IMPORTANT DEIFINITIONS IN OPERATING SYSTEMS

Operating System:
Operating system is a program, which acts as an interface between a user and the
computer hardware
Purpose of O.S:
To provide an environment in which a user can use execute programs.
Functions of O.S:
(1) Keep track of the resources
(2) Decide who will have a chance to use the processor
(3) Allocate the resources
(4) Reclaim the resources
Process:
It is basically a program in execution.
Process states are running, ready, blocked, submit & hold
Processor:
Processor is a hardware device that is capable of executing a sequence of instructions.
Race condition:
Where two or more processes are reading or writing some shared data and the final
results depends on who runs precisely when are called race condition
Critical section:
The part of the program where the shared memory is accessed is called critical section.
Preemptive scheduling:
Processes that are logically runnable to be temporarily suspended is called preemptive
scheduling.
Non-preemptive scheduling:
Run to the completion
Round robin scheduling:
Each process is assigned a time interval called its quantum which is allowed to run.
Priority scheduling:
Each process is assigned a priority and the runnable process with the highest priority is
allowed to run.
In variable partition number and size of process in memory vary dynamically.
First fit:
Memory Manager scans the list of segments until it finds a hole that is big enough.

Best fit:
Searches the entire list and takes the smallest hole that is adequate.
Next fit:
Memory Manager keeps tracks of list of segments where it finds a suitable hole.
Worst fit:
It always takes the largest hole.
Traffic controller:
Keep track of the resources(processors and status of the process)
Static partitions:
Memory is divided into partitions prior to the processing of any jobs.
Dynamic partitions:
Partitions are created during the job processing so as to match partition sizes to job
sizes.
Burbing or compaction:
Periodically combine all free ares into one contiguous area. It can be done by moving
the contents of all allocated partitions so that they become contiguous.
Virtual memory:
To use operating system to produce the illusion of an extremely large memory. Since
this large memory is an illusion it is called virtual memory.
Thrashing:
The phenomenon of excessively moving pages back and forth between main memory and
secondary memory is called thrasing.
Page fetch or page failure:
Whenever there is a page reference for which the page is not in memory that event is
called page failure.
FIFO anomaly:
Under certain circumstances adding more physical memory can result in poor
performance.
33Segment:
Segment can be defined as a logical grouping of information such as a routine, or data
area. Each job address space consists of collection of segments.
Pages:
Each job address space is divided into equal pieces called pages.
Blocks or page

Frame:
Physical memory is divided into equal pieces of same size is called blocks.
Pure procedures:
Operates only on variables in registers or in separate data segment associated with the
job.
Overlay:
Swaps only portions of the job's address space.

Buffering:
It attempts to keep both CPU and the I/O device busy all the times. It overlays I/O of a
job with its computation
SPOOLING:
Simultaneous Peripheral Operations On Line. It overlays I/O of one job with the
computation of other jobs
Multiprogramming:
It is term given to a system that may have several process in states of execution at the
same time.
Turn around time:
The time delay between job submission and job completion.
Job:
It is a collection of activities related to do the work required.
Process (task):
It is a computation that may be done concurrently with other computations.

Address space:
The collection of programs and data that are accessed in a process form an address
space.
Pure code (reentrant code):
Pure code is code that does not modify itself.
Interrupt:
It is an event that alters the sequence in which a processor executes instructions.
Context switching:
Switching the CPU to another process if time quantum exceeds.

Throughput:
It is the amount of work accomplished in a given time interval.
Ready queue:
The processes are ready and waiting to execute are kept on a list called ready queue.
Device queue:
The list of processes waiting for a particular I/O devices is called device queue.
Process states:
Running
Ready
Waiting
Dispatching

: The process has been assigned processor and its programs

are executed.
: The process is ready to run.
: The process is waiting for some event.
: The assignment of CPU to the first process on the ready list
is called dispatching. This is performed by a system entity
called dispatcher.

Process Control Block :

It is a data structure containing information that allows the OS to locate all key
information about a process.
First -Come -First Served:
The process which request the CPU first is allocated the CPU first. It is implemented
using FIFO queue.
Shortest Job First (SJF):
When the CPU is available it is assigned to that job with the smallest next CPU burst.
Priority Scheduling:
A priority is assigned with each job and the CPU is allocated to the job with the highest
priority.
Round Robin scheduling:
In this CPU is allocated to each job for the particular time quantum.
Swapping:
Transferring the programs back and forth between main memory and secondary storage
device is called swapping.
Roll-in:
Transferring the jobs from secondary storage to main memory.
Roll-out:
Transferring the jobs from main memory to secondary storage device.

Multiple partitions:
Memory is divided into no. Of regions or partitions. Each region may have one program
to be executed.
Internal fragmentation:
Memory which is internal to a region but is not being used.
External fragmentation:
Occurs when a region is unused and available but too small for any waiting job.
Fragmentation:
Development of large number of separate free area.
Page interrupts:
If the address mapping hardware encounters a page table entry with the status = N, it
generates a page interrupt.
FIFO removal:
Removes the page that has been in memory for the long time.
Pure procedures:
Non modifiable procedures are called pure procedures
LRU removal:
Removes the page that has not been reference for the longest time.
Dynamic linking and loading:
Linking of subroutines is postponed until a reference is explicity made. This is
also called differed linking or differed binding.
Impure procedure:
One way to retain the purity of the procedure segment in a dynamic linking
environment is to place all alterable information in a separate procedure called linkage procedure
or impure procedure.
Dirty bit:
The modified bit is often called dirty bit.
Modified bit = 0 if the page has not been modified
= 1 if the page has been modified.
Prepaging:
Bring all of the pages, which will be needed into memory at one time.
Seek time:
Time taken to move the head to the appropriate track.

