supremacy

safeguards against Athenian

far

a
important, are
of cleruckies,
clause forbidding the acquisitions
and

tyranny,
the

were

appointment
in

Athens,
Decrees

which

of

more

synod of the allies

Athens

proposed either

sit at

represented

not

was

to

in the Athenian

assembly
sanctioned
by

be
must
synod (synedrion)
the other body before becoming law2.
in this

or

might be expected,all these Leagues failed,

The
precautionsagainst the tyranny of the leading
of
States only hampered the unity and promptness
action of the League, and did not allayjealousy in
As

its defects.

the
Yet

smaller, or
these

ambition

abortive

attempts

historian,as showing

the

history of Confederations
Empire and the Achaean
1

Cf. the excellent summary

in

in Holm

the

greater, members.

are

important to

stages in the

intermediate

the

between

old

Attic

League.
iii.54-7.

the

Cf. Holm

1^.9

49-]
"
in

POLITICAL

The

49.

our

survey
the

philosophers in
conclusions

their

home,

or

pieces,not

to

gone
Theban

military

defects.

only

Greeks

so

much

by
by

as

has

of

plenty

acy
supremstill

called

of the

inherent

own

passed

more

it, had

shock

its

the

capacities

the

the

across

but

meteor,

century,

after

with

Spartan,

splendid

brief track

the

by

us

come,

Athenian

the

power,

had

as

Epaminondas

politicalsky,

they give

Political

^fourth*

was

"

devised

peace

The

; the

down

complete hegemony,

Christ

tested

attain

to

abroad.

power

broken

had

had

which

existingStates

of all the

and

thinkers

able

varying conflicts

the

arrived

now

before

studies

which

to

have

politicaltheories

of

age

117

we

fourth

the

"

which

at

century

eminently

at

THEORISTS.

brilliancywhich

leaving
into

faded

night.
And

of

in every

Persia

became

and

more

all these

to

be

the

expected
of

causes

ascertain

of
of

intellectual

Greeks, coupled with their

political
impotence

thinkers

should

and

so

there

and

several

remain,

its proper

internal

regulation,and

of solutions

for the

especiallythe

on

practicaldifficulties

external

dangers

to

the
of

discuss

which

to

the

were

of which

and

of

fully

endeavour

public happiness

publicstrength. And

and

exhibitions

continued

contrasts,

of

supremacy

foreignpolicy,it was

Greek

these

the laws

essays,

State

that

in

face

the

signal failures,in

and

acknowledged

of

In

apparent.

more

brilliant essays

of the

face
the

grew

Greece
generation,if the militaryefficiency
Persiaweaker, her financial supremacy

ditions
con-

series

Greek

the
a

of the
the

series

day,
Hel-

Theoreti^

po

Il8

POLITICAL

THEORIES

lenic world
the

main

the

Attic

Inestimable

practical
historian,

of the

body
of the

solution

of the

period

historian

documents

which

elsewhere

closed

called

the actual

foreignpoliticsby

the

Macedon2.
of Greece

of

whom

the

the

must

greatest

thinkers

these

among

in

speculationson the
internal conditions
only

the

"

Hellenic

will

sense

genius,though

writers

literaryperfectionis

Plato, whose
"

and

produced.

country

Foremost

Plato.

proper
of

remain

ever

his ideal could

conditions

Polity in

the
of

monument

hardly lead,or

be

tended
in-

practicalresults. Then we have

in his politicalromance
the
on
Xenophon, who
Education
the
of Cyrus stands half-way between
of the
mere
philosopher and the practicalman
world.
The
instructive of all is Aristotle,
most
the old order
who, though he lived to see
pass
and
a
new
departure in the history of the
away,
to

Aristotle,

with

of

evidentlytake into
these
account
speculations,though they be not
stood
strictly
history;but the facts can hardly be underand
the
inestimable
appreciated without
comments

Xenophon.

form

Literature

prose

I have

as

difficulties in

Philipof

The

splendid

Restoration,

[49.

EXPERIMENTS.

These

exposed.

was

it1,and
famous

AND

race,

lead,

to

nevertheless

problems, and
Politics
Greek
1

That

"

on

polity.

composed

virtues
The

and

vices

to

of its

of the

B. c.

v.

tional
tradi"

his

ordinary
necessary

legitimatedemocracy.

Literature,part ii. cap.

Roughly speaking,400-340

the

specialbook

practical side, the

is, the Restoration

History of Greek
2

the

himself

confined

Cf.

my

50.]

119

CONSTITUTION-MONGERING.

steps

strengthen the leading States

and

reform

to

especiallyin their external policy,and

the face of powerful and
dangerous neighbours,
and
find discussed in the pamphlets of Isocrates

of Greece,
in
we

It is

public speeches of Demosthenes.

the

these

place of

proper

assigned

them

to

the

and

documents,

the

on

weight

histories,that I invite

in modern

the reader's attention.

fact that

Spartan

manners

respect and

the

when
no

all else

Spartan

the

admiration

of

had

practical
attempt

history
shows,

this

doubt,

no

far keener

the

old

of

was

foistingupon
the

emancipated State

all

Greece,
stable

change, still

and

in older

Greek

reforms
found

to

it.

between

the

a
legislators,
practicalor possible
or
new
newly
every

which

ordinances

had

of

each

State

fully appreciated

normal

ceeded
suc-

toric
his-

conditions

They
the

as

It

Greek

legitimate,slow, and
growth, they rather sought to adapt
elsewhere

the

and

never

imitated.

constitution.

famous

of what

sense

that, instead

in

history,^

proved

made

ever

was

imitate

to

flux

Sparta ever

commanded

laws

in constant

was

of this

and

though the Spartan constitution

remarkable

the

already mentioned
though, at every period

I have

" 50.

the

as

their

they

difference

exceptional

in

legislation.

politiciansof modern
repeating gaily,and without

Europe, who

The

surdity,
British

the

experiment

of

any

sense

handing

are

of its abover

parliamentary system to half-civilized

hardly emancipated populations,and who cry

the
and
in-

Practical

J^a^011
Greece

than

Europe.

120

shame

justiceand
their advice

to

upon

these

"

well

might
Greek

AND

THEORIES

POLITICAL

if
politicians,

their

decline

own

to

follow

statesmen
illogical

and

from

lessons

the

sobriety of
fails

common-sense

forest-tree of centuries

that the

tell them

who

those

unhistorical

take

[50.

EXPERIMENTS.

cannot

the sapling will not

transplanted; nay, even
thrive in ungratefulsoil.
But although the real rulers of men
in Greece saw
all this clearly,it was
with the theorists,nor
not
so
tations
indeed
to observe
were
they bound
practicallimiin framing the highest ideal to which
man
be

could attain.
a

strong

the proper

Hence

tendency
type of

to
a

all the theorists

in almost

see

we

make

Spartan

institutions

Plato

perfect State.

will

not

nating
imperial or domiState, he rather regards large territoryand
vast
insuperable obstacle to
population as an
But
as
a
good government.
philosopher deeply
of the mind, perhaps
interested in the real culture
a theorist
as
deeply impressed with the haphazard
consider

even

character
to

intrust

of
an

the

the

duties

of

traditional

uneducated

an

education, he

mob

with

the

felt that
of

control

the State to
either to hand
over
publicaffairs was
would
unscrupulous leaders, who
gain the favour
of the crowd
to
or
by false and unworthy means,
the
chance
of having the most
run
important
settled by the caprice of a many-headed
matters
and therefore wholly irresponsible
tyrant.
Plato
to
seems
Every theorist that followed
have

felt the

they adopted

same

and
difficulties,

in the

main

the

therefore

he and

Spartan solution,
"

5o.]

would

they

whom

'from
interfering

exercised,

character

individual

council

small

assembly

of

still better,

But

the

other

their

within

free citizens
the

We

Greek

were
our

have

This

Federal

Professor

; and

the

that

notably of

democracies,

additional

an

than

document

discovered

has

Freeman

Governments

meant

any

day l.

own
as

reader

came

still more,

"

it is

admirably

shown

the Athe-

in his

generallyadmitted

the

on

Polity of

by

History of

all competent

scholars.
2

It is

Athens

perhaps worth
in

the

callingattention

Xenophontic

newly-discoveredtreatise,so
citingthem.
has

cast

For

the older

the

collection
that

to

has

some

the fact that the tract

the

same

distinction

title

into oblivion.

on

the

as

is necessary

present the noveltyof the Aristotelian

document

espe-

opinion ^"y

never

highly educated

more

side, the newly

same

"

^^tsre

firm, (i)

were

suffrageonly

citizens, slaves-

Theirgene-

among

let the

And

failure.

free

of many

in

now

State.

in their

been

horizon,
political

Athenian,

Parliament

points they

two

this universal

of

king

of the

course

suffrage had

that

voting

ticular
par-

; whether

the natural

whole

the

direct

downright

remember

the

to

as

of

value

of the

government

ideal man,

First, universal

proved

the

were

limited
philosophicelders, or some
responsibleand experienced citizens,or,

the

on

be

to

of

one

should

men,

actual

of the

form

Zeno

Stoic

thought least
;" they differed

trenchant, and

most

citizen.

control

of

amount

the

less,in

or

individual

the

the

and

Plato

"

the

to

as

secondly, in

power;

beginning, more

training of

differed

They

the

and

education

intrust

those

of

condition

and

first,in limitingthe number

to

121

SUFFRAGE.

OF

QUESTION

THE

in

book

"n

122

POLITICAL

THEORIES

AND

which, whether

[51.

EXPERIMENTS.

it be

reallyAristotle's work
or
not, certainly was
quoted as such freely by
Plutarch, and represents the opinions of the early
school.
Peripatetic
Nothing is stranger in the book
than the depreciation of Pericles,as the founder of
the

democracy of Athens, and the praise

of Thucydides (sonof Melesias),
Nicias, and Therathe worthiest
and best of the later politias
menes,
cians,
Theramenes
shiftiness is
whose
especially,
explained as the oppositionof a wise and temperate
extreme

"

all extremes,

to

man

under

he

in the notions

of

what

out

by

second

"""

"

sovran

verdict

not

republics. Not
of

no

value

analogy,we are
and where
fits,
the latter

"

"_

"

of

this

make

"

important

democracy

legislativebody,

constitutional

now

"

"

live

to

l.

fragewas
of all idea of representation, of all
necessarily
restricted,

content

was

government

already pointed

ferences

thelrW-

moderate

any

I have

even

while

dif-

the absence

"

delay
the

control

or

of

veto

strong and

sistent
con-

applicableby analogy to modern

that I rejectHellenic
opinion
far from

"

bound
it

to

it ; but

show

fails, above

if we

where
all to

"

as

from

argue
the

analogy
acknowledge

honestly. For we are not advocates

pleading a cause, but inquirersseeking the truth
from the successes
and
of older men
the sufferings
cases

of like

passionswith
" 51. Secondly,

(2)Education to be

ourselves.
the

education

of

the

citizens

a
1

Cf. 'A0. rioA.

c.

quotation
had
Holm

mistranslated
was

mistaken

28.

from

Holm
this

my

chapter of Aristotle,and

plXriaTos.

the term
and

(ii.
p. 583) controverts

was

right.

The

full text

now

use

of Plutarch's

thinks
shows

that 1
that

5i.]

123

STATE-EDUCATION.

in
responsibility
parents, or to the privateenterpriseof professional
be both
trolled
organized and conteachers, but should
this principle
So firmly was
by the State1.
that Polythinkers
engrained into Greek political
should

bius,who
and

valuable

whose

be

each

by

this

know

in their best

solved

the

with

comparison

we

with

one,

It is well to

that this

and

add, lest the

to

examinations, and

modern

notion

which

the young

class
2

such

despisedany system
which

as

tests

civilization

might

be misled

appointment

ours,, which

have

Cf. the citation in Cicero

efficiency
by

struck
de

fared

by
of

and

them

Repub.

as

compare

inferences.

false

analogy,

teachers,and
Greeks

the

would

limits the State control

in them.

The

social conditions

under

success

brought up, provided they

examination, would

to

of rash

the moral
of disregarding
are

even

level ; but

higher

can

wicked

iv. 3. 3.

answer

and

at

high-

barbarous.

prac-

^^J

education

of scho.ol discipline. The

regulationof teaching and

have

far

the

supervisionappliedto

must

we

National

beware

reader

; but

classes at Rome

old

must

He

aristocracyThe

or
statistics,

no

poorer

an

dis-

it to

fit.

thought

Roman

the Greeks.

have

again

allow

and

matter

are

certainlyon

was

here

the

there

that

information, how

the

how

days

^tat the

thinkers2.

of Greek

well

prac-

trast
profound existingcon-

most

very

deeply regret

new

the

as

of

out

he

as

his Polybius'

eminently Roman
regarc
all public

moreover

education,

parent

notions

to the

in Greece

of

more

expresses

thoroughly

leave

to

venture

question

pointed out

in

Romans,

ence,
experi-

respects

one,

people, and

sensible

solved

We

the

how

the

previous

any

successful,could
account

is in many

opinion

than

of

sense

the close of all their rich

at

came

astonishment
tical and

the

be left to

not

POLITICAL

124

THEORIES

is,for example,

It
the

Greek

AND

of great

State

that

importance to note
essentiallya city with

was

the children

suburbs, where

[52.

EXPERIMENTS.

lived

so

other

each

near

its

by all. In a
day-schools could be attended
larger State, which implies a population scattered
be intrusted
must
more
through the country, much
quate1.
to parents, since day-schools are
necessarilyinadethat

This

Can

real

ever

differences

the

of

one

be

to

in

making the comparison. To state them

all would
lead us beyond reasonable
limits.
Still,I take the verdict of the philosophersas

weighed

democracy

is but

we}j

worth

indeed, there

and,

considering,

"

is

no

be

question which
sufficiently

agitates the

now

democrats

than

deeply

more

minds
this

of

ened
enlight-

How

can

we

people to direct the

of public affairs with safetyand with wisdom
?
course
in the small, easilymanageIt is certain that even
able,
and highly cultivated republicsof the Greeks,
not educated
men
were
enough to regard the public
uneducated

expect

weal

interests

or

Are
the

following an

we

panacea

these

vious"
newSforce.

but

not"

we

that

urge
1

but

makeshift

The
at

away

that of

of

barrack

than

think,

men

their

But
of

what
a

homes,
we

school.

so

know

is

the Christian
unknown

that

as

up

an

ob-

rejoinder,when

kept togethereven

were

likely,

settingit

there

real

it

communities

our

was
boarding-schools

from

in

doubts

positionof

the

qualified
exception.

of

defects

Is

narrow

this for the State ?

do

ever

grave

Sparta,young

leisure,and

passions.

ignisfatuus

for the

To

" 52.

Christianity

will

Education

then, that

their

bridle

to

their

it above

set

to

paramount,

as

of

masses

we

of this

must

religion

to the

ancients,

in their hours
here

admit

of
a

separatelife is rather

52.]

THE

in modern

for

far

good

an

superior to

the latter

moral

of

devices

any

admitting unreservedly the

force

legislators.

vast

Formal

progress

by having the Christian religionalways*

education, we demanded
integral part of all reasonable

have

attained

11-11

must

at

with

by the
side

that

all times, religionis

only

of

guide

the

on

urge

and

other

action, and

all

to

teaching
with

and

the

moral

public without

far

as

of

knew

with

be

mere

quiescence
ac-

inculcate

State

as

an

considered,

rewards

well

as

is rather

this

to

care

attained

mission
practicalsub-

is to

observance

sanctions,and

They

sanctions

took
legislators
and

have

than

Greeks.

occasional

very

we

So

its directions.

people,

most

to

teaching

in its excellence

in moral

Greek

what

that

preaching

our

acquiescence

all

125

RELIGION.

OF

makes

education

While
we

EFFECTS

we

the

religion,
and

do

ishments.
pun-

that

science,
publicwithout a conthat
and
consistent
scepticism, however
with
individual
sobriety and goodness, has never
for
as
a general substitute
yet been found to serve
positivebeliefs.
of superior indi- Real
But when
to the case
we
come
viduals, to whom
religionis a living and acting^opa-ty
a

creed

is

re-

force,

then

we

have

splendid thinkers,
model

on

whose

the

Greek

lives

side

those

pe
were

as

pure

their

a
lesson,to the
speculationswere
These
world.
did not requirea higher
men
certainly
them
faith to make
law
a
good citizens,and were
unto
of law
themselves, showing forth the work
with a good conscience.
The
written in their hearts,'
the old Greek
States and
analogy, then, between
as

of

exceptional

126

THEORIES

POLITICAL

ours

regards

as

the

may

be

those

who

have

by

I will mention

Greek

the ancient

than

before

is

them

religions.

of

contrast

closer

education

usually assumed

[52.

EXPERIMENTS.

AND

different

very

educators

point on, which

agreed, and which seems

were

music

the

I mean
notions,
quite strange to modern
account
capital importance of music, on
"

direct

the

effect

to

all music

might

be

the sober

Aristotle

in

he

as

agrees

bound

the

with

with

not

only

ness
great serious-

question
Plato

interfere and

to

Hence

some
unwhole-

or

; and

nature

discuss

detail

great

influence, but
the State

moral

the

as

either wholesome

stimulant, wholesome

soothing,to

effect

same

expression.
as

that

the soldiers who

upon

regarded

be

unwholesome

and

now

their national

feel them

does

the

its

of

all knew

They

much

Spartan pipes had

Highland pipes have

the

or

morals.

upon

all

in

of

this

regarding

prevent

those

Lydian measure,' which

delighted, indeed, and
beguiled the sense, but
of men.
and endangered the morals
disturbed
this fascinating
On
but difficult subject I have
discussed
^and"'
already said my say in the last chapter of my
to
studies in
Social Life in Greece1, and I will only repeat that
strains, softlysweet

in

if the

much

'

Greeks

put

too

stress

on

this side of

have
affectingcharacter, the moderns
certainlyerred in the opposite directions,and are
in regarding music
an
as
quite wrong
ment
accomplishas
purelysesthetic,
having nothing to say to the

education

Seventh

Rambles

and

as

Edition.

It had

Studies

in Greece.

been

formerlythe

last

chapterof

my

53.]

THE

practicalside

of

and

"

chief varia-

the

note

to

us

theorists

positionsof the various

State.
Xenophon tells us

ideal

the

passions

the

tions between
on

for

It remains

53.

sensual

our

"

principles.

moral

our

nature,

our

127

STATE.

PERFECT

Xenophon's
l

his views

and
parable of the ideal education
of a perfectking. But as he did hot
government
such a personage
conceive
possiblein the Hellenic
the great Cyrus of Persia, a
world, he chooses

the

under

"

the

from
giant figure remote
and looming through the

legend 1.

of

mists

makes

it quite plainthat he considers

of the

right

he

how

shows

tract

hated

the

the

on

day,
he

But

monarchy
of

perfect form

most

State

Spartan

favoured

and

democracy,
all

reserved

which

States

those

his

and

government,

far the

by

man

of his

Greeks

for

power

the

qualifiedfew.
is Aristotle

Nor

Ethics

both

his

that

there

to

to

It

was

an

Darius
have

artistic

bygone

the

make

that the tract

the reader

among

Xenophon's

works

is

by

on
an

in

or

superior
at

once

before

his
the

paternaldespot a foreign
kind

as

the Oriental

contemporary

the Athenian

authorityindependentof Xenophon.

like

had

Xenophon's

unknown

Aristotle's.

average

transformed

same

from

war

Greek

No

figureof Cyrus

remind

this

age, of the

the Persian

capitalfigure.

Aristotle

pupil who

device, to

to

It starts

men.

as

conviction

in

Nature,

by

that

Xenophon,

superior

inferior

over

to narrate

sustained

agree

wonderful

prince,living in

^schylus

Politics

intended

rule

that

mind
1

and

recollection

our

with

single men

were

society, and
races,

variance

at

the

person

book.
State

device

side,and
I need
now

of

make
could

only

preserved

author, and therefore

an

128

POLITICAL

Eastern
Aristotle's

world,

politics.But

looks
ignore5
Alexander.

THEORIES

and

AND

opened

backward

new

inward

and

in the

era

world's

of Aristotle's Politics

whole

The

no.

[53.

EXPERIMENTS.

the

at

old

Greek

and

State, small,

the

standing by

of like dimensions,

differingas

of others

side

cracies,
despotisms, aristo-

republicswill differ,but not pretending to

the
out
a
large foreignpolicyor to dominate

carry

world.
The

Evidence

recentlydiscovered

"f ^e
"Foliteia"

to

moreover,

the work, and

in

the

History
give us any

not

the

which, strange
part ready

most

does

on

foreignpolicywhich Aristotle
Greek
State.
for a
Many critics
inclined to deny the genuineness of
is now
a sharp controversy
ing,
proceed-

lightas
thought best

the

Constitution

Athenian

further

are,

treatise

the

to

the Germans

say,

accept the work

to

for

are

totle's,
Aris-

as

tion.
mostly for its rejecAgainst it has been urged (i) its general
in its easy
straightforwardnessdoes
style,which
while

not

the

remind

English

reader

are

of the
of

(2)the particularoccurrence
and

elsewhere

phrases not

vocabulary of his works

not

Aristotle

(3)certain

only with the Politics,but

with

of words

number
in the

extant

know

we

very

large

inconsistencies

Xenophon,

and

generallyaccepted facts of earlier

Greek
activityof
history. Thus while the political
is prolonged,and
Themistocles
that of Aristides is
estimates of these
exalted beyond the other extant
indeed, with

men,

the

that of Pericles is lessened

praise of Theramenes

The
as
politician,

into second-rate

conservative

in

as

very

portions.
pro-

moderate

radical

mo-

53-]

affords

ment,
what

INCOMMENSURABLE.

ALEXANDER

of Aristotle's

know

we

for
difficulty,

no

have

critics who

it is not

views.

their emendations.

stoutlymaintained
for doubting
no
adequate reasons
proved
testimony of later antiquity,
others, have

dorf,Kaibel, and
are

the unanimous
as

it is

by

add,

"

citations

many

the Greek

in

popular style,and
praised for their

in

more

lexicographers.They
little or nothing of Aristotle's
that his lost dialogues have been

know

we

Plutarch,many

and

grammarians

that

Mollen-

von

"

there

ever,
how-

These,

scholars, Gomperz, Wilamowitz

that

foreignto

objectionsurged by the English

with
flooded the literarypapers
man
On the other hand, great Ger-

the main

are

129

I do

flow.

easy

not

feel prepared,

opinion for or againstthe

treatise
adhuc sub judiceUs est.
is Alexander
the monarchy of Alexander
But
in any case
quite foreign to anything contemplated in the al^
tlie
theorists
The
in the reflections of Aristotle.7
theories
or
as

yet, to offer

an

"

Greek

such

theorist,even

as

he

was,

could

not

surabie

the "luantlty-

mighty phenomenon to
I shall presently
laws
of Greek
human
nature.
of that day manifested
how
show
other great men
the same
purblindness; but I note it here specially
it has not
because
of Aristotle's Politics,
in the case

adjust

been

this

and

new

brought out
The

historians.
Aristotle

Grote,

the

did

with

sufficient emphasis

live to

Aristotle's theories

masterly account

on

made

who

man

one

subjectsof

not

an

incommen-

_J

exhaustive

by

modern

Plato

and

studies, George

of
complete his account
the State, and relegatedhis

of Plato
K

and

Xenophon

into

AND

THEORIES

POLITICAL

130

separate book, long difficult

All

Mortality

these

themselves

were

practicalaffairs,whether
As
they looked
of

and

procure,

which

society

whole

various

in close

theorists,though

fe^con1^
politicians,
stitutions.

to

more

master1.

to

so

[53*

EXPERIMENTS.

called

choice
the

upon

make

the

outside
from

that

up

Greek

with

contact

of

sphere

sion.
compul-

or

changing phases

complicated

history,they

and
led

were

No
State, however
general conclusion.
accuratelybalanced, was
perfectlyframed, however
to

one

intended

Nature

by

individuals, had

decay,
Contrast

modernan-

in the
In

growths.

of newer

curious

former

the

and

Greek
ticipations.

had

improvement

of the

it almost

an

as

hopes

which

have

to

they

would

by
1

all the
Grote's

and

and

does

include

the

Politics may

His

the

other

Aristotle

the Politics.

modern

makes

Greeks

its
were

hope

expectations

our

as

contradicted

affairs.

of Socrates,

posthumous

Mr.

adopts

in their

fainter

Companions
is

indefinite

misfortunes

and

predecessors, and

of human

The

latter
Each

anticipations as

our

and

the

errors

regarded

past records
Plato

and

axiom.

or

to

most

modern.

long futurity. The

and

buoyant, hopeful

race;

the

experience

(Murray, London.)
not

human

its

have

chimerical,

of the

one

of the permanent

escape

ruined

their

the

historical

preparationsfor
fuller in

find

we

saddened

weary,

hope

no

State

this

between

contrasts

Polities,like

ever.

youth, development,
lapse of time give way

their

would

and

last for

to

and

vols.

fragmentary,

Jowett's expectedEssays

perhaps supply this deficiency.

on

CHAPTER

PRACTICAL

POLITICS
LET

" 54.
clans

us

the

of

IN

now

day,

pass

practical politicians,and
in the

propose

those

external

man

must

have

showed

though

and

intended

nevertheless
minds

of

tell

thoughtful

plainlythat
out

with

and

he

but

as

rhetorical

into

and

attention

his

filled the
He

day.

themselves

that

enough,

proper
3

sees

perpetual jealousies,

make

the

to

masterpieces,

the

nothing

weld

them
States

various

enthusiasm

against a foreignfoe.

that

they

pamphlets, Isocrates,

of what

petty squabbles in the

plainly enough

before

quarrel would

unity, and

conflict

sensible

wearing

were

wars

external

every

much

in

opined, shrewdly

forget their
common

too

Greeks

internecine

great

together

the

saving it

politicalhorizon.

far

men

dition
con-

of

as

even

great deal

us

the

internal

Isocrates,whose

with

written

style,

above
with

begin

us

the

dangers which

apprehended,

themselves

Let

what

see

improving
society, as well

from

The
practicalpolitiprofessed to be politicia
to
they had

who

of

way

Greek

of

the

to

on

those

to

or

CENTURY.

FOURTH

THE

enemy

He
to

of
saw

attack

his anti-

PeT^au

was

the

and

open

the

; it

invasion

to

For

of Asia.

power

of the

libertyeven

was

Hellenic

fatal to that of the Greek

moreover

it

ill-cemented

was

reallydangerous to
peninsula, almost
"

cities of Asia

full of wealth

so

[54-

POLITICS.

