Recycling of Demolition Waste and Strategies

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of contents..............................................................................................................i
List of tables..................................................................................................................vi
List of Figures...............................................................................................................vii
Abbreviations..............................................................................................................viii
Acknowledgement.........................................................................................................ix
Declaration.....................................................................................................................xi
Abstract.........................................................................................................................xii
CHAPTER 01 Introduction
1.0 Introduction...............................................................................................................1
1.1 Background...............................................................................................................1
1.2 Aim and objectives...................................................................................................3
1.3 Research Methodology.............................................................................................4
1.3.1. LITERATURE SURVEY AND REVIEW...................................................................4
1.3.2. SEMI STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS AND OBSERVATIONS.......................................4
1.4 Scope and limitations................................................................................................4
1.5 A Guide to Dissertation............................................................................................5
CHAPTER 02 Literature Review on Demolition waste Recycling

2.1 Demolition Waste.....................................................................................................6
2.1.1 WHAT IS DEMOLITION WASTE?...........................................................................6
2.1.2 CLASSIFICATION AND COMPOSITION OF DEMOLITION WASTE..........................7
2.1.3 BUILDING DEMOLITION TECHNIQUES.................................................................8
2.2 Recycling of demolition waste.................................................................................9
2.2.1 WHAT IS RECYCLING?........................................................................................9
2.2.2 BENEFITS OF RECYCLING OF DEMOLITION WASTE...........................................11
i
2.2.3 RECYCLING METHODS......................................................................................12

2.2.3.1 Source separation.....................................................................................12
2.2.3.2 Commingled recycling..............................................................................12
2.2.3.3 Comparison of Source separation and Commingled recycling process...12
2.2.4 DEMOLITION WASTE PROCESSING...................................................................14
2.2.4.1 Comparison of Mechanically intensive vs labour intensive processing...15
2.2.4.2 Comparison of on site and off site crushing and sorting..........................15
2.2.5 SEPARATION PROCESS IN RECYCLING..............................................................16
2.2.4.1 Water based separation............................................................................17
2.2.4.2 Air flow based separation.........................................................................17
2.2.6 CRUSHING PROCESS IN RECYCLING.................................................................19
2.2.7 DEMOLITION WASTE MATERIAL, ORIGIN, WAYS OF COLLECTION, WAYS OF
SORTING,
RECYCLING PROCESS, TECHNOLOGIES AND END MARKET/PRODUCTS......20
2.2.7.1 Concrete....................................................................................................20
2.2.7.2 Brick..........................................................................................................22
2.2.7.3 Wood, Timber............................................................................................23
2.2.7.4 Metal (Ferrous).........................................................................................25
2.2.7.5 Metal (Non ferrous)..................................................................................27
2.2.7.6 Tiles...........................................................................................................29
2.2.7.7 PVC/Plastics.............................................................................................30
2.2.7.8 Asbestos....................................................................................................32
2.2.8 COMMONLY USED RECYCLING PLANT TECHNOLOGY......................................33
2.2.8.1 Demolition waste processing equipment..................................................34
2.2.8.2 Demolition waste Processing flow diagram.............................................38
2.3 Economics of the recycling of Demolition waste...................................................39
2.3.1 MARKET ANALYSIS OF RECYCLED PRODUCTS.................................................42
2.3.1.1 Specification (Quality)..............................................................................42
2.3.1.2 Quantity....................................................................................................43
2.3.1.3 Price of the recycled product....................................................................43
2.4 Market Development..............................................................................................44
2.4.1. SET GOALS FOR MARKET DEVELOPMENT.......................................................44
2.4.2. IDENTIFICATION THE BARRIERS AND OPPORTUNITIES.....................................45
ii
2.5 Government Intervention........................................................................................46

2.5.1 REGULATORY BACKGROUND IN OTHER COUNTRIES TO SUPPORT C&D
RECYCLING...............................................................................................................46
2.5.2 REGULATORY BACKGROUND IN SRI LANKA....................................................48
2.6 Summary.................................................................................................................49
CHAPTER 03 Research Methodology

