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HAZARDOUS AREAS

Without danger we cannot get

beyond danger.
- Proverb

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Hazardous Areas

Synopsis
The definition of a hazardous area, conditions for an explosion and a classification of
combustible materials precede a more detailed discussion of the properties of flammable
gases, vapours, mists and dusts.
Ignition sources are touched upon and techniques for explosion-protection surveyed.
The SAA classification of Hazardous Areas is overviewed in tabular form and again in
more detail with reference to international standards and terminology.
We also look at the role of the SAA and the legitimacy of overseas standards.
A full treatment of electronic barrier selection and usage, together with examples of
equipment markings, conclude the section.

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Introduction
Hazardous Area
An area in which explosive gas/air mixtures are, or may be expected to be, present in
quantities such as to require special precautions for the construction and use of electrical
apparatus.
Hazardous Location (Classified)
That portion of a plant where flammable or combustible liquids, vapors, gases or dusts
may be present in the air in quantities sufficient to produce explosive or ignitable mixtures.
There is a danger of an explosion or fire occurring wherever combustible materials are handled.
This is graphically illustrated by the dreadful toll taken by coal mining explosions in the past . For
example in England in the last century hundreds of lives were lost every year. In 1866, in a series
of explosions in the Oaks Colliery, 361 people were killed in one accident alone.
The hazard today exists not only in the coal mining industry but also in many other industries.
Major industries include the petrochemical, chemical, sewerage treatment, and grain handling
industries; while smaller industries involve such areas as paint shops and dry-cleaning premises. In
many cases the hazards occur in areas frequented by the public, for example petrol service stations.
In all these situations, electricity is used.
To prevent any of the electrical equipment becoming a source of ignition for an explosion, special
precautions have to be taken in the design, construction, and installation of such equipment.

Hazardous Areas
The above are examples of what can be termed hazardous areas.
A hazardous area is defined as an area in which an explosive atmosphere is present, or may be
expected to be present, in quantities such as to require special precautions for the construction,
installation, and use of potential ignition sources.
The explosive atmosphere may be caused by the presence of a flammable liquid or vapour or by the
presence of combustion dust in suspension or in layers.
In the design of industrial plants, every effort is usually made to minimise the extent of hazardous
areas but it may be difficult to ensure that an explosive atmosphere
will never occur.
Conditions For An Explosion
Three basic conditions must be present for a fire or explosion to
occur:
(a)

A combustible material must be present in sufficient

quantities.This can be a liquid, vapour, mist, gas, dust, fibres
or flyings.

(b)

The combustible material must be mixed with air or oxygen

in proportions needed to produce an explosive mixture.

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Fig. 15.1

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(c)

Hazardous Areas

An ignition source of sufficient energy to ignite the explosive mixture must be present.

The above may be defined by The Infernal Triangle.

Combustible Materials
Combustible materials which may lead to an explosive atmosphere comprise the following:
(a)

Flammable liquids having a flashpoint of not more than 61C. Examples are petrol, kerosine,
acetone, ethyl alcohol and paint thinner.

(b)

Flammable vapours. The vapours from a flammable liquid constitute a flammable vapour.

(c)

Flammable gases. Examples are hydrogen, methane, liquid petroleum gas and natural gas.

(d)

Flammable mists. Droplets of flammable liquid may be dispersed in air so as to form an

explosive atmosphere

(e)

Combustible dusts. Examples are the dusts from grain, sugar, wood, starch, coal, aluminium,
and polypropylene.

(f)

Fibres. Fibres are characterised by flexibility, fineness and high ratio of length to thickness.

(g)

Flyings. Flyings are waste fibres which fly out into the atmosphere during carding, drawing,
spinning, and other similar processes.

Properties of Combustible Materials

General
There are a number of properties of combustible materials which must be considered when the
degree of risk associated with a particular installation is being assessed.
The following describes briefly the relevant properties of combustible materials and how these
relate to the type and extent of a hazardous area. The properties discussed here are based on the
behavior of the most common materials and do not take into account unusual materials.
Gases, Vapours and Mists
Vapour pressure. Molecules in a liquid are in continual motion. Near the surface of the liquid they
may have enough energy to escape to form a vapour. This is called evaporation. For any quantity
of liquid evaporating in an enclosed space some molecules will condense into the liquid. The rate
of evaporation depends on the temperature, while the rate of condensation depends on the number
of molecules present per unit volume in the space immediately above the liquid.
A condition of equilibrium will be reached when the number of molecules returning to the liquid
equals the number leaving it. The space is then said to be saturated, and the pressure exerted by the
vapour is the (saturation) vapour pressure. At any given temperature the vapour pressure will vary
from liquid to liquid, thus determining their volatility. For instance, at typical room temperatures,
motor spirit has a high vapour pressure, and evaporates rapidly. This is in contrast with kerosene
and diesel oil (distillate) which have respectively lower vapour pressures and lower evaporation
rates (i.e. are less volatile).

