Essential Amino Acids

Amino acids are organic compounds which contain both an amino group and a
carboxyl group. According to Tillery, et al., the human body can synthesize all of the
amino acids necessary to build proteins except for the ten called the "essential amino
acids", indicated by asterisks in the amino acid illustrations. An adequate diet must
contain these essential amino acids. Typically, they are supplied by meat and dairy
products, but if those are not consumed, some care must be applied to ensuring an
adequate supply. They can be supplied by a combination of cereal grains (wheat, corn,
rice, etc.) and legumes (beans,peanuts, etc.). Tillery points out that a number of
popular ethnic foods involve such a combination, so that in a single dish, one might
hope to get the ten essential amino acids. Mexican corn and beans, Japanese rice and
soybeans, and Cajun red beans and rice are examples of such fortuitous combinations.

Half-life (t12) is the amount of time required for a quantity to fall to half its value as measured at the
beginning of the time period. While the term "half-life" can be used to describe any quantity which
follows an exponential decay, it is most often used within the context of nuclear physics and nuclear
chemistrythat is, the time required, probabilistically, for half of the unstable, radioactive atoms in a
sample to undergo radioactive decay.
The original term, dating to Ernest Rutherford's discovery of the principle in 1907, was "half-life
period", which was shortened to "half-life" in the early 1950s.[1] Rutherford applied the principle of a
radioactive element's half-life to studies of age determination of rocks by measuring the decay period
of radium to lead-206.
Half-life is used to describe a quantity undergoing exponential decay, and is constant over the
lifetime of the decaying quantity. It is a characteristic unit for the exponential decay equation. The
term "half-life" may generically be used to refer to any period of time in which a quantity falls by half,
even if the decay is not exponential. The table on the right shows the reduction of a quantity in terms
of the number of half-lives elapsed. For a general introduction and description of exponential decay,
seeexponential decay. For a general introduction and description of non-exponential decay, see rate
law. The converse of half-life is doubling time.
Contents
[hide]

1 Probabilistic nature of half-life

2 Formulas for half-life in exponential decay

2.1 Decay by two or more processes

2.2 Examples

3 Half-life in non-exponential decay

4 Half-life in biology and pharmacology

5 See also

6 References

7 External links

Probabilistic nature of half-life[edit]

Simulation of many identical atoms undergoing radioactive decay, starting with either 4 atoms per box (left) or
400 (right). The number at the top is how many half-lives have elapsed. Note the consequence of the law of
large numbers: with more atoms, the overall decay is more regular and more predictable.

A half-life usually describes the decay of discrete entities, such as radioactive atoms. In that case, it
does not work to use the definition "half-life is the time required for exactly half of the entities to
decay". For example, if there are 3 radioactive atoms with a half-life of one second, there will not be
"1.5 atoms" left after one second.
Instead, the half-life is defined in terms of probability: "Half-life is the time required for exactly half of
the entities to decay on average". In other words, the probability of a radioactive atom decaying
within its half-life is 50%.
For example, the image on the right is a simulation of many identical atoms undergoing radioactive
decay. Note that after one half-life there are not exactly one-half of the atoms remaining,
only approximately, because of the random variation in the process. Nevertheless, when there are

many identical atoms decaying (right boxes), the law of large numberssuggests that it is a very good
approximation to say that half of the atoms remain after one half-life.
There are various simple exercises that demonstrate probabilistic decay, for example involving
flipping coins or running a statistical computer program.[2][3][4]

Formulas for half-life in exponential decay[edit]

Main article: Exponential decay
An exponential decay process can be described by any of the following three equivalent formulas:

where

N0 is the initial quantity of the substance that will decay (this quantity may be measured
in grams, moles, number of atoms, etc.),

N(t) is the quantity that still remains and has not yet decayed after a time t,

t12 is the half-life of the decaying quantity,

is a positive number called the mean lifetime of the decaying quantity,

is a positive number called the decay constant of the decaying quantity.

The three parameters

, , and

are all directly related in the following way:

where ln(2) is the natural logarithm of 2 (approximately 0.693).

[show]Click "show" to see a detailed derivation of the
relationship between half-life, decay time, and decay constant.

