TOPIC 2 : THEORIES OF PSYCHOLOGY AND SOCIOLOGY

Behavioral Theories

Classical conditioning by Ivan Pavlov, is a technique used in behavioral

training in which a naturally occurring stimulus is paired with a response.
Next, a previously neutral stimulus is paired with the naturally occurring
stimulus. Eventually, the previously neutral stimulus comes to evoke the
response without the presence of the naturally occurring stimulus. The
Operant conditioning

by B.F. Skinner (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a

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Edward Lee Thorndike (1874- 1949)

Thorndike's experiments corroborate Skinner's. Thorndike's "puzzle boxes"

were boxes where a cat placed inside would have to perform some kind of
task to escape. Not knowing how to escape the box, the cat would try
various unsuccessful methods of escape--say, clawing at the walls--until it
would stumble upon the correct action that would allow escape--a process
called trial and error. When the same cat was placed in the same box
again, it would be able to escape the box more quickly, because it had
been conditioned to perform the successful action in order to achieve the
desired effect of escaping the box.
John Broadus Watson (1878 1958)
John B. Watson, the founder of behaviorism, demonstrated classical
conditioning empirically through experimentation using the Little Albert
experiment in which a child ("Albert") was presented with a white rat (CS).
After a control period in which the child reacted normally to the presence
of the rat, the experimenters paired the presence of the rat with a loud,
jarring noise caused by clanging two pipes together behind the child's
head (US). As the trials progressed, the child began showing signs of
distress at the sight of the rat, even when unaccompanied by the
frightening noise. Furthermore, the child demonstrated generalization of
stimulus associations, and showed distress when presented with any white,
furry objecteven such things as a rabbit, dog, a fur coat, and a Santa
Claus mask with hair.
Cognitive Theories
Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
Piaget's stage theory describes the cognitive development of children.
Cognitive development involves changes in cognitive process and abilities.

In Piagets view, early cognitive development involves processes based

upon actions and later progresses into changes in mental operations.
The Sensorimotor Stage
The Preoperational Stage
The Concrete Operational Stage
The Formal Operational Stage
Support and Criticism of Piaget
Cognitive Theories
Theories of Intelligence
Psychologist Louis L. Thurstone (1887-1955) offered a differing theory of
intelligence. Instead of viewing intelligence as a single, general ability,
Thurstone's theory focused on seven different "primary mental abilities"
(Thurstone, 1938). The abilities that he described were:
Verbal comprehension

Word fluency

Reasoning

Associative memory

Perceptual speed

Spatial visualization

Numerical ability

Cognitive Theories

Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Visual-Spatial Intelligence

Interpersonal Intelligence

Linguistic-Verbal Intelligence

Intrapersonal Intelligence

Logical
Intelligence

Naturalistic Intelligence

Mathematical

Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence

Existential Intelligence
Developmental Theories

Musical Intelligence
Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development
The Anal Stage
The Phallic Stage
Latency Period
The Genital Stage

 Developmental
Development

Theories:

Erikson's

Theory

of

Psychosocial

1. _______________v __________________
2. Autonomy v Shame & Doubt
3. _____________ v ________________
4. Industry v Inferiority
5. _____________v _____________
6. Intimacy v Isolation
7. Generativity v Stagnation
8. Integrity v Despair
Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor stage (Infancy). In this period (which has 6 stages),
intelligence is demonstrated through motor activity without the use of
symbols. Knowledge of the world is limited (but developing) because its
based on physical interactions / experiences. Children acquire object
permanence at about 7 months of age (memory). Physical development
(mobility) allows the child to begin developing new intellectual abilities.
Some symbollic (language) abilities are developed at the end of this stage.
Pre-operational stage (Toddler and Early Childhood). In this period
(which has two substages), intelligence is demonstrated through the use of
symbols, language use matures, and memory and imagination are
developed, but thinking is done in a nonlogical, nonreversable manner.
Egocentric thinking predominates.
Concrete operational stage (Elementary and early adolescence). In this
stage (characterized by 7 types of conservation: number, length, liquid,
mass, weight, area, volume), intelligence is demonstarted through logical
and systematic manipulation of symbols related to concrete objects.
Operational thinking develops (mental actions that are reversible).
Egocentric thought diminishes.
Formal operational stage (Adolescence and adulthood). In this stage,
intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related to
abstract concepts. Early in the period there is a return to egocentric
thought. Only 35% of high school graduates in industrialized countries
obtain formal operations; many people do not think formally during
adulthood.
Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

 Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation

Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange
Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships
Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order.
Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights
Stage 6: Universal Principles
Social Learning Theory by Albert Bandura
People can learn new information and behaviors by watching other people.
Known as observational learning (or modeling), this type of learning can be
used to explain a wide variety of behaviors.
Attachment Theory (John Bowlby (19071990)
Preattachment (Phase I) lasts from birth to approximately 12 weeks of
age. During this time, children make little distinction between people in
their vicinity. They turn toward them, follow them with their eyes, and are
generally more content when others are around.
Attachment-in-the-making (Phase II) is the period from about 12
weeks to 6 months of age. At this point, children continue to be interested
in people around them. They do not express concern when strangers are
introduced during this period. The main change at this phase is that infants
become more enthusiastic in their responses to their primary caregivers.
They begin to clearly prefer that key person who is providing for their basic
needs.
Clear-cut attachment (Phase III) begins around 6 months of age and
continues to about 2 years. Now, the young child clearly discriminates
between people who provide primary care and others. As children begin to
explore the world around them, they use the attached person as a secure
base from which they move out to interact with people and things. The
bonds between primary caregivers and the child are strong, and it is hard
for the child to be separated from these attachment figures. Strangers
produce more anxiety and concern for children during this phase as well.
Goal-corrected partnership (Phase IV) finds the 2-year-old beginning
to develop relationships with attached persons that are more complex and
that start to recognize the goals and plans of the attached adults. Up to
this point, the child has focused on having needs met, and the attachment
bond is a rather one-sided relationship. Slowly, these partnerships mature,
and the increased opportunities for reciprocal interactions benefit both the
child and the adult.
Parenting Styles

The Four Parenting Styles

Authoritarian Parenting In this style of parenting, children are expected
to follow the strict rules established by the parents. Failure to follow such
rules usually results in punishment. Authoritarian parents fail to explain the
reasoning behind these rules. If asked to explain, the parent might simply
reply, "Because I said so." These parents have high demands, but are not
responsive to their children. According to Baumrind, these parents "are
obedience- and status-oriented, and expect their orders to be obeyed
without explanation" (1991).
Authoritative Parenting Like authoritarian parents, those with an
authoritative parenting style establish rules and guidelines that their
children are expected to follow. However, this parenting style is much more
democratic. Authoritative parents are responsive to their children and
willing to listen to questions. When children fail to meet the expectations,
these parents are more nurturing and forgiving rather than punishing.
Baumrind suggests that these parents "monitor and impart clear standards
for their childrens conduct. They are assertive, but not intrusive and
restrictive. Their disciplinary methods are supportive, rather than punitive.
They want their children to be assertive as well as socially responsible, and
self-regulated as well as cooperative" (1991).
Permissive Parenting
Permissive parents, sometimes referred to as indulgent parents, have very
few demands to make of their children. These parents rarely discipline
their children because they have relatively low expectations of maturity
and self-control. According to Baumrind, permissive parents "are more
responsive than they are demanding. They are nontraditional and lenient,
do not require mature behavior, allow considerable self-regulation, and
avoid confrontation" (1991). Permissive parents are generally nurturing
and communicative with their children, often taking on the status of a
friend more than that of a parent.
Uninvolved Parenting
An uninvolved parenting style is characterized by few demands, low
responsiveness and little communication. While these parents fulfill the
child's basic needs, they are generally detached from their child's life. In
extreme cases, these parents may even reject or neglect the needs of their
children.
Humanist Theories:Theory
MASLOW (1908-1970)

of

Hierachy

of

Needs

(ABRAHAM

THEORIES OF SOCIOLOGY
Structural-Functionalism Emile Durkheim.Durkheim is a sociological
theory that originally attempted to explain social institutions as collective

means to meet individual biological needs (originally just functionalism).

Later it came to focus on the ways social institutions meet social needs
(structural-functionalism).
Conflict Theory
Social conflict theory is a Marxist-based social theory which argues that
individuals and groups (social classes) within society have differing
amounts of material and non-material resources (the wealthy vs. the poor)
and that the more powerful groups use their power in order to exploit
groups with less power.
The following are three primary assumptions of modern conflict theory:
Competition over scarce resources is at the heart of all social relationships.
Competition rather than consensus is characteristic of human
relationships.
Inequalities in power and reward are built into all social structures.
Individuals and groups that benefit from any particular structure strive to
see it maintained.
Change occurs as a result of conflict between competing interests rather
than through adaptation. Change is often abrupt and revolutionary rather
than evolutionary.

Symbolic Interactionism
Symbolic interactionism is derived from American pragmatism, especially
the work of George Herbert Mead and Charles Cooley. Herbert Blumer
The main principles of symbolic interactionism are:
human beings act toward things on the basis of the meanings that things
have for them
these meanings arise of out of social interaction
social action results from a fitting together of individual lines of action
Social Constructionism by Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckmann
Social constructionism focuses on the description of institutions and
actions and not on analyzing cause and effect. Socially constructed reality
is seen as an on-going dynamic process; reality is re-produced by people
acting on their interpretations of what they perceive to be the world
external to them. Berger and Luckmann argue that social construction
describes both subjective and objective reality - that is that no reality
exists outside what is produced and reproduced in social interactions.

 Social constructionism is often seen as a source of the postmodern

movement, and has been influential in the field of cultural studies.
Feminist Theory
Contemporary sociological theory has been greatly influenced by the
development of feminist theory which analyzes the status of women in
society with the purpose of using that knowledge to better womens lives.
Feminist legal theory is based on the belief that the law has been
instrumental in women's historical subordination. The project of feminist
legal theory is twofold. First, feminist jurisprudence seeks to explain ways
in which the law played a role in women's former subordinate status.
Second, feminist legal theory is dedicated to changing women's status
through a reworking of the law and its approach to gender.