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For each liquid, the actual vapour pressure depends only on temperature; typically increasing by a
factor in excess of 1.5 for each 10 degrees Celsius rise. Therefore, quite a small temperature
change can cause a dramatic difference to the quantity of vapour that can be present in the air. In
turn, this can have a significant effect on the practical hazard of a material.
Where the vapour condenses as clouds in the air it is known as a mist. A mist will generally revert
either to a vapour or to a liquid. Therefore mists are often not considered as a separate entity when
assessing hazardous areas.
Boiling point. A liquid will boil when its vapour pressure equals the external pressure. The boiling
point of a liquid is the temperature at which this occurs at standard atmospheric pressure - 101.3
kPa.
A compound will normally exist as a gas if its boiling point is below normal ambient temperature.
Flashpoint. This is the lowest temperature at which, under certain standardised conditions, a
material gives off sufficient vapour to form an explosive gas/air mixture in the air immediately
above the surface.
Flashpoint data are normally associated with liquids, although there are certain solids which give
off sufficient vapour to form explosive mixtures with air. For these materials, and those which
sublime, i.e. pass from solid to vapour without normal intermediate liquid phase, flashpoint data
are associated with the materials in the solid form.
Ignition temperature. The ignition temperature of a solid, liquid or gas is the minimum temperature
at which the compound will ignite and sustain combustion when mixed with air, without initiation
of ignition by spark or flame. The ignition is due to chemical reactions initiated by the temperature
of the local environment, and may therefore in practice be a result of the temperature of hot surfaces
adjacent to the combustible material.
A direct result of established ignition temperatures is the limitation of surface temperatures of
equipment in hazardous areas.
Explosive limits. Before an explosion can occur there must be a mixture of the flammable gas or
vapour with air. Such a mixture is
capable of exploding only when its
concentration lies within certain
limits.
These limits are known as the lower
explosive limit (LEL) and the upper
explosive limit (UEL) and are
expressed as percentages of the
material mixed with air by volume.
The range of mixtures between the
LEL and the UEL is the explosive
range. Gas mixtures outside this range
are non-explosive or non-flammable
under normal atmospheric conditions.
Relative vapour density. The relative
vapour density of a gas is the mass of
given volume of pure vapour of gas

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Fig. 15.2

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Hazardous Areas

compared with the mass of the same volume of dry air, at the same temperature and pressure.
A vapour density less than 1, i.e. lighter than air, indicates that the gas or vapour will rise in a
comparatively still atmosphere. A vapour density greater than one, i.e. heavier than air, indicates
that the gas or vapour will tend to sink and may travel at low levels for a considerable distance.

Fig. 15.3
Care should be taken in the application of vapour densities where they are in the range of about
0.75 to 1.25. Gases or vapours in this range, particularly if released slowly, may be rapidly diluted
to a low concentration and their movement will be similar to that or the air in which they are
effectively suspended.
In practice, there are relatively few flammable gases and vapours with densities below 1.25 and
these are shown in the table. Consequently, the vast majority of flammable substances are in fact
heavier than air.
Minimum ignition energy. A certain minimum energy, which differs from one gas to another, is
required for an explosion to occur. If a source of ignition, such as a spark, has an energy below this
it cannot cause an explosion.
The minimum ignition energy of a gas is the minimum energy required to ignite the most easily
ignitable mixture of that gas. The minimum ignition energies of gas are typically in the range of
0.019 mJ (for hydrogen) to 0.29 mJ (for methane).

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Table 15.1
Summary
The distinction between gases, vapours and mists can generally be drawn as follows:
(a)

A gas will not occur in liquid form at normal temperature and pressure as it is above its
boiling point.

(b)

A vapour may be in contact with its liquid phases at normal temperature and pressure.

(c)

A mist is a cloud of condensed vapour. Generally it will revert either to a vapour, e.g. when
it touches a warm surface, or to a liquid. Thus it is not often considered as a separate entity
when assessing hazardous areas.

Dusts
General. Combustible dusts are those dusts which are combustible or ignitable in mixtures with
air. Inherently explosive dusts (such as gunpowder, propellant powder and lead styphnate) which
require only a specific level of energy for ignition, are not taken into consideration here. Such
dusts are hazardous whether airborne or not.
NOTE:

Combustible dusts include dusts, fibres and flyings.

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Dust explosions may be initiated by ignition of either a layer of dust or a cloud of dust. It is not
unusual for an explosion which starts from the ignition of a dust layer to cause the dislodging of
dust accumulated on various surfaces, which then leads to a dust cloud explosion.
Layer ignition temperature. The layer ignition temperature, previously called the glow
temperature, is the lowest temperature at which a heated surface can ignite a layer of dust.
Cloud ignition temperature. This is the lowest temperature at which a dust cloud ignites. For
most, but not all dusts, this temperature is lower than the layer ignition temperature.
Minimum ignition energy. This is the minimum energy required to ignite a dust cloud. The lowest
published ignition energy for combustible dusts is in the order of 5 mJ, although it may be possible
to achieve lower values under certain experimental conditions. In comparison, hydrogen has a
minimum ignition energy of 0.019 mJ.

Table 15.2
Other factors, such as particle size, moisture, inerts and resistivity may also need to be considered
in determining the degree of hazard involved. For instance, irregularly shaped particles produced
by milling have a high area-to volume ratio. This means that they are more easily ignited and
represent a more severe explosion hazard than spherical particles, such as those produced by spray
drying.
The presence of inert dusts reduces the rate of pressure rise and increases the minimum dust
concentration. The use of limestone dust in coal mines is an example of the practical application of
inerts.

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Ignition Sources.
An ignition source is a source of energy sufficient to ignite an explosive atmosphere. Common
sources of ignition are flames, welding and cutting operations, electrical and mechanical sparking,
hot surfaces, glowing and smouldering combustion and spontaneous heating.
Sources of ignition caused by electrical means may be divided into two types as follows:
(a)

An energy source such as electrical sparks and arcs.

(b)

A hot surface, e.g. the surface of an electric motor, solenoid or light fitting.

