P A R T

VII

Trigonometric Functions

19

Trigonometry: Introducing
Periodic Functions

Transition to Trigonometry
Familiarity with a variety of families of functions provides us with tools necessary for
modeling phenomena in the world around us. In the next few chapters we will work with
functions that are particularly useful in modeling cyclic or repeating phenomena because the
functions themselves are cyclic. Examples of cyclic behavior abound in nature; the rhythm
of a heartbeat, the length of a day, the height of the sun in the sky, the path of a sound wave,
and the motion of the planets all feature repeating patterns. Wheels are spinning all around
uswheels of bikes, trucks, carsgears of vehicles, watches, and other machines. Think
about the motion of a spot on a steadily rotating gear, or of a seat on a steadily spinning
Ferris wheel. The height of the seat is a cyclic function of time; it rises and falls in a smooth,
repeating manner. In this chapter we introduce trigonometric functions,1 cyclic functions
that exhibit and help us explore behaviors we observe around us.

1 The word trigonometry refers to triangles, not circles. Trigonometry can be viewed in two distinct ways. Historically it
developed in the context of triangles, and hence the name of this family of functions refers to triangles. We will take a triangle
perspective in Chapter 20.

593

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19.1 THE SINE AND COSINE FUNCTIONS:

DEFINITIONS AND BASIC PROPERTIES

Definition
Below is a circle of radius 1 centered at the origin. This is referred to as the unit
circle. Well dene trigonometric functions with reference to a point P = (u, v) on
the unit circle. We locate P using a real number x as follows.
Start at (1, 0).
If x 0, travel along the circle in a counterclockwise direction a distance x units
to arrive at P (x).
If x < 0, travel along the circle in a clockwise direction a distance |x| units to
arrive at P (x).
In other words, x indicates a directed distance around the unit circle. Equivalently, x
indicates a directed arc length from (1, 0), where the term arc length means a distance
along a circle. As x varies, the point P moves around the unit circle. As the position
of P varies, so do its u- and v-coordinates.
v
1
P(x) = (cos x, sin x)
sin x
x
cos x

directed distance
along the circle

u2 + v 2 = 1

Figure 19.1

sin x = the v-coordinate of P (x)

(the vertical coordinate, the second coordinate,

the (signed) height of P )

cos x = the u-coordinate of P (x)

(the horizontal coordinate, the rst coordinate)2

These functions are called the sine and cosine functions, respectively.

From these denitions all the properties of the trigonometric functions follow.
2 Heres a way to remember which is which: put cosine and sine in alphabetical order. Cosine is rst; it corresponds to the
rst coordinate of P . Sine is second, and corresponds to the second coordinate of P . We have labeled our coordinate axes u and
v because we want x to determine the point P , making sine and cosine functions of x.

19.1

The Sine and Cosine Functions: Denitions and Basic Properties

595

Our method for locating P essentially involves wrapping the real number line around
the unit circle, with zero glued to the point (1, 0) on the circle. Figure 19.2 shows the unit
circle with the portion of the number line from 0 to 2 wrapped around it like measuring
tape. Well refer to this as the calibrated unit circle.

N EXAMPLE 19.1
SOLUTION

Use the calibrated unit circle to approximate sin(1.1) and cos(1.1).

Locate P (1.1) by moving along the unit circle a distance 1.1 counterclockwise from
the point (1.0). Approximate the coordinates of P (1.1). P (1.1) (0.45, 0.9). Therefore
sin(1.1) 0.9 and cos(1.1) 0.45.
v

P(1.1) (.45, .9)

2
1

0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1

.3
.2
.1

.1 .2 .3
6

4
5

Figure 19.2

EXERCISE 19.1

(a) Find values of x between 0 and 2 such that the coordinates of P (x) are
(i) (1, 0).
(ii) (0, 1).
(iii) (1, 0).
(iv) (0, 1).
(b) Use the denitions of sine and cosine to evaluate the following.
(iv) cos 2
(v) sin 3
(i) sin
(ii) cos
(iii) sin 2
2

EXERCISE 19.2

3
2

Use the calibrated unit circle shown to approximate the following. (You can check your
answers using a calculator, but be sure that the calculator is in radian mode as opposed to
degree mode.)3
(i) sin 0.3

EXERCISE 19.3

(vi) cos

(ii) sin 2

(iii) sin 3

(iv) sin 4

(v) sin 5

(vi) cos 5

Use the calibrated unit circle shown to approximate all x-values between 0 and 2 such
that
(i) sin x = 0.8.