By plugging in and manipulating these relationships, we get all of the following

equivalent descriptions of exponential decay, in terms of the half-life:

Regardless of how it's written, we can plug into the formula to get

as expected (this is the definition of "initial quantity")

as expected (this is the definition of half-life)

; i.e., amount approaches zero as t approaches infinity as

expected (the longer we wait, the less remains).

Decay by two or more processes[edit]

Some quantities decay by two exponential-decay processes simultaneously. In
this case, the actual half-life T12 can be related to the half-lives t1 and t2 that the
quantity would have if each of the decay processes acted in isolation:

For three or more processes, the analogous formula is:

For a proof of these formulas, see Exponential decay#Decay by two or

more processes.

Examples[edit]

Half life demonstrated using dice in aclassroom experiment

Further information: Exponential decay Applications and examples

There is a half-life describing any exponential-decay process. For
example:

The current flowing through an RC circuit or RL circuit decays with

a half-life of

or

, respectively. For this

example, the term half time might be used instead of "half life", but
they mean the same thing.

In a first-order chemical reaction, the half-life of the reactant

is

, where is the reaction rate constant.

In radioactive decay, the half-life is the length of time after which

there is a 50% chance that an atom will have
undergone nuclear decay. It varies depending on the atom type
and isotope, and is usually determined experimentally. See List of
nuclides.

The half life of a species is the time it takes for the concentration of the
substance to fall to half of its initial value.

Half-life in non-exponential decay[edit]

Main article: Rate equation
The decay of many physical quantities is not exponentialfor example,
the evaporation of water from a puddle, or (often) the chemical reaction
of a molecule. In such cases, the half-life is defined the same way as
before: as the time elapsed before half of the original quantity has
decayed. However, unlike in an exponential decay, the half-life depends
on the initial quantity, and the prospective half-life will change over time
as the quantity decays.
As an example, the radioactive decay of carbon-14 is exponential with
a half-life of 5730 years. A quantity of carbon-14 will decay to half of its
original amount (on average) after 5730 years, regardless of how big or
small the original quantity was. After another 5730 years, one-quarter of
the original will remain. On the other hand, the time it will take a puddle
to half-evaporate depends on how deep the puddle is. Perhaps a
puddle of a certain size will evaporate down to half its original volume in
one day. But on the second day, there is no reason to expect that onequarter of the puddle will remain; in fact, it will probably be much less
than that. This is an example where the half-life reduces as time goes
on. (In other non-exponential decays, it can increase instead.)
The decay of a mixture of two or more materials which each decay
exponentially, but with different half-lives, is not exponential.
Mathematically, the sum of two exponential functions is not a single
exponential function. A common example of such a situation is the
waste of nuclear power stations, which is a mix of substances with
vastly different half-lives. Consider a sample containing a rapidly
decaying element A, with a half-life of 1 second, and a slowly decaying
element B, with a half-life of one year. After a few seconds, almost all
atoms of the element A have decayed after repeated halving of the
initial total number of atoms; but very few of the atoms of element B will
have decayed yet as only a tiny fraction of a half-life has elapsed. Thus,
the mixture taken as a whole does not decay by halves.