These types of ignition sources are directly related to the minimum ignition energy and the ignition
temperature respectively of the material concerned.
The first method involves the exclusion of the hazardous material, be it gas or dust, from the
equipment so that a spark or hot surface inside the equipment cannot cause ignition. This is achieved
be sealing the equipment enclosure, by enclosed devices, or by filling the equipment with some
substance which may be solid liquid or inert gas.
The second method aims to contain an explosion, if it does occur, in the equipment enclosure. A
flameproof enclosure is probably the best known and most widely used of all techniques, but is
only appropriate for gas hazards.
The third method uses energy limitation. Flammable gases and combustible dusts have minimum
ignition energies, below which it is not possible for a spark or arc to cause an explosion. If the
energy in an electrical circuit can be maintained below these levels, it cannot cause an explosion,
Intrinsic safety is the most common technique used to achieve this.
The fourth method involves dilution of a hazardous gas atmosphere below LEL by ventilation. It
is not appropriate for combustible dust areas.
The last method aims to prevent an ignition source from occurring. The most common technique
is increased safety. This is used for equipment, or parts of equipment, such as terminal boxes, that
do not arc or spark in normal service.

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Table 15.3
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Table 15.4
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Hazardous Areas

International Standards
There are two basic groupings of standards: North American and elsewhere (IEC and ISO).
Nomenclature differs between the two groups. It is valuable that people be completely familiar
with these differences and with terminology generally.
Australian standards use the terminology and definitions used by IEC (International Electrotechnical
Commission).
There has been a progressive move towards Internationalisation of electrical safety standards.
Harmonisation is the term used. This move has been comparatively easy for new techniques such
as Intrinsic Safety, but is very difficult for techniques which have been in use for many years, such
as flameproofing.
CENELEC takes harmonisation one step further. Members of CENELEC not only use harmonised
standards, but also accept other members test stations results. Hence an instrument tested say in
Italy and certified as intrinsically safe will be certified without further testing in the U.K.
Australia is not a member of CENELEC.
Other important standards that are often seen in the Australian context is the U.S. NEMA standard.

Table 15.5 Overview of Enclosure Standards Organisations

Types of Protection
-More Detail
To avoid sources of ignition from electrical apparatus in hazardous areas due to sparks, arcs or hot
surfaces, the apparatus is constructed in the suitable type of protection.The largest area of application
is for apparatus of protection type flameproof encapsulation. This apparatus has to have the
following properties:
*

All joints leading outside have to be flameproof, i.e. the joint gaps and widths must be below
certain values.

The enclosure has to withstand an internal explosion without any remaining deformation

The surface temperature of an enclosure must not exceed the ignition temperature of the
ambient gas-air mixture.

Type of protection pressurised apparatus prevents the explosive atmosphere getting into touch
with the source of ignition. This is achieved by maintaining clean air or a non-flammable inert gas

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inside an enclosure at an over-pressure either with or without continuous flow of protective gas. It
has to be ensured by means of monitoring and control devices that the electrical apparatus is turned
off immediately in case of a pressure drop.
Type of protection intrinsic safety is only applicable where low energy is required. Thus the
main application is in the measurement and control sector. According to European Standard and
IEC intrinsically safe circuits are divided into categories ia and ib. Apparatus of category ib must
not cause an ignition in case one failure occurs. For apparatus of category ia the same applies for
any combination of two failures.
Oil immersion and powder filling are hardly used today.
Powder filling is however gaining more and more importance for the protection of electronic
assemblies. Type of protection increased safety was developed in Germany and has won
international recognition by being included in the European Standards as well as the IEC
Recommendations. Apparatus, where sparks or arcs or high temperatures can occur during normal
operation, cannot be this type of protection. So Increased safety is mainly applied for connection
and distribution technology. By means of constructional measures increased safety is achieved
against the occurrence of failures, causing sparks or too high temperatures.
Terminals and electrical connections for instance are carried out in such a way that self-loosening
and thus resulting sparks are not possible. Increased requirements also apply in regard to resistance
to tracking of the insulating materials as well as the necessary air and creepage distances. Further
requirements refer to the mechanical resistance and the dust and water protection. Often increased
safety is combined with other types of protection. A special economical aspect is that the individually
encapsulated switching elements can be built into and wired in an enclosure of increased safety.
A further type of protection moulding is to become part of the European standard.
Flameproof Enclosure
The parts, which can ignite and explosive atmosphere are placed in an enclosure, which can withstand
the pressure developed during an internal explosion of an
explosive mixture. This prevents the transmission of the
explosion to the explosive atmospheres surrounding the
enclosure.
Applications: Switchgear, control and indicating equipment,
control boards, motors, transformers, light fittings and other
spark-producing parts.

Fig. 15.4

Pressurised Apparatus
Entry of a surrounding atmosphere into the enclosure of the electrical apparatus is prevented by
maintaining inside the enclosure a protective gas (air,
inert or other suitable gas) at a higher pressure than that
of the surrounding atmosphere. The overpressure is
maintained either with or without a continuous flow of
the protective as.

Fig. 15.5

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Applications: As the above but especially for large

equipment and complete rooms.

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Hazardous Areas

Intrinsic Safety

Fig. 15.6

The electrical apparatus contains intrinsically safe circuits, which

are incapable of causing an explosion in the surrounding
atmosphere. A circuit or part of a circuit is intrinsically safe,
when no spark or any thermal effect in this circuit, produced in
the test conditions prescribed in the standard (which include
normal operation and specified fault conditions) is capable of
causing ignition.

Applications: Measurement and control equipment.