(ii) sin x = 0.4.

(iii) cos x = 0.8.

(iv) cos x = 0.2.

3 Radians and degrees will be discussed in Section 19.4. To check whether your calculator is in radian mode, try to evaluate
cos . You will get 1 only if your calculator is in radian mode.

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(Again, use a calculator to check the accuracy of your answers. There are two answers to
each question.)
The calibrated unit circle displayed in Figure 19.2 shows only the interval [0, 2]
wrapped around the unit circle, but in fact we want to wrap the entire number line around
the circle. The circumference of the unit circle is 2 , so every directed distance of 2
(positive or negative) brings us back to the same point P . Therefore there are innitely many
x-values corresponding to any point P . If x0 corresponds to the point P , so do x0 + 2 and
x0 2 . In fact, P (x0) = P (x0 + 2n), where n is any integer, because circumnavigating
the circle any integer number of times (in either direction) has no impact on the terminal
point P .

Periodicity
One of the most striking characteristics of trigonometric functions is their cyclic nature. A
periodic function is marked by repeated cycles.

Definition
A function f is periodic if there is a positive constant k such that for all x in
the domain of f , f (x + k) = f (x). The smallest of such constant k is called the
period of f . If a function has period k, then we can select any single interval of
length k in the domain, graph the function over this domain, and from this construct
the entire function by horizontally shifting this fundamental block k units (left and
right) repeatedly.

Below are graphs of some periodic functions.

period = 3

14

period = 10

period = 4

Figure 19.3

From their denitions we observe that the values of the output of sine and cosine repeat
every 2 units; sin x and cos x both are periodic with period 2. Therefore, by graphing
the functions on any interval of length 2 we know how they behave everywhere.

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The Sine and Cosine Functions: Denitions and Basic Properties

597

The Graphs of sin x and cos x

Work through the following exercise.
EXERCISE 19.4

A steadily spinning Ferris wheel with a radius of 10 meters makes one counterclockwise
revolution every 2 minutes. Placing the origin of a coordinate system at the center of the
vertical wheel, consider the position of a seat that is at the point (10, 0) at time t = 0.
(a) Plot the vertical position (height) of the seat as a function of time t, t in minutes.
(b) Plot the horizontal position of the seat as a function of time t, t in minutes.
The graphs of sin x and cos x are closely related to those of Exercise 19.4. To see the
connection, think of a Ferris wheel with a radius of 1 unit and focus on the point on the
rim that starts at position (1, 0). Then, instead of plotting height versus time, plot height
versus the distance the point travels. This will give the graph of sin x. The graph of cos x is
obtained by looking at the horizontal position of the same point. The graphs are sketched
below.

1
x

6 5 4 3 2 1
1

6 5 4 3 2 1
1

f(x) = sin x
(a)

1 2 3 4 5 6

f(x) = cos x
(b)

Figure 19.4

In Example 19.2 and Exercise 19.3 we approximated the values of sin x and cos x for
various values of x. If x is any integer multiple of /2, we can evaluate sin x and cos x
exactly because we can nd the coordinates of P (x) exactly.
The circumference of the unit circle is 2, therefore we know the following.
P (x) is (1, 0)

for x = 0, 2, 4, . . . , or . . . 4, 2 , 0, 2, 4, . . .
i.e., for x = 2n, where n is an integer.

P (x) is (1, 0)

for x = , 2, 4, . . . , or 3, , , 3, 5 , . . .
i.e., for x = + 2n, where n is an integer.

P (x) is (0, 1)

for x = 2 , 2 2, 2 4, . . .
i.e., for x = 2 + 2n, where n is an integer.

P (x) is (0, 1)

for x =
i.e., for

3 3
2 , 2
x = 3
2

2,

3
2

4, . . .

+ 2n, where n is an integer.