Solubility Rules!
A basic knowledge of which compounds are soluble in aqueous solutions is essential for
predicting whether a given reaction might involve formation of a precipitate (an insoluble
compound).
The following guidelines are generalizations. A substance is classified as insoluble if it
precipitates when equal volumes of 0.1 M solutions of its components are mixed. Keep
in mind, however, that no substance is completely insoluble. Substances listed as
insoluble are, at some level, partially soluble. The magnitude of the ion product constant
(Ksp) for the appropriate solubility equilibrium should be examined. Larger Ksp values
indicate greater solubility; smaller Ksp values indicate lesser solubility.
The symbol "<=>" is used here to signify the 'double-arrrow' symbol for a chemical
equilibrium. The symbol "=>" is used here to signify the 100% dissociation of a
compound into its electrolyte ions in aqueous solution. The subscript "(s)" following a
species indicates that it is a solid. The subscript "(aq.)" following a species indicates that
it is in aqueous solution.
Rule 1. All compounds of Group IA elements (the alkali metals) are soluble.
For example, NaNO3, KCl, and LiOH are all soluble compounds. This means that an
aqueous solution of KCl really contains the predominant species K + and Cl- and,
because KCl is soluble, no KCl is present as a solid compound in aqueous solution:
KCl(s) => K+(aq.) + Cl-(aq.)
Rule 2. All ammonium salts (salts of NH4+) are soluble.
For example, NH4OH is a soluble compound. Molecules of NH4OH completely
dissociate to give ions of NH4+ and OH- in aqueous solution.
Rule 3. All nitrate (NO3-), chlorate (ClO3-), perchlorate (ClO4-), and acetate (CH3COO- or
C2H3O2-, sometimes abbreviated as Oac-) salts are soluble.
For example, KNO3 would be classified as completely soluble by rules 1 and 3. Thus,
KNO3 could be expected to dissociate completely in aqueous solution into K + and
NO3- ions: KNO3 => K+(aq.) + NO3-(aq.)

Rule 4. All chloride (Cl-), bromide (Br-), and iodide (I-) salts are soluble except for those
of Ag+, Pb2+, and Hg22+.
For example, AgCl is a classic insoluble chloride salt:
AgCl(s) <=> Ag+(aq.) + Cl-(aq.) (Ksp = 1.8 x 10-10).
Rule 5. All sulfate ( SO4=) compounds are soluble except those of Ba2+, Sr2+, Ca2+, Pb2+,
Hg22+, and Hg2+, Ca2+ and Ag+ sulfates are only moderately soluble.
For example, BaSO4 is insoluble (only soluble to a very small extent):
BaSO4(s) <=> Ba2+(aq.) + SO42-(aq.) (Ksp = 1.1 x 10-10).
Na2SO4 is completely soluble:
Na2SO4(s) => 2 Na+(aq.) + SO42-(aq.).
Rule 6. All hydroxide (OH-) compounds are insoluble except those of Group I-A (alkali
metals) and Ba2+, Ca2+, and Sr2+.
For example, Mg(OH)2 is insoluble (Ksp = 7.1 x 10-12).
NaOH and Ba(OH)2 are soluble, completely dissociating in aqueous solution:
NaOH(s) => Na+(aq.) + OH-(aq.), a strong base
Ba(OH)2(s) => Ba2+(aq.) + 2OH-(aq.) (Ksp = 3 x 10-4)
Rule 7. All sulfide (S2-) compounds are insoluble except those of Groups I-A and II-A
(alkali metals and alkali earths).
For example, Na2S(s) <=> 2Na+(aq.) + S2-(aq.)
MnS is insoluble (Ksp = 3 x 10-11).
Rule 8. All sulfites (SO3=), carbonates (CO3=), chromates (CrO4=), and phosphates
(PO43-) areinsoluble except for those of NH4+ and Group I-A (alkali metals)(see rules 1
and 2).
For example, calcite, CaCO3(s) Ca2+(aq.) + CO3=(aq.) (Ksp = 4.5 x 10-9).

D and L Are Outmoded and Wrong

Students who take biochemistry are exposed to an old,

confusing, and often incorrect method of specifying
configurations at chiral centers as D or L. This scheme

was devised in the early years of this century by Emil

Fischer, a German organic chemist who worked
extensively with carbohydrates. Here's how it is supposed
to work.
The compound glyceraldehyde, HOCH2CH(OH)CHO, was
chosen as the standard for defining configuration.
The enantiomer that rotates plane polarized light
clockwise (+) was arbitrarily labeled D
The other enantiomer (-) became L.

As shown, the assignments in modern notation are R and

S, respectively. (Note: it will notalways work out that D = R
and L=S; this is an accident here.)
The source of the D and L labels was the Latin
words dexter (on the right) and laevus (on the left)
R comes from rectus (right-handed) and S
from sinister (left-handed)

Any other molecule containing a single chiral center was

to be assigned as D or L by imagining a resemblance
between the ligands on its chiral center and those in
glyceraldehyde
The enantiomer having the "same or similar" groups
in the same places as D-glyceraldehyde becomes D.
Thus, for example, the naturally occuring form of the
amino acid cysteine was labeled L.