PRACTICAL

133

afford

to

as

and

Minor,

mous
enor-

an

field for that

No

large

ideas of

spreading
Hellenic

culture.

legitimateplunder which
every
then thought his bare due
at the hands
conqueror
of the vanquished.
Isocrates had not the smallest idea of raisingthe
No
Asiatic nations, or of civilizing
them1.
Greek
Aristotle himself,
down
to Aristotle,nay, not
even
had
such a notion, though he might concede
ever
that isolated men
cities could possibly,
ful
or
by carehumble

and
to

view
:

would

of poor

roving Greeks
; thirdly,the

and

to think

be

the

leader
Greece?

natural

this

policy,divide
says indeed

rather

of

matter

does

he

ever

this culture, and

for the

in

the command

one

and

learn

acknowledge
he shows

by

that

of

formal

race.

foreignraces

such

belonged

to

the race,

as

treaty,

But
can

old-fashioned

but

were

in

Hellenedom

common

the respect of every

Sparta,

combine

place (Panegyr.p. 51) that

culture, than

common

Spartans,who

Athens

of Greece, should

leaders

the

He

and

would

Barbarians

that

proposal was

of

wealth

attain

less of themselves2.'

first

His

is to

would

'

contentment

Who

culture,attain

respectableimitation of it. Isocrates' plain

of the war
simply
policyagainst Persia was
first,that the internal quarrels of Greece
be allayed; secondly, that a great number

this

of Hellenic

imitation

devoid

is
where
no-

attain
Hellene
of this

culture.
3

when

The

texts

are

all cited in my

treatingof Isocrates.

History of Greek Literature,ii. 215,

55-]

their

and

so

and

promoters

resume

But

as

made

Philip

it

to

who

that

in

turns

problem

was

an

dually
gra-

of Hellenic

his power,

use

the

and

plain

too

he

so

of Macedon,

him

advises

and

only
;

to solve the

how

showing
unity,

benefactors

impotence

practicalsolution

letter to

open

the

on,

powers

no

133

position as

proper

went

years

was

DEMOSTHENES.

of all Hellenedom.

strife of these
this

AND

ISQCRATES

for

not

subjugationof the Greeks, but to lead them in

victorious
campaign into Asia.
in Philipthey had
But
mon
already found that comthey should have united,
againstwhom
enemy

the
a

if

union

voluntary

plainlythat
Greece

the

days

pluck

to

This

" 55.

mosthenes,
to

sary

say

of

organization

the

over-ripefruit

whose

on

that

and

natural

by

lifeand

few words,

showed

so

States

independent

with

brings us

failure to do

numbered,

were

power

certain

again possible among

ever

their miserable

; and

them

was

out
through-

the first neighbouring

wealth

and

was

of Hellenedom.

transition

policy it

is very

seeing that they

De-

to

another

neces-

have

Demos-

been,

ideal
ln

like

by

so

other

many

and
specialists,

the

rhetoric
To

care.

in old

almost

was

and

battle

that you

was

poets that

in the
said

made
of

the

being

"

history,distorted
of

ground

bad

as

to

as

critical

had

campaign

believed

hymned

so

the

to

and

thirty
word

say

battle

history.

mental
senti-

sifted with

days against the

Athenian
This

orators

instead

/~"

Greek

in

anything againstDemosthenes

utter

ago

years

topics

of Marathon.

lauded

by

its importance

you

suggested

be

overrated, had

alleged numbers

figure

*-"ls

you

of the

PRACTICAL

134
Persians
been

to be

grosslyexaggerated,you

down

set

same

upon

the

upon

the

they

are

in love

against him
either

with

him

unpatriotic

scholars

laid

have

dwelt

only
eloquence, but

his

subtleties

not

of his Greek, till

that whatever

whatever

is true, and

is said
to

appears

be

is false.

have

of

have

would

and

have

they

force

grammatical

in his favour

As

matchless

so

the

way

of Demosthenes

hold

insolent

an

as

the

In

knave.

[55.

POLITICS.

whole

spent the

not

of

long

life

commenting on this great author or in

vindicatingfor him all the virtues under heaven,
I may
perhaps be better able than greater scholars
of his political
merits.
to give a fair estimate
He

sees

the

in

Demosthenes

oTaforeignplainly,like
policyfor

to the

counsels

misconceiving
that

Persia

objectof
against

or

Mace-

Darius

was

most

of

outset

Isocrates, that

give

to

necessary

the

at

career

saw

foreign policy was

only dignity,but consistency,

not

of Athens

; and

the

power

the

his

real

serious

importance

he

too

of

the outset,

Philip,thought

foe1,and
to

at

Athenian

should

be

the

politicians.

last

vigorous king of Persia, had

made
such militarypreparationsfor the reconquest
all the
of his rebellious
provinces as to alarm
Asiatic Greeks
and
conjure up the phantom of a
Persian
But presently the real danger
new
war.
aside this bugbear ; the activityand
set
military
skill of Philip,added
to his discovery or utilization
him
of the Thracian
clearlythe
gold mines, made
Germs,

the

Cf. the texts in my

Greek

Lit. ii. 2, pp. 87, 105.

55-]

lord of the Hellenes

future

The

the

mainly by

eloquence

side, and

the

forms

of the

one

diplomacy

Grote's

of

volume

in the

sees

overthrow

of

of

Philip

The

and

condition

worse

and

less

th^T

one

other,

thenes
Demos-

historian1,

nothing

but

the

discussion,of universal

of

relapse of societyinto

had

what

than

developed

by all the labours

attained

been

the

on

eleventh

of

Radical

Grote

on

history;

in the

of Macedon

hence

in

cause

the

on

the

on

pages

than

told

democracy,

suffrage;

carried
struggle,
Demosthenes

work.

power

years.

of

naturally attracted
who

prevent them

few

attractive

most

is it better

nowhere

for

of this famous

narrative

135

could

if he

combining against him

from

and

DEMOSTHENES.

ON

SCHAFER

of great and

lightened
en-

reform.
The

of Demosthenes

cause

Schafer, who
for his

works

the
having chosen
own
speciality,
spent

for

This

the collection of law

case,

there

with

subjects, such
that
1

As

the

often

other

flaws

with

Niebuhr,

who

Napoleon.

be

down

set

reached

to

nies.
calum-

as

far that

so

support

speeches
set

are

was

is

down

very

posed
com-

weak
or

consistencies
in-

analogous

on
as

evidence

spurious,and

brought up

if in

the orator

illogicalarguments

particularspeech

it did

Germany

has

found

are

ally
gradu-

high principlethat all

speeches which

and

in

years

"10

patriot of spotless

to

are

enthusiasm

for pay,

him

of such

purity and a citizen

charges against him

his

and

orator

A. Schafer

for this choice, till Demosthenes

increasingadmiration
became

Arnold

also attracted

in the great

cannot

struggleof

36
emanated

have

from

estimate

" 56. This

the judgment

of the

anci immediate

Very

[56

POLITICS.

PRACTICAL

noble

so

is

estimate

character

variance

totallyat

ancients, his

of the

who

successors,

mosthenes
De-

as

with

contemporaries

openly

and

accused,

ancients.

indeed

him

convicted,

well

public capacity,as
both

fees from

Conditions
conflict

of

sides in

embezzling
of

as

in

money

accepting

his

briefs and

privatelitigation.
To this question of his private character I shall
But
he
revert.
as
regards the struggle which
carried on
for years, not so much
against Philipas
against the apathy of his fellow-citizens,it must
have
been
plain from the beginning that he was
The
dislike of military
playing a losing game.
in

service

what

is called

Athenian'

of

other

States

thenic
Demos-

pered
without, hamline

consistent

and

strong

'

the

Grote

by

notorious; the jealousiesof

was

parties within, and

any

of

action.

The

gold ovfPhilipwas sure to command, not only

at
Athens, but at Thebes, at Argos, in Arcadia,
partisanswho, under the guise of legitimateopposition,
would
carry adjournments, postponements,
limitations, of all vigorous policy. Mercenary
in fashion, if not
were
now
amply
troops, which
paid
1

and

This
to

only of
Hofm
also

treated

absurd
blacken

Philipof
has

very

vindicated

cruelty,and

with

feelinghas
the

but

defended

Philip

so

gone

character

Macedon,
well

from

their convenience,

regard to
far

as

to lead

of all those

of Eubulus
Eubulus
the

tyranny (ibid. 327).

who

and

(G.

usual

Demosthenes'

mirers
ad-

opposed him,

not

other Attic

G. iii. 252

accusations

politicians.

sq.\ and
of

has

treachery,

56.]
became
the

SIN

MORTAL

THE

to their

greater scourge

It

enemy.

side than

own

to

quite plainthat Philipmade

therefore

was

137

APATHY.

OF

win, though

must

and

who

Demosthenes,
if the

free

duty,

and

fail to

can

us

is

never

of

weary

for

sacrifices

some

the issue
1

is

of the

I cannot

by

means

no

studied
Irish

avoid

would

by

as

in

estates

has

I have

the

carried

force

to

them

It has

country.

do

not

far

superiorcapital; they have

far

greater ; they have

these

landlords

unite

to

till
position,

series of defeats

after

point

subscribe,select,and
this is certain.

said

been

is fond

of any

of his

had

from

trust

is put

privateterms

with

subscribe, labour, debate.

helpless;
must

and

their

enemy.

They

lead
inevitably

their very

are

But

to their ruin.

have

from

Even

after

combine,

now

win.

ever

tion
posi-

do

And

it.

all
One

idleness,a third is jealous

is

small

still

be

tryingunderhand
and

body

to

gallantminority

considerable

the main

character

They

them

they would

likelythat they will

by their foes.

unless

push

leaders,they could
of his

Why

only in law, but in real

to

forward, a fourth
the

times:

conquered.

if

their

public influence

the outset

be

to

still that

pleasures,another

feared

The

do.

evacuate

fight their enemy?

little remains

leader who

and

not

point against them,

thousand

far stronger case, not

it is not

But

have

body, have been

capitulate,or

to

and

tell them

we

who

those

obliged to

been

justice: and yet they allow their opponents

make

to

cious,
organizedagitation,
unscrupulous,menda-

and

able

threatens

now

race,

different1.

been

appear

may

as
carefully

so

unwearied, which
and

have

might

contest

far-fetched

cases

an

that

means

generation or another

idle, uncohesive
landlords,a rich, respectable,

attacked

be

from contemporary history,which

citinga parallel

so

both

of

good

changed their character, and

had

of another

that

adopted

their

do

the

impending foreigndomination
indefinitelypostponed. But this only
Athenians

certain.

urging that

the

Greece,

if the

efforts of

would

Athens,
States, especially
make

appreciatevictory

noble

persistentand

the

admire

to

of

none

force,respected

is inert,
jealous,

changed, these qualities

I38

PRACTICAL

This

Demos-

is the sort of

played
fightTa
losing

for twenty

quite the

up-hillgame

that Demosthenes
first Athens

At

years.

stronger

[57.

POLITICS.

seemed

superficialobservers.

to

But

game.

because

she

full

with

act

was

make

she will

faint-hearted

when

Athens

that

the

whole

Thebes, makes
the

full

reputation for wisdom

It is from

far

so

Chseronea

making

Thebes,

is

always made

would

be

might lead

able to

see

and

effort

main

body

was

attaining his

that his

Greek

of the

Demosthenes'
that the idea he

ward,
constantlyputs forold

rivals

which
particularism

patriotic
party

at

yet I cannot

Athens,
Athens

maintain

honestlynor

of the Athenians.

that

policy was

truer

of

againsta foreignenemy.

lightnow,

"

Sparta

powerful or wealthy foreign

larger and

nation

this

before

even

loyallyacceptedthe hegemony

the whole

public

policy of

efforts

supportingthat old

have

neither

onward

inferior to any

that

desiringto

last

great by weakening her

things in that

the

Isocrates,and
their

Athens

thinks

Isocrates,who
that he

that

say

the Greeks

Holm

State.

to

better than

no

traitors

fulfilled.

estimate

mischievous, and

were

of

as

the

up,

siege,

patriotism because

and

this time

in his remarkable

time, goes

and

of at

gloomiestpropheciesare

Holm,

of

end

disloyalto
the struggle,

danger of immediate

bitter satisfaction

" 57.

the

city, in conjunction with

has

his

Then

splendid struggle. But the day

long gone by, and Demosthenes

victory had

for

the

and

further

in difficulties.

population wakes

if

win

can

he makes

soon

till the very

is in direct

silenced,

are

stillshe

begin to fear, and

It is not

waver.

But

she is involved

advances, and
the

Even

way.

herself.

rouse

to

unnecessary

Presentlyshe begins to lose,

vigour.

Philipto

and

it seemed

strong

so

for

blame

neglectingthe

upon

of

Philip,

We

may

thenes,
Demosessay

the old lines.

supported by
persistently

of

But
the

57.]
seem

to

sense,

or

with

seeks

the

acts

IN

MEN

OLD

CRISIS.

139
with

hardly consistent

me

that

higher idea

of

State

at

good of the

The

common-

patriotismwhich

"f

Jjjfog

sacrifice of policy,

the

personaltheories or prejudices. Grote has observed

of that time, the
of the other
leading Athenian
general Phocion, that while his policyof submission Compared
and despair was
fatal,up to the p^odon.
injurious,
nay, even
battle of Chaeronea, this tame
acquiescence when
the practicalduty of a
the strugglewas
was
over
patriot,and of decided advantage to his country.
insisted with equal force that
Grote ought to have
the policy of resistance and of hope, while highly
and
commendable
ment,
mopatrioticup to the same
the conquered
to
was
deeply mischievous
led them

people,and

yet this

misfortunes.

And

Demosthenes

hugged

the lives and

spoken elsewhere1
of having her
nation

intrusted to old

fiftyyears
showed
at

His

when

of age

itself

of the

fortunes

Demosthenes

men.

beyond

fiftyDemosthenes

the

tried
delicate constitution,

studies,had

been

worn

in

peculiarmischief
at

great crisis

genius of Alexander
doubt.

by the

But

old

man.

early

severest

conflicts
political

of

nearly

thirtyyears'duration ; and we may therefore pardon

him, though we cannot
forgetthe fatal influence

keeping both Athens

cities from
joining heartilyin

he exercised
Greek

in

Greek

Life and

Thought, p.

and

the other

the great

4.

Old

men

ruinous

only politics,

indeed

was

distinctlyan

was

cost

of Athenians.

reasonable

any

which

last,and

of hundreds

fortunes

many

policy which

the

was

the

to

I have
to

follies and

into many

new

140

Hellenism

[57.

POLITICS.

PRACTICAL

enterpriseof the Macedonian

king. All the Attic
then
were
life,with the
politicians
past middle
exception of Hypereides.
So then the old republicangloriesof Athens, the
old

liberties of the
found

and

Greeks, which

wanting,

the

orators, and

all the

the

day

the

sun

of

generaladopted
the

they

Chaeronea,
the

irrelevant

spoken

day,

new

the

settingof
scholars,led,as usual,
as

political
greatness, have in
view ; and so strongly do they
over
historyof Greece is now

close their work

the

as

On

appendix.

this

with

in connection

with

the

battle of

of Alexander

conquests

of the Diadochi

wars

and

of

ungratefuland
subjectI have already
sort

of Grote1.

the work

and the importance

political
liberty,
attached
to political
independence, are so strong in
ffglrtinga.3
losing
that it is
of the Anglo-Saxon nations
the minds
fg^nstnot likely any one will persuade them, against
democracy ^e
splendid advocacy of Grote, that there may

The

The

this

add

or

by

of

proper

either

of

advent

tried

hymned

and

cursed

Modern

by literaryinstead

that

great

Hellenism, was

of Greece.

feel that

praised

were

been

had

author

advocates,

be
to

love of

such

losses

justifya

mischiefs

and

return

to

in

democracy

stronger executive

and

as
a

greater restriction of publicspeech. Nevertheless,

the

conviction

derived

life-longstudy of
this question
on
me
opinions. It is
my

from

historyis so strong in
that I feel compelled to state
all the more
a
duty as I hold that
history is
greatest lessons of ancient
Greek

Above, "

10.

one

to

of

the

suggest

58.]

life.

modern

the

There

that

this

forming

is

varied

in the

strictest

with

contending
this

"

the

since

not

is

to

Greek

of the

summary

which

The

Principe

re-discovered
the

struck
close

and

Italian

is

Florentine
various

political
language,
religion,
intellectual

side

of

has

Aristotle

of that

perience,
ex-

no

have

been

very

plainlysuggested by

Politics

free

States.

stacles
ob-

same

paralleltill the days

scheme, if completed by the

promised Repubblica,would
his

sense

the world

as

Politics

theoretical
find

could

of Machiavelli, whose

For

such

citizens

experienced.

educa-

wonderful

in
one
(forthey were
afforded
an
general culture)

education

The

of internal

modifications

Many-in-one
and

^n
small, independent cities,

of

ways,

than

convinced

more

showing

constitution, each
in

their solution.

to

separate State

of the term, each

all

peopleswill
will apply

difficulties and

complex

in

same

civilized

most

one

no

the

is mankind

same

experiments

" 58.
each

the

upon

same

am

far

countries,that

places and
stumble

So

of
perplexities

for the

advices

guiding-posts and

141

DEMOCRACY.

OF

ADVANTAGES

of Aristotle,which
statesman

analogies to

with

the

its

similar.
the

MachiaAristotle.

then

naturally
curiously

history

of

the

republicsof the Middle

Ages.
Even
far more
Greek
deeply did the lessons of Athenian
life act upon
the practicalcharacter
of the
political
mitting
citizen,and train him to be a rational being subwill of the majority,to which
he
to the
himself
in debate, taking his turn
contributed
at
well as
as
commanding
obeying, regarding the
labours
his just contribution
of office as
the
to

142

PRACTICAL

public weal, regarding even

as

privilege, the

loyaltyto
truest

he

State

the

commanded
of

servant

sacrifices he

manifestation

which

had

aristocrat among
fleets or armies

an

sense

the

outward

"

State

the

private differences

[59.

POLITICS.

; and

by

made

him

men.

Even

he

did

a
essentially

violation

barbarism.

to

To

the

the

of

his

regarded as

and
return
a
civility
for personal defence,

arms

carry

in

redress

personal assertion
of his

his

as

to

rights,other than the law provided, was

of

when

so

attempt

any

made

challengean adversaryto mortal combat, to take

forcible possession of disputed property,
these
thingswere
greater outrages and greater violences
to

"

to

civilization at

Athens

the civilized countries

have

To

before

of

attained

romantic

State

this

gainsay.

can

to this

the

which

have

in most

are

of

aid

is

Had

the

aid

triumph

the Greeks

splendidtraining,which

centuries

really pure

peculiarto

so

achieved

of

century.

high level,four

religion,without

sentiment

Itssplendidnations, is to

they

of the nineteenth

Christ, without

system

man

than

not

of that

Northern
which
been

radiated

no

jected
sub-

from

and
which
stimulated,
politicsinto art and letters,
though it did not create, that national genius that
has since found
ism,
no
rival,all the gloriesof Hellenall the splendours of Alexander's
successors,

all the
have

victories

been

over

Western

barbarism

would

impossible.

fully
" 59. But when all this is said,and however
be urged, the fact remains
anc* eloquently it may
HaihMtranis not
sitory,
that the highest education
all-powerfulin
appear

to

59-]

DECAY

internal

producing
There

by

its members

but

The

endure.

cannot

wealth

agreeable society become

the

better

All

there

so

classes

work,

is for the

submit,

is

established

laws

to

Hence

poorer,

needier,

public

and

set

to

work

war

ces

disturb

reached

and

we

may

expect

it to

were

with
the

the

low

Athenian
and

allow

so

causes-

the

higher

the

arise

in

taxes

were

pertied
pro-

resour-

The

limit

States.

United
when

its

funds

threatened, hailed

approval informations
against rich citizens,in
hope that by confiscations of their property
treasury might be replenished.

case

America-

poverty increases,

the

democracy,

the

this inevitable

whenever

of

successful

natural

that

But

their

necessity.

The

pinch

gain,

they may

upon

vast

of

and

fuel to feed

attack

an

yet ensued.

been

the

inter-

cultivated

that

either

case.

still

has

Even

the State

persons

modern

are

not

glory

home, becomes

at

of America

result has

nal

accustomed

now

obtain

and

such

To

state

me

of

means

followers

classes
Let

leisure ; and

the

from

men

politicsis left to the

discontented
classes, who

neighbours,or

upon

their

in

more

to

ambition.

own

which

and
politics,

from

run

life into

satisfytheir

in

own

the field of

grooves.

turn

their

up

having

tendency

civilized

delightfulthat

keep
of

lated
accumu-

Aristotle, to

purpose

aside

in

so

not

says

natural

stand

to

will

classes

of

sweets

comfort

domestic

and

and

energy.

strain exercised

national

peace.

imperial democracy, which

sustain for a generation or two,

may

which

external

and

conquering

143

and

concord

it were,

as

seems,

DEMOCRACIES.

OF

of

144

The

dema-

gogue.

PRACTICAL

This

is the

[59.

POLITICS.

of the

demagogue, who tells

that they have
crowd
^.jiepeOpie the poorer
a
rightto all the comforts and blessingsof the State,
be
and
that their pleasures must
not
curtailed
of large property livingin
there are
while
men
Such
idle luxury.
produce violences
arguments
becomes
instead of legaldecisions ; the demagogue
the richer classes ; the public safety
a
tyrant over
is postponed to
private interests ; and so the
foes
of the democracy as regards external
power
in proportionas the harmony among
is weakened
heyday

"

"

its citizens is disturbed.

Such

Internal

f^aTcause6
gat*ded
ofdeca-

the

are

inevitable

as

which

changes

tain

to

bring about

may

be

the

in

democracy,

the

and

fall.

its ultimate

with

case

theorists

Greek

as

recer-

Whatever

great States of modern

thoroughly verified in
Greek
safely be said that no
history. It may
crushed
State was
ever
by external adversaries at
internal
the period of its perfection. In every case
days, this prognosis

There

is

the

heralded

decay has
no

was

The

Greek

Leonidas

seem

words
made
gone

of Pericles.

or

"f

t^ie maintenance

impossible;
the

condition

it actual

by

we

and

would

may

of

We
sucn

laud

have

there

Athens,
risen

into

splendours of
deeply regret
may
prosperityshould
the

in

the

things which

strongest
had

once

day for this splendourwas

better than the impotence of an

but

far

Alexander,

an

revived

and

glorious future

t^at
fhfs*
condi?
tion,

been

without.

probabilitythat, had

reasonable

Philip or
Sparta, Thebes, or Argos

never

from

overthrow

the

6o.]

OF

DAYS

LATER

THE

145

DEMOSTHENES.

unjust mob, and the chicanery of an unprincipled

leader,is the subjectionof all to external control,
the

with

even

impairing

universal

abolishingof

or

suffrage.
This

evidently the opinion of Phocion,

was

an

as

Phocion

S3.W

honourable

experienced man, whose contempt

of
floods of talk in Athens, leadingto waste

for the
time

and

opponent
and

of

despised. We

may

earlier

not

speeches of

prevail,

feel

Demosthenes

; and

have

not

persistent

openly
his policy
lost the

have
the

to

trusted

he

glad that

should

we

"

this loss would

whom

by the mob
indeed

the

nevertheless

but

Demosthenes,

respected even

did

him

delay in action,made

and

after world

compensated, had

been

merely escaped their troubles and

lived in peacefulsubmission.
Demosthenes
passage
says proudly,in a famous

the

Athenians

of his immortal

De

Corona, that

of his life's failure,

even
had

been

recall

wrecked

speeches, no,
brunt

of

all those

and

who

the

at

not

by the heroes
Marathon, by

the

carry

for fifteen years

which

and

and
distresses,

on

stood

his

of

memory

for their

agitatorstheir lives.
to

that
the

stye's

attempted ignored,

had

by circumstances, he would
his life,one
in
argument

irritating
agitationwhich

supremacy,

in further

after all he

presence

country'sliberty!
Tiie
all applaud this noble self-panegyric,

died

may

continued

donian

not

battle

" 60. We
but not

of

act

one

in

even

but which

his

cost

For

policy of
L

he had

adopted

against the
involved

him

the very
revolt

and

his country
his brotherhe used

means

were

Mace-

more

than

dark

his later
years-

146

PRACTICAL

doubtful
shade

his

upon

The

memory.

while

already said, that

and

thrown

all

survivors

had

dark

fact is, as

Phocion, the

above

policy,is

democratic

have

honesty, and

in their

[60.

POLITICS.

I have

of the

enemy

suspicion,both

temporaries
con-

their doubts

about

Demosthenes.
His

profes-

I need

made
racter^an
advocate,

speeches for

enough,

clear

me

panegyrists with
of

one

the

accepted by

morals

the

But

the

or

appear,

seems

only

he

in the

fact appears

evaded

by

his

stock

claring
expedient of desuch
opposing speeches, though
best ancient critics,
to be spurious.
of the bar from
that day to this

But

"

fees for

retain

them

from

he

with

he cannot

is debarred

by

for his client,

appearing

then

Why

in which

case

when

consistent

bar.

the

morality of the
try Demosthenes
by a

standard?

severer

arpa"

for it is

take

be

to

modern

his

The

case.

their

promotion

lucrative

affair

opposite sides

"

should

man

The

same

allegationthat

to make
as
peculiar I will not say loose
layman hesitate in offeringan opinion. That
so

are

the
on

money

trials of the

successive
to

here

discuss

not

when

larger question arises

we

arraigned for embezzling a sum

to Athens
by a fugitivedefaulter

of money

convicted

of the

treasury, and

chorus

The
occasional
accusation
move

Macedonian.

moreover

of modern

exception,cry
was

to

false,and
escape

But

out

from

that

of

him

brought

Alexander's
ment.
embezzle-

with
critics,

the verdict

the wrath

find

course

very

the

tical
simply a poli-

of the

the facts remain, and

formidable
this

more-

6o.]
over

Demosthenes
who

of
principalaccuser
brother-patriotHypereides,

that

them,

among

his

was

the

for the

death

suffered

afterwards

147

HIM.

AGAINST

VERDICT

THE

donian
anti-Mace-

cause1.
The

overthrow

to

in

the
is

and

grounds,
us

left to

evidence

on

of the
to

the

Greek

accept
I

I invite the critics either to

in

agrees

Demosthenes

less

Grote

lenientlythan

It is

then treated

Demosthenes'

They

what

mate
estiI had

Weil, in

H.

are

Holm

no

small

satisfaction to

as

paradoxes,now

of the best critics.

compared
faults.

with
He

in

was,

to

me

Life in

standard

This
after
L

critics
see

Greece

are

done.

quoted

in

the

opinions
(1871),which

by
adopted,quiteindependently,
do not, however, think that they

low

ours.

have

Schafer

and

considerable

other

appreciatedthe
sufficiently
as

detail with

(Paris,1886), and

I put forth in the firstedition of Social

Athens,

to

the passage
(pp.
History (1891),especially
that there is now
a
generaltendency to judge

Beloch, Sittl,
Spengel,and

have

or

of his
shows

largebody

every

Literature.

of Demosthenes

edition

247-9),which

his summary.

in almost

History of Greek

my

the third volume

refute

of the first magnitude whose

cite several scholars

now

his admirable

were

and

case,

arguments there stated.

of Demosthenes

argued

test

not

Lit. ii.2, p. 371.

the

can

is

mate
likelythat Hypereides was personallyintitemporary,
Demosthenes, for he was not, as is usuallystated,his conI have argued in
of a younger
but a man
as
generation,

It is nevertheless
with

my

is,I think,

and

adduced,

here; for it

case

further

without

misprision,a false estimate

it well
I think
of the day.

morals

current

state

historians

historical

as

ground, however, which

is quite a different one

real

that of the evidence

based

Was

of

honesty at
political

affords the

the

political
AgainstDeto justifymosthenes

on

such

Demosthenes

The

modern

actuates

from

certainlynot

sufficient

not

me

verdict

Athenian

acquitting

consideration.

to

seems

us

best

apology for

all,the child of his time.