Oil Immersion
The electrical apparatus or parts of the electrical apparatus are
immersed in oil in such a way that an explosive atmosphere,
which may be above the oil or outside the enclosure cannot be
ignited.
Applications: Transformers (only used rarely now).
Fig. 15.7

Increased Safety

A type of protection in which measures are applied so as to prevent,

with a higher degree of security, the possibility of excessive
temperatures and of the occurrence of arcs or sparks in the interior
and on the external parts of electrical apparatus, which does not
produce them in normal service.

Fig. 15.8

Applications: Terminal and connection boxes, control boxes

housing Ex-modules (of a different type of protection) squirrel
cage motors, light fittings.

Powder Filling
The enclosure of electrical apparatus is filled with a material in a finely granulated state so that, in
the intended conditions of service, any arc occurring within the enclosure of an electrical apparatus
will not ignite the surrounding atmosphere. No ignition shall be caused either by flame or by
excessive temperature of the surfaces of the enclosure.
Applications: Transformers, capacitors, heater strip connection boxes electronic assemblies.
Moulding

A type of protection in which the parts which can ignite an explosive

atmosphere are enclosed in a resin sufficiently resistant to
environmental influences in such a way that this explosive
atmosphere cannot be ignited by either sparking or heating, which
may occur within the encapsulation.
Fig. 15.9

Applications: Only small capacity switchgear, control gear,

indicating equipment, sensors.

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Local Authorities
When electrical equipment is to be used in a hazardous area, precautions which have to be taken
against explosion are prescribed by the appropriate Australian State Authority which has responsibility
for safety in the state. All these state authorities require that apparatus for use in hazardous areas
must be approved and/or certified. installation of the apparatus must comply with the mining or
wiring regulations of the state in which the installation is located.
The Department of Mines in each state is responsible for regulations relating to electrical equipment
used in mines. Elsewhere, the Electricity Supply Authority has the equivalent responsibility.
In addition, the states Department of Labour and Industry has responsibility for regulations relating
less specifically to control of ignition sources in areas containing combustibles.
The electrical requirements for installations in mines are similar to those above ground, but below
ground, there are additional requirements for the materials used in the manufacture of housing etc.
Aluminium housings are not allowed below ground for instance.
The regulations of different states are very similar and are based on national (SAA) standards and
codes of practice where these exist. Australian standards cover explosion-protected electrical
equipment for use in atmosphere containing gases, vapours and mists (Class 1) and dust excluding
ignition proof (Class 2).

The S.A.A.
The Associations Committee on Electrical Equipment in Hazardous Locations (Committee EL/
14) prepares standards, the committee is made up of representatives from industrial users, government
authorities, and manufacturing organisations.
Another committee which is similarly composed, Committee P/3, is responsible for certification of
electrical equipment for hazardous locations. Committee P/3 will issue a certificate if the members
are convinced that a piece of apparatus conforms to the requirements of the relevant Australian
standard. The committee does NOT carry out any physical testing of equipment. Testing has to be
completed (by a separate test lab) before the committee considers certification.

Testing
Committee P/3 recognises four test laboratories which can carry out testing to confirm that apparatus
complies with SAA Standard.
-

Department of Industrial Relations Londonderry Industrial Safety Centre N.S.W.

British Standards Institution Technical Help for Exporters Service U.K.

Factory Mutual Research (FM) Approvals Division Massachusetts U.S.A.

Underwriters Laboratories U.S.A.

It is important to recognise the distinction between accepting the results of an overseas test laboratory
for conformance to Australian standards, and acceptance of overseas standards.
FM certified to US standards is valueless as far as Committee P/3 is concerned.
Committee P/3 meets every other month or so, and deals with certification expeditiously and
efficiently.

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SAA Standards
CLASSIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS AREAS
A FULLER DESCRIPTION
A hazardous area is one where an explosive atmosphere is, or may be expected to be, present
continuously, intermittently or due to an abnormal or transient condition.
Australian Standard AS2430 Parts 1 and 2 specifies 2 main classes of hazardous areas:
(a) Class 1 -

Explosive Gas atmospheres

(b) Class 2 -

Areas which are hazardous because of the presence of combustible dust, fibres or
flyings.

(a) Class 1 -

These areas are further divided into 3 zones as follows:

(1) Zone 0 - Areas in which an explosive gas/air mixtureis continuously present
or present for long periods.
(2) Zone 1 - Areas in which an explosive gas/air mixture exists intermittently or
periodically under normal operating conditions and areas in which an explosive
gas/air mixture may exist frequently because of leakage.
(3) Zone 2 - Areas in which an explosive gas/air mixture is not likely to occur and
if it occurs it will exist only for a short time.

FURTHER SUBDIVISION INTO GROUPS OCCURS

Group I

Coal Mining

Group II

Other Industries

In these groups, limitations upon the surface temperature of the enclosure are imposed.