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v
(0, 1)
2
1

.3
.2
.1

3
(1, 0)

(1, 0)
.1 .2 .3

4
(0, 1)

Figure 19.5

From the denitions of sine and cosine we can see that the zeros of these functions as
well as all the local maxima and local minima occur at integer multiples of /2. Therefore,
when sketching sin x and cos x, the x-axis is frequently labeled just in multiples of /2.
This labeling has been known to trap dozing students into assuming, incorrectly, that the
trigonometric functions are dened only for x-values with the number explicitly written
as a factor. This notion is wrong! Returning to the original denitions of sine and cosine
makes it clear that the domain of the functions is all real numbers since the entire real
number line is wrapped around the unit circle. The graphs in Figure 19.6 highlight x-values
for which the sine and cosine graphs have zeros, local maxima, and local minima.
y

y
f(x) = cos x

f(x) = sin x

2 3
2

3
2

x
2

1
(b)

(a)

Figure 19.6

Domain and Range

The domain of sin x is (, ). The range of sin x is [1, 1].
The domain of cos x is (, ). The range of cos x is [1, 1].

Symmetry Properties of sin x and cos x

EXERCISE 19.5

Using the unit circle, show that

cos x = cos(x) and that sin x = sin(x).
In Exercise 19.5 you have shown that

x
2

19.1

The Sine and Cosine Functions: Denitions and Basic Properties

599

cos x is an even function; its graph is symmetric about the y-axis.

sin x is an odd function; its graph is symmetric about the origin.

Some Trigonometric Identities

(cos x, sin x) is a point on the unit circle u2 + v 2 = 1; therefore,
(sin x)2 + (cos x)2 = 1
for all values of x. We can also see this by using the Pythagorean Theorem and the triangle
drawn in Figure 19.7. For this reason it is sometimes called a Pythagorean identity. The
equation (sin x)2 + (cos x)2 = 1 is called a trigonometric identity because the left- and
right-hand sides of the equation are identically equal for all x.4
v
P(x)
(u, v) = (cos x, sin x)
P(x1)
(u1, v1) =
(cos x1, sin x1)

1
v1

1
u
u

|u1|

Figure 19.7

NOTATION The conventional notation for (sin x)2 is sin2 x. In other words, sin2 x means
(sin x)2. By contrast, sin x 2 means sin(x 2). The Pythagorean identity given above is usually
written as
sin2 x + cos2 x = 1.
More generally,
cosn x means (cos x)n for all n except n = 1.
sinn x means (sin x)n for all n except n = 1.
The one important exception is n = 1. cos1 x denotes the inverse of the cosine function,
and not (cos x)1. Thats just the convention. To refer to the reciprocal of cos x, we write
(cos x)1 = cos1 x ; this expression is generally referred to as sec x. In the next two chapters
we will dene trigonometric functions (like sec x) constructed from sine and cosine as
4 An identity is an equation that holds for all possible values of the variable. Note the difference between an equation such as
x 2 = 4, which holds only for x = 2 and x = 2, and the identity (sin x)2 + (cos x)2 = 1, which holds for all x, or the identity
(x + y)2 = x 2 + 2xy + y 2 , which holds for all x and all y .

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well as dening the inverse trigonometric functions. These notational conventions are very
standard; in order to communicate in the language of mathematics you need to learn them.
A second set of trigonometric identities comes from the periodic nature of the functions.
sin(x + 2n) = sin x for any integer n
cos(x + 2n) = cos x for any integer n
A third set of trigonometric identities is suggested by looking at the relationship
between the graphs of sin x and cos x. These graphs are horizontal translates.5 We can
express this in innumerable ways. For instance, if the graph of cos x is shifted to the right
/2 units, we obtain the graph of sin x. This observation is equivalent to
sin x = cos(x /2).
Shifting the graph of sin x horizontally units produces the graph of sin x. Similarly,
shifting the graph of cos x horizontally units produces the graph of cos x.
sin(x ) = sin x
cos(x ) = cos x
y

y
y = sin x

y = cos x

3
2

3
2

Figure 19.8

Trigonometric identities can be useful in simplifying expressions.

N EXAMPLE 19.2
SOLUTION

Let f (x) =

4 4 cos2(x ). For what values of x is f minimum? maximum?

It is not necessary to differentiate f in order to answer this question. Well begin by

simplifying f (x).
We know cos(x ) = cos x;
therefore, 4 4 cos2(x ) = 4 4[ cos x]2
= 4 4 cos2 x
= 4(1 cos2 x)
= 4 sin2 x.
Thus,


f (x) = 4 sin2 x.