When more than one chiral center is present, similarity is

defined only by the arrangement of ligands on the highest
numbered chiral center, and the assignment of D or L is
made on the basis of that center only.
The configuration at the other centers usually is
specified by giving the diastereomeric molecules
entirely different names.
The student is expected simply to memorize which
arrangement of ligands goes with which names.

 For example, look at the two aldotetroses below:

The D and L were assigned on the basis of the

arrangement at the lower of the two chiral centers.
That the two sugars are diastereomers is specified by
giving them different names.
Clearly, this system is impossible to apply widely, requires
extensive memorizing of structures, and is also seriously
ambiguous.
Consider for example, the reaction outline shown below.
Here D-glyceraldehyde is converted into lactic acid by
reactions that do not break any bonds to the chiral
center! (These conversions actually have been carried out
in the laboratory.)

Which structure is D-lactic acid?

The Photoelectric Effect

What's the photoelectric effect?

It's been determined
experimentally that when light
shines on a metal surface, the
surface emits electrons. For
example, you can start a
current in a circuit just by
shining a light on a metal
plate. Why do you think this

happens?

Well...we were saying earlier that light is made

up of electromagnetic waves, and that the waves
carry energy. So if a wave of light hit an
electron in one of the atoms in the metal, it
might transfer enough energy to knock the
electron out of its atom.
Okay. Now, if light is
indeed composed of
waves, as you
suggest...

What do you mean,

"if light is composed of
waves"? Is there another
option?

Historically, light has sometimes been viewed as

aparticle rather than a wave; Newton, for
example, thought of light this way. The particle

view was pretty much discredited with

Young's double slit experiment, which made
things look as though light had to be a wave.
But in the early 20th century, some physicists-Einstein, for one--began to examine the particle
view of light again. Einstein noted that careful
experiments involving the photoelectric effect
could show whether light consists of particles or
waves.
How? It seems to me that the photoelectric
effect would still occur no matter which view is
correct. Either way, the light would carry
energy, so it would be able to knock electrons
around.
Yes,
you're right--but the details of the
photoelectric effect come out differently
depending on whether light consists of particles
or waves. If it's waves, the energy contained in

one of those waves should depend only on its

amplitude--that is, on the intensity of the light.
Other factors, like the frequency, should make
no difference. So, for example, red light and
ultraviolet light of the same intensity should
knock out the same number of electrons, and the
maximum kinetic energy of both sets of
electrons should also be the same. Decrease the
intensity, and you should get fewer electrons,
flying out more slowly; if the light is too faint,
you shouldn't get any electrons at all, no matter
what frequency you're using.
That sounds reasonable enough to me. How
would the effect change if you assume that light
is made of particles?
I
should give you some background
information on this, first. It all began with some
work on radiation by Max Planck...

Planck's Constant and the Energy of a Photon

In 1900, Max Planck was working on the

problem of how the radiation an object emits
is related to its temperature. He came up with
a formula that agreed very closely with
experimental data, but the formula only made
sense if he assumed that the energy of a
vibrating molecule was quantized--that is, it
could only take on certain values. The energy
would have to be proportional to the
frequency of vibration, and it seemed to come
in little "chunks" of the frequency multiplied
by a certain constant. This constant came to
be known as Planck's constant, or h, and it
has the value
This doesn't
make any sense
to me. I think
I'll go ask Dr.
Mahan
what J means.

That's a pretty small constant.

Yes, but it was an extremely radical idea to suggest that

energy could only come in discrete lumps, even if the
lumps were very small. Planck actually didn't realize how
revolutionary his work was at the time; he thought he was
just fudging the math to come up with the "right answer,"
and was convinced that someone else would come up with
a better explanation for his formula.
I guess Einstein must have taken him seriously,
though.
Quite

seriously. Based on Planck's work, Einstein

proposed that light also delivers its energy in
chunks; light would then consist of little particles,
or quanta, called photons, each with an energy of
Planck's constant times its frequency.
In that case, the frequency of the light would make
a difference in the photoelectric effect.
Exactly. Higher-frequency photons have more
energy, so they should make the electrons
come flying out faster; thus, switching to light with the
same intensity but a higher frequency should increase the
maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electrons. If you
leave the frequency the same but crank up the
intensity, more electrons should come out (because there