Group I
Group II
(b)

Class 2 -

150C if coal dust can form a layer

450C if this risk avoided
A range of temperature classes T1 - T6
Hazardous dust flyings and fibres

Division 1
(1)

Combustible dusts, fibres or flyings of an electrically conductive nature are present,

regardless of particle size, or

(11) Electrically nonconductive combustible dusts, fibres or flyings of such fineness as to be

capable of producing explosive mixtures when suspended in air, are present not in
suspension but lying as settled dust, or which may be in suspension either continuously,
intermittently or periodically under normal operating conditions in quantities sufficient
to produce an explosive concentration, or where mechanical failure or abnormal operation

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of plant may cause accumulations of such substances to be thrown into suspension in

air in quantities sufficient to produce and explosive concentration.
Division 2
(1)

Electrically nonconductive combustible dusts, fibres or flyings of such coarseness as to

be incapable of remaining in suspension in air in quantities sufficient to produce an
explosive concentration are present but where accumulation of such substances may be
sufficient to interfere with the safe dissipation of heat from electrical equipments, or

(11) Deposits of such dusts, fibres or flyings as may become susceptible to spontaneous
combustion or easy ignition due to carbonisation or excessive dryness resulting from
exposure to heat dissipated from electrical equipment.
Marking of Equipment
Correct marking on explosion-protected equipment is very important as it is the means of identifying
equipment and defining the hazardous areas in which the equipment may be safely used.
Information to be marked:
(a)

The name of the manufacturer or his registered trade mark. This identifies the source of the
equipment.

(b)

Manufacturers type identification. This is normally a model number for the equipment and
should unambiguously identify the equipment.

(c)

The symbol Ex followed by the letter (in lower case) which indicates the particular type of
explosion-protection, which, for published Australian Standards, is as follows:
d - Flameproof enclosure
e -

Increased safety

ia -

Intrinsic safety, Category ia - higher risk zones, zone 0

ib - Intrinsic safety, Category ib - other zones

m - Encapsulation
n - Non sparking
p - Pressurised enclosure
pl - Purging
s -

Special protection

v -

Ventilation

EXPLOSION PROOF is an American equivalent to Flameproof, it is not a term that is

recognised by SAA. Do not use the term Explosion Proof.

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Table 15.6
EXAMPLES OF MARKING
The following are examples of marking that would be acceptable:
Ex d I
Ex d IIB T5
Ex d IIB T4 (TAMB = 50C)
Ex d I/IIC T3
Ex d e IIB T2
Zone 1 Ex s IIB T5
Ex ia IIC T6
Ex (ib) IIB
Ex d (ib) IIC T3
Ex d e (ia) IIB T4
Ex m IIC T5 IP65
Note: E prefix (eg E ExdI) denotes CENELEC Approval (not used in Australia).
Certification Exemptions (Simple Devices)
Devices which never exceed 1.2V, 0.1A. 20uJ or 25mW need not be certified nor marked.
This category includes such things as RTDs thermocouples, pH electrodes, etc.
However if they are connected to other devices then the system as a whole has to comply with
normal standards.
Entity concept vs Integrated Systems
Entity concept equipment. The associated electrical equipment is connected to the intrinsically safe
electrical equipment in the hazardous area by cables. Each item of equipment is certified separately
and the equipment to which each one may be connected may vary. Hence, not only the cable
parameters but also the total parameters of the circuit to be connected must be defined for each item
of equipment.

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Integrated systems. The associated electrical equipment is connected to the intrinsically safe electrical
equipment in the hazardous area by cables. As these cables have both capacitance and inductance,
they can store energy and hence their relevant parameters must be defined.

Fig. 15.10

Fig. 15.11

What barriers Do I Use

There is an increasing number of process plants handling potentially explosive materials such as
methane gas and petroleum.
This, together with stringent laws enforcing safe practice in factories , such as the Health and
Safety Act means that safety techniques have to be applied where electrical equipment is introduced
into the process area.
In the field of low power electrical equipment (about 0.5W), for example process control
instrumentation, the accepted technique is intrinsic safety (IS).
This is an electrical circuit design technique, where under normal and fault conditions the circuit is

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Hazardous Areas

incapable of producing incendive sparks. Unlike other safety techniques, however, this concept
relies on the design of the circuits in the safe as well as the hazardous area.

Fig. 15.12

Fig. 15.13
Ignition Curves
The basic design technique is to establish the gas in which the equipment is intended to be used,
(for example hydrogen), and using a set of ignition curves, establish the safe currents and voltages
for the circuit.
Where reactive components are involved it is also necessary to find, using other curves, the safe
currents and voltages for inductors and capacitors respectively. This is necessary because they can
store energy over a long period and release an incendive level in a short time.

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Fig. 15.14
Shunt Diode Safety Barriers
As stated above, it is necessary to consider the equipment in the safe area as well as in the hazardous
area.
Before the advent of barrier devices it was necessary to assess, and certify if necessary, all equipment
on the secondary of the mains transformers connected to the hazardous area apparatus. With the
introduction of computers, this was becoming an impossible task.
A device was therefore designed in the early 1960s that would limit the current and voltage to safe
levels and, at the same time maintain these levels even when 250V a.c. was applied to its safe area
connections.
The practical realisation of this circuit is shown in Fig. 15.13. The circuit is simple to understand.
The voltage to the hazardous area is limited by D2 and the current limited by R2 in conjunction with
D2.
The fuse/diode thermal characteristics are matched so that even when the application of 250V to
terminals 1 and 2 while the fuse is blowing, the zener diodes limit the voltage to the hazardous area.
Two diodes are included in the circuit for redundancy purposes, and R1 limits the transient current
into D2 while the fuse is blowing.
Barrier Characteristics
Safety barriers are described by the maximum output voltage (D2) and the minimum output resistor
value (R2).
It is important to realise, when looking at the functional design of a system incorporating barrier
devices, that the maximum working voltage will normally be less than that of D2.
Choosing the most suitable barrier for a particular application involves a number of considerations,
e.g. working voltage (the maximum voltage which can be applied between terminal 1 and earth for

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a specified leakage current), end-to-end resistance, power transfer, effect of leakage through the
zener diodes, effect of d.c. or a.c. interference and earth faults, and safety of the system.
A frequent question is, what polarity barrier is required? The general rule is: if the negative supply
is earthed, which is the most common practice, a positive polarised barrier is required - if the
positive line is earthed a negative polarised barrier is required.
Ohms law is one of the most useful tools in establishing whether a system will operate satisfactorily.
The following examples show how safety barriers can be used to protect various pieces of equipment
in hazardous areas.