148
affects

as
politicians
" 61. The

The
modern

"
j

ground

of

"
j

acquittal, pure

our

well

as

national

bribes

or

cause,

immoral
aside

as

weak

dishonest

or

nature.

only

not

so

of

ground
r

for

acquittalurged

moment

have

to

embezzling

distinctlysays1 that
by his estimate of the
and

Greek

of Demosthenes.

cannot

we

other

of

conceive

high-souled patriot,who

and

for the

judgments

modern

tnis" tnat

1S

of

many

[61.

POLITICS.

PRACTICAL

inconceivable
Whether

his

had

Schafer

judgment

ing
tak-

indeed

is determined

character

moral

all

risked

guilty of

been

money.

of its hero

speeches, but
illogical
acts, are
simply to be set
in so
lofty and unsullied
and

this

be

sensible

way

of

decide.
to
writing history, I leave the reader
What
I am
now
going to urge is this,that in the
morality of Attic politics,
taking money
privately
but was, with certain
not
was
thought disgraceful,
restrictions,
openly asserted to be quite justifiable.
Hypereides puts it plainlyin his speech in this
Moralityof
the practice
not
caseSeeing that it was
expounded very
for their serby Hyper- at Athens
vices,
to pay salaries to politicians
the public,he says, was
quite prepared that
and receive money
they should make indirect profits
privatelyfor their work ; the one thing intolerable
that they should
take it from
the enemies
of
was
their country or to prejudice Athenian
interests.
Modern
In England we
have
had
the good fortune to
^nc^ r^cn men
the
"f hign traditions to carry
afleast*1*
on
repudiates affairs of the
1

nation, and

Demosthenes, iii. 239

(note44).

et

where

even

passim

cf.

we

Curtius, G.

do
G.

not,
iii. 774

6i.]

MODERN

SENTIMENT

STRICTER

149

give salaries,it has been long these

of pl
thought disgracefulto make
politicsthe source
used

or

not, to

far it

privategain. How
of this feeling,we
be

that

doubt

no

of

numbers

need

was

done

not

inquire. There

at all

now,

events, there

supportingthemselves

men

; and

it is

are
also,that politics

there

career

and
that the
profession,
in
mere
politicsfrom
patriotismare very rare

indirect

these
think

modern

any

practice

regarded

ambition

would

You

and

Athens,

pure

think

least, brands

the

do

nor

such

describe
in

all considered

that

way

condition

of
it

that

offence,

heinous

taken

not

might therefore

yet make

from

taking bribes, to put

provided always that they were

State.

lucrative

disgraceful;

as

which

mentary
parlia-

Still

Hypereides expresses it.

We
are
dealing,therefore,with

the

as

or

indeed.

advocate

public morality in
not at
was
plainly,

spend their lives

who

perfectlyexcusable

as

large

usually said of America

men

profits

can

are

by

sentiment, theoreticallyat

modern

not, in spite

or

be

to

injure

patriot at

patriotism a

of

source

profit.
combination

This

so

seems

must
to

who

remind

shocking
them

of

high

to

modern

of two

and

sordid

AS
principles

gentlemen

instances

not

that

irrelevant

In the first place men

question in hand.
and
served
their
were
thoroughly honourable

the

faithfully,
as,
Walpole, have thought

country

with

money

those

for

it

example, Sir Robert

rupt
quite legitimateto cor-

under

them

and

those

regards

^jfave
Walpole

150

[62.

POLITICS.

PRACTICAL

to
scorn
Though they would
opposed to them.
receive
bribes,they did not scruple to offer them ;
and
they have left it on record that they found
few men
unwilling to accept such bribes in some
indirect or disguised form.
and

patriotsof
our

own

if the

Again,

the

"f

great War

tne

lasted

ten

some

will turn

reader

Liberation

of

to

the

in

Greece, which

of this century

years

narratives

(1821-1831),

historyof the national leaders

who fought all the battles by sea and land, and contributed
of
than foreignaid to the success
far more
that remarkable
Revolution, he will find that on
the one
hand
actuated with the strongest
they were
and

will

and

most

the

study

passionate feelingsof patriotism,while

the other

they did not scruple to turn the war

to their own
profit1. They were
klephts,bandits,
the families
assassins. They often took bribes to save

on

of Turks, and

violated

and

doubt

the

of

their blood

"

Analogous
of

who
were

us

now

goes

by no
monopoly

Europe during
the neutral

include

them, signed treaties

there

is not

the

patriots,in
strictly
shedding
country, and even
were

the

the

flagof

far

so

opening
to

as

higher motives
they

say

had

enjoyed

The

the

to

his

of
the

in the

than

great Napoleonic
!

that

prominent

most

Turkey

gratitude.

back

come

At

actuated

lucrative

massacred.

for it.

the
certainly

were

be

to

yet

they

lovingtheir

63. Let

Finlay even

And

that

Demosthenes.
Demo-6
1

them

broke

and

them.

smallest
sense

allowed

oaths

made

They

then

of

wars

of

cause

the

visitingall
under

the

patriotismof these

he

career

islanders

despair at

of

case

of

Hydra,

patriotism,
loss of the

the

ports of

protectionof
people did

not

62.]

from
and men
gladly obtained money
to
use
against Persia ; for Persia then
Later on, his policy
danger to Greece.

have

would
Macedon
seemed

obtain

to

was

151

HONEST.

NOT

BUT

PATRIOT,

; and

we

he

gold, which
great end
And

had

in

the

control

of

break

to

was

accept it,even
from

any

balk

the

the

on

would

if he

him

enable

personaldanger, provided
one
great object in view.
deliberate

Macedon.

to

perfectlyready to
screening Harpalus

of

terms

The

one

that

doubt

smallest

foreign

The

of

power

thought the gold of Harpalus

emancipate Athens, he was

of

he chose.

as

the

the

not

crisis before

largefunds

administered

I have

so

to

that

don
Mace-

attack

Persia

told

are

he

Chaeronea

from

money

lie,which

this did
Thus

not

the

modern

gentlemen
is a crime of the same
magnitude as taking a
of our
bribe, is in the minds of many
politicians
by urgent publicnecessity1. It is hardly
justified
worth while to give instances of this notorious laxity
in European public life. Is it reasonable,is it fair,
to try Demosthenes
by a far higher standard ?
is why
I contend
This
that it is illogical
and
tellingof

unhistorical
was

had

But

accordingto

taken

the money

for the Theoric

that he had

into

his mouth

accept

it

as

it

because

and

man

; he

pleaded as

an

Demosthenes

patriot,therefore

evidence, Demosthenes

our

recouped himself

did not

deny that

that he had

excuse

for this money.

by Hypereides (in Demosth.

merely amounted

accomplice,is

that

he
he

advanced

Fund, for the benefit of the Athenians, twenty talents,

and

which

argue

honourable

an

to

to

so

to

making

stands,though

Holm

(G. G.

is the

10). Such

the Athenian

suicidal in Demosthenes'

This

pleaput
defence,

publican unwitting

mouth, that
iii. 420) does

I hesitate
so.

to

end

153
could

At

age
aver-

have

not

doing by
Low

POLITICS.

PRACTICAL

he

was

convicted

of

of

the

Areopagus3.

the

time

no

what

done

the

was

morality

average

of

Greeks

Greek
national

I have

as

morality.
find

we

high. From
shown
amply in

very

low

the

days of Homer

my

Social
of

standard

Life in Greece,

truth

society,which

in that brilliant

down,

and

honesty

is

to us
gilded over
gifts. As Ulysses

splendid intellectual
in early, Aratus
in later
in legend, Themistocles
to Greek
historyare the types which speak home
imaginationand excite the national admiration, so
their

by

in

later

as

is below

will

and

par,

Roman's

remarkable

merits

race2,lays it down

demerits

and

axiom

an

that

their

rank

never

passage,

in

of the

honesty
with

court

word.
there

sthenes Exceptions
Demo-

it.

such

were,

; but

Phocion
above

the

he discusses

where

in

Cicero,

day

they

crates,
Aristides,So-

as

enlisted

never

the sympathy,

the respect, of the

though they commanded
Greek
public. Nay, all these suffered for their
to have
honesty. I do not believe Demosthenes
the average
below
been
morality of his age, far
"

it ; he

from

skill,much
1

All

420-4,

the
who

above
evidence
comes

to

all respects,

in

was

it

has

been

the

same

twenty years ago, long before

Demosthenes.
and

to

moderate

but

That

penalty,

not
2

Pro

prove

the

which

of

condemned

be demonstrated

Gracca

I had

change

recent

expedienciesdoubtless
it to have been unjust.

Flacco,cap. iv.

believe

not

conclusion

the Athenians
can

military
he

secured

fideswas

iii.

put forward

ing
opinion concern-

the orator
from

his

own

his conviction

stock

was

G. G.

justlyweighed by Holm,

Political
do

I do

in

save

phrase.

justly,
sions.
admis;

they

62.]

THE

all of the

at

who

adversary, Phocion,

his

the strictest modern

in
incorruptible

and

honest

was

of

type

153

DEMOSTHENES.

OF

ART

sense.

the
read

laid his whole

and

of

sentiments

all earnest-

with

hearer.

his

earnestm

there

I suppose

people thought this splendid,

when

day

produced by Deep effect

whose
speeches rhetoric

soul open

the

sincerityto

and

was

been

again

perfect art of Demosthenes,

if he spoke the inmost
as

mind
ness

here

illusion has

The

eloquence burst from

its burning
found
heart, and
of
lipsmerely from the power
to
speak to the hearts of

direct, apparently unadorned

of

fulness

the

his
his

expressionupon
truth

and

other

men.

the

earnestness

know

We

of

absurd

most

of every

never

was

the

as

the world

image

exact

oratory
and

perfectart

most

of

the

thought, by which
and

beguiled

This
have

trenchant
of his

into

is the
to

the

the

deal,

most

sort

and

Phocion

periods.' To

more

stage attains

perfectionof Greek

the

so

of

harmonies

There

of literature

writing

or

produce the

simplicityby the

concealed

rythm
interjections

; the very

upon

nature,

to

was

the

strictly
began. But Theperfec-

speaking

artificial since

sentence,

nicely calculated.

were

any

Every

weighed

balanced

phrase was

exclamations

and

and

this is

that

now

estimates.

turned

clause, was

every

well

very

effect

subtle

earnestness

means,^ adding

figures of

and

sound,

audience

of

could

be

charmed

delightedacquiescence.
of

rhetorician

who
as

with

whom

we

regarded the
the

many

most

simple and
dangerous primer

persons

'

such

school

^^obe
apparently

154
of

however

eloquence,
school

strictest

rather

will

they

for

than

condemnation

have

named

Holm

he

reject

All

the

made

by

have
the

sallies

play

died

which

Old

fully

repeating

dialectical

by the

satisfied

the

kind

intellectual

'

of

Cf.

now

this

in

the

sensible

exceedingly

of

kind

nents
oppo-

history
of

oratory,

that

tragedy

whose

Athenians

"

political

remark

connection,
later

as

their

Holm's

the

as

tions
accusa-

dramatic

philosophers,

that

critics,

earlier

This

the

the

as

Demosthenes

against

of

to

^schines

scandalous

this

of

taste

strong

modern

parallel in

discussions

appropriated

the

The

libellous.

as

connection

of

rise

is said

this

orators

the

with

of his
shows

he

that

Comedy.

reluctant,

delivery)

of

sations,
accu-

hands

as

ribaldry

distinct

out

is in

history.

all

of

art

of

eagerness

the

even

and

Demosthenes

with

all these

of the

worth

It

down

set

one

was

also

(the

the

of sober

source

life of

fault

finds

but

at

tendency,

indeed

mendacious,

in action

though

suffered

the

seem

against

decisive,

eloquence.

justly

who

the

VTTOKPKTLS

of

essence

not

the

at

him

defend

to

theatrical

strong

surprised

which

citizens1.

own

be

at

will

perfect,

plain uprightness

historians

modern

[62.

POLITICS.

PRACTICAL

is

the
were

dialogues
for

this

exercise.

remarks

studied

of

oratory

Holm,
from

G.
the

G.
very

501
same

sq., who

cises
criti-

standpoint.

VIIL

CHAPTER

ALEXANDER

As

" 63.

have

Demosthenes

is the
of

tical historians
weary,

let

"

us

points

Greece.

But

touching

work

the

we

come

upon

Droysen,
of

his

who

life to

history

His

successors.

doubt
and
been

the
it
as

This

of

Alexander

fullest and

seems

very

yet translated
is

work

of

best

to

among

yet

into

en-

lenismus.

the

upon

period
can

we

is

refer,

it has

that

no

not

language.

our

be

desired

these

has

jes ^/.

immediate

his

which

great omission

of what

not

this

on

more

instance

Geschichte

researches

in

and

speciallyto
great English history of

another

ofDroysen's

character

history,employed

Prussian

latest

the

that

unfortunately devoted

his brilliant abilities for years

the

for

weighed.

or

have

we

"

history.

grow

race

authority

new

further

turning-

seems

the

and

historians, whom

evening

those

upon

countered.

no

of the

Alexander,
modern

not

us

The

poli-

for the

let

fortunes

the

more,

approaching

A1

terminus

it
knotty points where
has not been
duly stated

or

evidence
In

favourite

of

death

already, the

said

survey

centuries

some

GREAT.

THE

been

times.
so

as

we

have

It is but

often

urged

This

period

negiected
by Enslish
historians.

56

ALEXANDER

these

in

THE

Greek

pages.

[63.

GREAT.

history has
literaryand

people with
So long as there are
great
translated, explained, panegyrized,

hands

of

minute

events

; but

care

less

not

as

as

to

come

we

history of

the

world,

we

terests.
in-

be

to

all the

most

with

epoch certainly

before

gone

historians, because

modern

authors

discussed

an

the

scholastic

affairs,perhaps

that had

any

and

in human

important

the future
our

soon

than

decisive

recorded

are

in

been

more

in

shaping
deserted
by

are

the Greeks

had

lost

their earlier
literaryexcellence which makes
records the proper
trainingfor the schoolboy and
reduced
the collegian1. We
to Diodorus,
are
now

that

Strabo, for

Plutarch, Arrian,
there

Lives

do

all these

records

the

on

agreeable accident,
day's culture,not a
century

one

or

an

merely

evidence,

one

to

nation

full,but

also

with
appearance

of

not

only givesall

very excellent sketch

dates

and

other

(1845),it may

Englishscholarship.

be

of

credentials.

regardedas

only

be

an

another.

of

fifty
years old,is
for

studyinglater

texts
out-of-the-way

of the Hellenistic

Consideringthe
one

ters
charac-

pre-eminence

Fasti,now

of each

the

the

of materials

manner

formatio
of in-

sources

like,of that

over

HenceFynes Clinton's third volume

stillby far the most
complete collection
He

prose

if you

test

Hellenism.

of Greek

of affairs and

gauge

and

grace

genuine historian,to

are

course

dour
splenParallel

of Attic

literaryperfectionshould

of men,

of

the

surelyto

moral

famous

the decadence

marks

Yet

literature.

of the

for the want

atone

not

strengthwhich
authorities
whom

that the

unfailinginterest

and
Nature

think

who

those

are

materials, and

our

in

chies,
monar-

time

of its

of the finest monuments

64.]

and

his work

and

studied

which

have

might

weighed MstorystiU
sufficiently
perfectlyclear picture,disP^ed.

yet been

not

afford

to

us

conviction

carry

Alexander's

Alexander

of

character

" 64. Accordingly, the

157

GROTE.

OF

PREJUDICES

THE

of

majority

the

to

place in history. As I
the only recent
said above1, Grote's pictureof him
study of the period in England previous to my own
and Greek
Alexander
s Empire
Life and Thought
candid judge will be
is so manifestly unfair that no
finallyfix

readers, and

his

"

"

satisfied with

If any

it.

against Demosthenes
Grote

great historian would

and

his

refuted
of

Pericles

or

believes

and

cites

other

cried

an

unanswerable

torian

high

the

him,

tion
satisfac-

case.

Q. Curtius, a
untrustworthy Latin his-

very

of Alexander, theatrical details of Alexander's

of Gaza,

cruelties to the heroic defender

of the Milesian

cal descendants
settled

Inner

in

"

apparently to
fairlyto be classed
the

among

Amazons
these

Sun.

Yet

upon

Grote's

esteems

the

in

the

or

have

Hellene,

of

making for
despot-monarchy, with a
1

but

who
to

had

Arrian,

of the

day,

king's adventures
land
beyond the

their

distinct

Alexander,

of

effect

whom

he

semi-barbarian

military abilities,only

of transcendent

conqueror,

desirous

with

stories

Branchidse

the Athenians

estimate

hardly

the mythi-

or

details unknown

Asia,

unknown
and

upon

as

finds in

Thus, for example, Grote

late,rhetorical,and

shame
the

with

arguments

supporting

evidence

such

against Alexander,

have

used

had

writer

himself
better

Cf. "

10.

and

great
more

Oriental
efficient

Grote's

un-

evidence

nfm!nS

i58

Droysen's
estimate.

ALEXANDER

THE

[65-

GREAT.

military and civil organization, but without any

preparations for higher civilization.
The
of Droysen is nearer
estimate
the truth, but
still not strictly
the truth itself1. To him the Macedonian
is a political
well as a militarygenius
as
of the highestorder, who is educated
in all the views
of Aristotle,who
understands
thoroughly that the
older forms
of political
life are
effete,that small
separate States requireto be united under a strong
central
and

control.

He

of Asia

resources

divines

even

that

therefore

and
and
intelligence
enterprise,
marriage of Europe and Asia/ of which
symbol was the wholesale matrimony
'

Tendency
to

genius,

the real aim

ladies,was

his achievements.

As

the

of

worthy pupil

such

the manifest
of his officers

and

Alexander

Aristotle,and

the

goal of

is

than

more

the

all

legitimate

of a new
form of civilization.
and striking
originator
" 65. There is,I think, a great tendency, when-

attribute

calculation
to

Persian

wealth

require regenerationthrough

Greek

with

the

ever

we

L.

to

come

estimate

great

and

exceptional

regard him as manifesting merely a

higher degree of that conscious abilitycalled talent,
genius, to

With

the usual
but defends

his own,

Alexander's
As

Holm

A
The

Persian
latest

the

introduction
such

of the

would

have

estimate,that
Yet

only makes

he too,

youthfulAlexander.

obeisances

Alexander
understood

of Holm
seems

would

not

this,not

so

too

much

fies
justi-

familiarities

deny

himself.

Macedonian.

(iii.
403 sq.},appears
to attribute

even

hero

impoliticas

the

with

at his court.

themselves

in

quite inconsistent

subjects,

King

not

Oriental

ceremonies,

were

which
drinking-parties,

far the best.

to

who
specialist,

Droysen
againstevery criticism,

him

observes,

regards free
of the

zeal of

to

me

also

consciousness

65.]
cleverness.

or

of

view
its

INNOVATIONS.

MILITARY

It is much

genius than

spontaneity,its

easier

give

to

understand

to

rational

any

this

of

account

unreflective

and

unconscious

59

in- Its sponta-

which
and solve withto anticipate,
seem
spirations,
out
effort,questions laboriouslyanswered
by the

patient research
We

talk

of

often

come

and

experiment of ordinary minds1.

or

flashes

of

flashes

these

affect

large politicalquestions,
baffle ordinary mortals,

results which

easilymistaken

are

When

genius/

enough, and

have

we

either for random

luck

or

calculation.

acute

If I

ideas
On

'

ne

right,Alexander

am

point his

this

and

of

beyond the desire

often

doubt

no

companions.

views

great militaryconquests,
with

out

the

seen

later

his

do

early
of

campaigns

Chaeronea

Philip,and had discovered at

shock
of heavy cavalry would
infantrythe Greek world
very first operationsto put

"tece?

probably quite clear,dents-

were

reasoned

had

He

few definite Alexander's

with

started

what

the

against the

best

his

could

produce.

In

down

revolt and

secure

trial of his field

artillery,
and of the marching powers
of his army
through the
He
difficult Thracian
therefore required
country.
his crown,

he

Aristotle

no

of Greece

arms

Persian
the

made

tell him

to

Granicus

Thus

Timoleon

at Issus

confidence
set

up

spontaneous impulse which

Cf. my

Greek

Life and

with

the

he could

reckless exposure

His

and

that

Macedonia

and

Empire.

the divine

as

had

indeed

may
of

had

led him

Thought, p.

no.

to

conquer

the

of his life at

be

genius in

in his house

combined

interpreted
his star, but

shrine to Auro/iarta, the

many

brilliant

successes.

160

ALEXANDER

to

seems

his

nothing

me

learns

Persian

But

be

to

troops.

more

time

must

have

so

dis-

of

all his

this

previous conquests,

in his

deeply resented by his

" 66. His campaigns,

Western

at

the

led to that

empire which
subjects.

the

forced

time

same

other

hand,

hitherto

had

was

must

his mind,

this upon

{hat the deep separation which

him

cost

opinion,and

on

of the

resistance

the Persians

toVfuse
thlhave

dination.
insubor-

Sogdiana, which

loss than

confirmed

stubborn

in

importance

Macedonian

or

fierce and

and

recognitionof

of great

day

some

barons

great Aryan

very

discontent

The

in

by

extent

some

important lesson.
the high qualities
He had probably quite underrated
Pers*an
n"t"les.
Their splendidbravery and
unshaken
loyaltyto their king in all the battles of
the campaign, their evident
dignity and
liberty
under
have
him
shown
must
a
legitimatesovran,
indeed
that these were
subjectsworth having,and
checking Greek

nations

him

taught

to

defect in

in his household

it aroused

it also

destined

He

manifest

counterbalanced
generalship,

the enthusiasm
He

than

more

[66.

GREAT.

THE

existed

Alexandria.

between

and

East

TTT

would

West

make

empire impossible,if pains were

the
1

by

races

hear

We

of the

complaints of
they were
livingin
in

the

large

some

complaintsof

Persians

midst, where

that they must

asserting
his decision

high
or

Macedonian
silenced

Could

and

not

taken

and

have
the

been
many

fuse

but

hear

to
as

us

the

them,

are

; but

rash

we

ing
influenc-

important in

Persian

married
princesses,

their native
?

retinues,have

as

king was

fullyas

largeconcessions

1.

The

Greeks.

transmitted

been

not

to

peaceful process

Macedonians

he could

and
officers,
without

not

homogeneous

just and well-founded,and

more
certainly

their

have

been

to

fied
satis-

66.]
This

DEVELOPMENT

problem

the

was

he solved; and

OF

first great

he solved

the

confines

the

Greek

continent,into which

Jews

of

of

early in

his

career

founding a cityon
the

and

seas

Asiatic

and

Egyptians crowded
produced the first specimen

alongwith Greeks, and

of that

political
difficulty

it very

by the successful experiment

l6l

TRADE.

composite Hellenistic lifewhich

spread

soon

all his

empire.
This happy experiment, no
doubt intended
experiment, and
perhaps the easiest and
over

obvious

under

Alexander's
advances

mind

into

to

open

the

circumstances,
into

Asia

conquest

the

him

by his

arms,

the

also

higher culture

and

He

felt that in the foundation

have

must

enterpriseof

set

Further

immense

and

an

most

have

must

right groove.

showed

as

Greeks

field

by

and

the

Jews.

of chains

of cities

and
traders he would
peopled by veterans
not
secure
only a military frontier and military
for the risingtrade His
communications, but entrepots

which

brought

inventions
tended

luxuries

new

from

the

West.

maintenance

of peace

and

and
frontiers,

still

vast

hoard

This

not

but

only stimulated
afforded

bank-notes

could

pay

Two

distinct

and

the

the

the

out

are

to

of his

trade

its

merchant

convenience

to

gold.

The

of

of

our

lation,
circu-

mere

medium
baser

of

metals

merchant

new

girdle in gold
M

roads

treasuries.

millions

by

merce.

ous
vigor-

dissemination

several

ofcom-6

new

causes

securityon

gold captured in the Persian

exchange as superiorin
as

more

hoard, amounting,to

money,

the East, and

this commerce,

largelyto promote

of

from

as

de-

much

as

Diffusion
of

golcL

62

ALEXANDER

his father had

or

paid

first people to
thus

of

out

I have

copper.

and

THE

that

the

to
importance from Rhodes
lightso suddenly and silently

Alexander's

to
Rhagae which comes
in the historyof the Diadochi.
These
to
me
changes seem
gradually,though quickly,upon

views.

Of

Develop-

the

from

to

have

to

the

have

dawned

powerful mind
him

transformed

knight-errantin search of fame into

statesman
a
enormous
facing an
responsibility.
His
intense
and
no
pose
reindefatigablespiritknew
except the distraction of physicalexcitement
;
and unfortunately,
with the growth of largerviews,
his love of glory and of adventure
stilled.
not
was
No
able
of State or legislative
labours were
cares

His

young

romantic

imagination.

to

longing

have

"

1
ofr his

romance

make

"

"

imagination

and j

^.i

the

to

of

his

new

life.

of real government,

But
of

all that

he

did

in the

practicaladvancement
in civilization,
of respecting and
flicting
adjusting conhis various
rights among
subjects,seems
the result of a rapid practicalinsight,a
to
me
useful
and
large comprehension of pressingwants
reforms, not the working out of any mature
theory.
I regard it as nonsense
Hence
to call the politician
and the king in any
the pupil of
important sense
Aristotle.
There
is hardly a point in the Politics
way

pupilof

the

quests.
conexplorationsand new
This
is the feature which
legends of the
and West
have caught with poetic truth ; they
transformed
the visions of his fancy into the

chronicle

Aristotle.

quench

East

No

and

conqueror,

in silver

the
Jews were
circumstances,

altered

these

profitby

to attain

camel's load

doubt

no

[66.

GREAT.

67.]

ALEXANDER

which
the

in

be

can

AND

regarded

Macedonian

whole

having

as

settlement

conditions

of

163

NAPOLEON.

been

of the

this

successful

understood

of the

ordinances

by himself,if

its solution

of

them

What

at

whether
with

early

an

he

died

wounds,

harder

that

him

ordinary
It is

no

is the

well

body

His

He

man.

question
hacked

was

exercise

had

still

and

undergone

petual
per-

feel that he lived at such

rate

like

were

favourite amusement

class,and

century

of

be

said

of resemblance

the

on

be

his

never

to

similar,JJa

very

belonging to

replaced.
copied nor
that Napoleon shows
than

Macedonian
way

are

individual

an

neither

it may

the great Compar

to compare

epochs,who

can

points
fever

and

life.

to

of

hard

thirty years

Nevertheless
more

with

great genius is

But

true.

the

may

His

We

of different

men

for

we

mind

above

most

us

vigour of

but

His

drinking.

to

said

clearly seen

young.

worn

strain.

I have

astonishes

age,

fully

not

were

were

supernatural quicknessand
died

of Alexander's

action of genius be

spontaneous

certainly many
really planned.

what

The

world.

problem and
were
new.
non-Hellenic,non-speculative,
" 67. It is quite possiblethat some
most

adopted

most

king.
Russia,

other

Had

while

he
his

querors
con-

died

Grand

Army was unbroken, he would have left a military

He
won
reputationhardly inferior to Alexander's.
his
the

campaigns by
same

Alexander's

resource

the

rapidityin

same

in sudden

strategy

emergencies.

similar

was

2,

movement,

to

that of

But

if

Napo-

164

ALEXANDER

Icon, his tactics

and
"mwe

1.

curjous

the

on

resemblance
for himself

battlefield
those

to

under

[67.

GREAT.

THE

bear

the

most

Cromwell

which

vised
de-

analogous circumstances.
by organizing a heavy

that
generals saw
cavalryunder perfectcontrol, and not intended for
mere
pursuit, they could break up any infantry
all
formation
then possible. Both accordinglywon
their battles by charges of this cavalry,while the
enemy's cavalry,often equallyvictorious in attack,
had no
further effect in
in wild pursuit,and
went
It is even
that both
the case
deciding the contest.
their right wing for their own
chose
attack, and
of the
the
used
their infantryas
defensive
arm
curious
action.
This
never
analogy, which seems
Both

to

have

will

been

find

of

use

like

of field

artillery, j^^j. jn

the

out

whenever
Use

noticed, only shows

in

novei

resemblance
at

to

the

Waterloo,

upon

the

campaign,

our

evidence

career

It

is in

brought
northern

to

barians
bar-

should

we

complete,
ployed
Napoleon em-

more

attacking with

as

the

cavalry

and

which

appeared

holds

good

both

yond
be-

conquerors

soldiers,both

showed

of a peacein office-work
indefatigable
ful
kind, and exceedingly able in the construction
laws.
Napoleon imposed, if he did not originate,

themselves

of

their

difficulty,

that

tactics which

artillerytogether, in a manner
to Wellington.
strange even
the analogy to Napoleon
But
the battlefield.
Although
commenced

Alexander

wav

first

his

probably find, were

a

arise.

circumstances

which
artillery,

qujte

of

solution

same

great minds

how

68.]

in modern

the best code

worked

have

to

TO

CLAIM

THE

165

DIVINITY.

he

and

Europe,

with

diligentlyand

is known

great

power

its details.

at

the

showed

Both

their

upon

disagreeable insistence

same

other

superiorityto

own

could

not

maintain

it

rivalry they

brook.

whose

men,

But

Vain

but

vious?

Alexander

by exalting himself to a
superhuman position,Napoleon by degrading his
the poisoned weapons
rivals with
of calumny and
falsehoods
of Napoleon's official doculies.
The
ments
been
did
have never
surpassed. Alexander
low ; but
of divinity
the assertion
sink so
not
sought

to

of

violation
whole

"
Mr.

of

most

to

seems

modesty,

So
C.

D.

this too

stronglyis

Alexander,

that

and

after due
that the
to
was

to

evidence

that

Alexandria,
foundation,
in connection
1

is wrong,

with

about

excellent, and

matter, I
and

the visit to the

to

there

satisfied

am

is

good

son
rea-

of Ammon

temple

the

der's
policyof derivingAlexanthat
The
god.
name
very

given
was

is

of the

from

origin

invented

that

convincing. Nevertheless,

seem

with

connected

show

to

at

that

formation
a

In the Historical

only

god's name.
Review

for

his

to

moment

hitherto
The

taunt

1887, PP- 3J7"

sqq.

new

known
of his

as-

Sd^toit
questioned.

king himself never

sonally
perdivine origin. The
criticism

this essay

conclusion

writer,His

acute

an

the

examination

think

affects the

which

later fables

in

will

people

most

flaw

this felt that

of the

one

laid claim
of the

has endeavoured

Hogarth,

was

and

monstrous

more

of the claimant.

character
68.

moderns

us

66

soldiers

Babylon,

at

father

that

apply

his

to

perfectlywell attested, and

claim to divinitywas
well known
is

Ammon,

implies

should

he

that

[68.

GREAT.

THE

ALEXANDER

his

in the army.
An

But

ordi-

to

mind

my

is the assumption
fcHfc^tter
^ays-

to claim

for

as

divine

men

was

of divine

was

quite

in

king
extraordinary that

god

and

of his

assertion
is
and

would

he

himself

ordinary

of

condition

the

East

it

the

king

did

not

in

and

more

Egypt

the

was

of

son

conflict with

human

cannot

we

realize ; but

the

This

parentage.

which

the

claimed

have

not

it

monarchs

the

thought

should

thought

therefore

cannot

should

he

monarchy

subjects of

new

have

belief that

god

that

The

only yesterday

and

Egypt

ridiculous

that

theory

creed

that

than

especiallythe
a

In

and

It is

so.

Macedonian

or

odious

the

such l.

Macedonian

this descent

do

common

were

Greek

a
as

Europe

origin.

the

themselves

for

to

man

held

that

that

origin was

modern

greater flaw in this able essay

grasp,

nevertheless

the

in ancient

history.
The
assertion,therefore,of divinityin the East
Perhaps
an
am^nTthe
was
ordinary piece of policywhich Alexander
Greeks.
could hardly avoid ; the writer I have quoted has,
fact is

certain

as

shown

however,
ever

as

claimed

first Greek

who

Divine

Lysander,who
great victory.

strong

it in

It is to be noted

themselves

to

reasons

doubt

that

Greece, though individual

that the Achsemenid

origin,did

received
was

any

not

claim

in his lifetime

flattered

he

Greeks

for
kings,though asserting
to

be

supra-human

by altars,"c.,

I think

gods.

in Asia

honours

Minor

the
was

after his

68.]

HIS

visited

who

his

Eastern

the

ceremonial

of

soldiers

taunted

him

in

at

He

Babylon.

and

whether

from
his

own

with

it

contempt

divinity,

it

authority

of
is

other

now

of

small
of
his

upon

from

or

that
little

any

vanity
men

their

during
is

he

it

though

and

than

from

was

perceived

once

all

after

better

his

impress

to

at

household,

his

knew

167

POLICY.

court

this

But

probably

how

DIVINITY

revolt

matter.

his

critics

subjects
policy

insisted

consequence.

his

upon

or

CHAPTER

IX.

GREECE.

POST-ALEXANDRIAN

Tumults
the

THE

" 69.

of

Dmdo-

[s

Alexander

one

shapings

of the

efforts at

world's

from

its study, and

upon

the student

history,but

who

strives to

penetrate

books

it,to be found

those

to

Life
1

it, or

his usual

it with
will

who

not

damper

follow

closing
little

justice;
and

minute

recently given, in
Thought ',a full study of the

Greek

and

social

opening

well

apply

of his Histories

discors
proeliis,

magna

scopuli

of Tacitus

saevum

pace

externa

plenum

corrupt! in dominos

quibus deerat inimicus, per

amicos

the

at

atrox

principesferro

plerumque permixta

ac

adulteria

and

casibus,

Opus adgredior opimum

civilia,
plura

pollutaecaeremoniae
liberti ; et

'

words

famous

seditionibus,
ipsa etiam

interempti, bella
fecti caedibus

it the

to

and

cate
intri-

my

may

few

Thirlwall

details, I have

We

lier
ear-

but

are

and

care

the

the

English.

in

men

is very

there

rather

upon

treated

There

in Greece.

of freedom

most

as

to

re-

abortive

with

satisfied with

is not

information

has
their intri-

kingdoms1,

certainlyacted

has

and

wars

settlement, that it deters

new

upon

with

defections,with

and

combinations

with
alliances,

centuries

complicated

so

of

death

the

follows

which

period

exiliis

mare

; in-

servi, in patronos

oppressi.'

69.]

WHAT

INDEPENDENCE?

GREEK

WAS

169

and

development which took place in this and

in Greece
succeeding periods of Hellenism
the East.
Hertzberg'sand Droysen's histories,

the

one

artistic
the

other

in time

both

are

in

confined

the

to

thorough

fourth

and

the

in Greek

even

Asia

campaigns which

The

Greece

when

conqueror,

enlist the
of the

of the

and

it.

enacted,

not

the

determined

in

in

Egypt,
Upper Asia.

in

even

he arrived at

mastery

their wide
ar

over

campaigns, and each

Athens, endeavoured

tions
support of Greece by publicdeclarafreedom, or rather the emancipation,

Greeks.

This

manifesto, something
festoes of

notice

Minor, but

usuallyAsiatic

were

period,

same

that I cannot

B.C.,

Holm's

works.

great part of this history was

or

the

proper,

third centuries

will include

Syria,in Mesopotamia,

to

Greece

excellent

yet accessible,so

Greece,
in

to

and

final volume, which

is not

space

and

constant

like

the

yet unmeaning

Home

is
English politicians,

Rule

libera-

mani-

curious

very

The

and

interestingfeature in the history of the Diadochi^

as
they are called,and suggests to us to consider
what

was

from

the

the

days of Demetrius
T.

Roman

the

unreal

independence

and

Flamininus

shadowy

fascinate the

often

so

proclaimed

(306 B.C.)to
and
(196 B.C.),

promise never
imagination of an acute

those

why

ceased

and

of
so

to

practical

people.
For,

by

on

all the

of" the
form

the

other

hand,

speculativeas

age

of the

that

well

monarchy

Hellenistic

it

was

quite admitted

was

as

the
not

State, but

practicalmen

only

the usual

was

the

only

Spread

of

170

POST-ALEXANDRIAN

[69.

GREECE.

of

ious
holding together largeprovincesof var"peoples,with diverse traditions and diverse
this point of view the monarchy
of life. From

means

ways

of the

in

Seleucids

Antigonids

Hither

Asia, and

of

that

the

the Greek

peninsula,are far more

than the simplerand more
interesting
homogeneous
The three
in Egypt1.
For
the
kingdom of the Ptolemies
in Egypt were
Greeks
a
never
large factor in the
kingdoms1.0
tricts
population. They settled only two or three disthe country ; they shared
with Jews and
up
over

the

natives

their influence

there

Alexandria,

even

Alexandria

the

waned, and

and

of

longer a Hellenistic, but an

Egyptian city. The persecutions by the seventh
sale
Ptolemy, who is generallycredited with the wholeexpulsion of the Greeks, would only have had
a
transitoryeffect,had not the tide of population
been
settingthat way ; the persecutions of the
city never
Jews in the same
produced the same
lastingresults. The Syrian monarchy stands out
Roman

days

this

from

and

history of
This

judgment

of
of which

no

Hellenistic

new

likelyto

seems

upon

publishedin

the

Fayoum,

Jews

and

the
which

conditions

Egyptians.

I have

be

"

now

Unfortunately,

by

age,

the wonderful

upon

the

with
under

Petrie
We

province at

one

Greek
my

cession
ac-

the first instalment

Norgate,1891).

of life in

the

as

totallylost,and

reversed

monograph

peopled

was

State.

the Ptolemaic

(with autotype plates,Williams

know

Macedonian

is almost

Antioch

materials

I have

the

from

even

type of

proper
the

is

of

mart

great

veterans

hand

their

Papyri

shall

sently
pre-

all events,

along

with

wills,their

in hundreds
their accounts, their official correspondence
privateletters,
of shreds

and

fragments.

70.]

UNDER

POLITICS

DIADOCHI.

THE

171

vestigesof that great capitalare shivered

to
pieces by earthquakes. Of its provinces, one
till
to
not
only is tolerablywell-known
us, but
later days, through the Antiquitiesof Josephus,
the very

and

the

of

did

How

" 70.
Asia

Testament^.

New

things,which

For

it

led

who
it

hands,

with

greater

of

men

Athens

oftener

superior forces
the

and

which

of

zens.
citi-

agent

was

cian.
leading politi-

resolutions

exciting,but

directly

were

or

the

Ephesus

or

every

were

among

the

often

vincing,
con-

effect

no

lay quietly in

against
hands

the

of

controllingMacedonian.

We

able

then

may

day^as

Follows.
of

number

abandoned
small

The

with the
the coast

classifythe
First there

better
was

thoughtful

and

of

men

that

inconsider-

not

serious

who

men

as
practical
politics
altogether,
being

States

leading
1

city than

discussions

in

impoverished

king'slieutenant

his

vantages
all the ad-

arose

interests

cenary,
mer-

into

secured

of

pro

political

power

there

so

mass

in the

man

Public
free

the
the

Moreover
a

and

class,whose

city a moneyed

and

who
capitalist

New

their social state?

in

got wealth

trade

variance

state

emigrant, the adventurer, the

the

of

at

revolution

now

was

to this altered

their

of

and

Europe

affected

only

not

to

the

was

of

themselves

accommodate

life,but

Greeks

the

specialwork

Jewish
of

cities

discontent

to

best

and

on

population,and

thing of

and
the

confusion.
conflict of the

with

Palestine,is B. Stark's

the

the Asmonaean
Gaza

und

only

past, and
These
Greek
sovrans

for

men

settlements
all

die Philistische

along

Kiiste.

Politics

b
men"

172

POST-ALEXANDRIAN

[70.

GREECE.

adopted the

all the
general conclusion, in which
schools coincided,that peace
of mind
philosophical
and
be obtained
true
to
libertyof life were
by
retiringfrom the world and spending one's days in
that practice of personal virtues which
the
was
religionof a nation that had no creed adequate
to its spiritual
wants.

except

as

Nevertheless

theoretical

question,

tnese

they

sometimes

men

did

condescend

trenchant

with

among

other

topics of speculation
treated
of politics;
and when
to action,it was
out
to carry

theories,and

out
withprinciple,
regard to the terrible practicalconsequences
of imposing a new
order of things on
divided
a
uneducated
Stoic
or
public. The
philosophers,
in particular,
who
interfered in the public life of
that day, were
hesidangerous firebrands, not

some

fatalexcep-

,.

not

the

at

tatmg

tions.

all

offended

to

ofr

murder j

act

fools

criminal,

in

point guiltyof

one

advised
Sphaerus who
Spartan Cleomenes1, and

the

mimicked

results
these

Dignity
courage
the

of

Gracchi

and

the world

to

all ?

the
the

Such

coup detat

Blossius

in

of
the

thing
murder

with

were

he

not

was

into revolution, and

this sort

for

opponent;

an

the

who

on

who
the

that

men

as

of

the

lated
stimuBrutus

deplorable

of Caesar,
"

all

examples of the philosophicalpolitician

produced by the Hellenistic age.
if there were
But
mischievous
exceptions, we
must
not
forgetthat the main body of the schools
were

philo- kept alive in the Greek

mind

serious

and

sophers
1

Cf. Plutarch's

Life of Cleomenes,

cap. xi.

exalted

1.]

TRACTS

feature

for there

society;

make

dogmas

their

to

up

Hellenistic

in

can

as

perhaps
compared

be

no

The

loftyideal.

the strongest
with

modern

that Christian

doubt

of all those

cowards

noble

in that

is

which

for death

contempt

"

hearers

their

all,they trained

above

responsibility,

human

dignityand

of human

view

173

MONARCHY.

ON

do

who

Greeks

had

live

not

eternal

no

facing death, and shown

cities preferringsuicide to the loss
find whole
so
we
of what
their rightfulliberty1.
as
they claimed
People who do this may be censured
; they cannot

punishment

be

to

them

scare

despised.
"71. Secondly, most
of

convinced

so

of

not

rule

the

than

the

that

many

in
whose

the

merits

earlier

an

of passages

is

Cf. the

On

the

quoted

themselves

Censure

my

from

Greek

the

masses

cence,
recrudes-

those

tyrants

already

cussed
dis-

essay2. The
That Monarchy
essays
in the commonplace

is indeed

in

Rise

crowd,

have

we

read

chiefly taken

cases

society,of

from

may

Stobseus3,

of

former

we

have

we

stage

series of passages

book

so

defects

and

best,which

is

; and

different

very

of

excitements

pupils considered
duty of improving

control

at

long

and

of their

absolute

by

one

vacillations

fit to undertake

philosophershad become
necessity of monarchy,
superior spirit,as better

the
of

from

in

this

followed

by

of Tyranny
Hellenistic

Life

537. 541-5432

Above

Florilegium (ed.Teubner), ii. 247-284.

"" $$seqq.

and

series

but

the

philoso-

Thought, pp.

394,

by

of

174

POST-ALEXANDRIAN

phical tracts, whereas

from

Probably
unpopiUan

older

latter is drawn

the

authors, such

Xenophon, who lived

in the days of successful republics.
the literarymen,
Even
who
are
always antidespoticin theory,confess that many of these later
the fact
good and worthy men
tyrants were
; and
that Gonatas, the greatest and best of the Antigonids, constantly planted a tyrant in a free State
which

he found

this form
the

'

hard

majority,than

sake

of

of

that

for

to

heart

empire,
miles

the

of

deepest

imitation
in

tyrannies

of

of

town

between
a

monarchies

And

age?

also
Greek

the

Hellenistic

the

provinces

then

themselves

were

to

we

did

the

may

lay
ments
requirenot

large and scattered

with a territoryof ten

square.

These

times

of

difference

those

and

all the

sanguine people

many

the wide

of

force

of the

success

that

assume

he violated

The

not

were

greatest

unacceptable

not

was

that

rather

proves

unmanageable subjectsfor the

if he adopted
certain to be balked

impolitic means.
helped the creation
the

manage,

his

end

an

cities ;

to

of government

convictions

which

phenomena

were

all

the

manifested

at
peninsula, aye, even
and
at Athens
Sparta, though these cities
timental
protected by a great historyand by the senments
respect of all the world from the experiand
which
in smaller
might be condoned

less august
Contempt-

wholly

as

'

"

[72.

GREECE.

" 73.
condition

over

"

cities.

But
of

despite these
the

old

lessons,the normal

clear

leaders

of

the

Greek

world

73-]

obsolete

of Pericles
of both

well

as
cities,

monarchs

natural

of

such

of

means

defences

means

Athens

and

pro-

memories,

an

Greeks

and

with

for

in

timent,
sen-

greater

those

walls

city with

still far

attack, even

of

fancies

defending

were

Greek

upon

for the great Hellenistic

while

humour

to

the

policyof

to lead the

their hold

as

it worth

made

days

modern

empire of dependencies after the manner

or
Lysander. The strategicimportance

an

govern

of the

of old

claim

ridiculous

and

that

constant

resuscitation

constant

of

consisted

175

EFFETE.

respectableas

hardly so
tyrannies. It
was

test,

SPARTA

AND

ATHENS

than

or

the

Philip'sdevelopments

Athens
or
siege artillery,so that to coerce
both
was
Sparta into absolute subjection by arms
more
unpopular and more
expensive than to pay
political
partisansin each, who could at least defeat
policy. But if from this point except in
any active external
of view these leading cities with all their dignity
vousoppo"

had

little influence

the

on

from

world,

sitiontothe

another

newfedera-

fatal

they proved
of

life
political

for small

readers,
"

of small

Greece

the

mean

States, with

external

all the

" 73.
Greece
and

only

had

States.

And

policy

any

tions,

promise

this

brings

interestingto

modern

experiment of a federation
ternal
separate legislaturesfor incentral

development

new

which

of all others

affairs, but
the

the

separate

the feature

to

us

and

in

to

and

the

council

to

manage

interests

common

of

members.
This
or

form

Asia

unnoticed

of

polity was

Minor, but had

in

earlier and

more

not

quite

remained

new

in whose

obscure

brilliant times.

small1
and
"bscure-

176

ALEXANDRIAN

POST-

We

of the

years

fairlyattribute

therefore

may

third century

old

The

old

State not

had

these

But

them.

put them
of the

one

the

under

great cities.

reposed in

the confidence
had

the

and

for

never

one

seek

redress

theory

the

before
the

made

actual

the

duty

of

fairest ; and

Grote

so

of this apparent

we

find of individual

hints

the

in

hatred

been

of Athens, had

courts

much

and

and

Duruy
But

justice.
wrong

which

and

Athens

the

pression,
opwas

dependencies or allies,show plainly

in
that the democratic
theory,fair as it may seem
with justice.
the expositionof Grote, did not work
in
and
in northern
find both
Accordingly, we
of
Greece
the experiment of federations
southern
cities attainingmuch
and receiving much
success,
support in public opinion.
that these new
and powerful
It is most
significant

held

ment.

absorb

to

to

all abused

understood

have

this

another

or

The

in

stood aloof

autonomy

rests,
rulingin the intenot only of the governing, but of the governed.
could
Athenian
law, by which subject-cities

moment

lead-

their

Athens, Sparta,Thebes,

them.

from

been

of
hegemony',or leadership,

sovran

The

had

idea

opening
discovery as an
the difficulty
of

of

one

threatened

which

great Powers
The

regards both

as

the

to

its

B.C.

solution
important and practical
in
States
maintaining small

independence

[73.

GREECE.

by

all her

federations

leading
not

Neither

cities.

Thebes, and

even

condescend

only

formed

were

to

city vote

outside
Athens

hardly

federation
in

and

where

apart from

nor
even

Sparta,

the
nay,

Argos, would
they should have

conjunction with

other

cities ;

74.]
and

ATHENS

the

so

trial

new

of the

and

advice

THE

AND

LEAGUES.

prestigeof

example, both
especially the former,

their

Athens

arts.

Thebes,

but

Athens

League of wild mountaineers, who had wealth and

but
no
practice in the peaceful
military power,
of political
and
settlement
discussion
questions,

probably have

would

they

of the

League

for

the

who

regarded border

plunder as

Athens

But

of

wars

as

stood

state

falling
chiefs,

of nature,

and

of income.

legitimatesource

counsels

the

good, and saved it from

unprincipled mercenary

into

hands

influenced

sullenlyaloof

from

this powerful

organization,remembering always her long-lost

eers
primacy, and probably regarding these mountainas
hardly Hellenes, and as unworthy to rank
the

beside

had

ancient

And

mercenaries.

Greeks

who

if to

But
of

members
too

able

were

to

which

semi-barbarous

mere

make

the

were
a

serious

their liberties,even

only
and

against

of Rome.

power

" 74.

as

States,

yet the ^Etolians

strugglefor

obstinate
the

them

utilized

once

educated

and

bitter

have

rude

council

common

degradation

^Etolians

for

co-equal

as

would

or

have

Athens, why

been

not

ally

herself to the civilized and

the

Achaean
old

had

later times
centre,
Corinth

? For
orderly Achaeans
fore,
cities, though insignificantheretotraditions,legendary glories; and in

Sicyon especiallyhad
chosen

and

Argos

home
were

for the
forced
N

to

been
fine

arts.

leading
When

jointhis League,

and
to"

yEtolian

the

joined

77

their

and

arms

and

had

of

both

deprived

was

If, for

the

178
should

why
the

inevitable

with

Athens

:"

intriguesto separate
her

the

cities and

to

case

stopped

was

make

ever

even

primacy
Leagues had to

the

the sullen refusal

with

It

adhesion1.

impossible. Thus

own

contend

it her

Achaean

could

arguments

no

was

Sparta was ever the active opponent

or
League, and sought by arms
by

of the Achaean

but

the

footing.

here

Yet

which

Peloponnesus

; for here

worse

give

to

the

Within

and

obtain

never

the Isthmus, because

induce

aloof?

stand

limit, beyond

could

League

Sparta

Athens

[75.

GREECE.

POST-ALEXANDRIAN

any

the active opposition

or

of Greece ; and if,in

principalPowers
spiteof all that,they attained to great and deserved
how
the
eminence, it only shows
unworthy was
patriotism
oppositionof those States whose narrow
rise beyond
their own
could
not
susceptibilities.
which
made
the success
of the experiThis it was
ment
of the

from
A

" 75.

larger

behind,

first doubtful.

the

there

But
which

is

mode

The

of

especiallyupon
Achaean
League,
rightand

Athens,

coerce

members

separate

uP"n

ation to
its

consulting

the

the

demands
attack

invite

council

and

member

some

tion.
atten-

orderly

Sparta,
to

them,

of the

of

Leagues,

Macedon,

negotiations with
common

problems
the

upon

by

question

earnest

our

constitutional

adopted
to

was

er

constitutional

of the permanent

one

therefore

and
statecraft,

What

was

enter

without

federation.

?
1

The

towns,
as

island

momentary
Pleuron

correction

and

acquisition(in
Heraclea,

of this

Zacynthos was

190

in northern

general statement.

prevented by

B.C.) of

two

Greece, need
The

the Romans.

unimportant
hardly count

acquisitionof

the

75.]

this

after time

time

And

sapped

the

Romans
and

power

179

succeeded, till at

move

of the

interference

last the

SECESSION.

OF

RIGHT

THE

in this direction

coherence

of

the

League.
The

before
and
cause

Thebes

done

of

the

it

reader.

before,beUnder

members

Delian

into the

specialobject,such

to

the

ConfederAthens
the

and

1fjser

members.

many

either

long Disputed
Sparta, Athens,
occurred

placeto bring the problem

proper

supremacy

so

refer

not

before
bearings
"

entered
had

I did

but

this is the

Athenian

had
difficulty

the old dominations

under

in all its

of

kind

same

under

had

Confederacy ;
protest,

for

others
some

clearingof the ^Egean

Persian
from
occupation. Presently,when the particular
the Athenian
and when
fulfilled,
object was
the
tribute
which
tax-gatherers insisted upon
was
public, but Athenian, objects,the
spent on
declared
their right to secede,
separate members
The
and
revolted whenever
they had the power.
Athenians
argued that the peace and prosperityof
the -^Egean had been secured
effort
by the common
of the Confederacy and
fice
by the zeal and self-sacriof Athens.
They denied that each member
which
had
so
long profitedby the arrangement
had a rightto secede, and in any case
they declared
In Duruy's
that they would
the seceder.
coerce
chapter on the passage of the Delian Confederacy
into the Athenian
little symempire l he shows
Duruy's
and
their hard- thisfque
pathy for the individual members
tion.
in her aggressivepolicy,
Athens
ships,and justifies
1

as

Hist, des

the

or

tarily
volun-

Grecs,chap. xix.
N

l8o
In

POST-ALEXANDRIAN

the

North

Civil

Greek

sen-

different.

passing

mere

But

he

note

of

case

in the late American

has

he

as

the

compares

South

against the

War.

[76.

GREECE.

argued

not

the

out

in
be of service
the reader
to
problem, I may
discussing it here.
It was
to this dispute that the real origin of the
is to be traced.
And
Peloponnesian war
though
in holding
most
people thought Athens quitejustified
what
she had
obtained, and not surrendering
the empire which had cost such labour and returned
ing
in exchange such great glory,yet the general feelof the Greek
in favour of
world
was
distinctly
the seceder, in favour of the inalienable
rightof
a
as
city to reassert its autonomy
separate
every
State 1,not only with communal
independence,but
with perfectlibertyto treat as it chose with neighbouring
"

States.

therefore,this conflict

Whenever,

between

Imperialismand Particularism
sympathies sided with the assertion

Nature

" 76.

of

debate

The

different
w^at
aneLeahue
a

upon

able

foresee

to

defence, and
I need

iro\is,was

not

pause

in every

State,just as

much

severallymade
stood

in the

so

to

formed

remind

the

constitutional
as

the

sense

same

relations

as

even

League,
coast

posed
ex-

from

lofty
attack

Confederacy, which

that

reader
a

Greek

each

separate and

largestcountry

frequent treaties

pendence.
inde-

some-

was

voluntarilyfor

posts the coming raid,united

and

case

Achaean

The

public

of local

cities situated

pirates,and

to

present

in its details.

of small

number

in the

arose,

with

is

foreignking.

independent
These

now.

Rome,

city,or

to

which

cities

they

76.]

THE

lasted

members

of

year,

the

then

and

and

Assembly
as

of

was

few
as

or

unit

an

to

course

had

tarilyformed

this

their adhesion

that afterwards

In

joined

rescind

right to
pointswere

These

by

result

The

the hands

that

difficii

the towns

deliberate

the

sure
pres-

public

and

And

the firsttime

volun-

Statement

withdraw

to

of

at

Had

had

degree, had

their

these

right

that vote

suggestedfor

which

Assembly

in consequence

of circumstances, but
a

city present,

were

the

in

attend

not

the

towns,

lesser

But

leisure to leave

arose

Union,

this

city'svote,

regularlyto
now

twice

from

Confederacy.
into
put political
power
go

for the

days

in the

originaltwelve

of the

vote,

that

and

its votes.

by

of each

gave

difficulties which

The

business

could

members

many,

affairs and

any

ratified

members

the

ence1.
promin-

obtained

were

richer classes,who

of the
own

decisions

its

the

executive

for three

met

measures

great numbers,
counted

it into

common

which

distant

more

whether

of

decay

brought

cabinet, preparing the

general Assembly,

gained by

the

and

cities had

These
sort

the wealth

Greece

of

l8l

SECESSION.

mercenaries

as

greater Powers

before

time

long

OF

RIGHT

in

in my

still

Greek

Life

Thought, pp. 7 seqq.

and
2

This

voting by
that

the

cities

seems

Greeks

ever

to

the nearest

me

made

in

politics,as

councils,such as the Amphictyonies ;

religious
the place of assembly could agree with
from
citizens that

they

citizen,however,

should

might

attend
go

privateunderstanding.

if he

and

vote

chose, so

approach

in

for of
a

sentation
repre-

distinct from
a

cityfar

number

of its

course

small

to

particular
way.

that

this would

be

Every
a

mere

8s

POST-

less

degree, had

the

Achaean

ALEXANDRIAN

constitution

observance

in

with

another

which

from

The

in its clear-

it

State, or

first of these

plexmg"
nevefyet

an^

it bound

allowed

to

is

by

aware

the

secede

most

it has

settled

by

any

argument

better

force.

force.

To

the

Greeks, at

all events, it seemed

the

rightof autonomy
affairs

own

Case

of the

been

appeal

an

to

the inalienable

was

"

the power

"

per-

ever

settled

than

Union

far the

that

observe

to

by

imposed

cases

not

am

to

right to violate its

by negotiating separately

was

terms
not

was

subscribed

had

any

point, as

one

all respects the

in

which

town

any

[76.

GREECE.

that
one's

manage

rightof

to

city;

every

be heard
just as the Irish Nationalists may
daily
assertingit for every nation1.
In our
own
youth we heard this rightfar more
seriously urged by the seceding States of the
American

Union,

of which

some

of the first combination,

had

been

members

had

voluntarilyceded
certain portions of their political
rights,at least
for the protection
in return
their theoretical rights,
and

These

States

The

Greek
A

thing.
be

of

support

Any

one

nation

or

by

accordingto

it asserted,and

seen

North

and

are

made

to

Roman

the

race,

if the

contrary,

may

may

whole.

Union

began

perfectlyclear

be utilized to mark
of the

quitea separate
measures

also

race.

Such

tradition.

in

of

often heard

the Protestants
a

it may

the bounds

I have

case.

against them

justifythem

out

to

definite

and

anything,for

mean

it printed,that in Ireland

Catholics,would

as

religion,language, locality,or

the convenience

harsh
justify

of Ireland.

that

was
(rr6\is}
city-polity

all of these

East

Confederation

the

argued

nation, on

determined

and

of the

statement, generally

from

Parliament

secedingfrom

of

the rest

77-]
interfere
for

example,

it

"

been

each,

of

such,

"

hold
houseand

contract,

the

formally repudiating

in

But

contract.

by

there

had

even

the
legislation,
returning to its

new

right of

the

claimed

city

independence.
On

77.

other

the

that

argued
need

breach

encroachment

isolated

"

the

of

no

Greek

was

State

justifiedthe

of

concerns

practiceof permitting

the

as

slaves,
remainder

domestic

the

in

183

CONTRACTS.

PERMANENT

though

be

not

it has

side,

for

contracts

there

renewed,

are

Arguments

period Jfthe

definite

been

always

several

contracts

many

members.

intended
which

their very

by

for any

the

injusticeto
instituted
Let

take

us

the

From

the

that

(chap. xix. " 2), the

of the

several
found

graven
union

attempts

to

smaller
stone

on

with

Athens, and

dissolve

this

should

union
such

was

an

formulae

not

ancestors

to

that

of

where

centuries.

universal

very

serious
the act

the

Athens

this

and

their

treaties

on

of eternal

one

well

generationbound

no

so

peace

bound
case,

all

as

acute

formula.

find ourselves

manent
per-

hereafter

that

It is strange

is

been

assert

legally as

was

obligations. There
of

him

between

have

they

perfectly
unmeaning
might

federacy
Con-

earlier Athenian

because

assertion

does

resume

actual

curses

seceders.

any
that

reallyvalid, we

were

our

Adam,

perceive

almost

invoke

union,

in coercing
morally justified

thinker

that

argues

such

arise

Chalcis),which
(Erythrae,

and

life.

dissolution

of the

words

towns

been

have

there

with

in connection

profound

everyday

contracting parties to

quotes,

even

from

marriage

consequences

permit
Duruy

of

that

contracts1.

these

upon

illustration

an

contract

important
not

regulated

is
lives

whose

remainder,

and

them

abandon

to

party

one

and

permanent,

their consequences

far-reachingin

so

are

be

to

nature

and

If

by

except

succeeding

184

has

legal divorce
and

Or

adherence,

own

spent

just that

conditions

after

the

of

funds

they

as

growing
of

one

any

ficed
sacri-

been

each

on

the

under

had

and

them

convenience, repudiate the bond

regard all the accruing benefits

as

private

disposed of to any strange Power ?

To
this question and
to adjudicatebeanswer
is hard
the litigants
tween
enough, and yet I have
For
in the case
of
stated the simplestdifficulty.
of the additions to the Achaean
lution
League a revomany
the existinggovernment
had firsttaken place,
had
been
overthrown, and then the new
majority
under
the protection of
had
placed themselves
property,

of

it

these

should, for its

Cases

been

Was

needed.

thriving upon
and

tion
legal sanc-

powerful

city attacked

every

had

League

were

and

lives of its members

defend

to

difficult,

very

argued that the several

was

rich

grown

The

League.
the

it

manner

cities had

made

offence.

grave
like

In

been

tions
higher civiliza-

by either party without

secession
a

all

in

therefore

original life;and

[77.

GREECE.

ALEXANDRIAN

POST-

the

be

If the

Confederation.

power,
had

to

were

coerced

they

old

rulers

by the Government

bound

them, and

which

armed
if

they

been

force, and
did

not

to

which

they regarded

revolutionary? Others,again,had
by the presence of an
of imminent
danger

returned

as

constrained

by

threats

accept the

circumstances
changed,
League'sprotection.When
could
coerced, and
they not argue that they were
from
that an
was
apparentlyfree plebiscite
wrung
them
againsttheir better judgment?

78.]

QUESTIONS

" 78. Such

thoroughly
of

minds

modern

new

cities which

joined

have

held

each

at

turn

for

Assembly might

be

All

of the

of the

in

or

founders

Swiss

of the

and

wax

may

^Etolian

and

alterations

but

in the

accepted

paying

any

militaryaid, and
if

members

they

territory1.The
A

must

tyrant

become

place

and

Union

Unions

were

merely

and

obtaining

had

Achaean

before

and

in

more

of

in lieu thereof
from

other

from

plunder

League

abdicate

member,

off

its

required

more.

his

could

than

Looser

State, League,

terms

on

of property

carried

very

required

of each

member

restitution

the

wane.

administration

general tax,

the

in

which
the latter,
popular indeed, especially
no

should

cities,or

centre,

of

vote

that the
so
insignificance,
ences?
entirelyfree from local influhave
agitated
questions must

nations

Achaean

equal rights
large cities

Union, for the problems remain

however

Various

its

these

the American

The

have

; whether

convenient

most

speciallychosen

same,

whether

"

only equal to the

the generalAssembly

whether

in

minds

questions,

city vote

greatest and

the

There

should

original members

the smallest
be

internal

various

moreover

should

Greece.

in post- Alexandrian

men

the

and
profoundly interesting
problems which agitated the

the

were

were

with

185

DETAIL.

OF

city

one

this

case

actuallytook place.
The
1

We

most

now
on

at

have
some

Athens, xi. 262.

of

dangerous, though passive,enemy

recovered
of these

several

which
inscriptions,

points.Cf.

Mitth.

of the German

give

us

formation
in-

Institute

i86

POST-ALEXANDRIAN

this

the

the

sullen

truly National

could

which

deal

At

last

monarchy

there

which

common

rival

in

or

even

strength of

had

Cleomenes
the

of socialistic
and

of aristocrats
with

the

and

of the poor

the

led

schemes

by

Macedon.

practically to
the

Of
the

superior force

lines

it ; for

the

he

second

the

large

tion
directies,
proper-

of revolution,

Cleomenes

constitutional, but

plutocratic, League.

struggle

kind

capitalists.This
of

old

Sparta, but

in

of

the

to

against the oppression

brilliancy,attracted

and

than

division

"

military genius

strength
more

or

of

ephors, abolished

equality,

protection

the

on

reforms

his
This

offered

transformed

proposed sweeping

the

in

rival.

his

headship

had

Achaean

enslaved

and

Union

the

under

assassinated

king, and

the

royalty of Sparta, who

an

native,
alter-

called

Aratus,

checkmate

Peloponnesus

as

attractive

more

Macedon,

to

Confederation

Sparta

leader,

from

order

of the

still

its

the

was

cities

of

the

rapidly destroying

was

enemy

country

arose

when

League,

of

Of

Macedon,

tyrants,

by

said,

cities.
of

power

local

balked

was

have

as

greater

the

was

Separatist

combination.

of Cleomenes.

the

easily with

single cities, but

Radical

of

foe

active

ever

the

spirit was,

standing aloof

the

course

the

between

hopeful compromise

and

[78.

GREECE.

men's

destruction

it

far

minds

somewhat
course

and

give

to

torpid
the

fatal

of both

organization

of

X.

CHAPTER

THE

"

THE

79.

ROMANS

interference

affairs reopened
upon

which

with

Macedon

their

side

afforded
them

the

with

had

cities

Macedon

the

resume

domination

of

accepted

seemed

as

for

if the

had

But
the

the
new

that

been

its
the
it.

would

Greeks

was

which

the

under

fatal difficulties
'

still,as

supply
that
to

Achsean

freed

from

Aratus

might

resume

have

peaceful

presidency

and

of Rome.

positive interference
and

which

Romans

the

last it

at

The

arose.

ever,

sort

'libertyRoman
of senti- ^P^ation

mental

from

aphorism

which

conviction, often

the

Romans

again

the

to

directly subject
while

wards

of

pendence,
inde-

declaration

Antigonids

peninsula

of

the

politicallife

Now

Greeks

could

When

independent,

orderly development

without

of

be

could

had

and

which

the

Position

conflicts Leagues-

Leagues,

famous

the

came

should

League

the

auxiliaries.

questions

favour

in

only organization

useful

in

Greek

in

their

win

to

care

by supporting

conquered

all the

took

declarations

open

and

Romans

; for

touched

they

by

of the

of the constitutional

many

I have

GREECE.

IN

from

repeated, often

policy.

But

the

in-

of the

'libertyof
theGreeks-

88

Romans

IN

ROMANS

THE

[79.

GREECE.

practical
people,and did not the least
understand
why they should free the Greeks from
in order that they might join some
Macedon
other
Hellenistic sovran
if this
And
even
against Rome.
felt that the liberation
danger did not arise,the Romans
a

were

of Greece
if the

would

stronger States

weaker, if every
with

its

resulted
Opposition

Both

tyranny of

these

difficulties

nacl

of

to prey

obtained

and

they

of northern

from

from

Romans

useful

^Etolian

their part to
successful.

which

Rome,
So

then

brought upon

were

the

could

advantages
co-operation
appointe
bitterlydiswould
The

cities

liberated

not
an

be

found
new

by

coerced

appeal

hardly fail

^Etolians

themselves

Romans

Rome

been

PhilipV. could
League without

another.

the

other

had

war

The

their power.

which

to

liberty

over

clearlythat

saw

advance

Greece

to go

arose.

territory or

vigorous

curtail than

the

soon

the

upon

nominal

section

one

meaning

no

allowed

king of Macedon,
for

had

not

their

to

against the

into

littlecitywere

in the

adequate

the

allowed

were

"

extension

rather

than

worse

neighbours, if,in fact,the

liansj wno
/Etollans.
any

have

on

be

to

that

they
steady

and

would

ing
certainlyprevent the maraudchiefs from
acquiring wealth by keeping up
exactions
the
local disturbances, raids, and
as
normal
of the country.
condition
They therefore
of Syria to invade
openly incited king Antiochus
destruction.
Greece, and so brought on their own

control,which

Probably
not

fairly

it

was

great

had

shown

tameers

pity, for this League

t

real

.,"

military vigour,

of
and

mouni

had

"

it

8o.]

THE

educated

been
would

into

have

of

read

its turbulence
are

determined
the

of

concede

hardly
their

leaders

vices.

of

the

other

favourably as possible the

his

80.

that

Here

the

which

Achaeans

Greece

the

Union

wavering

constant

compelled

it to

Rome

about

interferences

disorders,
country

material
and

but

which

of

ing
extendall

succeeded

wanting
force

coerced

attempts

to

had

the

by
where

cases

minority

in

member

new

More

ally
especi-

incorporate Sparta
been

never

its

of

successes

ever

and

as-

possible to comprise

not

which

who

Rome

was

hand, the

justifiedin

they usually

League, proved

bloody

Greek

at

of

stated

one

signs of falling
away.

Messene,
the

if

were

city,

showed

the

The

as

deliberate

the

On

as

though
with

the

themselves

so

and

aided

which

to

stated

ang

Romans.

persuasion, there

and

will

and

has

he

just
difficulty
without

not

thought

their

was

interestingcase

more

second

arose,

of

sistance

they

He

confederation.

own

"

most

qualitiessave

any

hand,

by

Polybl1

we

its

League,

the ^Etolians

to

On

rival

the

stated

disregard of

its reckless

and

when

forget that

to

we

ways,

Hellenic

of
taking the evidence
foe, the historian Polybius.

justice,we

one

are

of

bulwark

strong

Nor

independence.

constitutional

orderly and

been

189

LEAGUES.

TWO

ultimate

friendly

destruction.

Philopcemen,

reallycaptured Sparta,

the

first Mistakes

and

who

join the League, led to complaints

violated
constant
liberties,and
the

Senate,

to weaken

any

Rome

wished

not

only

growing
to

see

to

union

repress
in the

reduced

to

of

^nTave
Rome

ex"

terference

impotent
half

peace

and

the final conquest

of encroachment,
of Greece

into

81.

diplomatic

The

Achaeans

the

and

and

may

be

who

look

the

into

history run

from

treated
at

Roman

either

point

from

the

who

and

Greek

and

the conflict
Those

of view.
Roman

point

not

moreover,

are,

of

side,
superiorityof repersuaded of the immeasurable
a
publican institutions over
strong central power,
vinced
controllingwithout hesitation or debate, are conGreek
that all the talk about
independence
mere
was
folly.They point out that these Greeks,
each
whenever
they had their full liberty,wore
in petty conflicts ; that
other out
libertymeant

license, revolutions

home

at

that

and

neighbours ;

upon

duty

of the

all this sentimental

sham.

and

mission

the other hand

On

Hertzberg

"f kis excellent

ri^al^rfthe
Achsean

Roman

channel, and

same

debate

the

view, like Mommsen,

^

terest,
highest inopposing judgments

it the

upon

the

between

is of the

great historians; for here

of

Mommscn

conflict

Romans

have

we

reduction

and

province 1.

Roman

about, after

came

recrimination, of protest,

century of mutual

"

there

so

[8l-

GREECE.

IN

ROMANS

THE

190

Domination^
Government,
lower
1

without

motives
am

of

course

argument

in the years

after

and

it

encroachments
the

was

Romans

to

the Greeks

Professor

Freeman,

show
often

with

the

speaking generally,nor
the difficult

146

B.C.

questionof

under

end

to

Roman

in his Federal

clearness

great

actuated

an

the firstvolume

Hertzberg, in

History of

and

put

historical

that

conquering
do

I venture

the exact

status

to

far
race,
decide

of Greece

i.]

DECAY

they

that

of any

distinctlyjealous

were

of their Greek

hands

the

IQI

GREECE.

OF

cities

part of individual
Senate

in fact

which

resulted

the

revolts

the

League.

by

on

the

So

the

Corinth

of

Roman

they

disturbances

unhappy

destruction

of Greece

the conquest

in

those

produced
in

that

neighbours, and

constantly encouraged appeals and

in

power

and

in formal

army

war.

It is of

easy

to

there

that

see

individual

that

sides, and

both

on

course

faults Senilityof

were

Romans,

using
Senate,

high positionwithout authorityof the

often
promoted quarrels in the interests of that
in playing
truculent financial policywhich succeeded

their

of

commerce

Roman

capitalists.On

to

avoid

Greece

had

wandered

and

that had

policy
been

of

into

days
had

of

most

the

to

the

to

Egypt,

non-intervention, the

hardly

less

disgracefulto

the

For

enterprise

or
an

result

Rome,

to

absolute

would

have

certainly more

disastrous, and
Greeks.

old and

grown

maintained

Romans

is hard

independent

of

its intellect and

East,

of

hands

the

hand, it

other

that the nation

over,

out, that

worn

the

that the

the conviction
were

world

the

all the

long

and

temptible
con-

like that of

Spain in modern
bodied
disgracefulthan to be emEurope, is surely more
by force in a neighbouring empire.
the succeeding centuries
had Decay
in this and
Greece
that her people
condition
arrived at that curious
who
emigrated obtained fortune and distinction all
decadence,

over

seemed

the world, while

unable

even

those
to

who

till the

remained

land,
"

at

which

home
was

of

THE

192

ROMANS

IN

everywhere relapsinginto
to

successful

prosecute

[82.

GREECE.

waste

far less

pasture,

"

trade, for

both

of

want

One

fortunately
professionunthe
flourished, that of politics
; and
of time and abilityspent on this profession
amount
for the decadence
of both
perhaps account
may
and commerce.
agriculture
into three
divided
were
" 82. Greek politicians

capitaland

sustained

energy.
"

The

advo-

classesSica/with

There

in Roman

saw

only salvation from internal discord

spised
insecurity. They either despaired of or dethe prospects of political
independence,and
the Roman
extended
in the iron Destiny which
the

domination

Rome.

first those who

were

and

saw

the

over

sway

East,

definite

of

solution

their

of increasing
possibly a means
welfare.
quiesced
They therefore either acactivelypromoted every diplomatic

and
difficulties,
their

material
in

or

encroachment
to

The

advo-

to

secure

on

the part of Rome,

themselves

and

friends of the

haste

made

of

mammon

unrighteousness/as their adversaries thought,that

and
by and by they might be the local governors,
of Roman
favour.
recipients
the uncompromising
Over
were
against them
Nationalists,, I apologizefor using the rightword,
maintained
who
absolutelythe inalienable right
not
of the Greeks
to be independent and
manage
"

complete
indepen-

"

only

their internal
as

Romans

but their external

affairs,

they pleased. They

had
gained their power

system of unconstitutional
no

material

advantages

insisted
over

that

Greece

encroachments,
of enforced

ences
differ-

peace

the

by

and
or

that
op-

83-]

THE

MODERATE

PARTY.

193

pressiveprotectioncould compensate for the paralysis

which
Hellenic
was
creeping over
political
life.
The

tyrannous and cruel

of the Romans,

act

who

to Italy
deported one thousand
leading Achaeans
in sentiments)
to Rome
(on the charge of disloyalty

and
as

let most

of them

suspects,without

mere

trial,
gave

this

misery which

their exile and

in

pine

die

bringing them

ever

to

party the strongest support by the

it inflicted and

the

nation
wide-spreadindig-

it excited.
The

third party

sels and

of

armed

ruinous.

party, they felt at the

resistance

They

The

coun-

Rome

to

therefore

was

desired

time

same

to

party

of?aod"*te

Sympathizing deeply with

compromise.

the National
any

the party of moderate

was

that

absurd

and

delay

every

encroachment
the

by diplomaticprotests,by appeals to
justiceof the Romans, and thus protract,if they

could

prevent, the

not

liberties into the

absorptionof

great dominion

party, undoubtedly the

honest, have

most

historian

Polybius ; but

intermediate

every

left

the

party

which

settled state
or

of

sudden

little

party, they commanded

promoted

people

the

spokesman in the
be sure
that,like
may

we

pecuniaryinterests
the

and

their

us

strong

were

This

of Rome.

reasonable

most

sympathy or support.
" 83. Moreover, both

Rome

all national

extreme

to stimulate

complete
of

things without

Money

them.

The

submission

property,

to

afforded

to

whom

constitutional

war-contributions
O

partieshad

tions
agita-

the

only

194

THE

of

chance

ROMANS

[83.

GREECE.

IN

retainingwhat

they possessed. Rome

favoured
the needy mob
in her subject
had never
cities,but had
always ruled them
through the
classes.
Roman
minion
domoneyed
responsible and
therefore
for the

rich.

praetor and
acted

upon

to

Roman

them.

nand,
tremes*'

if

in

the

party,

needy

allowed

break

and

above, and

as

politicshad

is not

strange

their

their

local

to

our

distinctly a

These

people'shope
importance, would

other

the

the

down

become

safety

discontented, who

exercise

to

on

monopolies of
reputation and
any case, to make
I have
practiceof politics
; for,as

to

power,

by

of the

consisted

and

grinding exactions of Roman

as
publican were
yet unknown

Nationalist

The

expected,
and,

The

least peace

at

meant

of

political
the rich,
money

shown

day,

own

lucrative

gain, as
vanish

fession.
pro-

well
with

as

full

this was
and
a
tive,
subjectionto Rome;
strong moit may
have
even
though in many
only
been auxiliaryto the real patriotismwhich
burned
of national independence.
at the thought of the extinction

The

debate

soon

ways.

To

beyond the stage of

the possibility
rational
of rational
mentfolr
or
argument
both sides,
persuasion. To the Nationalist, the Romanizing
aristocrat or moneyed man
was
a
traitor,sacrificing
of potage, grovelhis country'sliberties for his mess
ling
and touting for Roman
favour, copying Roman
and
in
to be educated
sending his sons
manners,

Exagger-

Roman

Rome,

the

so-called

went

the

of

advocate

Nationalist

was

union
a

needy

with
and

84.]

COERCION

dishonest

adventurer, using the

of

and

nationalityto cloak
schemes, and hatred

and

respectable.

libertywould
the

be

If

he

used

dissentients ;

asserted

ponnesus

what

of

his

be

quite unfit

right

the

of

several

to

to

recourse

independence.

these

form

to

portion

have

than

coercion

so-called

coercing and plundering

and, after all,such stormy
Pelo-

The

Sepa-

liberty,
^ould

not

vio- tolerate
separation

advocates

any

more

....

lent

orderly

was

succeeded,

its

politicianswould

no

patriotism

istic
personal greed, social-

If any

government.

of

cry

in

petrels in politicsmust
stable

195

INEVITABLE.

of

national

from

them-

selves-

They

protested against enforced

union
with
be
the
Rome
first to
:
they would
promote enforced union with themselves, and carryit

This was
through in bloody earnest.
actually
what
happened during the last despairing struggle.
The coercion
practisedby the last presidentsDemocratic
of the

the

Leagues,

nation

into

the violent Nationalists

forced tyrann"r-

and

cruel

; and

with

tyrannous

was

war,

who

yond
be-

description.
of

But

course

the issue

of
reeking smoke
historyof Greece,

views, have

" 84.
have

here

the

period of the history which

impossibleto

phraseologyof

than

more

its

times, are
narrate

which

so

life,
nay,

it without

Modern

analoto

strikingthat

^"ralo|'i
upon

the
it is

fallinginto

politics.When

current
O

that

principles.The

modern

it presents to
our

of wider

it.

study
expounded in

historyof

almost

no

the

closes the

historians,
even

modern

gies which
very

is

of Corinth

ruins

most

as

understood

There

deserves

the

certain

was

I first

us,

196

published an
attacked
by

IN

ROMANS

THE

of these

account

several

of my

[84.

GREECE.

things1,1

reviewers

at

was

for

once

daring

to

analogies into ancient history.

of History into the heated
I had dragged the Muse
atmosphere of party strife and the quarrelsof our
own
day ; I had spoiled a good book by allusions
the reader
to
burning questions which disturbed
him think of the next
and made
instead of
election,
introduce

modern

lessons

calmly contemplating the

have

would

not

to

be set aside.

had

that the

found

the

that

facts I adduced

politicalviews, no
lavished
their praise upon

own

their

incurred
I

Thehistory

history is

happen by

the

similar

in

us

then

Greek

Life

and

most

what

lightof

Mere

cases.

or

have

feature

which

than

useful

and

what

is

has

I
"

have
far

most

the

to

say

the

serious

likely to
already happened
of

remoteness

Thought,from

Macmillan, 1887.

Polybius,that

and

estimate

to

place has nothing to

history of Greece, as
is intensely modern,
mediaeval

very

their

would

they

the

Thucydides

it leads

when

doubt

favoured

censure.

think, with

study "f
essentklly8
modern;

the

to

more

Polybius. It
point had they

invalid,and
analogiessuggested were
the comparisons misleading. This not one
of them
hag attemptecito do ; nor
do I hesitate to say that
rather because
the objectionsthey raised were
my
too
analogieswere
just and strikingthan because
far-fetched and irrelevant.
If these critics
they were
shown

and

far

been

of

often
more

date

The

matter.

said
so

or

already,

than

any

recent

histories.

We

Alexander

to the Roman

quest.
Con-

85.]
have

deal

to

its

with

life ;

mature

197

HISTORY.