Photoelectric effect

A diagram that shows how electrons areemitted from a metal plate

Light-matter interaction
Low energy phenomena

Photoelectric effect

Mid-energy phenomena

Compton scattering

High energy phenomena

Pair production

Photoelectric effect
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The photoelectric effect is a phenomenon in physics. The effect is based on the idea that
electromagnetic radiation is made of a series of particles called photons.[1] When a photon hits
an electron on a metal surface, the electron can be emitted.[2] The emitted electrons are
called photoelectrons.[1] The effect is also called the Hertz Effect,[3][4]because it was discovered
by Heinrich Rudolf Hertz, but this name is not used often.
The photoelectric effect has helped physicists understand the quantumnature of light and electrons.
The concept of waveparticle duality was developed because of the photoelectric effect.[2]

Mechanism[change | change source]

Not every electromagnetic wave will cause the photoelectric effect, only radiation of a certain
frequency or higher will cause the effect. The minimum frequency needed is called the cutoff
frequency or threshold frequency. The cutoff frequency is used to find the work function, w, which is
the amount of energy holding the electron to the metal surface. [1] The work function is a property of
the metal and is not affected by the incoming radiation. [1] If a frequency of light strikes the metal

surface that is greater than the cutoff frequency, then the emitted electron will have some kinetic
energy.
The energy of a photon causing the photoelectric effect is found through E = hf = KE + w, where h is
Planck's constant, 6.626X10^(-34) J*s, f is the frequency of the electromagnetic wave, KE is the
kinetic energy of the photoelectron and w is the work function for the metal. [1] If the photon has a lot
of energy, compton scattering(~thousands of eV) or pair production(~millions of eV) may take place.
The intensity of the light does not cause ejection of electrons, only light of the cut off frequency or
higher can do that. However increasing the intensity of light will increase the number of electrons
being emitted, so long as the frequency is above the cut off frequency.[1]

History[change | change source]

The first observation of the photoelectric effect was by Heinrich Hertz in 1887. He reported that a
spark jumped more readily between two charged spheres if light was shining on them. [1] Further
studies were done to learn about the effect observed by Hertz, however it wasn't until 1905 that a
theory was proposed that explained the effect completely. The theory was proposed by Einstein and
it made the claim that electromagnetic radiation had to be thought of as a series of particles, called
photons, which collide with the electrons on the surface and emit them. [1] This theory ran contrary to
the belief that electromagnetic radiation was a wave and thus it was not recognised as correct until
1916 when Robert Millikan performed a series of experiments using a vacuum photo-tube to confirm
the theory.[1]

CAcT HomePage

The Ideal Gas Law

Skills to develop

Explain all the quantities involved in the ideal gas law.

Evaluate the gas constant R from experimental results.
Calculate T, V, P, or n of the ideal gas law, P V = n R T.
Describe the ideal gas law using graphics.
The Ideal Gas Law

The volume (V) occupied by n moles of any gas has a pressure (P) at
temperature (T) in Kelvin. The relationship for these variables,

P V = n R T,
where R is known as the gas constant, is called the ideal gas
law or equation of state. Properties of the gaseous state predicted
by the ideal gas law are within 5% for gases under ordinary
conditions. In other words, given a set of conditions, we can predict
or calculate the properties of a gas to be within 5% by applying the
ideal gas law. How to apply such a law for a given set of conditions is
the focus of general chemistry.
At a temperature much higher than the critical temperature and at low pressures,
however, the ideal gas law is a very good model for gas behavior. When dealing with
gases at low temperature and at high pressure, correction has to be made in order to
calculate the properties of a gas in industrial and technological applications. One of
the common corrections made to the ideal gas law is the van der Waal's equation, but
there are also other methods dealing with the deviation of gas from ideality.
The Gas Constant R
Repeated experiments show that at standard temperature (273 K)
and pressure (1 atm or 101325 N/m2 ), one mole (n = 1) of gas
occupies 22.4 L volume. Using this experimental value, you can
evaluate the gas constant R,
P V
1 atm 22.4 L
R = --- = -----------n T
1 mol 273 K
= 0.08205 L atm / (molK)