You might, at rst, think that 4 sin2 x = 2 
sin x, but that is not always so. 4 sin2 x
must be nonnegative, and sin x can be negative; 4 sin2 x = 2| sin x|.
f (x) = 2| sin x|
5 This is true, but we have not proven it. The proof is left as an exercise in the next chapter, where it is more easily approached.

19.1

The Sine and Cosine Functions: Denitions and Basic Properties

601

f(x)

f(x) = 4 4 cos2 (x-) = 2 |sin x|

Figure 19.9

f (x) is minimum when sin x = 0, that is, when x = n, where n is any integer. The
minimum value of f is 0.
f (x) is maximum where sin x takes on the values of 1. f is maximum at x = . . .
2 ,

3 5
2 , 2 , 2 , . . . . In other words, f (x) is maximum at x = 2 + n, where n is any integer.
The maximum value of f is 2. N

Question: Let f (x) = 4 4 cos2(x ), as in Example 19.2. Do you think that f (x) = 0
at the local maxima of f ? At the local minima of f ?

PROBLEMS FOR SECTION 19.1

1. Use a straightedge and the calibrated unit circle drawn below to estimate each of the
following values. (You can check your answers with a calculator set in radian mode.)
(a) cos(1.1)

(b) sin(1.1)

(c) sin(3.5)

(e) cos(5.9)

(f) sin(2.2)

(g) sin(5.7)

(d) cos(4.2)

v
2
1

0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1

3
.1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9

4
5

2. Use the calibrated unit circle to estimate all t-values between 0 and 6 such that
(a) cos t = 0.3.
(b) sin t = 0.7.
(c) sin t = 0.7.

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3. P (w) is indicated in the gure below.

v
1

P(w) =

)13,5 1213 )

Find the following.

(a) sin w
(b) cos w
(c) sin(w)
(d) cos(w)
(e) sin(w + 6)
(f ) cos(w 2)
(g) Is cos(2w) positive, negative, or zero? Explain briey.
4. Beginning at point (1, 0) and traveling a distance
t counterclockwise along the unit


2 2
circle, we arrive at a point with coordinates 1
. Find the following.
,
3
3
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f )
(g)

cos t
sin t
sin(t)
cos(t)
sin(t )
sin(t 10 )
Is sin(t + 2 ) positive, negative, or zero? Explain.

5. Which of the following equations hold for all x? Explain your answers in terms of the
unit circle.
(a) sin x = sin(x)
(b) sin x = sin(x)
(c) cos x = cos(x)
(d) cos x = cos(x)
6. Evaluate the following limits. Explain your reasoning.
(a) limx sin x
(b) limx sinx x

19.2

Modifying the Graphs of Sine and Cosine

7. Evaluate the following limits.

(a) limx cos x
 2 
x
(d) limx sin x+1

 
1
x

(b) limx0 sin

(e) limx cos

x 3 99
x 3 x 2 +7

(c) limx0+

603

1
sin x

19.2 MODIFYING THE GRAPHS OF SINE AND COSINE

We began our discussion of trigonometric functions by suggesting that they would be useful
for modeling periodic phenomena. In order for the sine and cosine functions to be useful
to us we must be able to alter their periods and adjust the levels of peaks and valleys. We
introduce the following terminology.

Definitions
The balance line of a sine or cosine function (or modications of them through
shifting, ipping, stretching and shrinking) is the centrally located horizontal line
about which the values of the function oscillate. The functions f (x) = sin x and
g(x) = cos x have balance lines at y = 0. Shifting the graph vertically by k units shifts
the balance line by k units. Stretching the sin x or cos x graphs, whether vertically
or horizontally, does not alter the balance line. The balance value (also called the
average value of the function over a complete cycle) is the y-value of the balance
line.
The amplitude of a sine or cosine function (or modications of them as specied
above) is the positive number indicating the maximum vertical distance between the
graph and its balance line.
We have already dened the period to be the smallest positive constant k such
that f (x + k) = f (x) for all x.
amplitude
balance line
period

Figure 19.10

The term sinusoidal function is used to refer to sine functions, cosine functions,
and modications of them obtained by shifting, ipping, stretching, and shrinking.
If you are wondering why the word sinusoidal can refer to the cosine function, recall
that cos x is simply a horizontal translate of sin x.
Knowing the maximum and minimum values of a sinusoidal function, we can calculate
its amplitude and balance value.
The amplitude is half of the vertical distance between the maximum and minimum
values: