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- Medicine originated as explanations for misfortunes attributed to relationships with others or nature. It was institutionalized in ancient Mediterranean societies where ideas could be easily exchanged.
- Hippocrates introduced ethics, the theory of four humors, and practical advice based on balancing the microcosm (body) with the macrocosm (environment). His teachings were popular as they were logical and provided diagnosis and prognosis.
- Galen systematized medical knowledge based on Hippocrates but also animal dissections. He influenced medicine as it moved into universities in the Middle Ages. William Harvey experimentally refuted Galen's teachings on blood circulation in the 17th century.
- Medicine originated as explanations for misfortunes attributed to relationships with others or nature. It was institutionalized in ancient Mediterranean societies where ideas could be easily exchanged.
- Hippocrates introduced ethics, the theory of four humors, and practical advice based on balancing the microcosm (body) with the macrocosm (environment). His teachings were popular as they were logical and provided diagnosis and prognosis.
- Galen systematized medical knowledge based on Hippocrates but also animal dissections. He influenced medicine as it moved into universities in the Middle Ages. William Harvey experimentally refuted Galen's teachings on blood circulation in the 17th century.
- Medicine originated as explanations for misfortunes attributed to relationships with others or nature. It was institutionalized in ancient Mediterranean societies where ideas could be easily exchanged.
- Hippocrates introduced ethics, the theory of four humors, and practical advice based on balancing the microcosm (body) with the macrocosm (environment). His teachings were popular as they were logical and provided diagnosis and prognosis.
- Galen systematized medical knowledge based on Hippocrates but also animal dissections. He influenced medicine as it moved into universities in the Middle Ages. William Harvey experimentally refuted Galen's teachings on blood circulation in the 17th century.
Medicine began as explanations for misfortunes which were generally attributed to negative tribal/family relationships or poor relationships with the natural world. Ancient medicine was institutionalised in the Mediterranean World (between Ancient Greece and other southern Europe countries and Asia) as the sea allowed for easy exchange of ideas and a fusion of innovation. Aesclapius (Greek god of medicine) had two daughters: Hygiea (hygiene) and Panacea (pills/medicine/universal remedy), however these two aspects didnt converge for 1000s of years. He had brand recognition in the form of the caduceus. Healing took place in colonnades (buildings with pillars; the temples), and involved books, baths, incubation (sleep, sometimes with steam) and drugs. Hippocrates (c460-377AD) had a tripartite approach: Ethics - the oath (selling point to patients) o based on respect for teachers o sworn to silence of practice (dont share secrets) o help not harm (DO NO HARM) no euthanasia/abortions o no sexual contact o confidentiality of consultation Theory - the four humours of the body (almost scientific/logical) o in balance with the elements and seasons o reflected temperaments/metal health Cholericus - yellow bile (quick to anger, candle in cup on skin which pulls with low pressure) Phlegmaticus phlegm (slow to anger/unexcited, took wine which contained yellow bile, cheered up) Sanguineus - blood (overly optimistic, leached/cut) Melancholicus - black bile (depressed) Practice o advice - to get microcosm in balance with macrocosm, about a healthy lifestyle; nature tends towards perfection and health is perfection in the human body o therapeutics - simples/herbs o surgery - e.g. leaching blood (not supernatural) His teachings were popular because they were accessible in the marketplace (healers were peripatetic, (walked around) and male so not sexually harassed), human not divine (and had some kind of logic), gave both diagnosis and prognosis for patient
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satisfaction, provided an early psychological approach as an
optional extra, and also looked at the environment a patient lived in. Medicine Goes into the Universities After Hippocrates died, there was no more innovation in theory or practice, and his original writings became Holy Writ. This wasnt revived until Claudius Galenus or Galen (c130-201) from Pergamon (in Ancient Greece), a middle-class, well-educated philosopher, physician and author (22 works remain), came along. He trained in Alexandria (Egypt) in physiology and anatomy (they often got one body a year from criminals, otherwise pigs, apes and other animals), and was considered one of the three fathers of medicine (along with Hippocrates and Avicenna). He adapted Hippocrates work (like many others at the time), and took these ideas to Rome, where he was the physician to the Emperor, but also treated gladiators in the Colosseum and hence had extensive practical experience with bodies. He believe prognosis was not divination or prophecy, but rather he synthesised and systemised current medical knowledge (popular with students). He also wrote attacks on other professionals, whilst claiming to be returning to the true Hippocratic approach (using logic), which was an unthreatening way of suggesting change of theory and practice. Galens treatise (formal written work) That the Best Physician is also a Philosopher states that natural philosophy was critical thought (however today we say modern science is thought and experiment). However, most of his work was with animals, and he used comparative anatomy (animal anatomy and physiology due to legal restrictions in the Roman Empire), which was not correct for a human. He also had a teleological that everything works exactly as it should (which is ultimately circular) that later proved popular with the early church. Another misconception he had was miasmas (the state of the air was bad) that he used to explain the great plague of 166CE, although this was a more logical approach than other divine explanations and more similar to the real result. When the Roman Empire fell in the 5 th century, many felt the succeeding Dark Ages were a step backwards in art, culture, religion and healing as tribes took over. Instead, medicine took place in monasteries (where manuscripts of Galens works were copied), and infirmaries became the first hospitals (mostly for older monks and travellers). In the 800s, Charlemagne (Charles the Great, King of Franks) founded many Cathedrals, and the schools for clergy became the first universities (a self-regulating community of students and scholars), resulting in more universities opening in the 11 th Century in Bologna, Paris and Oxford, where there were Faculties of Arts, Law, Theology and Medicine (although Medicine was partly considered a trade), and students were young males proficient in classical languages.
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Artists, Anatomists and Surgeons
Anatomy was studied by plastination (preserving bodies with no smell or decay) which was used as a teaching tool but also as theatre or entertainment. Originally plastination was used for kinds/noblemen so people travelling far could validate that person was dead. Illustrations at the time were thought of as juvenile, as intelligent people read prose because they were literate and educated. There were many problems with the understanding of anatomy: few bodies (criminals or destitute (poor) people), mostly male, were examined, but often decaying dissecting wasnt done expertly (large knives) taught from Galens teachings (based on animals) o wasnt questioned much (e.g. if couldnt find holes in heart, claimed looking at wrong organ or some other explanation), hard to find or work out the truth as there are no labels in the human body and blood everywhere Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) was the first to challenge Galens work, and was a young anatomy professor from Brussels (Belgium) at Padua (northern Italy), and he wrote De Humani Corporis Fabrica (About the Workings of the Human Body, written in Latin) in 1543, which contained detailed drawings by Renaissance artist Jan van Calcar. With invention of the printing press at the same time: copies were identical (no mistakes) and mass produced became must-have for lectern and intelligent people he published a cheap, pocket-sized students edition (early textbook, clever marketing) It made anatomy the centre (both literally in lecture theatres and metaphorically) of medical education for physicians (not surgeons) at universities, and emphasised the body as a collection of parts rather than a whole (as Hippocrates did). However, it made no difference to patient treatment as it doesnt suggest treatments like Hippocrates did. Instead, sick people congregated in cities and went to apothecaries (pharmacists/GPs) or surgeons (which were not physicians who were upper-class, educated, and didnt touch patients except to take a pulse (because Galen said you could), and hence werent a trade). Ambrose Pare (1510-1590) was a French surgeon of the long robe (had dignity and was trained) lived in the time of wars of religion of the 16th century (Protestant vs. Catholic, although they often fought people just for the sake of fighting, even amongst themselves), and new technologies of war (explosives driven projectiles like muskets or arquebus, however they had dangerous recoils and produced messy, infected wounds and burns) resulted in more wounded and hence more extreme conditions to work with Page 3
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people (no time to consider ethics, anything was better than
nothing, many patients). He invented cauterisation, and replaced suppuration (removal of pus) with ointments as they were more successful. He wrote a book called Apologie et Treatise (in French, not Latin or Greek; Apologia (written defence of opinion) and Treatise), stating, I dressed him and God healed him- evidence of the Christian influence. He became the idol for rational, professional and educated surgeons for 200 years. Science and Witchcraft in the 17th Century In the 17th century, natural philosophy became science, and was taught in university to boys and men (although some women inherited family practices) using classical languages. It was mostly based on Hippocratic/Galenic theory with some anatomy. One student of anatomy, William Harvey (1578-1657) from Padua, became a high physician at St. Bartholomews Hospital, London, which allowed his voice to be heard. He later became physician to the kind (the British Charles I), and published De Motu Cordis et Sanguinis (About the Motion of the Heart and Lungs) in 1628 (based on lectures he had given 15-20 years earlier), postulating a circulatory movement of blood (not first, but first to base it on vivisection - experiments of live animals - of warm- and cold-blooded animals). His experiments were repeatable, and refuted Galen (blood did not move in tides, there were no holes in the septum in the heart). He found valves in veins (pumping arms to show veins, blocking one part to drain blood, found in some places it did not come back), although this had been known in Padua, and postulated the existence of capillaries (but unable to prove without a microscope). He was approved of by future physicians as he was an experimenter, not just a speculator. However, he stuck to some of the older Hippocratic, Galenic and Vesalian teachings as he believes in cycles in nature, the heart is an innate heat (like the sun to the solar system or fireplace to house), equates the heart to a monarch in a hierarchy of organs, uses teleological arguments (the ultimate reason for all things is that it is right to be so), investigated with natural senses, and practical medicine was still Hippocratic/Galenic. Alternative and magical medical approaches were considered the low tradition, communicated by memory and oral means (not written). It was considered the grass roots healthcare (came back from the dead) in marketplace, and they put on a show to attract attention (e.g. tooth pullers, bone setters - dislocated bones, quacks (derogatory term to describe person who sold medical service but you didnt approve of - could even be physicians about other physicians) who sold pills/potions. It was also practical and cheap. Many were wise women (who didnt have husbands or families and needed a means of self-sustenance) through herbal cures that often came with spells or midwifery. However this caused turmoil in the state and church as they were outcast as witches,
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further spurred on by the book Malleus Maleficarum (Hammer of the
Witches), however this was mostly founded on fevered imaginations and moral panic, but still resulted in tests/trials (often ducking, drowning and if survived they were a witch, or hung - burning was difficult). It was considered heresy (belief against the church) and there was rivalry with physicians and surgeons over midwifery (who tended to be less accessible), so alternative care was undermined and midwives went underground (they were considered influenced by the devil).
College of Physicians and Surgeons of Alberta QB1803-01472 Certified Record of Proceedings - Illegal sabotage of Alberta Cancer Therapy Programs and abuse (physical violence, harassment, verbal abuse) of frontline healthcare staff by Alberta NDP and their AHS and CPSA Officials, covered-up by CPSA
Andreas Vesalius Bruxellensis: The Bloodletting Letter of 1539: An Annotated Translation and Study of the Evolution of Vesalius's Scientific Development