Latency time:
Time taken to transfer the data between the disk and main memory.
Blocking and Buffering:
Blocking minimizes the number of physical transfers involving auxiliary storage
during file processing.
Buffering allows I/O operations to proceed in parallel with the operation of the
processor.
Mutual exclusion:
Each process accessing the shared data excludes all others from doing so simultaneously
is called mutual exclusion.
Semaphore (lock byte):
It is a physical entity, which is used to represent the resource.
Aging:
A solution to the problem of indefinite blockage of low priority jobs is called aging. It is
technique of gradually increasing the probity of jobs that wait in the system for a long time.
Race condition:
A race condition occurs when the scheduling of two process is so critical that the
various orders of scheduling them result in different computations.
Deadly embrace:
It is a situation in which two process are unknowingly waiting for the resources that are
held by each other and thus unavailable.
Distributed systems:
Processors communicate with one another through various communication lines
such as high-speed buses or telephone lines. These systems are called distributed systems.
Two types:
Loosely coupled systems:
Process donot share memory or a clock.
Tightly coupled systems:
Process that does share memory or a clock.
Real time systems:
It is used as a control device in dedicated applications.
Concurrent process:
Processes in a system can execute concurrently (ie) many process may be multitasked.
Threads:
It is a basic unit of CPU utilization. It has a non-shared state.

Task:
An environment in which a thread excute is called a task.
Schedulers:
It selects process from queues.
Long term sceduler or Job scheduler

: Select process from the pool and

loads them into memory for
execution.
Short term scheduler or CPU scheduler: Select from processes that are
ready to execute and allocate CPU
to one another.
Multiprocessing:
Simultaneous execution of two or more process by a mutliprocessor computer systems.
Spooling:
It allows I/O and O/P operations to occur simultaneously with processing operations.

Real time processing:

Real time is defined as a data processing system in which time interval is required to
process and respond to its I/P is so small that response itself is useful for controlling physical
activity of a process.
Online procssing:
It is a type of processing where results of data processed transactions is availabe
immediately.
Batch or serial or offline or sequentail processing:
Details collected input in batches & results obtained periodically.
Process scheduling algorithm criteria:
CPU utlization
Throughput
Turn around time
Response time
Waiting time.
Indefine blocking or Starvation:
A process that is ready to run lcaking CPU can be blocked waiting for CPU.
Asymetric processing:
If multiple processors trying to access & update a common data structure, each
processor must be programed carefully. Two processors don't choose same process & that
procsses are not from the queue. The approcah to avoid this problem by appointing one
processor thus creating master slve structure. This is called asymetric processing.

Virtual memory:
It is a technique that allows execution of process that may not be complete in memory.
The advantage is that programs can be larger than physical memory.
Optitmal page replacement algorithms:
"Repalce page that wiil be used for longest period of time"
LRU:
"Replace page that has not been used for longest period of time".
MFU:
"It is based on the argument page with smallest count was probaly just brought in and has
yet to be used".
LFU:
Keeps a counter of number of references that have been made to each page. Page with
smallest count is replaced.
ART (Active Reference Table) or Active Name Table:
It is used to set linkage indirect words so that same segment number is used for a segment
throughout the job.
AST (Active Segment Table):
It is uset to set segment map table entries to share the same the physical segment.
Loosely Coupled Multiprocessing or coordinated job scheduling:
Each processor is associated with separate system. When a job arrives it may be assigned
to any system. To accomplish the balancing of assigning jobs, all job scheduling must be
coordinated.
Tightly coupled multiprocessing or Master/Slave Scheduling:
Memory and I/O devices are assigned to the processes, not to the processors.
Suspend Lock:
When a processor becomes blocked due to a normal P operation such as waiting for an
I/O completion the processor may be reassigned to some other process. This is called suspend
lock.
Masking:
OS may wish to mask out new interrupts while it is working on previous ones.

Differences between DOS and UNIX.

DOS

UNIX

1. There is no login and logout procedure.

The login and logout procedure is a must one

2. Both parent and child process can not

be active at same time.

Here it is possible

3. It is a single user system

It is a multi user system

4. It is a monoprogramming system

It is multiprogramming system

5. It is not a multitasking system

It is multitasking system

6. File name should be 8 characters

1 to 255 characters.

7. Back slash (\) is used to separate

the directory.

Front slash (/) is used

8. Files can have attributes.

No such attributes

9. No file security is Available

File security is very strong.

10. Shell scripts are weaker

Stronger

11. Developed using AL

HLL

12. It is closed architecture

It is an open architecture

13. Each line contains one command

More than one command

is allowed per line

14. No protection bits for the files

Here protection bit is available.

15. File name can have ASCII set and

128 additional characters

Only ASCII set

16. Back ground process can not be run

We can run background process also.

17. Swapping of page is not possible

Here it is possible

18. File names are case sensitivity

No case sensitivity

19. Only one working directory per disk

More than one working directory

20. It supports segmentation and demand

paging

Here demand paging is supported.

21. They don't have device independent

file system

It have device independent system.

22. No concept of super user.

Yes

23. No priorities for the processes

Processes are scheduled according to

the priority.
less complicated.

24. Memory management system concept

more complicated.
25. There is no i-node concept

i-node contains file size, attributes and other