When SI units are desirable, P = 101325 N/m2 (Pa for pascal) instead of 1 atm. The
volume is 0.0224 m3. The numberical value and units for R is
101325 N/m2 0.0224 m3
R = ---------------------1 mol 273 K
= 8.314 J / (molK)

Note that 1 L atm = 0.001 m3 x 101325 N / m2 = 101.325 J (or N m).

Since energy can be expressed in many units, other numerical
values and units for Rare frequently in use.
For your information, the gas constant can be expressed in the following values and
units.

R =
=
=
=
=

0.08205 L atm / molK

8.3145 L kPa / molK
8.3145
J / molK
1.987
cal / molK
62.364 L torr/ molK

Notes:
atm =
J = 1
cal =
atm =

1
1
1
1

101.32 kPa
L kPa
4.182 J
760 torr

The gas constant R is such a universal constant for all gases that its
values are usually listed in the "Physical Constants" of textbooks and
handbooks. It is also listed in Constants of our HandbookMenu at the
left bottom. Although we try to use SI units all the time, the use of
atm for pressure is still common. Thus, we often use R = 8.314 J /
(molK) or 8.3145 J / molK.
The volume occupied by one mole, n = 1, of substance is called the molar
volume, Vmolar = V / n. Using the molar volume notation, the ideal gas law is:
P Vmolar = R T
Applications of the Ideal Gas Law
The ideal gas law has four parameters and a constant, R,

P V = n R T,
and it can be rearranged to give an expression for each of P, V,
n or T. For example,
P = n R T / V, (Boyles law)
P = (n R / V) T (Charles law)
These equations are Boyles law and Charles law respectively. Similar
expressions can be derived for V, n and T in terms of other variables.
Thus, there are many applications. However, you must make sure
that you use the proper numerical value for the gas
constant R according to the units you have for the parameters.
Furthermore, n / V is number of moles per unit volume, and this quantity has the same
units as the concentration (C). Thus, the concentration is a function of pressure and
temperature,
C = P / R T.

At 1.0 atm pressure and room temperature of 298 K, the

concentration of an ideal gas is 0.041 mol/L.
The Avogadros law can be further applied to correlate gas density d (weight per unit
volume or n M / V) and molecular mass M of a gas. The following equation is easily
derived from the ideal gas law:
P M =

n M
--- R T
V

Thus, we have

PM=dRT/M
d = n M / V - definition, and
d=PM/RT
M=dRT/P
Example 1
An air sample containing only nitrogen and oxygen
gases has a density of 1.3393 g / L at STP. Find the
weight and mole percentages of nitrogen and oxygen in
the sample.
Solution
From the density d, we can evaluate an average molecular weight (also called
molar mass).
PM=dRT
M = 22.4 * d
= 22.4 L/mol * 1.3393 g/L
= 30.0 g / mol
Assume that we have 1.0 mol of gas, and x mol of which is
nitrogen, then (1 - x) is the amount of oxygen. The average
molar mass is the mole weighted average, and thus,
28.0 x + 32.0 (1 - x) = 30.0
-4x=-2
x = 0.50 mol of N2, and 1.0 - 0.50 = 0.50 mol O2

Now, to find the weight percentage, find the amounts of

nitrogen and oxygen in 1.0 mol (30.0 g) of the mixture.
Mass of 0.5 mol nitrogen = 0.5 * 28.0 = 14.0 g
Mass of 0.5 mol oxygen = 0.5 * 32.0 = 16.0 g
Percentage of nitrogen = 100 * 14.0 / 30.0 = 46.7 %
Percentage of oxygen = 100 * 16.0 / 30.0 = 100 - 46.7 =
53.3 %
Discussion
We can find the density of pure nitrogen and oxygen first and evaluate the
fraction from the density.
d of N2 = 28.0 / 22.4 = 1.2500 g/L
d of O2 = 32.0 / 22.4 = 1.4286 g/L
1.2500 x + 1.4286 (1 - x) = 1.3393
Solving for x gives
x = 0.50 (same result as above)
Exercise
Now, repeat the calculations for a mixture whose density is 1.400 g/L.
Example 2
What is the density of acetone, C3H6O, vapor at 1.0 atm
and 400 K?
Solution
The molar mass of acetone = 3*12.0 + 6*1.0 + 16.0 = 58.0. Thus,
d=PM/RT
= (1.0 * 58.0 atm g/mol) / (0.08205 L atm / (mol K) * 400
K)
= 1.767 g / L
Exercise
The density of acetone is 1.767 g/L, calculate its molar mass.