Fig. 15.15

The figure above (Fig. 15.15) shows a two-channel, non-polarised barrier and floating instrument
input circuit connected to a thermocouple. This combination rejects common-mode a.c. interference,
d.c. leakage to the thermocouple and earth faults and is suitable for receiving instruments with an
input impedance exceeding 100 kilohm, i.e. the great majority.
Certification for the use of the thermocouple with the barrier will be covered by the barrier system
certificate.

Fig. 15.16

This figure (Fig. 15.16) shows a scheme using another two-channel barrier, but this time being used
with a 4-20mA signal, two wire process transmitter such as a flow transmitter. This barrier is
employed where a number of transmitters are to be powered from a common power supply.

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Fig. 15.17
This diagram (Fig. 15.17) shows what is perhaps one of the most common functions being
encountered - the transfer of a switch status from a hazardous area to a safe area.
If the power supply is earthed, it shows the preferred arrangement. It is fail-safe in that an earth
on either switch line de-energises the relay (and does not blow the barrier fuse).
A key feature of the barrier shown is that the return channel contains series diodes instead of
resistors and therefore does not contribute to the fault energy of the combination.
Maximum power transfer is achieved by choosing a relay with a coil resistance equal to that of the
barrier channels, nominally 300 ohm.
This ensures that about half the supply voltage will be developed across the relay coil. With a 24V
supply, a normally 12V relay will be required.

New Developments
The usual safety barrier contains only those components shown above, but recently developed
devices, for specific applications in process control can contain either a barrier and an additional
electronic component or an IS reed relay.
One of the problems with these designs has been the possibility of a temperature rise inside the
barrier unit being caused by a fault in the electronic circuit, and the resultant application of a high
voltage. This, however, has been overcome by the use of thermal trips in the unit, analogous to the
design of an IS mains transformer.
Recent developments also include an alternative mounting scheme for barrier devices.
The usual mounting arrangement for barriers is to mount them, using the two earth studs, on a high
conductivity busbar. This is usually quite acceptable and causes no problems.

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However, there are instances where the space available for a large number of barriers is restricted,
for example on oil platforms. The electrical circuits are identical to conventional barriers but are
built into plastic mouldings and mounted onto a printed-circuit board by solder pins.

Fig. 15.18

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Case Study

Fig. 15.19

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Fig. 15.20

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Fig. 15.21

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Fig. 15.22

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Case Study
Brace Yourself Against a Dust Explosion
Throughout the chemical process industries (CPI), substances such as plastics, fertilisers, fuels and
pharmaceuticals, are routinely dried to powder or dust. When suspended in air or other oxidants,
these dusts are capable of producing a dangerous and costly explosion.
While it is difficult to precisely define the explosion risk created during the handling of potentially
explosive materials, the risk is ever present. Explosions should be anticipated, and preventive
measures must be taken in the design and selection of bulk-solids-handling equipment, such as dust
collectors, conveyors, bins, grain elevators, and size-reduction equipment, such as grinders, crushers
and pulverisers.
Selection of the correct explosion protection cannot be left to chance. The risks include the possible
loss of life, damage to capital equipment, loss of production and increased insurance premiums.
Many of the hazards can be effectively avoided by thoroughly testing the dusts to ascertain their
explosion potential, and taking the appropriate protective measures.
The potential explosion hazard involved in dust handling has prompted testing, federal regulations,
and insurance considerations. The sheer power of dust explosions was dramatically demonstrated
by the destruction of several large grain silos in the U.S. in 1977. Although much has been done to
minimise risk, such incidents are reminders of the devastation and loss of life that any explosion
can inflict inside an industrial plant.
To regulate dust handling in the CPI, the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) requires the presence of protective systems, including hooding, ducting and dust-collection
devices. Most major dust-collection vendors provide such systems.
There are three pieces to explosion puzzle: a combustible dust, air or another oxidant, and a source
of ignition. During operation, a cloud of finely divided particles is held in suspension in the vessel
of a dust collector - making the perfect explosion environment, if other critical components (such
as volatile gases) were to be introduced.
If a source of ignition initiates the combustion of a dust cloud, the gases in the cloud will rapidly
expand, due to heat developed during combustion. If a dust-collector vessel constricts this gas
expansion, a rapid pressure build-up inside the collector casing will cause a violent explosion.
When the flame speed in an explosion is less than the speed of sound at the appropriate pressure,
the explosion is called a deflagration. When the flame speed is greater than the speed of sound, the
result is a detonation. The majority of industrial explosions are deflagrations.
Some Explode Some Dont
Many commonly handled dusts have been tested to determine the degree of explosion hazard that
each poses, and the results are published by the National Fire Protection Assn. (NFPA 68, Venting
of Deflagrations, 1988 Ed.) The explosion potential of a dust confined within a vessel can be
characterised by maximum explosion pressure (Pmax) and the maximum rate of pressure rise (dp/
dtmax).
If the explosion potential of particular dust is unknown, a sample may be submitted to a commercial
testing laboratory for characterisation. To classify a dust in terms of risk it poses, the substance is

