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LEADING ARTICLE
School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, England
The School for Health, University of Bath, Bath, England
Psychology and Sport Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, England
Department of Human Biology, MRC UCT Research Unit for Exercise Science and Sports
Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
Abstract
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Atkinson et al.
that the exercise is sub-maximal in intensity. However, such periodic measurements during a TTE test
may allow subjects to estimate elapsed time and this
information could be used to surpass (or match) any
previously recorded time.
It is clear that TTE protocols are not immune
from human reactivity effects, especially if cues are
provided unwittingly about elapsed time. Moreover,
TTE protocols are poor analogues of most sporting
contests[1] and, therefore, provide no information on
work-rate distribution. If one accepts that the definition and measurement of endurance performance
should be relevant to real athletic competitions (and,
indeed, to other aspects of the prolonged work of
humans in, for example, occupational contexts),
then work-rate distribution is a vital component of
endurance performance.
Recent developments in the direct measurement
of power output during actual cycling, as well as
new theories concerning the mechanisms of fatigue,
may have helped to raise the profile of pacing strategy research over the last 10 years. First, it is now
possible to record power output accurately and reliably[2] whilst a cyclist is riding his or her own bicycle
in a velodrome[3] or on the road. Second, following
some criticisms of the catastrophe theory of fatigue,[4,5] there has been an increased interest in
complex systems involving the brain for controlling
self-chosen exercise intensity.[6] The perception of
Sports Med 2007; 37 (8)
649
Race-specific
retarding
forces
Pacing strategy
Rider position
Cycling power
Race-specific
training
strategies
Race-specific inherent
physiological ability
Race-specific
nutritional
strategies
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Atkinson et al.
port capacity is known to be one adaptation to highintensity sprint training that could be related to this
improvement in performance.[23] Repeated supramaximal sprints have since been recommended as
essential competitive preparation for all endurance
athletes.[20]
1.3 Nutritional Considerations
651
The major physical retarding forces during cycling are caused by air resistance and resistance due
to gravity. Rolling resistance and frictional losses
are thought to account for <10% of total energy
expenditure.[37] In brief, the major components of
rolling resistance are total load on the tyre, riding
surface, tyre diameter, construction and pressure.[37,38] Frictional losses are thought to occur from
both the chain drive system and in various roller
bearings, although these losses have been deemed
relatively trivial.[39]
Air resistance is the major retarding force during
cycling on flat terrain at speeds >15 km/h.[40] Air
resistance increases as an approximate squared
function of cycling velocity. Aerodynamic drag
comprises both pressure and friction drag, which
relate to the riders shape and frontal area, and surface smoothness, respectively.[7] The pressure drag
component creates a pressure vortex for a slipstreaming (drafting) cyclist who rides behind another cyclist, enabling up to a 30% reduction in power
Sports Med 2007; 37 (8)
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Atkinson et al.
output.[41] The potential negative impact of air resistance on overall race velocity has influenced both
bicycle design and rider position. Such optimisation
of aerodynamics was clearly demonstrated when
Chris Boardman broke Tony Romingers world
hour record in 1996, despite Boardman weighing
6kg more and being estimated to average 20W less
power than Rominger.[42] Boardmans success was
helped by a revolutionary bicycle design that allowed adoption of a very aerodynamic superman
position, which has since been banned in cycling
events.[7]
Aerodynamic drag is also determined by relative
air movement and not just horizontal ground velocity. Cycling at 30 km/h into a 10 km/h headwind
requires a power output equivalent to riding at
40 km/h with no headwind. Indeed, Martin et al.[39]
reported that the relationship between wind velocity
and cycling speed is very nearly linear, although
these authors considered just one power output in
their calculation (255W). Fluctuations in air density
caused by changes in air temperature, barometric
pressure and humidity, may also impact upon relative power generation.[7]
The impact of gravity on cycling velocity is
determined largely by the mass of rider and bicycle.
Martin et al.[39] maintained that the relationship between gradient and cycling velocity is nearly linear,
in keeping with the effects of wind. When cycling
on the flat or downhill, the mass of rider and bicycle
is less influential or is even an advantage, since air
resistance relative to body mass is less for larger
than for smaller riders.[43]
1.5 Pacing Strategy: General Considerations
for Cycling
An appropriate distribution of energetic resources is considered vital to athletic performance,[44] particularly when success requires completing a given distance in the shortest possible time. To
achieve optimal performance, all available energy
stores should be used before finishing, without causing fatigue and a significant deceleration late in the
event. This optimisation requires an appropriate
pacing strategy, which has been defined by Atkin 2007 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved.
track (wood or cement) that typically has a circumference of 333m.[3] TT events staged on a cycling
velodrome include the 1km sprint or kilo, the 4km
pursuit and the hour record. These events are
naturally subject to fewer variations in the physical
characteristics of the environment (particularly
when the velodrome is enclosed). Therefore, gradient, wind speed, ambient temperature, barometric
pressure, altitude and condition of the riding surface
are all quite stable. The relations between physiological effort, power output and cycling velocity are
consequently relatively strong in such events.[7] This
enables pacing strategies to be imposed and monitored using split times during the TT. Moreover, a
TT that is held in the similar constant environment
of the laboratory is externally valid to track racing.
2.1 Laboratory Studies
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Atkinson et al.
Power (W)
350
300
250
Messtechnik, Julich, Germany). Alternative measurements, such as heart rate and ratings of perceived exertion,[61] were shown by Atkinson and
Brunskill[45] to be relatively insensitive to subtle but
important changes in power output, especially at the
start of an exercise period, although further research
is required to confirm these observations.
In support of the notion that an evenly paced
strategy should be adopted during a longer TT on the
road, as well as on the track, Palmer et al.[51] observed that Chris Boardman won an elite 80km TT,
whilst measurements of heart rate deviated by only 5
beats/min from the 178 beats/min average during the
race. Nevertheless, Swain[43] suggested that the variable effects of wind, gradient and other ambient
conditions on road TT performance may complicate
the choice of pacing strategy.
Fluctuations in gradient and wind almost always
occur during a road TT. It is extremely unlikely that
a TT course is completely flat, is in completely still
conditions and/or orientated so that there is a 90
crosswind from the right or left throughout the
whole race. Such fluctuations in wind direction and
gradient inevitably lead to variations in cycling
speed, even when the cyclist maintains a constant
power output. For example, Martin et al.[39] demonstrated, using a mathematical model, that a hypothetical cyclist who is able to sustain 255W would
travel at 8 m/s in a 5 m/s headwind compared with
14 m/s in a 5 m/s tailwind, and at 6 m/s during a 5%
ascent compared with 17 m/s during a 5% descent.
Since these effects of wind and gradient can be
modelled, it is possible to predict how variations in
power output, wind speed and gradient interact to
affect cycling speeds during a TT.
3.2 Modelling the Influence of Gradient and
Wind Speed
200
150
100
0
100
200
700
800
655
cess; (iii) quantify how changes in modelling parameters might affect performance; and (iv) quantify
other aspects of performance, such as the relative
contribution of energy from aerobic and anaerobic
sources.
During cycling, the velocity of the bike and rider
depends on the balance between the propulsive
forces applied to the pedals and the sum of all the
resistive forces acting on the bike. These factors
include some obvious (wind and rolling resistance)
and some less obvious (efficiency of the chain drive
system and inertia of the wheels) forms of resistance. These physical factors were accounted for by
Di Prampero et al.,[63] who used biomechanical data
to calculate the equation of motion of a cyclist.
Swain[43] utilised this equation to examine theoretical time savings by varying power on hills and wind.
2 in mL/min and velocity km/h, the
Modified for VO
equation of Di Prampero et al.[63] is (equation 1):
.
VO2 = 0.143 M s + 0.0108 A (PB T-1) (s + h)2 s
+ 31.2 M i s
(Eq. 1)
where M is the mass of the bicycle and rider in kg, s
is the cyclists speed in km/h, A is the riders total
surface area in m2, PB is barometric pressure in mm
Hg, T is ambient temperature in degrees Kelvin, h is
the headwind speed in km/h and i is the fractional
road incline. The first expression (0.143 M s) is
the oxygen cost of overcoming rolling resistance,
the second [0.0108 A (PB T-1) (s + h)2 s] is
the oxygen cost of overcoming air resistance, and
the third (31.2 M i s) is the oxygen cost of
overcoming gravity.[43]
Swain[43] assumed that the mass of rider and
bicycle was 80kg and that total surface area was
1.8m2, whilst barometric pressure was 760mm Hg
2,
and the ambient temperature was 293K. Net VO
hill grade and wind velocity were then entered into
the equation as independent variables to determine
subsequent bicycle speed. Swain[43] then investigated the effect of variations in road grade (15% to
15%), wind speed (24 to 24 km/h) and variations of
2 and, therefore, power (015%) on 10km and
VO
40km TT performance. The results showed that any
2007 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved.
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Atkinson et al.
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Power variability 0%
Power variability 5%
Power variability 10%
Power variability 15%
1200
1000
800
Finish time (s)
600
400
0%
5%
10%
Gradient
b
3900
3800
3700
3600
3500
3400
3300
3200
0
2.2
4.4
Wind velocity (m/s)
6.6
Fig. 3. Times for completion of (a) a 10km time trial at 289W when
gradient and power are varied; and (b) a 40km time trial at 289W
when wind velocity and power are varied (reproduced from Atkinson et al.,[69] with permission).
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Atkinson et al.
Power (W)
659
260
250
240
230
220
210
200
190
Constant
Variable
The use of trade names is for product identification purposes only and does not imply endorsement.
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Atkinson et al.
661
an anticipatory exercise response that would control the exercise work rate by regulating the number
of motor units that are recruited or derecruited during prolonged exercise in the heat.[88]
Finally, Tucker et al.[89] have recently shown that
during self-paced cycling exercise in the heat, power
output and electromyographic (iEMG) activity (an
indirect measure of muscle activation) decrease well
before the core temperature reaches 40C. Further,
the power output and iEMG activity were greatest in
the final kilometre of a 20km cycling TT, when the
rectal temperatures were also the highest. A catastrophic model for fatigue cannot explain this observation, for it holds that the ability of the brain to
recruit motor units to produce a given force deteriorates at higher body temperatures. Thus, no allowance is made for the brain to reduce the level of
motor unit recruitment before the body temperature
reaches critical levels, and for the motor unit recruitment to increase when body temperature is higher
than before.
Collectively, these studies suggest that when
force output or exercise work rate are self-selected
rather than being fixed, an anticipatory mechanism[86,89-92] adjusts the work rate by regulating the
degree of motor unit recruitment to prevent body
temperature from rising to levels that may cause
harm or premature fatigue.[88] The brain thus acts
pre-emptively to ensure that a catastrophic failure of
thermoregulation does not occur. Such regulation
represents homeostatic control, the goal of which
would be to prevent an abnormal rise in body temperature by regulating the rate of heat production.[88,89]
4.3 Homeostatic Control in Other Conditions
Similar regulation may occur under various conditions, suggesting that the brain monitors afferent
inputs detailing information on the oxygen content
of the inspired air,[93-95] energy substrate availability[96,97] and, crucially, the anticipated duration of the
exercise bout.[58,98] This final factor, discussed in the
previous section, is essential for optimal pacing,
since any anticipatory calculation cannot be made
unless duration of exercise is known with some
Sports Med 2007; 37 (8)
662
accuracy. That is, if the adjustments in pacing strategy serve to prevent harmful or limiting disturbances
to homeostasis before the end of exercise, as is
described in this review, then the expected duration
of exercise would serve as the anchor point against
which this regulation would occur.
In summary, pacing strategy is regulated in a
complex anticipatory system that monitors afferent
feedback from various physiological systems, and
then regulates the work rate so that potentially limiting changes in physiological systems do not occur
before the endpoint of exercise is reached. It is
critical that the endpoint of exercise be known, so
that adjustments to exercise work rate can be made
within the context of a known duration of exercise.
Pacing strategies are thus the consequence of complex regulation and serve a dual role: they are both
the result of homeostatic regulation by the brain, as
well as being the means by which such regulation is
achieved.
5. How Does the Brain Control Pace?
Whatever pacing strategy is chosen or is optimal
for a particular exercise bout, the arguments outlined in the previous section suggest that initiation
and modulation of the chosen pacing strategy is
regulated by control processes in the brain. In order
for the brain to choose a particular pacing strategy
for a particular exercise bout, knowledge of the
distance or time to be completed during the exercise
bout is perhaps the critical factor used to make this
choice.[99,100] Memory of prior events of similar
duration or time stored in the brains neuronal circuits will optimise the choice of strategy chosen by
the brain, as will awareness of the external environmental conditions and internal metabolic reserve
capacity, metabolic rate and core temperature at the
start of the exercise bout.[78,100,101] Once the exercise
bout begins, these factors will be used by a pacing
algorithm in the brain to calculate alteration in power output throughout the exercise bout, which result
from unexpected changes in either the external environment or internal physiological milieu, in order to
maintain or alter the initially chosen pacing strate 2007 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved.
Atkinson et al.
In order for all these different functions associated with initiating and modulating a particular pacing
strategy to be performed by the pacing algorithm in
the brain, it is clear that a large number of different
brain systems are required to be active and synchronised throughout an exercise bout. Afferent input from interoceptors, which monitor physiological
activity such as heart rate, respiratory rate, metabolic rate, fuel reserve levels and core temperature,
have been shown to induce activity in the thalamus,
hypothalamus, insula and cingulate cortical regions
during exercise.[104-106] Afferent input from exteroceptors, which measure external environmental conditions, have been shown to activate the parietal
somatosensory cortex.[104,107] Memory formation
and decision making involving sequences of prior
exercise bouts, linked by their common events and
places, occur in the hippocampus, together with the
parahippocampus and surrounding areas of temporal
cortex, and the prefrontal cortex.[108-110] Motivation
and emotional state are also important in generating
and maintaining a desired goal and associated pacing strategy during exercise, and emotional responses are thought to be triggered in the amygdala,
limbic system, orbitofrontal and anterior cingulate
cortex.[104,111] Once a decision has been made by
the brain, the output to the muscles altering or
maintaining a force output originates in the motor
(M1) and premotor supplementary motor area
(SMA) cortex.[112,113]
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