Confidence Building Questions

What is the variable n stand for in the ideal gas law,

P V = n R T?
Hint . . .

Skill:
Describe the ideal gas law.

A closed system means no energy or mass flow into or

out of a system. In a closed system, how many
independent variables are there among n, T, V and P for
a gas? Note: an independent variable can be of any arbitrary
values.

Hint . . .

Skill:
The ideal gas equation shows the interdependence of the variables. Only one of
them can be varied independently.

What is the molar volume of an ideal gas at 2 atm and

1000 K?

Hint . . .

Skill:
Evaluate molar volume at any condition.

A certain amount of a gas is enclosed in a container of

fixed volume. If you let heat (energy) flow into it, what
will increase?
(In a multiple choice, you may have volume, pressure,
temperature, and any combination of these to choose
from.)

Hint . . .

Skill:
Explain a closed system and apply ideal gas law.

For a certain amount (n = constant) of gas in a closed

system, how does volume V vary with the temperature?
In the following, k is a constant depending on n and P.
a. V = k T
b. V = k / T
c. T V = k
d. V = k T2
e. V = k
Hint . . .

Skill:
Explain Charles law.

Boyles law is P V = constant. A sketch of P vs V on

graph paper is similar to a sketch of the equation x y =
5. What curve(s) does this equation represent?
a. a parabola
b. an ellipse

c. a hyperbola
d. a pair of hyperbola
e. a straight line
f. a surface
Hint . . .

Skill:
Apply the skills acquired in Math courses to chemical problem solving.

For a certain amount of gas in a closed system, which

one of the following equation is valid? Subscripts 1 and
2 refer to specific conditions 1 and 2 respectively.
a. P1 V1 T1 = P2 V2 T2
b. P1 V1 T2 = P2 V2 T1
c. P1 V2 T1 = P2 V1 T2
d. P2 V1 T1 = P1 V2 T2
e. P1 V2 / T1 = P2 V1 / T2
Hint . . .

Skill:
Rearrange a mathematical equation.

The gas constant R is 8.314 J / molK. Convert the

numerical value of R so that its units are cal / (molK). A
unit conversion table will tell you that 1 cal = 4.184 J.
Make sure you know where to find it. During the exam,

the conversion factor is given, but you should know how

to use it.

Hint . . .

Skill:
Use conversion factors, for example:
1 cal
8.314 J ------- = ? cal
4.184 J

At standard temperature and pressure, how many

moles of H2 are contained in a 1.0 L
container?

Hint . . .

Discussion:
There are many methods for calculating this value.

At standard temperature and pressure, how many

grams of CO2 is contained in a 3.0 L container? Molar
mass of CO2 = 44.

Hint . . .

One method:
It contains n = 1 atm * 3 L / (0.08205 L atm / (molK) * 273 K)

What is the pressure if 1 mole of N2 occupy 1 L of

volume at 1000 K?

Hint . . .

Discussion:
Depending on the numerical value and units of R you use, you will get the
pressure in various units.
At 1000 K, some of the N2 molecules may dissociate. If that is true, the
pressure will be higher!

What is the temperature if 1 mole of N2 occupy 100 L of

volume has a pressure of 20 Pa (1 Pa = 1 Nm2

)?

Hint . . .

Discussion:
At T = 240 K, ideal gas law may not apply to CO 2, because this gas liquifies at
rather high temperature. The ideal gas law is still good for N 2, H2, O2 etc,
because these gases liquify at much lower temperature.