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subjected to a source of ignition and described as a dust that either does or does not propagate
flame.
If the dust does propagate flame, further tests are conducted to determine the following parameters:
the minimum ignition temperature, the minimum concentration of dust (by weight) required for an
explosion, and the minimum ignition energy in joules.
Also measured are the maximum permissible oxygen concentration (oxygen deprivation will inhibit
ignition of the cloud), the maximum explosion pressure and the rate of pressure rise. Pressures as
high as 1,035 kN/m2 (or 150 lb/in2) and rates of pressure rise as high as 140,000 kN/m 2/s (or 20,000
lb/in2/s) have been measured in dust-explosion tests.
In addition to the physical characteristics obtained from testing the dust itself, a number of other
factors affect the explosion potential of a dust cloud:
Source of ignition - As intuition would suggest, a large ignition source causes more-rapid combustion
than a smaller one. A typical small source may be a spark or contact with a hot surface. A typical
large ignition source may be a flaming dust cloud passing through the ducting.
Particle size - While the maximum pressure of a dust cloud is relatively unaffected by the size of
the individual particles, the rate of pressure rise increases significantly as particle size decreases.
Additionally, as particle size is decreased, the amount of exposed surface area increases which aids
combustion.

Fig. 15.23

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Turbulence - Even under normal operating conditions, turbulence is created by air flow in a dust
collector during routine operation and cleaning processes. Although the maximum pressure inside
the vessel is only slightly affected by turbulence, the rate of pressure rise increases significantly as
turbulence increases.
Moisture - The presence of moisture in the dust particles raises the minimum temperature required
to ignite the dust cloud. The presence of moisture in the gas surrounding the dust, though, has little
effect; that entrained moisture is quickly atomised after an explosion begins.
Hybrid mixtures - These are mixtures of flammable gases with dusts. Some dusts are not flammable
in air, but become flammable with the addition of even a small amount of flammable gas. The gas
increases the risk of explosion, and considerably reduces the minimum ignition energy required to
initiate an explosion.

A Match to a Tinderbox
Sources of possible ignition, present in every process plant, must be identified and controlled to
minimize the risk of a dust-cloud explosion. Flames and smoldering particles can arise from
dryers, grinders, furnaces, kilns, ovens and mechanical handling equipment, such as conveyors, or
simply from bad housekeeping.
Friction on equipment, such as bulk chemical grinders, creates hot surfaces, which can ignite a dust
cloud. Spontaneous combustion is also a risk when certain materials are contained in bulk.
Finally, the movement of air in dust-collector ducts create static electricity. The static discharge
from dusts can reach an energy level up to 50 millijoules (mJ). If the minimum ignition energy
required to ignite a particular dust cloud is below that level, such static electricity may be all that is
needed to ignite the cloud. Some dusts can be ignited by an energy source of only a few millijoules.

Defuse an Explosive Situation

Awareness of the risks involved in working with dusts and powders in a process environment is of
paramount importance. A prevention program aims to minimise each of the risks. In addition to
preventive measures, a number of steps can be taken to reduce the destructive effects of an explosion:
Limit static buildup - To eliminate one possible ignition source, specific dust collector components
should be grounded, to continuously discharge static electricity as it builds up.
The development of epitropic filter fabric is a recent innovation that helps to disperse the buildup of static charges in a dust collector.
Epitropic filters are made from conductive filters that have been impregnated with carbon. The
filters must be connected to an effective grounding point on the outside of the dust collector, The
fabrics resistance is less than 1 x 108 ohms. According to the NFPA 77, (Static Electricity, 1988
Ed.), a resistance of 1 x 10 10 ohms or less will provide an adequate leakage path to bleed away static
build-up in most applications.
Inerting - The addition of an inert gas to replace oxygen in a dust collector can prevent an explosion,
ensuring that the minimum oxygen content required for ignition is never reached. In open-circuit
dust-collection systems (those that bring in and exhaust air), however, inerting is often not economical,
as the open system means a constant loss of expensive inert gases.
Explosion suppression - This protective method requires the early detection of an explosion, usually
within the first 10 milliseconds. Once ignition is detected, an explosion-suppression device injects

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a pressurised chemical suppressant into the collector vessel, to displace the oxygen and impede
combustion.
Such suppression systems can be operated in conjunction with rapid-acting isolating valves that are
often used in both the inlet and the outlet headers of a dust collector. Such isolation valves are often
used when toxic dusts are being handled. The valves prevent an explosion from sending toxic dusts
into the ducting leading into and out of the collector.
Explosion containment - There are specialised dust collectors on the market that have been designed
to withstand the maximum pressure generated during and explosion. Commercially available dust
collectors, however, are often designed to withstand only 7-14 kN/m2 (1-2 psi); this is not sufficient
to contain an explosion in progress.
Explosion relief - This method of alleviating rapidly building pressures is commonly used with dust
collectors. As pressure increases quickly leading up to an explosion, a relief vent opens to allow the
rapidly expanding gases to escape, effectively reducing the pressure build-up. Relief vents should
be located on the dirty (unfiltered) side of any filter, as the filter media itself acts as a barrier to
the expanding gases.
The necessary area for such a relief vent is a function of the vessel volume, vessel strength, and the
maximum pressure that the vent closure can withstand, as well as the rate of pressure rise characteristic
of the dust in question.