OF

UNITY

people fully developed,

in

even

nay,

old

its

in

and

age

privilegeand therefore
profitof illumining his subject by the light"^"ls
surely
modern
parallels,or the life of to-day by
To

decadence.
the
of

deny

the

historian

are

/^

parallels from
him

demn

Greek

history,

to

simply

is

con-

to

hearing

if justiy

and

unpracticalpedant,

an

strongest claim

the

admissible,

-i

"

"

remain

to

abandon

to

drawn-

from

practicalmen.
all,let

Above
and

speak out
of

instead

let

blaming

for

us

stirringthe

history from

its

dreary

antiquarian, the
the acts

only,is to

that

of

links
able

and

while

we

Greek

They

have

We

speak

men

the

this,and

For

to-day.

this

real sense,

the full and

us

across

with

kindred

claim

"

of centuries

great chain

metal, and

joined

the great Workman's

is

with

unmistake-

at

"

been

real close of

to the

come

history,

point

unanimous.

And

yet the

been

worth

all this

they

could

teach

us

showed

indeed

in

which

upon

have

hardly
what

learning,let

all his

and

of

design.

" 85.
have

ancient

dry

homogeneous

that all bear

of men,

save

us

scholar

the

deeper

of the

historyin

write

this is to show

forged

Let

lives of older

the motives

and

men

wrong,

the

emotions

warmer

of centuries,and

the chasm

are

we

appealing to

narrow

and

mind,

open

fate in the hands

utilize all his research

make

if

; and

refuted.

be

errors

our

truth with

the

convictions

our

and

interests

seek

us

was

historians

Greeks

politicsa

if the

would

spiri-

"tclosed
with

the

of conquest,
politicallesson.

study
a

The
political

sum

variety

and

198
excellence

an

bounded

is not

left us,

the

think

out

have

nations

than

few

and

treated

in

the

Sway.
complicatedand

The

reader

and

moral

other

ness.
great-

more

say

part of

it,

under

I have

Greek

and

recently

World
to

cares

tending
ex-

Trajan,

concealment,

pictureof

various

habits

who

than

not

political
power,
entitled The

volume

shall

its

from

have

they

of their

when,

forth

wealth

independence,

heyday

moment

social and

Roman

of social

their

earlier

The

words.

Christianitycame
a

the

ancient

intellectual

understand

to

in

other

any

limits ; and
of

close

done

to

became

these

spiritualhistory I

this

On

by

after

to

more

by
and
spiritual

their

[85.

GREECE.

reached

not

But

people.

IN

ROMANS

THE

under

unfold

this

of ideas,

manners,

will
principles,

find the

subjectsof the Roman

Empire full of interest,
and will even
find,in the authors of that age, merits
which have long been unduly ignored. The crowded
thoroughfaresof Antioch and Alexandria; the great
of Comana,
Stratoniceia,and
religiousfoundations
Pessinus,each ruled by a priestno less important
than
the prince-bishopsof Salzburg or Wiirtzburg
Greek

in

recent

centuries;

the

old-world

fashions

of

Naples, of Eubcea ; the gradual

ting
rise of Syrian and of Jewish Hellenism, the fascinaand of Cleopatrafor Roman
rivalries of Herod
of Cicero, of
Caesar, of
favour, the Hellenism
Borysthenes,

Claudius,
from
and

and

Rhodes

Corinth,

of

of

Nero,

the

of

fluctuations

to

Delos, from

the

splendours

Delos
and

the

to

dark

trade

Puteoli

spots

85.]

GREECE

the

in

society which

kindred

though
and
of

occurrence

half

than

that

true

Greek

and
it

later writers

far

the

science

exacter

that

none

of

there

got

vast

can

laborious

Corpus

; the

But

of

the

of

of these

most

general interest

book

compare

can

with
called
and

intended

the

mediation

lost ; the

in

great

that curious

and

essays

Muller's

Carl
of

Dion

Chry-

Plutarch

; the

come
inscriptions,

extant

special. Is
Assuredly there
are

for

one

moment

that collection

New

the

telling

to

times.

Roman

from

us

moral

history

field and

immense

read

comes

The

encyclopaedia of

social

majority

vast

jj

writingswhich

understand.

be

which

the

Greeks

the

from

Testament,
to

reach

of Greek.

the

of

there
is.

No

nothing
Greek

portance
general imhistory and letters
in

all written
civilized world

great

if it be period,

And

of facts otherwise

number

collection

from

is

geographies of Strabo, of Ptolemy,

sostom

The

more

date

extant

now

of Alexandrian

largebody

can
specialist
Diodorus, embracing an
a

that

to say

domination.

but the

us

mark

nothing to equal the

prose-writers from ^Eschylus to
the
that in matter
is equally true
their predecessors. All
exceed

Demosthenes,

from

the

books

style

poets

great

other

many

up

the Roman

in

and

tarch
Plu-

error.

the

period of

the

make

it is below

sure

am

Apuleius, and

these

"

199

ting,
fascinasubject most
its complexity difficult to set
from
impossible to handle without the

topics

order,

SWAY.

Dion,

described

and

saw

in

ROMAN

UNDER

in

Greek,

through

2CO

THE

will

ROMANS

here

not

literature,but

any

of modern

enter

point

read

other

Greek

Europe.

[85.

GREECE.

Christian

upon

Greek

Plutarch, who

to

more

been
than

IN

and

had

writer

has

influence

more

literature

the

on

tainly
cer-

in the

Nay,

lightersubjects,
and
where
the writers
must
trust
to
style to
them
commend
to the reader, not
only is there
a
good deal of poetry once
thought classical,
the Anacreontics
such
and
the Anthology"
The Anas
thology,
which
is in great part the produce of later Greek
Lucian,
"

Julian,

genius, but the wit

of Julian found

of

Lucian

Greek

in the

appropriatevehicle.
The
deeper philosophy of these
attempt to fuse the metaphysics
Plotinus.

"

this too

is called

which

Christendom

and

their

centuries,that
of heathendom

Neo-Platonism,
Greek

by

that

her

though Hellas was

tradition,
asleep,and her independence a mere
still bearing interest
legacy to the world was

one

hundredfold.

and

writers
laid

The

writers

various
the

in Greek

ness
serious-

language

circulated

and

created

was

the

and

have

who

development

historians

Duruy, who

of the

has

and

the

enormous,

that

the

Greeks

side.

To

must

touch

this great and

of later Hellenism
Roman

Empire

latter have

their own,

the

dealt with

literature

in

field

of the

historian

mere

himself

content
even

either

are

especially

"

kept up the thread of

popular History of Rome

History in his
st^dies6^
theologians. The
Theologi-

so

his Greek
"

or

the

specially
subject is so
so

of Greece
with

general way,

the
as

and
pagan

I have

86.]
hitherto
arise

here

be

concerning

But

very

outset

upon

which

there

is

of the

new

I would

diffused

It has

been

Ernest

that

thought would

life and

the

the

at

departure into Christianity

the reader from a
gladly save

long the

fashion

it has

that

say:

Greeks

important point

one

error.

Renan

place, to
to

controversies

many

Greek

SO

impossible.

" 86.

widely

RELIGION.

the

done, upon

now

of

ON

INFLUENCE

all

almost

been

while

modern
of

manner

the

since

"

writingsHave

Europe

religion?

owes

of

and

wisdom

sh^reino

common-

the

finement,
re-

ture,
literature,
philosophy,architecpolitics,
one
thing there is which they could
sculpture,
not
impart to us, religion. This deeper side
of man,
his relation to one
God, his duty and his
owe
responsibilities
beyond this ordinary life,we
not to the Greeks, but to the legacy of the Semitic
To
due
the Jews, we
told, are
all the
are
race.
highest,all the most serious,all the most elevating
features in modern
Christianity.
in

"

Is

this

true

Is

that

case

the

Greeks

Or

after all,only brilliant children, playing with

were,

life,and

never

the world's

awaking
problems ?

truth.

Jew,

and

as

were
we

revealer

worked

have

impossible without

it

up

which

been

seldom

is further

fact that

from

Christianitywas
dogmas of the

into

the

New,

the first

of

would
historically,

Hellenism.

of

real seriousness
has

There

carefully the

however

Testament

the

capitalthe

However

great teacher

to

circulated

plausiblestatement
the

it the

Old

ianity,
Christ-

have

been

is it

202

The

THE

the

In

Ian-

fh^New

Testament

Testament

as

V6y
Greek.

the

the

were

all

and

one

of the

first author

of

the
in

composed

East

the

in

[87.

GREECE.

documents

and

New

Greek,

West

list,Saint

business

tax-gatherer,whose

from

and

Matthew,

required

him

it1. If,therefore,the vehicle of

the

first was

unimportant

an

IN

place, the

lingua franca

know

to

first

very

was

ROMANS

the smallest

the
factor

Christianity
language,this is not

Greek
to

with

start

; and

yet it is

contribution
that
superficial
Greek
thought has given to Christianity.When
later studies on the historyof Hellenism
under
my
the Roman
Empire see the light,I trust that the
evidence
for the
facts, already
following grave
admitted

Saint

teaching

and

by

most

theologians, will

critical

most

be

brought before the lay reader.

we
" 87. When
pass by the first three,or Synoptica^ Gospels,there remains a series of books by early
Christian

teachers, of whom

Paul

Saint

Saint

and

by far the most prominent. To Saint Paul

is due
a
peculiardevelopment of the faith which
brings into prominence that side of Christianity
John

are

known

now

Protestantism,

as

the

"

doctrine

of

justification
by faith ; of the greater importance of
dogma than of practice; of the predestinationor
election
way

of

The

Matthew's
than

of those

thinking,this
old belief
was

benefit of the

in

an

common

Salmon's

of

an

will be
of

mode

turns

out

old version

people who

looking at

Introditction

to

to

have

the New

too

no

whole

the world,

Gospel, from

into Hebrew

were

This

saved.

originalHebrew

translated,
now

the existence

Cf. Dr.

that

which

Saint

better foundation

(Aramaic) for

ignorantto
Testament.

read

the

Greek.

8;.]
from

different

so

the

of

school

Hellenism,

Tarsus, where
Stoic wise

The

from

kind

in

down

as

the

had

adopted with faith

The

to

condition

sase*

rose

could

senseless
value

commit

would

be

make

him
as

no

matter

The

of

of

filthy

wise

justifiedin the sight of God,

and

of

his

Whether

For

law,

could

in

sudden

were

therefore

and

there.

not

fall away,

general was

conversion

change of character,or

all faults

light was

true

elect

the

would

subject to punishment

as

moral

the

fault

one

election, and

criminal.

the

of

commission

sin ; the

dispute, but

impossible *.

doing

at

on

vilest

one

set

were

highest efforts
blundering, mere

guilty of all,and
the

world, who

the

Stoic

differing

man,

violation

merit.

or

equallyviolations of
equally proofs that
Whether

of

mere

was

his education.

who

rest

"

Paulworld, and especially

man,

fools,whose

contrary,

^ts

received

the

rags, without

life

Paul

moral

right were

theory of

Stoic ele-

Saint

doctrine,forthwith

that

serious

most

Stoic

the

to

the

to

the Hellenistic

popular all over

at

familiar

quite

Gospels, was

Jewish books, so
teaching of the Synoptic
in the

anything

developed beyond

203

IDEAL.

STOIC

THE

was

thought

gradual
was
an
inspiration,
was

The
and
wise
topic of discussion.
man,
boundless
alone, enjoyed absolute liberty,
wealth,

anxious
he

supreme

happiness ; nothing

could

take

from

him

he had attained.
privileges
fail to recognize these remarkable
Can
The Stoic
any one
Provldencebut in the very letter,
doctrines,not only in the spirit,
of Saint Paul's teaching?
he not
Does
use
even

the inestimable

Cf. further details in my

Greek

Life and

Thought, pp.

140, 372.

204

THE

ROMANS

[88.

GREECE.

IN

the

language of the Stoic paradoxes, as sorrowful,

yet always rejoicing
; as
poor, yet making many
rich ; as having nothing,yet possessing all things'?
Is

'

his

not

so-called
of

statement

Stoic

views

taking nothing away,

moral

the

world

of the Resurrection
in the

face of these

of
religious

Greek

adding

revelation
Will

the

against

but

the

Athens

at

sermon

facts that

Epicureans,

to their account

of

Christ

Jesus

the

serious

most

of
and

to assert

venture

one

any

direct

and

of children
offspring
in morals, or that it failed to exert
a powerful
influence through the greatest teacher of Christianity

upon

all his

weigh

these

who

did

its

things in
or

our

faith

Founder.

But

Stoicism

with
their

is of

It

what

beyond
the

Pauline

the

was

idle

course

the

more

greatest advance

teaching of

life and

Greek

compare

we

the
Christianity,
connection

to

declare

balance, and

minute

general

the

was

followers?

most,

in

made

systems

will

tinctly
dis-

more

felt and

be

appreciated.
Saiirt

Gospel.

"

88.

better
been

Let

us

now

come

acknowledged
the

stock

case

argument

to

the

obvious

more

of Saint
of those

John.
who

and

It has

rejectthe

early date and alleged authorship of the Fourth

with Hellenistic
Gospel that the writer is imbued
philosophy ; that he is intimate with that fusion of
Jewish and Platonic thought which distinguished
the
the schools
of Alexandria
; that in particular
doctrine
is
to

of the

quite strange
Old

Testament

Word, with which

to

the

book

opens,

thought,doubly strange
hinted at in
theology,not even

Semite

89-J

Greek
that

for
education
For

not

how

this

turn, to

refute

the

he

he

importance
but

Greek

to

sources

is

as

derived
Here

be

to

those which

derived

Stoical

from

of Tarsus

the

Roman

letters

same

history yet
not

as

an

interlude

an

as

Paul,

Cilicia.

and

side,

history,or

the

Saint

in

Greek

Greek

tone

Neo-Platonism,

tone

chapter of deeper
to

schools

Logos.

showing the
Greek
thought,

from

birth to

gave

the

to

Greek

Alexandrian

is

written

in

thus

The

the

Revelation, if he

only

not

from

appendage
in

attached

as

of

Gospel,

expression.

evident

as

enough. I Neo-Plasceptics,to show t^e ofThe

these

John's Gospel,

Saint

of

than

more

book

the

wrote

is

great strides

made

same,

before

of the

author

the

be

purpose

my

need

of

man

Gospel are so strong

them
tainment
impossible of atSaint
John's birth and

think

critics

many

the

words,

Fourth

in the

elements

other

In

books.

early apocryphal

the

205

IDEAL.

CYNIC

THE

theologicalcontroversy.

" 89.

So

much

for the

serious

forms

and

most

the

religion of

from

the

the

influence
of

Greek

Roman

of the

highest The

thinking

Empire.

But

upon
even

men

inferior

developments of philosophy,its
its exaggerations of
parodies of strength and
weakness, elements
passed into this faith which is
The
Hellenism.
asserted
to be wholly foreign to
of independence,of livingapart
Cynic ostentation
the world, free from
all cares
from
and
bilities,
responsifound

who

chose

its echo

solitude

and

in the

Christian

poverty

from

Cynic

anchorite,

higher

but

206

the

THE

Epicu- kindred

IN

The

motives.

Personal
denceupCon
friends,

ROMANS

sentimental
which

affection,by

deavoured

substitute

to

the

love

and

consoled

[89.

GREECE.

the

display

the

Epicurean

love

of

of

en-

friends

for

of

the
to
State,
principleor devotion
its echo
in those
had
personal ties among
early
Christians
which
replaced their civic attachments
them

Indeed, there

passed
it

was

the

and

old

from

we

schools

till

of this age

how

Hellenistic

Paris

and

Cf. Mr.

W.

idea ; also
Roman

to

England,

excellent

Empire,

reader

who

stillold

was

it had

how

not

less

and

into
certainly,

thence

the Greek

Epicurean, which
in Mr.

The

Bury's new

tones

is built

on

this

History of the

vol. i. chap. i.

fears

the facts either in Sievers'

Capes's excellent
1877).

the

account

read

must

university life

just as

"

Pater's Marius

the

traditions

and
Italian universities,

mediaeval

had

the civilized world2.

but
passed silently,

the oldest

The

this

from

century after Christ,

thoroughly Athens

universityof
of

traditions

Later

though changing
Hellenistic days? One

temper, in tone, in type, and

the

system

derived

which
universities,

and

writer of the fourth

understand

become

culture

unbroken

the earliest

in

all their

not

Greek
with

Greek

W.

of the culture

too

say

was

Libanius,a

has

"

shall

lasted

which

Epicureanism

the

to

State.

eloquence of the earlyChristian Fathers,

tion
John Chrysostom, of Basil, worthy of admira-

of

Athens

in

the

by

Christianity,an unsuspected fact

brought out by very recent writers 1.

Is not

Theuniver-

is much

outlawed

into

What

to

when

book

to

attack

Libanius

directly,
may

(German) Life of Libanius,

on

UniversityLife

at

or

Athens

find all

in Mr.

W.

(London,

9i.]
or

scales

passed

at

Milan,

and
of

trina and
has

Tallis,which

laid aside

noble

into the

for

weaker

and

of Pales-

music

degenerate

own

our

Ambrose

of Saint

chants

into the

thence

2O7

INDESTRUCTIBLE.

SPIRIT

GREEK

THE

age

sentimental

more

measures.

"

the

and
unite

varietyof

not

speak

to

only human
which

the

hidden

many

that of ancient

to

conscious

golden

return

of

age

threads

Hellenic

has

lasted

wonderful

in that

Greece

that

t^"0"

Greece,

of

epoch in art, literature,and

approached perfection. As

ever

language

of

the

to

century

the

culture

modern

our

the amount

difficult to overrate

It is indeed

90.

our

life

own
as

the

eloquence
the Greek

country in

sion
spiteof long domination
by Romans, of huge invaby Celts and Slavs, of feudal occupation by

Prankish

knights,of raid and rapine by Catalans

and
Venetians, ending with the cruel tyranny of
the Turk, so the Greek
spirithas lasted through
and
all manner
of metamorphose
modification,
till the return
it the
has in our
wave
day made
highestaspirationof our worldly perfection.
I said

"91.
should
to be

by

endeavour

solved

those

whole
and
the

at

by

who

the

of this essay

opening

the

to indicate

future historians
have

subjectby

the

not

the

lightof

the

genius to
some

great

recast
new

the

idea

so

peculiar province

of

po-

"

has been laid on

stress
doing, particular
deliberate intention.
side,not without
political
in

Greek

principalproblems toJ^Ju^t
of Greece, at least the private

For, in the first place,this aspect of Greek

is

that

affairs

English historians.

the EngHsh
writers,

208

THE

with

They,
of

ROMANS

their

IN

experiencesand
but
struggles,cannot
own

constitutional

strongest attraction towards

life of

the

scholar

in

so

traditions
feel

similar passages

that

the

even

study feels the

the

in the

professional
of the

excitement

election,the glow of the public debate,

contested
when

Greeks,
his

[92.

GREECE.

finds them

he

Athens
or
distracting
^Egion.
The practical
leads
insightof a Grote or a Freeman
him
be inexplicable
to interpretfacts which
may
with
Even
or
misleading to a foreign student.
is
Grote
before
Curtius
or
him, Ernst
Duruy
unable to grasp
the true political
sometimes
situation.

I say

who

have

lived

f"r
SinVeS

practical

"f

this in the

higher and

delicate

more

sense

histories

give an adeof the largepolitical

changes to the
quate account
Perhaps, indeed, the remoteness
general student.
conflicts such
of foreignwriters from
as
political

ours

of

course

recent

many

gives them a
advantage, while

calmness

and

fairness which

is

the

English writer can hardly

of partisanship,
however
avoid
certain amount
a
strive to be scrupulouslyimparcarefullyhe may
tial.
in all these
For
consciously
thingswe are compelled unto reflect not
only our century, but our
nation, and

colour the acts

days with the hues

our

and

the motives

imaginationhas

of other

taken

from

surrounding circumstances.
Not

so

in

" 92.

S^C}
HtemryhL
tory,

When

we

come

to

the

literaryand

artistic

f"reign historians have a decided advanphilosophicalside of Greek literature

tage. The
has indeed been treated by Grote and other English
t^ie

93-]

VALUE

with

writers

be

to

of

the

freshness

attain.
matic

and

and

have

trainingwhich

have

1-1

like

inestimable

an

us, who

with

few

of

the

syste- where

gets in

advantage

us

Germans0

com-

are

over

write

su-

penor;

,.

merely

the

they list,

as

rules to

guide their taste or form their

the German, if as regards stylehe is

no

style. And
less

happilycircumstanced
whose
language has at

even

with
he

artistic

write

which

to

Frenchman,

careful

people,

the

poetry and

knowledge

course

position,must
a

209

clearness that leave little

the

on

ART.

Greeks, foreign scholars

and

Of

GREEK

fulness and

desired ; but

prose
a

OF

by centuries

than

the

moulded

least been

of literature,has

yet

man,
English-

the

on

side of

archaeologyand art enjoyed a training which

only just now
becoming possiblein England

is
or

America.
Hence

it is that

historyhas
detract
which

such

from

well

and

before

us,

them

with

upon

the

we

are

to

enough

it

if

the

requiresa

flesh and

rare

with

must

we

not

the

man,

compare

him

with

However

complete

we

bones

of

fact

may

lie

imagination to clothe
skin, nay, with bloom

expression in the features,if

livingfigure,and not a dry and

skin, and
have

skeleton.
repulsive
I think
" 93* What

it

right,in conclusion,to
a
knowledge of
proper

is this : that
insist upon
Greek
art, instead of being the

of the

Curtius' especially

genius of

prosaicDuncker.

articulated

part of

though

"

individual

is manifest

the solid but

earlier

charm,

the

the

amusement

mere

is likelyto have
dilettante,

Importance

an

important

210

THE

effect upon

the

ROMANS

[93.

GREECE.

IN

of

general appearance

public

our

them
not
buildingsand our homes, and to make
the
to
beautiful, but also instructive
only more
developments
risinggeneration. The day for new

of decorative

and

of architecture

though the modern

for building iron
"

ought

something fresh
the quality of the

and

it

be

to
Modern

If,however,

re-

ancient*
own,
styles,"

builders

naissance.

them

the

of

history of

reign of vulgarityin
great Gothic
what

in

period

the

centuries

what

and

meant,

began

we

the

twelfth

early Queen
there

to

was

understand
thirteenth

and
their

reproduce

to

fact

universal

the

First

make
in

has

our

great

and

ages,

call the

we

the

to

This

England.
of

shown

be

style of

revivals since

the

revival,when

builders

ages

back

artists.

our

earlier

In

have

to

of former

decorators

with

style.

not

are

models

Victoria

in

brought

always

can

necessarilygo

and

the

been

we

must

we

material

material

new

have

to

past,

seems

original.

factor

potent

of

discovery
"

art

with

ideas

the
to
intelligence.This has since given way
Renaissance
recent
style,in which most
buildings

have

been

erected, and

the Gothic
There
be
will

revivalists used
is

no

presentlybe

This, however,

than

will

have

works

appreciate

of the

early,but

the

last

been

only

with

horror.

last ideal will

but

one

other

some

been

have
not

the

the

which

beauties

regard

replaced by

ordinarylay publicwill
and

to

has

probabilitythat

permanent

more

which

"

the

to

great

great Renaissance

it

model.
that

gained,
trained

our

stand
under-

Gothic
works

93-]

ATTEMPTS

late

tolerate
Holland
laid upon
It is
be

BUILDING.

311

Middle

other

the

than

more

Hellenic

is well

GREEK

can
now
Ages. We
those
curious
vampings, so common
and
Germany, where one style has

the

of

AT

added

art, with

the

been

imitation

revival will Probability

next

architecture,as

Renaissance

is the

in

it I.

to

likelythat

revival.

known,

Hellenistic

or

even

of Roman

or

revival.6

late

and modifications
peculiarities
the builders
forced upon
cation
by their eduof them
and
surroundings. But
many
thought they were
reproducing pure Greek style,
ness.
really in total darkconcerning which they were
The

imitate
Thus

few

Greek

they knew
How

buildingsshow

far

they were

may

in this century to
similar

ignorance.
the Madeleine
in Paris thought,
copying the Parthenon, whereas

nothingwhatever
this inabilityto

distant century
the

earlier attempts

the builders of

I suppose,

certain

about

the art of Ictinus.

the

understand

go, is

art

of

curiouslyexemplifiedin

(in1676) from the yet un-ruined

Parthenon
by Jacques Carrey,by the order of the
These
Marquis of Nointel.
drawings are positively
in
ludicrous travesties of the sculptureof Phidias
seventeenth-centurystyle2.
Not until a long series of great students,begin- Greek
ning with Winckelmann, had studied with real care
1

drawings

Of

taken

this confusion

the hall of the Middle

Temple

specimen,seeingthat the Renaissance

very interesting
thing,is only two
2

at

They
Greek

are

years later than

not, however,

dress made

one

whit

the Gothic

worse

than the

ladies
by nineteenth-century

Fairs.
P

in

London

screen,

is

did
splen-

hall.

ordinaryattempts
who

go to

Fancy

art

THE

the

understood,

mann

rose,

Dorp-

art, till Mr.

had

Penrose

dis-

marvellous

cavations, should

pro-

brought
the day

predated, and
when
out

about

learn to

that

we

undertake

Renascence,

we

shall know

shall

of all the

which

arts

enrich

have

has

carry

what

we

superstitionof
shall

we

of

richness

that

to

revert

been

"

us

study

there

the

three

life, the

human
True

we

that

true

treat7 between

our

the

to

Then

lost since

harmony
the days

Angelo.

If it be

the

abandon

shall

ornamentation

results,

larger public.

worship,and adopt colours

combine
chastityof design with

of Michael
1

the

to

in their

marble

white

upon

known

made

comes

we

be

home

Hellenic

are

and

[94.

GREECE.

of the
subtletyin the curves
Parthenon, till Dr. Dorpfeld had
analyzed the
of the Olympian
plan and materials and execution
and
treasure-houses
temples, could we
say
that we
were
beginning to have a clear perception
of the qualitieswhich
Greek
made
sculptureand
architecture
so
superiorto all imitations which have
since been attempted.
" 94. It is high time that all this profound research,this recondite learning,these laborious exthe

dosed

Pen-

Its effect

when

of Greek

secrets

IN

ROMANS

without

that

enacts

the

results.

May

work,

of

them

the

the ideas

which

radiate

the

best

our

ordinary life,and, making

are

their
it

noble
en-

shall

rest, then

perfectionmay
not

secret

Beautiful,and

co-operation of

of fitness,of reserve,
Greek

the

that

Ideas

none

of this side of Greek

its moral

heaven

sovran

Good,

"

which

is in

of

shown

even
sure,
mea-

in

influence

fairer,
prepare

all

into

it

95-]
for

UNTRANSLATEABLE.

POETRY

the

goodness

larger truth

of

abode

and

perfect

more

" 95. Thus far I have sought to bring out the Greek Litepoliticallessons which are the peculiarteachinghardly
have only suggested what
of history,and
yet ticed in this
may
result from the artistic lessons left us by this wonderful
I
wonder
that
people. The reader may
have said little or nothing concerning another
very
the
wonders
prominent side of Greek
perfection,
no-

"

of the
been

produced by all

since.

My reason
if anywhere, the

with

ranks

poetry which

the

efforts of

the

has

before

man

for this omission

was,

of the

extant

excellence

that

best

that

or

here,

Hellenic

acknowledged, while the fact that all

excluded
from
those ignorant of the language are
of it unsuited
to
enjoying it,makes
any discussion
the general public. For whatever
be said of
may
good translations of foreign prose, poetry is so
essentiallythe artistic expression of the peculiar
work

is

in which

tongue

it

into alien words

produce

must

Greek

poem

to

his

page

Greek

on

subjects,not

model, however

must

read

it

that

the

our

benefit

to

is

short

no

and

"

side

this

requires

thrust

aside

so

much

of modern
the

of

possible. We

cut

"

increasing demands
to

this

by

of his

study the language till we

and
i

tend

English

an

be.

fluently;

time

the

us

faithful his report may

life,there

sit down

gives

poem

are

transfer the ideas of

very

If, therefore,we
Hellenic

he

but

fatal alteration.

indeed

great English poet may

a

all transference

originates,that

111

can

Demands

j
studyofthe
language.

labour,

life upon

study of bygone

214

THE

ROMANS

IN

[96.

GREECE.

obvious
languages for the sake of easier and more
gains.
well-nighimpossible
" 96. Nevertheless,it seems

that

Hellenic
can

Renascence, such
be

ever

thorough

as

I have

cipated,
anti-

lasting unless

and

the

Other

Ian-

:UaC
musi

content

give way

to

English-speakingnations become reallyfamiliar

with the literary
of
side of Hellenic
life. Revivals
the plays of ^Eschylus and
be
not
Sophocles must
confined
learned
to the
public of an
stage and
but must
to
come
English or American
university,
be heard and appreciated by a far larger public.
This can
hardly be done until we make
up our
be
that the subjectsof education
not
minds
must
increased
in
number, and that moreover
they may

to

alternated
thispursuit.be

the

with

There

case.

everybody
and

""".""

must

that French

far

"

freedom

more

than

is

now

is,for example, a superstitionthat

learn Latin
is

before

learning Greek,

of necessary

accomplishment
certain that
for a lady, whereas
it is perfectly
the cultivation to be attained
through Greek is ten
times as great as that wre can
gain through Latin ;
while in the second
it is no paradox to assert
case
able to understand
the Antigone
that any
woman
of Sophocles or
would
of Theocritus
the Thahtsia
food than from all
derive from them
more
spiritual
of French
the volumes
likelyto
poetry she is ever
read.

If

we

cannot

sort

compass

all,the

lesser

should

give way to the greater ; and it is not till our own

has been acknowof Greek
ledged
day that the supremacy
by all competent judges.
has promoted the reignof Latin, and
" 97. What

97-]
told

has

DEPENDENCE

ROMAN

ON

in

against Greek

2,1$

GREEK.

schools, is partly,I

our

The
and

tii

believe, the
also

this

and

"

of

want

poetry

models

Greek

indeed

such

many

would

bably
pro-

disappear,as
the

disappeared when

have

must

to

the

Were

models.

imitations

Roman

Of Roman
imitations.

"

extant, the contrast

now

the

cause

how

Greek

from

copied

was

people the
closelymost Roman

advanced

knowledge

clear

strange alphabet ; partly

a
more

among

111

of

bugbear

nature

quality

approached the great

if the lyricsof Sappho and
originals. Even
now,
recovered
from
Alcseus
some
were
Egyptian tomb
rolls of Herculaneum,
it might
from
the charred
or
Roman

have

in

most

reader

often

was

By

far the

and

if he

alone

not

any
can
we

the

from

be

shameful

exceed
say

when

Bucolics ?

latter to

far

he
Here

attempts
he

is

my

case
even

Greek

second-rate

to

which

independent

superior,to
For

supports.
a

Apollonius

extent

an

in any

worth

be

Virgilcopies from

even

poets,

dispute this,as

doubtful

would

that the translations

true

only equal, but

I will not

But

Greek.

poets is Virgil;

Latin

remained,

Roman

of third-rate

version

mere

Alexandrian

thought

It may

"

ngl

ance
import-

of

this, that the best

his sake.

second-rate

be

it is of

part company,

The

before

; and

age

greatest of the Roman

learning for

"

the

Alexandrian

insist upon

to

Aratus

and

popularityof Horace.
Romans
copied from

the

on

cases

of the

inferior poets

poetry

effect

disastrous

But

the

themselves

readers

literature.

the

does

would

in this

are

and

case

originals.

not

granting

require
that he

model, what

imitate Theocritus

taking a reallygood

shall
in his

Greek

case
'

of
,

2l6

THE

Roman

in

Latin
Theocritus

the

poetry.

If

Greek

World

therefore

the

great

imitating

the

first of

comparison.
this

fully on
and

Life

under

the

in

that

see

can

written

not

Greek

recent

my

bear

had

we

is

poor

Even

master,
cannot

poets

" 98.

in6 m

Greek

garden

comparison

[98"

GREECE.

how

and

model,

Alexandrian

an

flower

his

for

poet

IN

ROMANS

Roman

subject

Thought,

Sway.

and

my

should

fain

of

with

conclude
of

Hellenic

the

the
the

strike

not

models

finest
From

facts

these

of
but

its

Latin

right

to

could

to

greater

higher
that
never

Can
the

ceased

spiritsin

every

history
to

of

of
of

illumine

society of

the

their

and

for

to

race,

whose

men

the

with

any

with

any

than

this,

giftshave
the

sustain

civilized

lenism
Hel-

other

any

history

people

vated
culti-

for

good

as

Greece

over

conclude
of

ference
pre-

decaying

subtle

we

genius

cited

them

urge

too

poetry

recommendation

it is the

can

and

rival, too

express.
to

have

spiritual empire

produce

tribute

supremacy

debased

disciplesto

tongue

is,I

of the

Even

as

superstition the

Greek

few

world.

what

to

did

only

Parthenius

view, though

evidence

men.

ablest

of

show

to

another

and

in the

point

my

poets, with
and

the

in

faults

patent

Callimachus

in

made

features

whose

Romans,

had

people

these

Yet

day.

exceptions, copied
the

the

after-glow

freshness

of

common
artificiality

and
of

writing

loss

life of

the

and

the

of the

account

genius, when

language

pedantry

brief

some

higher

APPENDIX.

ON

AUTHENTICITY

THE

OF

OLYMPIAN

THE

REGISTER1.

THERE

historians

modem

(776 B.C.) as

slow

so

date.

There

found

in

figure

the

under
When

be

can

assumption,

festival, and
It

Dr.

whom

inquire

of

Greece,

of

expressed

be

rejects

the

logy
chrono-

his

and

what

on

that

even

authority
we

by argument,
regular

of

who

fact

the

valuable
and

with

Dr.
my

Th.
main

that

from

776

of

their

great

cited

and

Kock
results.

of

sort

list is still

events

hints

of

alleged
and

early

so

find

record

determined

some

Konigsberg,
agreement

in

B.C.,

established,

kept

matter

gladly acknowledge

Hirschfeld

670

this
to

think,

down

set

legends,

accepts

evidently

generally acknowledged

was

historians

as

them,

Greek

solid

query.

supported

Eleians

not

than

securely

not

the

onward

to

come

we

date

of

who

Olympiad

about

exception,

will

higher

protest

from

among

ist

of

sceptical

so

Cox,

who

the

starting-point

one

George

agreement

accept

inferences

only

register,

any

to

Grote,

is
Sir

Olympian

Greece

gather

to

general

trustworthy

Even

chronology.
and

of

the

of

sort

seems

by

the

late

according

corrections
Weimar

tant.
ex-

from
both

of

21

APPENDIX.

Above

it.

to

by

soothed

reportedto

the

discus

it,but

have

made

researches

in

almost

seem

that

in

his

of

start

from

hesitation,which
his

attainable

Olympiad.

These

determined

the

Cox,
the

neither

E.

Grote, nor

analysed the

older

portion of
Fasti, where

inquiry.

In

Mure's

it

it

Curtius,nor

the

to

ist

have

historians.
even

for the

register.I
well

dates

which

reasons

of modern

might

fore
there-

accurate

close

period

evidence
this

c., and

B.

735

apparentlythe

generalconsent

has

Clinton's
such

are

And

Archeology (book vi)

that
a

with him

out
dates,apparently with-

commentators

concerning

this

to
inspiration

Thucydides.

Sicilian

number

modern

scepticalof

most

authorityshares

historian

the

Thucydides gives a
persuades

the

even

Greek

other

that

happens

But

to

he mentioned

authorityby

attribute verbal

to

"

infallible

an
so

pre-eminence

were

question,and

inscribed upon
Olympia with Lycurgus'name
what work, and for what purpose,
is unknown.

philosopher.One

so

the

on

is

at

much
so
philologists,

this

are
philologists

if authentic1;
at all events

Aristotle is considered

them

of

who
supposed authorityof Aristotle,

refer to the list as

a

critical doubts

all,the

be

Historyof Greek

Sir

George

of
authenticity
cannot

find

in

expected, any
Literature

(iv.

77-90),a work far less esteemed than it deserves, and

find any statement
of the evidence.
here only, do we
have made
reached by Mure
The negativeconclusions
no
well-nigh
impression on the learned world, and are now
he left
forgotten. I will take up the question where
add some
positiveevidence to corroborate his
it,and
that the list of victors at Olympiads handed
argument
down
to us by Eusebius
is,at least in its earlier part, an
"

Cf.

below, p. 238, for the remaining fragment.

ON

OLYMPIAN

THE

constructed
artificially

list,resting

as

determine

to

recorded,
Such

the

measuring

seventh

dates
Let
as

find

we

find

it

detail,and
then

the

Pindar
had

and

other

founded
had

various

kinds, includingchariot

ascribed
a

long

and

'the
mon,

and
of

the

their foundation

gap

the

king

victories

to

revival

of the
'This

of Elis.

games

but
not

the

; the old

of Haemon

name.'

Iphitus,in

Lycurgus, re-established the

as

if

they were

no

other

asserted,
Herakles

mythical

victories

descendant
Pausanias

to

be

to

be the

of

of

account

But

mythical glories

these

the

of

son

of

son

Iphitus,
(v. 4, 6),
Hae-

Praxonides,

(dpxa"l
ypa^ara)
Iphitus to a father of

documents

Eleians,however, referred1

same

that

Another

his

of

the feast

Oxylus (Paus. v. 8, 5).

by

We

amount

and

"

races.

declares

of the Greeks

most

and

them

at

ments
frag-

declarations

express,

Iphitus,'says

epigram at Olympia

the

indeed

The

between

admitted

was

Register

historians.

and

Pelops

heroes

won

the

generalhistoryof

games.

that

first half

the

considerable

were

the

to

Hellenes.

late

old poets

them,

given

about

admitted,
the

be

Diodorus, Strabo,
other

in

example, Thucydides'

of the

of the

All

accepted.

no

importance

to

for

"

Pausanias

outline

an

of

manufactured.

was

great

tradition

in

implied

mythical originfor

B. c.

colonies

especiallyin

and

therefore

eighth and

the

to

centuries

of

credence

Timseus, and

of

as

referred

first sketch

us

be
of

for the western

list

extant

must

amount

of events

of the

the

when

inquiry

an

dates

when

and

occasional

on

19

chronology. I will also endeavour

the victors
began to be regularly

scientific

records, and

fragmentary monumental
value

REGISTER.

connection
games,

but

longer extant;

but

with the

(aswas
see

Spartan

asserted)

below,

p. 229.

220

APPENDIX.

only as

first historical

epigram

an

and
(ord"oi/),

race

Olympiad Corcebus

as

won,

situated

tomb,

his

on

short

in the

contest

in this

the borders

on

in

stated

was

of Elis

and. Arcadia

(Paus. viii. 26, 4). A quoit on which

tarch,
at
was
Elis, says PluLycurgus' name
engraved, was
in the days of Aristotle.
The
discus of Iphitus,'
Pausanias
the
(v. 20, i), 'has the truce which
says
Eleians
for the Olympiad, not
inscribed in
announce
round
the discus in
straightlines,but the letters run
He
alludes to the list again and again :
a circular form1.'
record
e.g. (v.8, 6) 'ever since there is a continuous
of the Olympiads (f" ov TO a-wc^es
rais fjLvi'jfjLais
firl rals *OX.
first established,
and the
eVr/)
; prizes for running were
'

Corcebus

Eleian

Pausanias
of the

won.'

proceeds in

additions

successive
'

sprintrace,

this passage
of other

Ol.

double
or
8/avXoff,

the

the Pisaean

Hypenus
the

In

practised in mythical days.

been

8th

boxing,

came

and
as

chariot

won

33rd

was

the

came

based

were

can

find

on

no

no

old

evidence

universally assumed.
had
Lycurgus' name,

of

the

i4th

Acanthus.

In

Smyrna,
the

In

the Theban
the

the

25th

these

seen

it.

discuses

would

were

then

the
In

first

the

boys'contests

tradition,but the Eleians

that

spectively
re-

of the first

monument

The

the

23rd

which

Pagondas.

Syracuse

Pausanias
he

In

pentathlon and
Lampis and Eurybatus

pancration,and
at

they

the

Ionian, won.

victor,Lygdamis, was

that

after him

next

Onomastus

by

out

instituted,and

was

Lacedaemonians.

both

alreadycounted
race

which

in

won,

and

won,

remembered

they

wrestlingmatch,

course,

the

them,' that

found

or

account

competitionsto

they remembered

according as

is,according as they recollected

had

give an

to

estab-

as
identical,

surely have

mentioned

is

lished

them

of

their

match

wrestling

OLYMPIAN

THE

ON

REGISTER.

221

The

good pleasure.

own

in

accordingly instituted

was

boys'
the

37th 01.
I need

this passage

to

further,but

the account

here pursue

not

with

in connection

the

will

turn
re-

other arrangements

of the feast.
find that other

We

the Scholiast

by

to

as

does

Strabo

the

on

freedman

Polemo, quoted

as

with

(Ol.v.),agree

foundation, by Oxylus

Phlegon,

work

Pindar

on

of these details.

some

the double
So

such
authorities,

quotes from

of

Ephorus

again by Iphitus.

and

who

Hadrian,

festival,and

Olympian

Pausanias

wrote

list of

gave

Eusebius'

list.

victors,probably from

the

same

indeed

the

of making Lycurgus
difficulty

Phlegon

notes

and

Iphitus contemporary

and

fixes

date

the

victors, and

was

first crowned

The

only

other

full

the

Muller's

he introduces

that

states

with

wild

catalogue of
Hist.

events

776

B.C.,

Iphitus twenty-eightOlympiads
Iphitusagain

an

iv.

of

at

the

ing
crown-

Messene

7th

contest.

in

Phlegon's fragments
in
i77'th Ol. (frag.12

the

606),which
of them

some

the

Daicles

olive

point of interest

Frag.

seventeen

in

registeredOl., inquiringabout

6th

of

is

of

Corcebus

with

(at887 B.C.).But

earlier
in

the

as

source

gives the

in

winners

in the

thrice successful

competitions.
We
of

Pausanias,which

and

English works

that

established

or

Olympiads

their

chronology.
the

now
on

Greek

granted that

athletics,
was,

adopted by

Timseus

allegedto

whether

he

beginning or not,

or

have

prominent positionas

But

the

account

in all the German

current

passes

is often

the latter of whom

from

take it for

therefore

may

adopted

in the

main,

by Aristotle,
first given the

the basis of Greek

the list as

his isolated remark

genuine

about

the

APPENDIX.

is

quoitwith Lycurgus'name
Indeed

opinion and

there

progress

of the

victor

for this

was

the

as

short

consult
at

"

be but very

gradual rise

giving the
have

We

as

chariot race, which

of the Iliad

the earliest

to

them.

The

by

us

Olympian

; there

The

and

several of them

in each

the

practiceat Olympia.

(perhaps

There

some

are

made

never

others,such

are

to

givingof

as

games

of this

nature

asserted
expressly

are

composed

seems

combat, which

armed

Olympia.

at

ments,
monu-

review

our
regards the literature,

part of the historical games

innovations

of

brief.

the

as

kinds

two

for

or

'competitionis quite different.

special)
events, such

and

of its

name

described

hand,

As

describes

Pausanias

his

positive

the

reference

any

in

date.

book
(i) The twenty-third
without

the

what

the older literature ; and

first

observers.

former

concerning

examine

to

theoryof

race,

of the

index

either

us1.

its regularity,
and the prominence
festival,

stadion,or

authorityto

need

importance

more

evidence

inform

to

direct information.

no

It is of far

of the

only negative evidence

have

we

sufficient

not

have been
valuable

the

as

later

prizes,

competition, is quiteagainst
Phseacian

The

the

in

games

Odyssey(6 120, sq.)contain fiveevents, running,wrestling,

leaping,discus,and boxing. Those who believe that the
epics
believe

composed

were

them

to

be

before

the much

poets, will find

that the

will assert

that he would

The
1

not

poet could

know, what

latter will also hold

Cf.

works

In the extant

Registeras

of

compilation of

chronologicalstandard.

is

we
no

Cf.

the
at

of the

accounts

the

owe

allusion

below,

p.

who
quarian
anti-

The

this.

know, and

whom

there

or

established

was

i, to

Aristotle

later

not

that the

Plutarch,Lycurgus, "

B.C.,

in
difficulty

no

those

776

one

other

Olympia.
mythical

information.

whatever

238.

to

the

ON

celebrations

indeed

time

is

alleged ist

who

five heroes
He
the

sq.)that

the

inventions, thus
his mind

does
the

the

he

stadion

of

certainlyhave
the

chariot

find

of the

for the

mentions,

never

these

race,

the

whole

stadion

pancration, and
and

this corroborated

more

by

down

The

feast.

the

(Isth. i.
later

were

rest

in

were

Nor

special dignity to

Thirteenth

He

in

remained

meeting.

Olympian

expected, that
the

the

that

test.
con-

break

mention

his-

last of

victory,his

evidently far grander

we

it clear

of

first

not

pancration

and

tells

names

any

had

the

on

sq.)he

43

was

does

specialglory of handing
of

Iliad,

statements

of the

events

fact he

the

gives the

there

originalcomponents

pentathlon together.

eponymi

In

making

the

in the

witness

(w.

events

that

pentathlon

only

sprintrace,

mere

anywhere give priorityor

this kind

have

hint

these five

since.

ever

the

assume

that

Ode

Olympic

no

that

or
tradition,

in fashion

us

tival
fes-

Olympian

must

important

next

the various

won

the

it, the

after

the

to

hold,

shape about

no

by Herakles, and

gives

if,as

stronglysupported by

his Tenth

In

the least

Odyssey.

is the

foundation

of the

26

who

Pindar,

subject.

is

been

have

without

and

we

in its events

that in the

view

(2) This
of

explain,that

to

Lycurgus
poems,

into

to

in

Homeric

And

its games

in

similar

contest

models

Olympiad,

competitionto

at least to

or

Iliad

contest

growing

were

difficult

so

Eleian

but

heroic

the

of the

contrast

invented

still if

of the

knowledge

poems

the

of

2,2,3

But

account.

Iphitus found

to

Homeric

old

the

promoted

resemblance
the

Homeric

did he and

why

REGISTER.

by Herakles, Pelops, "c., were

of the

imitation

OLYMPIAN

THE

the

stadion
as

we

should

names

as

contests, the

pentathlon,were

highly esteemed,
remark

and

victors would
their

other

is for

Odes

of

and

Thucydides

224

APPENDIX.

(v.49), This
f

the

was

for the first time

but

have

to

seems

by

the

the

the

marked

about
'

that

the

time.

had

in

into fashion

Hera

Athenian
will

we

archon.

all his years

Yet

know

we

that

the former
these

annals

at

down

In the next

concerning
set

time

down

into vogue,

of

the
for

his second

the

priestess
by the

400

of

very

counts

Syracuse downward.
and
at

others

had

time, and

that

conclusive

victors.

All

against the
the

pian
Olym-

B. c.

him

from

and

It

in his earlier books

wrote

mythical founding

newer

which

been

have

of
recognition,

least the wide

to

all the

Archaology, to

it would

where

century Ephorus
the

dides'
Thucy-

reference

Spartan ephor, and

together are

nothing quoted
by Pausanias.

that

year

Hellanicus, Antiochus

things taken

have

the

treated of the listof the Carneian

existence,or

we

opening of

chronologicalresearches

alreadymade

Such

account,

by

events

of

recognise

the

the foundation

from

habit

given dates by Olympiads, he

have

to

the

of them

his Sicilian

In

presentlyreturn,

convenient

the

with Pausanias'

their

date

the

Argos, by

at

except

Olympia.

at

None

agree.

Thucydides, at
main
date by

fixes his

little

importantnegativefeature

one

decessors
pre-

but

three centuries before

or
Olympian register,

this festival.

since

years

be reconciled

But

games,
'

come

historians
fifth-century

of

stadion,

his immediate

as

of the

many

the innovation

placed

book,

the

by

not

Hellanicus)
gives us

nature

not

cannot

statement

to

(aswell

and

it was

running naked

any

Olympiad,

historian indeed

information

who

won

pancration.' Thucydides therefore

Herodotus

Androsthenes

pancration.

(3)This

remark

when

Olympiad

of

at

the

all like the

is nevertheless

more

but
festival,

history

about

preciseaccount

Timaeus, the younger

contemporary

this
came

of

OLYMPIAN

THE

ON

Ephorus, evidentlyknew
remark
solitary

for the
his

fixingearlydates,he
ovv

JAW

have

What

does it

E.

Zeit,'says

edited

in

/uaXicrra

dvaypa(f)r)V

that

this

form
the
literary
compiledand edited

Curtius,Hist.

togetherwith

at

of the

end

the

learned.

the

dvaypa^ai of

Eleer,dann

Now

of the latter work

from

Plutarch.

former
Does

bearbeitet!
schaftlich

Hippias justifyit?
stratus,

bearbeitet

does

exhibit in

anything

'

Hippias
'oAv/zTna^s.'
than

our

the

justcited

passage

Curtius' wissen-

other
him

knowledge

after his name,

and

of

in the

drawn

though perhaps exaggerated,make

clever

Pausanias,

nothing more

picturesof

The

indicates,

zuerstvon

nothing but the

it justify
Ernst
Or

in

in seinen

know

we

dialoguescalled

Platonic

in the

Argive priestesses,

passages

Philochorus

von

des

die Listen derer

volume, he
the

published,two

dem

; of the

the

The

'Dieser

(viz.'der Mitte

i. 494

of

'wissenschaftlich

name

it?

Nationalspielen
gesiegt';and

Hellanicus

adds:

Hippias
register,

implied opinion

in den

on

in Philo-

him

vain

polymath, able to practiseall trades, and

all kinds of knowledge. We
should not expect
wissenschaftlich

there
for

Kal

TTjv

mean

'

an, welche

or

opening of
of
difficulty

ovftevbs 6/)jua"fiej"o

Jahrhunderts '),gehoren ja auch

achten

case

it

Does

that he both

mean

is the

former

but

the

on

'HXeioi/,
CLTT

TQV

this mean?

first publishedor

and

the

At

"J;aKpi(3")(Tai
xaXcTrovfort,

xpovovs

does

which

mystery but

irpos rrio-riv.

avayKaiov

note

register.Its

'iTrniav fK^ovvai,
o^f" (f)airiv

or

the

remained

commenting

says

225

S)V
'O\vfjL7rioviKa"v
dvayofjievovs,

TWV

"K

rovs

valued

of Plutarch.

in

Life of Numa,

TOVS

and

literature would

originin

REGISTER.

none.

was

room

'

from

for either

If there

him.
a

in

this

great deal of science,

reallyan

was

Indeed,
authentic

list

at

226

APPENDIX.

need

Olympia, Hippias

with Plutarch's

consistent
Plutarch

Sophistwanted
make

to

Olympia

for

in

the

people

doing this

he

in the

city,he

various

have

to

might expect from a

a
have, fortunately,
single case
shows

far from

the

when

him

festival.
about

both

us

Messana

in

by

kind

of

from
case
a

the form
a

later

votive

avrols

of the

of the

the

and
offering,

which

Hippias
no

may

there

eV

V7TO
\"y6fJL"VOS

there

have

the

dy eV/ypa/z/^a

M"(rorr]via"v'
7rop$/za"

'EXX^OOV y"V"o6ai,

apparentlyone

Peloponnesus,if we
remark.
to

appears

have

I think

In

have

been

in favour
may

more

judge

than

have

been

inscribed

can

show

in

we

one
on

Hippias a

restoration

to

from
dvaypacfrai,
registers,

copied?

singlecomplete list,of
not

not

gave

"7roirja-"v.
Here, then, we

really no

could

is

man

Eleians

^v

TO

leaningto the Messenians, whose

independence he probably witnessed.
were

Pausanias

historyof

decided

But

We

of Pausanias'

epigram

by

quoted

licence

and
falsification,

of the Messenians

all the

of his class.

statues.

'iTTTTLaS6

some

vanity,

man

avaBrniaraclvai TU"V

Cronos TO. cXeyelaeV

shown

sqq.)tells a patheticstory
of boys and their teacher on
Sicilyto Olympia, where they

choir

commemorated

were

what

(v.25,

Pausanias

from

the way

games.

reconstructingthe

was

the loss of

their famous

that this estimate

truth,and

he

only chose
kinds,but brought
not

and the rash theorizing

traditions,

we

which

it.

Eleian,and desirous

an

historyof

seems

of ancient

the contempt
which

popular

Being

specialdisplaysof

togetherfor
And

exhibit.

himself

from

Far

is this

difficulty,
requiringresearch
what
the
this,no doubt, was

And

to

statement

But

task of

impliesa

combination.

and

only have copied it.

If

there

undoubted

was

tainly
cer-

authority,

partiallists,affordinghim

ON

OLYMPIAN

THE

suitable materials ?
from

the passages

well

as

to

necessary
The

where

referred

others, which

227

endeavour

must

we

of Pausanias

from

as

This

REGISTER.

to

E.

by

to

he

has

not

passage

of

the

answer

Curtius,
it

thought

quote.

first is the
the author

opening

says that

of all the athletes

who

his work

as

'

book,

sixth

is not

catalogue

have

gained victories at Olympia,

but an account
of votive offerings,
and especially
statues,
he will omit many
either by
have
who
gained victories,
some
lucky chance, or without attainingthe honour of a
statue.'
Though this passage may imply that there was
there was
in Pausanias'
such a catalogue of course
day
it says not a word
about an old and authentic register.
"

"

It

is indeed

that neither

far

as

Pausanias

speaks of

of certain

an-OZympiads1:

ova-tv

not

"

that

register.In
to

appears
Let

us

ra

pass

the

to

among

won
Lastratidas,

By

the Eleians

this name,
were

second

ov
ypd"pKaraX"'yo"

from

official

any

such

of

'

passage

Eleian

mention

in
the

the

that

indicated
there

boy, who

also
re

adds

stands

There

youths ("/

in

natal

the

won

Nemea
KOI

the

crown

the

among

father of

the 10401

fie *"!

"s

TOVS

called

were

Hippias' work, because

by invaders,who had no legalrightto
Q

E.

another
ayeveiav)

8iav\os,vTreXeiVcro

in

by

also

Paraballon,the

8th, the 34th, and

probably used

celebrated

erased

absence

the

obtained

victory.'Pausanias

'OX.

T"V

TO"

fv

also says

decisive.

me

wrestling; he

boys, and

Greek

Olympia.

and

ypa/x/xara,

they noted in,or

Curtius, viz. vi. 6, 3.

of Lastratidas,an
statue
for

official register
at

'HXaW

T"V

Pausanias

other

any

of

account

or
or
Trupair^y^ura,
avaypa"t)ai,

for any

equivalentterm

does

know,

as

mention
author, distinctly
any

discussion,

present

Pausanias, in this elaborate

does

Olympia, nor,

in the

capital fact

these
do

so.

by

feasts

2,2,8

APPENDIX.

ra

passage

the

"

registeris
8,

other

alluded
find

we

i,

only

to

wrestlingboth

for

at

'EAAciyoSi/o/s
"ypa\l/"KOI

"e

himself
afterwards

custom,

chosen

even

that such

the

of

obtained

facts.

two

Olympiad. Again
himself,won

deny

moment

from

the

be

to

reasons

imply

some

of

What

of

what

600

evidence

said,there

B.C., but

bly
proba-

I do

kind

in favour

about

note

established,

B.C.

are

of

register
probable

some

Indeed

of it.

Paraballon

seeking

here

are

registerof

for

not

to

seems

in

exceptional distinction
we

37th

Euanorides

not

some

; in fact there

in fact
early register,

an

previousto
have

the

expressly

fixes at the

570
600

mined
deter-

after the

came

Pausanias

contest

to

existence

novelty, an

inscription
; and
for

"

presentlyadduced

form

very

the

victors,and

is
inscriptions

which

nearer

onward

this time

of the

Paraballon,and

Nemea

and
littleearlier,

be

It also appears

us.

names

Curtius,till about

E.

tinguishe
dis-

reasonable

"

Eleians, and
of

son

prizesat

according to
a

the

had

likelyto

was

In the first placeboth

of the

invention

an

rcov
'OAv/iTria

gymnasium.

of boys' contests,
establishing
calls

ytvo^vos

Eleian

judges

date of these

the
fortunately,

tory
the vic-

"v

an

In

their
rightof celebrating

the

in the

Nemea

he

the

the
by inscribing

their own,

by

if

prevailing
amongst

now

year of office

But

that

any

former.

gained

ovopara

games,

one

as

"\\avo8iKai

doubtless

TO.

another

once

the

and

Olympia

have

find where

can

the Eleian

then

at

at

expounds

OVTOS

It appears

veviKrjKOTwv.

it

as

"

Euanorides

passage

avaypn-

last,we

at

I will add

evidence, and

definite

some

'OAv/"i7r/a.
Here,

eV

TO"
yvnvao-ito

tyas-"V

vi.

WK^rai/rcoz/'OAi'jUTriWi
oi"o/iara

rwv
$iAoTi/ziay,

enftra

his

is evidence
the

contests

B. c.

does
is not

Pausanias
a

word

afford of this?

about

registeror

As
cata-

logue, but

OLYMPIAN

THE

ON

there

in

least

at

whatever

believe

of

indeed

Such

mistakes.

races

the

writer of it

the reference

children, whose

epigram

(vi.13, lo) with

ra

o-ySd/7
yap 'OX.

'HXfio"i"

f] viKrj
ypdp.fJLa"Ti

"$".

rcov

apparentlydistinct
but the treatise of
Had

of each

tells

ever

Tavrrjs

""T\V

"v

ypd^ara

'HX.

rois

WOrd

"

probably nothing
Elis.

scribed
inregister,
victory,is it possiblethat any

would

an

have

period,such

late

been

if the

But

Surely not.

authentic

allowed

to

came
register

flict
con-

to

be

discrepanciesmight be

Pausanias
regards genuine early monuments,
plies
imhad no statue
at Olympia, and
that Corcebus

us

on

who

conflicting

as

as

that

Then

alleged

avoid.

to

But

later date

npb

been

the time

at

that

Hippias, preservedand copied at

at

concocted

armed

'QXvfjLTTioviKas
ypdfjLfiaTa.

TOVS

ov

contests

Chionis'

notes

"

indeed

it ?

vulgar

mere

of Pheidolas'

dvaypafyai are

ypd^ara

with

hard

from

by

monument

Traidcov. These

these

epigrams of

es

There

Pausanias

to

even

out

scale.

inscriptionto

Pausanias

KOL
cfipcoffTJj

Km

or

(vi.13, 2),who

long after

the

again

was

reason

successive

four

in the

lived

have

must

There

period.

in

won

yet introduced,proved

not

as

antedated

the stele of Chionis

have

(Ols.28-31),but

no

monuments

large

on

monuments

was

reported to

was

is

existed,

injured,unless Hippias carried

them
falsifying
several

there

ancient

many

offeringsand

of materials

sort

And

day.

229

of old

notes

what

us

that

been

inscriptionshad

were

show

Pausanias'

to

his work

several

are

which
inscriptions,

REGISTER.

comes

there
his

was

no

tomb

at

the

conquered
held

dp%aiaTOV

for

Evr.,

case
as

a
KOL

the

border

of the

boy
eVi

in the

ro"

of

Spartan

pentathlon
TO.

of his victorysave

record

of

Elis

and

Eutelidas

38th OL,

boys.

the
eWi

jSdQpto
ypafip-ara

the

gram
epi-

Arcadia.

(vi.15, 8),
only contest
8e

i\ T"

dfj,vdpd
VTTO

eiVobi/
roO

APPENDIX.

230

38th Ol.

the

as

this

But

Xpovov.

firstathlete's

of

that

and
the

statues

the

'

st.

that the

Olympia

those

of Praxi-

in

won

were

boxing

Rexibios

portraitstatues

the

at

the

Just below

other.'

the

treasure-house, dedicated

in

Myron

the

inscribed

shield,

de eVi

TO.

Rexibios'

Pausanias.
of the

the

at

history and

no

dated

decayed
certain

in

the

he

that

not

treasure-house.

ancient

an

before

Greek

in

than

yearly

no

of

Thus

venerable

art, could
the

by

treasury

either

in the

revelled

find

33rd Ol., and

extraordinaryantiquity,
We

age.

feel

may

reallyimportant extant

the
before

materials

from

the

400

year

generation later,to compile

recent

found

quite
relic

survey.

were

Olympiads.

The

as

omitted

in his

then

which

3/ao^u,TrcVoi/tfe$"

monuments

time

offeringsolder

with
illegible

and

proceeded,
a

archaic

speciallynotes

of old times

Such

an

Myones.'

Olympiads (vi.19, I3)1.

or

the

votive

he

of

was

the

from

fj.ev eVi

indeed

built

Athens

in

these

mention

Sicyonian tyrant

Zeus

dated

oldest

who
antiquariantraveller,

the

decayed

treasure-house

TraprjKTm

mentions

He

Megarians,

archons

the

less

of

TO
dva6r)fj.(iTOs
ap^aiov (\l.19, tj)"

exhaust

These

by

offeringto

an

rfiodTriSi ypappara

Sta ToG

avro

'

we

this

In

Ol.

33rd

have

this

the

far from

not

are

59th Ol.,

pancratiast,at

of wood,
pillarof CEnomaos, and are made
but the ^Eginetan'sof cypress, and
fig-tree,
than

even

tells us

Opuntian

These

old

so

18, 7, Pausanias
at

set up

^Eginetan,who

the

damas

in vi.

For

been

have

cannot

statue

There

Pausanias

excavations

may

failed

have

have
to see,

refuted

B.C.,

the

been
or

which

full

and

which

ably
prob-

registerof
old

some

this very

Hippias

had

tions
inscripbecome

earlydate

for the

there

Doubtless

also

were

unbroken

Elis,which

at

utilise.

various

time.

There

cities he

were

visited,

inscriptionsrelatingto victors who

and

natives

been

soil with

traditions

the

in

231

the

gather and

throughout Greece,

traditions

old

many

sophistwould

Eleian

the

REGISTER.

disappeared under

had

or
illegible,

OLYMPIAN

THE

ON

cities.

of these

chain

Corcebus

from

that these

But

down

had

formed

an

Hippias'day

to

is

quiteincredible*
His

work

is

completelylost

so

his method

attribute

it.

to

which
Pythian festival,

in

the old contest

omit

The

various

and

it is certain that at

had

been

this

out

other

events

old

as

had

the games

with

origin.

eponymous

were

if there
had

who

Pausanias

that

with

of the

those

the

was

carried

he

and

simple

for the
that

assumed

short

ing
Accord-

race.

set

thus

of

led

thus

was

by
a

was

victor in the

the

the

that

the

greatest

"

For

it is

umpire did inscribe

certain

his

own

the

coin

register by the

real

presided.

I may

probable

than

more

make

to

Helfrom
name

victors.

Hippias' work,
days,

of contests

traditions

no

competition,'if

noted

lanodicse

found

He

early festivals
"

known,

it is

and

the range

too

Corcebus,

expression,though
feats

well

were

gods.

of the firstrecord of each competitionhe

its first

o-raSioi/ the

to the

hymn

the

(Ol.48),

likelythat Hippias

He

as

begun

to the order

down

far.

analogy too

historyof

pentathlon,the pancration,the

it is

But

"c.

hopliterace,

additions

Olympia

the

enlarged by

composing

and

innovations

the

fairly

can

in historical times

began

if we

acter
general char-

spiritwe

him

before

had

He

the

critical

the

from

jecture
only con-

can

we

proceeding from

of

age,, and

of his

that

the

ypa^/unra

work

based

history.

of
upon

It rested

the
a

Eleians

in after

constructio
problematicalre-

for its earlier

portions

APPENDIX.

232
broken

scanty and

on

became

monuments

increased.

have

been

correct

60, when
we

proceeded, and
its

there

here

even

in

came

of

it in the main

assume

may

authenticity

fashion

the

though

it

as

numerous,

athlete statues,

settingup
to

more

Ol.

After

evidence

not

were

wanting discrepancieswith other evidence, and possibly

mala fideson the part of the compiler1.
some
remain, therefore,three point*of interest

There

with

the

evidence

of the

made

matter

it a

and

those

Are

there

of

gymnasium,

this date ?

previousto
fix

Hippias

the

on

the

about

the

splendour

games,

of

the

extant

for what

B.C.

the

as

been

Cf. the
asserted

epigram, be
vii. 17, 13.

the

case

to

it

one

crush

Nemean

Ol.

5oth

conquered
finally

no

doubt

of the

in addition

that of the

reasons

by

stimulated

Pythian

48th OL,

third year of the

of the

increased

For

ways.

they were
"

finallyto
likelythat

and

other

in

of power

in the

the

they built the magnificent

dangerous competition

have

about

at

fixingthe

for

reasons

complete management

Pisa

Olympia

established

this may

also

spoilsof

their increase
and

new

the

temple latelyexcavated,
to

the

From

Doric

names,

and

776

that the Eleians

this time

Pisatans,and secured

games.

first

Olympia

at

Why

year

(i) There are several probable

the victories
origin of registering
was

any

of his list?

commencement

It

own

theorizingin

deliberate

we

Hellanodicae

the

inscribe their

to

the

in

Have

proposed.

which

at

of ambition

traces

did

reasons

date

of victors

listof victors

thus

theory

nected
con-

and

mined
why they deter-

and

spoil the

Pisatans.

and

Isthmian

games

supposed to have won

have
fought in Platsea in Ol. 75.
observed,dated from about OL 80.

His
"

6th

Ol., but

statue

Paus.

is

insti-

were

the

of QEbotas,

It

and

vi. 3, 8 ;

ON

tuted

about

the

have

with

of the

management

competed

The

Eleians

both

to

at

they

sent

Pharaoh
This

have

we

their

upon

2,

the

mettle,

first,
they

told them

far

as

Egypt

as

Eleian

no

calls him

compete.

Herodotus

II), who

reigned 594-587

by

us

the

consult

to

of the games.
be allowed

should

to

(Psammetichus
he is a higher

Psammis
and

B.C.;

to

(i.95),that

possibleconduct

that

As

story told
Diodorus

again by

2).

splendour, and

in

remarkable

best

the

to

as

king

seems

(Paus.v.

obtain

To

the

to

as

Eleian

no

games

unequalled

fairness.

(ii.
160),and
an
embassy

Herodotus

Isthmian

the

were

spoilsof Pisa,as alreadymentioned.

the

second,

the

complaints

some

contest

beyond suspicionin
lavished

these rival games

accordinglyput

their

233

for
Olympian festival,

were

keep

REGISTER.

time, and

same

connected

perhaps
to

OLYMPIAN

THE

authoritythan Diodorus, who calls him Amasis, and so

Herodotus'
brings down the date by twenty-fiveyears.
much
been
noticed, or brought into
story has never
relation

with

helps to

throw

one

other facts here

the

lighton

second

of official

umpire

at

Delphi

it

names

associated

with

the

victors'.

time

onward,

honour.

this

From

nothing

to

say

games,

specialglory

having esteemed

is

yet

that

in

practice

to

it

For

we

can

and

leave
was

it

as

Paraballon

about

others

surely

Olympia,

at

Pythian

remarks

Pausanias'

understand

the

us

If the

appointed.

it

there

tells

commenced
in

but

And

Pausanias

was

now
registering

certainlydid

adduced,

question.

important datum.

more

Ol. 50

the

their
new

therefore, I have

against the registerwhich

we

find

in

Eusebius.

(2)
any
about

But

as

appearance

the

regards the

first

of deliberate

list of names?

fiftyOlympiads,

invention

Can

we

show

or

is there

arrangement
that

Hippias

234

APPENDIX.

worked

on

is very

hard

had

he

theory,and
good

worked

doubt

begins with

out

but

I confess

their

feel grave

Eleian
a

victors.

Psammis'
have

avoided

proved by

the

for 170
noticed

by

put forward

to

about
about
is

It

the

as

75th by

the

in

Athenian

in

the

suspicions

by Hippias,

victors should

Laconian.

with
juxtaposition

hardly

but

tradition of the Greeks.

common

that

It is

I have

Ol.

6th

indeed

are

deliberate intention

victors.

the

was

victor eponymous

as

conquered

non-Eleians

they

fairness

events.

have

not

not

with

could

victors

Eleian

Hippias a

curious,too,
in

occur

Eleian

of

is

there

their

I suspect in

CEbotas, placed

ample
games1.

absence

how

For

in the other

could

of

is this consistent

no

Many

years?

the

at

curious

that

of

ally
gradu-

is natural

gave

first two,

How

him

occurrence

possible that they

the

list

restoration

the

compete

Eleians ?

answering

Pausanias

stadion,so that

list.

the

to

the

occurrence

truce

the

suspicionsat

in the

remark

to

or

victors,followed

till after

sacred

the

Excepting

singleEleian

This

the

of the first twelve

for exiled Messenians

also

list. Thus

suspicionat

For

that

antiquarian,who

an

competitors.

disappearance

by Epaminondas.
occasion

of

It

recorded

neighbourhood, and

the

my

out

total

was

probable

wider range

eight Messenians
by

he

victors from

admits

enough,

that

admit

we

victories

isolated

many

and

remembered,
no

this,especiallywhen

do

to

distinct evidence?

from

not

But

always

all these

are

only suspicions.
(3)
indeed

come

it

was

to

the

last and

suggested the

this which

Hippias'false epigram
impliesthat

on

important point;

most

the

the Messenians

Sicilian

whole

Messenians

exiled from

Messene

inquiry.

tioned)
(above menwere
eligible.

ON

what

On
fix

and

follow

to

Plutarch's

and

words,
the

counting upwards
followed

this

nologistsdown
from

either
Herakleids.

Olympiads

Hippias

"

and

to

neat

round-number
of both

all such

of

of

are

of

the

us

not

Olympiads.

by

himself.

Iphitus and Lycurgus.

accept

such

date

generationsof

Herakleids

Other

gers
chronolothe

accommodate

Olympiads

was

we

from

of

curgus
Lytwo

date.

But

may

feel certain

accommodated

date

matter,

imagined

of Corcebus'

idle ; for

the

Hippias

generation

before

"

not

one

Olympiads

Iphitus, and
of

to

of the

Olympiad

ist

(and Iphitus). Others

Lycurgus' and

schemes

that the number

number

the

to

means

that

assigned to

been

fixed starting-point,

generationsgave

of the

had

sought

Corcebus

Iphiti,one

it

states

return

assume

twenty-eightnameless

counted

date

of

may

date

the

place in

His

therefore

chro-

and

the

or

fullythree generationsearlier.

put him

have

not

by reasoning

this

assumed

number
we

thus fixed the date

Lycurgus.

would

did

they

Spartan chronologers would

The
for

and

Thus

determine

King Iphitus,who
TOO

recorded

duly

historical families

this the

of years.

to

he

our

it by

All the Greek

siege of Troy,

the

From

number

sought

that

by generations. They

downwards

determined
of

method.

derive

mythical ancestors,

the

number

exact

of all

silence

have

not

shown

not

we

sideration
con-

Hippias' day (and long after)made

to

object to

their chief

could

accepted

now

had
the

from

of

difficult

so

general

one

Even

perfectlycertain

is

For

need

computations

earlychronology

sufficient.

that Hippias
authorities,

it
victories,

abstruse

make

Hippias

starting-point? We

and

arid

did

evidence,

appreciate.

to

is here
from

what
his

as

cycleswhich

and

years

B.C.

the

into

plunge

not

776

235

REGISTER.

by

or
principles,

the year

on

OLYMPIAN

THE

Iphitus

to
to

the
the

236

APPENDIX.

Unfortunatelythe genealogy of Iphitusis

in

Pausanias'

assignedto
the

out

he

day

him

(v.4, 6.);and
of

priori scheme

I will illustrate it by

figurein

speaks of

the

arrival of the Greeks

not

he
inspired,

"

conjectured that

of Antiochus

of

chronology

considerable

drawn

documents

man

was

some

it has

here

was

This

Syracuse.

before

thingsfrom

state

source

years

300

; he

B. c.

Thucydides

these

no

his

precision

eighthcentury

Sicily.As

mentions

he

authority;as

prominent

the

mean

happened

in

have

must

this instance ; but

colonies,as givenby Thucydides

which

event

an

different fathers

still playsa

in the latter half of the

of events

been

Hippias in

speaks with

He

extant

follow
cannot, therefore,

another,which

Italian

in his sixth book.

three

we

histories of Greece

our

of the Sicilian and

even

alreadyhad

not

the

work

evidentlyan

was

scientific than his fellows ;

antiquarianno wiser or more
dations
by dating all the founThucydides betraystheir method
from

downwards

obliged to

was

it only one
how

date

Not,
careful

and

he

so

far

of

the

of the

as

of

know,

from

we

of

of

source

eleventh

century

the middle

of the

of the
below
of

Pheidon

way

by

8th Ol.

his
was

of

Argos,
being the

set

down

as

B. c.

from

hence

tenth
the

was

as

to

The

date

the middle

The

usual
in the

fixed

and

Olympiad

by
The

Temenos.

would

Temenid,
an-

the
mind

my

Archias

eighthcentury.
B.C.,

from

to

placed before

was

747

cityregisters

illusions.

many

tenth

But

termined
Syracuse de-

is

determined

Syracuse was

grants

era.

backward

years

assumption

an

Herakleidae

but

his fixed

foundation

founder, Archias, being the

return

Antiochus

Syracuse.

from

starts

the

Such

chimerical, and
foundation

of

of

of Naxos,
priority

computations

fifth century.

its

the

year ; then
the

was

admit

that

fall
date
same

hence

celebrated

the

by

him.

brought

sum

now

When

venerable

and

find

antiquity. We

Olympian

their

of

most

that

regulated,and
strictly

more

About

is still

there

B. c.

500

were

in

the

the

extant),and
history of

write

the

done

till the

Hippias,

there

victors'

of

time

who

popularitythere, and
old

on

the

the

feasts.

after the
date

of the

manner

of the

the first fifty

Olympiads

unless
We

they are
have

of any

other

centuries
such

the

even,

Greek

B. c.

records, are

which
never

influence

new

to

rhetorician
and

inscriptions

are

as

of his

commencement

Hence

of his

day, by

neither the

to

be

by

other

found, we

such
are

the

names

of the

evidence.
evidence

yet, the corroborative

some

list,

for
register
accepted as genuine,

copy

inscriptionsof

Till

Hiero

man

chronologers

corroborated

not

placed

in Eusebius'

found

Elis,with

even

founder.

mythical

victor.

(probablyin 376 B.C.)

historyof the feast,partlyfrom
the
analogy of
him, partly from

fixed

He

the dates

nor

whole

before

evidence

other

who

with

was

and
archaeologist

offerings.This

votive

constructed

this

of

B. c.

540

for every

not

festival; but

native

was

corded,
re-

statues

from

the

names

from

evidence

was

the

feast

the

B.C.

of

days

(thatof
inscriptions

many

the

strongest negative

580

introduced, though

was
inscriptions

mythical

to

practice of dedicating athlete

the

lished,
estab-

long

in inscriptions
perhaps regularly,
;
onward

history,

recognised by

the

about

sion.
discus-

Greek

referred

existed

list

Nevertheless

Thucydides.
was

have

we

such

no

details

date.

long

games

list of victors

no

early historians,and
evidence

this

lightof

the

into

emerge

of

results

the

up

we

the

find

we

argued, be

nearly a century (to 670 B.C.)in

down

I will

237

before

I have

probably,as

should

He

REGISTER.

OLYMPIAN

THE

ON

the

seventh

or

eighth

records,or fragments
not

entitled

to

assume

of

238

APPENDIX.

Greeks

that the
records

such

at

date

to

writingupon

use

776

as

That

B.C.

nothing

annual

great storehouse

kind

of the

archons

and

noted

were

if

even

down

admit

we

since

683

is not
the further
certain),
earlier completelyunwarrantable

is far from

century

the

(594)on
still unconvinced

commonly spoken
this

Demeter

value

of

the

slayingof

here is the

the Seven

which

Archemorus

composed

is not

there

seems

at

to

the

fruit of
the

marriage

Arcadia, and

by

"

which

his

of

called

Akastos

for his

by Sisyphos(Isthmian?}

established

Troy,
the

which

mVXot,

Nemea,

Achilles

Pythian,

of

brated
cele-

which

the

the death

which
set

at

in honour

commemorate

order

is the

out

of

Aristotle,who
of the ancient

games.'

quotation is
the

out

third,that

Pelops ; eighth,that

the treatise called

festivals and
This

of

againstThebes

This

is

seventh,the Olympian, ordained

established

Python.

in

the

us

commemorate

ordained

Patroklos; tenth,

Amphiktyons

of

the

at

Lykaon

ninth, that

for

the

of

to

sixth,that ordained

in honour

Herakles

by

Argos

in lolkos

of Melikertes

in honour

honour

Athene

by

his

critical researches

onlyspecimenleft to

Panathencea

at

daughters; fourth,that
father Pelias ;

of

Register. Aristotle

made

in

Eleusinia

giant Aster

that
Lykcea ; fifth,

the

ments
frag-

help the

Aristotle makes
as
festivals,

established

Danaos

estimate

having

as

second, the

"

reader

question:

the
list,is : first,

to

step

may

the

(which
nearlya

in Aristotle's

passage

to

that the

B. c.

which
Olympian festival,

order of the

The

of
authenticity

the

opinion,on

'

till now

reserved

I have

upon

for any

stone

the Acropolis of Athens, has yielded

civilization,

of old
us

began

from

scholiast

only grammarian who

no

reason

to

to

refers

Aristides,who
to

the

ruVAot

question the authenticityof

ON

THE

reference

the

be

to

seems

extract

cited,that

these

of Aristotle.

Peploi,with

historians
critic

great

there

239

the work

as

modern

the

of

Was

REGISTER.

strengthof

the

on

now

Register!

ever

for

have

only,

claimed

the

Olympian

an

inference ?

strange

so

its

It

wisscnschaftlickt
Bearbeitung which
begun by Hippias of Elis ? Any calm critic free of

was

prejudice will
of

the

indeed

this

Is

this book

to

authority

the

OLYMPIAN

conclude

rather

and

earlychronology
believer

firm

duty

be

to

of

case

attitude

the

critic.

of

authorityas to the beginning of the

But as a matter
be probably worthless.
nothing about

dealing with

in

are,

as

early dates

for

greater

certainlycritical
in

that

the

of

reach

about

proper

thoroughly critical.
such

and

as

the

Siege

Procne, I think

he

while

would

know

we

of

On

of

he

be

hold

when

Troy,

we

the

by

laid aside

the

much

who

was

cautious

within

matters

him

go back

or

better

on

closelyanalogous

all historical

inquiry,I
But

rest

my

that the

dates,and

to

to

accepts

Thucydides,

of his

many

made

thinks

sanctioned

are

authority

Aristotle.
of

feast, his

of fact

Olympiads,

expressinga positiveopinion.
of Thucydides
I think the case

to

the

Register

Sicilian settlements

the

evidence, seeing that they

and

Aristotle's

reservation

Bury, who,

Mr.

regards the

conclusions

older

I have

however, of great importance

objection or

an

by

argument

my

It is but

it.

considerations

These

these

as

being

foundation

his

of

arranger

This

was

understood

sceptic,such

above.

text

regards

as

he

destructive

acquiescencein

the

in

described

that of

than

that

classifier and

questions

on

mythical historyAristotle

legend, and

of

that

stories rather

another

in

it that

from

to
to

have

the

story of

all this

been

legends
Tereus

caution, and

APPENDIX.

240

contented

himself
the

interpreting

of

calmly

before

stood

with

Greeks

the
him

on

researches, just

by

studies.

special
a

of

matter

and

legends
In

was.

"

the
to

of

that
all

the

the

critical
upon
now

down

the

evidence

shown

reasons

650

B.C.

300

matters

that

from

his

of

honestly accepted
in

turn

their

evidence

Scriptural

yet

the

lists

and

fabrication
of

the

others,

800

Argive

(vol. i.

pp.

B.

c.

we

may

priestesses,
comes

Eng.

ed.)

classes

He

imaginary;

as

applying

accepting nothing

unconfirmed

one

why

130-1

of

certainly

Duncker

Max

consistently,and
of

there

lists is fabricated.

of these

more

fabrication

suspect

to

conclusion

principles

to

and

before

names

in

or

us

consent.

Sparta,

early part

is

tells

These

sceptical

very

seems

lists ;

deliberate

footing
history

about

War,

Trojan

Sicily.

acquiesce

ever

discussing

kings
the

general

but

mistakes,
the

in

particular

most

to

of

men

They

critic

Neither

went

Bible

our

scientific

many

after

different

as

is

Hellanicus'
years

rationalism

modest

very
He

and

sixty

events

years

myths.

Pentekontaetia,

the

as

with

suspect

witness,
many

of

have
them