Pressure-Venting Options
Two main types of explosion vents are available: explosion-relief doors and bursting-panel relief
vents, Explosion-relief doors should be lightweight and retained by springs, by magnets, or by
gravity alone. Flexible pop out panels also may be included in this category.
In most cases, the restraining pressure of the door is listed as the stated relief pressure. This alone
is not always a true representation of relief pressure.
In a recent series of tests carried out under actual explosion conditions, the inertia of the door was
found to be an additional factor. Thus, the force needed to blow out these doors is often greater
than first assumed. The total weight of the door assembly, including any insulation and permanently
mounted hardware should be as low as is practical, and in no case should it exceed 17 kg/m2 (NFPA
68, Venting of Deflagrations, 1988 Ed.).
One disadvantage of using an explosion-relief door is the considerable increase in force that may
be added by corrosion or freezing between the door, the casing and the restraint interfaces. The use
of hinges as a means of restraint should be avoided, as the high negative pressures following an
explosion could result in the door swinging closed and causing an implosion of the filter casing.
Often held in place by a non-corrosive magnetic strip, the door is maintained in a vertical plane to
eliminate water traps that could develop when used outside. Wire ropes are often used to prevent
the door from flying off during an explosion.
In addition to explosion-relief doors, bursting-panel relief vents are also used to alleviate pressure
buildup inside a vessel, to prevent an explosion. In this method, a membrane of known bursting
pressure is used instead of a door over the vent opening.
There are many membrane materials available. Comprehensive testing is required to select the
materials with the optimum bursting characteristics.

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For dust collectors, the membrane must be: weatherproof; sufficiently resilient to withstand the
normal working pressures experienced within the collector; capable of withstanding abrasion and
chemical attack from the dust being handled; and conductive to prevent the accumulation of a static
charge.

Activities
Decipher: (i)
(ii)

Class I Zone I Ex ib IIC T4

Class II Division I D.I.P.

Using the sample SAA Certification Sheets provided, determine the level of protection certified for
the Rosemount 1151 Pressure Transmitter. What barrier information is provided in the documents?

Discussion
Using the article entitled Brace Yourself Against a Dust Explosion:
(i)

Explain the dangers inherent in dust-collectors.

(ii)

What is the difference between detonation and deflagration?

(iii) What physical characteristics of the dust collection system contribute to the likelihood
of explosion?
(iv) What are typical ignition sources.
(v)

Explain epitropic, inerting.

(vi) What pressure venting options are available?

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Summary
A classifiable hazardous location may be exposed to flammable/combustible liquids, vapours, gases
or dusts. Conditions for an explosion are summarised by Infernal Triangle. The relevant properties
of combustible materials are:
(i)

Vapour pressure - molecules on the surface of a liquid continually escape to form a

vapour and recondense. An equilibrium state results which is very temperature
dependent.

(ii)

Boiling point - transition from liquid to gas phase. It is ambient pressure dependent.

(iii) Flashpoint - lowest temperature at which an explosive quantity of vapour forms.

(iv) Ignition temperature - lowest temperature, without spark or flame, at which a solid
initiates combustion.
(v)

Explosive limits (LEL, UEL) - a region in which a potentially explosive mixture can
ignite.

(vi) Relative vapour density mass of pure gas vapour

_______________________
mass of dry air
at same volumes, temperatures and pressures.
Is a measure of whether it tends to rise, fall or be suspended.
(vii) Minimum ignition energy - minimum energy quantity necessary to ignite a mixture of
gas or dust.
(viii) Layer ignition temperature - temperature at which a heated surface ignites a dust layer.
(ix) Cloud ignition temperature - lowest temperature of which dust cloud ignites.
Ignition sources are of two types

- electrical sparks/arcs
- hot surface.

Explosion protection techniques can be broadly divided:

(i)

Exclusion - explosive mixture kept outside a vessel containing ignition sources.

(ii)

Containment - explosion dissipates within the enclosure.

(iii) Energy limitation - involves intrinsic safety.

(iv) Dilution - lowers mixture below LEL by ventilation.
(v)

Avoidance - e.g. inherently non-sparking.

The Standards Association of Australia uses IEC terminology and definitions but will not accept
Certifications of Safety Standards from other countries. The SAA area classification and markings
may be summarised.
Class 1, 2

Liquid/Vapours
or Dusts/Fibres
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Zones (0), 1, 2
Period of Hazard

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Appropriate protection markings for each area are typically:

Ex (lower case alphabet) (Roman Numerals)
Explosion
Protection

Protective
Type
T1-6
Temperature
Class

Groups dependent
upon Industry
Type
IP XX
Enclosure Information

To limit the current flow to a hazardous area, an electrical barrier can be employed. It may be
composed of zeners, fuses or relays and obviates the need for certification of feeder devices to the
area.

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Test
1.

What are the three components of the Infernal Triangle?

a. __________________________________
b. __________________________________
c. __________________________________

2.

Define or explain:
(i)

Flyings: _____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

(ii)

Vapour Pressure: ______________________________________________

____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

(iii) Flashpoint: ___________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
(iv) Explosion Containment: ________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
(v)

Intrinsic Safety: _______________________________________________

____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

(vi) D.I.P.: _______________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
(vii) Safety Barrier: ________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

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A particular gas (X) has relative vapour density 2.25 and LEL/UEL of 3.1/15.5 respectively.
Its flashpoint is 3C and it has an ignition temperature of 305C. Minimum ignition energy is
.17 mJ.
(ii)

Is the gas lighter than air? (Yes/No)

Ans: ________
(iii) X is mixed with air in the volume ratio 1:6. Will it explode if sufficient energy is
supplied? (Yes/No)
Ans: ________

Third Printing: October 1996

Second Printing: December 1993
First Printed: October 1991

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