3.0 Introduction to research methodology....................................................................50
3.1 Research process.....................................................................................................50
3.1.1 LITERATURE REVIEW........................................................................................50
3.1.2 RESEARCH PROBLEM STATEMENT.....................................................................51
3.2 Research Design.....................................................................................................51
3.2.1 RESEARCH APPROACH......................................................................................51
3.2.1.1 Case study design.....................................................................................51
3.2.2 RESEARCH TECHNIQUES...................................................................................52
3.2.2.1 Data collection techniques.......................................................................52
3.2.2.2 Data analysis techniques..........................................................................54
3.3 Applications of Case study.....................................................................................56
3.3.1 ANALYSIS OF EXISTING DEMOLITION WASTE RECYCLING PRACTICE...............56
3.3.1.1 Method of data collection.........................................................................56
3.3.1.2 Method of data analysis............................................................................56
3.3.2 ANALYSIS MATERIALS WHICH CAN RECYCLING WITH EXISTING TECHNIQUES
BUT NOT YET RECYCLING..........................................................................................56
3.3.2.1 Method of Data Collection.......................................................................57

3.3.2.2 Method of data analysis............................................................................57
3.3.3 ANALYSIS MATERIALS WHICH CANNOT RECYCLE WITH EXISTING TECHNIQUES
AND MATERIALS WHICH ARE CAN IMPROVE RECYCLING PERSPECTIVE OF OTHER
COUNTRIES RECYCLING TECHNIQUES........................................................................57
3.3.3.1 Method of data collection.........................................................................57

3.3.3.2 Method of Data Analysis..........................................................................57
iii
3.3.4 ANALYSIS OF ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF RECYCLING EACH WASTE MATERIALS

..................................................................................................................................58
3.3.4.1 Method of data Collection........................................................................58
3.3.4.2 Method of data Analysis...........................................................................58
3.4 Significance of the study........................................................................................58
3.5 Justification for selecting case study method.........................................................59
3.5 Research Reliability and validation........................................................................59
3.6 Summary.................................................................................................................60
CHAPTER 04 Research Findings Analysis and discussion

4.1 Objective 01 - Analysis of existing Demolition waste Recycling practice............61
4.1.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................61
4.1.2 ANALYSIS OF DEMOLITION WASTE MATERIALS WHICH ARE CURRENTLY
RECYCLING................................................................................................................62
4.1.2.1 Timber.......................................................................................................62
4.1.2.1.1 Extents of recycling...........................................................................62
4.1.2.1.2 Ways of collections............................................................................62
4.1.2.1.3 Ways of sorting..................................................................................62
4.1.2.1.4 Recycling methods.............................................................................63
4.1.2.1.5 Process of recycling...........................................................................63
4.1.2.1.6 Recycling processing strategies used.................................................63
4.1.2.1.7 Recycling technologies used..............................................................64
4.1.2.1.8 End materials/markets.......................................................................64
4.1.2.2 Concrete....................................................................................................64
4.1.2.2.1 Ways of collection.............................................................................64
4.1.2.2.2 Ways of sorting..................................................................................64
4.1.2.2.3 Process of Recycling..........................................................................65
4.1.2.2.4 Process of screening/sieving..............................................................65
4.1.2.2.5 Technologies used..............................................................................65
4.1.2.2.6 End markets/products........................................................................65
4.1.3 ANALYSIS OF DEMOLITION WASTE MATERIALS WHICH ARE CURRENTLY NOT
RECYCLING................................................................................................................66
iv
4.1.3.1 Reasons for not recycling each of these demolition waste materials.......66
4.1.3.2 Government intervention regarding demolition waste land filling...........67
4.1.3.3 Opportunities for treat or recycle.............................................................67
4.1.4 SUMMARY........................................................................................................68
4.2 Objective 02 - Analysis materials which can recycle with existing techniques but
not yet recycling...........................................................................................................69
4.2.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................69
4.2.2 MATERIALS WHICH CAN BE RECYCLE WITH EXISTING TECHNIQUES BUT NOT
YET RECYCLE............................................................................................................69
4.2.3 PARTICULAR RECYCLING TECHNIQUES WHICH CAN RECYCLE THESE MATERIALS

..................................................................................................................................70
4.2.3.1 Ways of collections....................................................................................70
4.2.3.2 Ways of sorting..........................................................................................70
4.2.3.3 Recycling methods....................................................................................71
4.2.3.4 Processes can use for recycling................................................................71
4.2.3.5 Processing strategies can use to recycling...............................................71
4.2.3.6 Recycling technologies can use to recycle................................................73
4.2.3.7 End markets/products...............................................................................73
4.2.4 FOR WHAT EXTENT THESE MATERIALS CAN BE RECYCLING.............................73
4.2.5 BARRIERS TO RECYCLE THESE MATERIALS......................................................73
4.2.6 HOW CAN RECYCLE MATERIALS USING OTHER COUNTRIES RECYCLING
TECHNIQUES?............................................................................................................74
4.2.6.1 Brick..........................................................................................................74
4.2.6.1.2 Ways of sorting..................................................................................74
4.2.6.2 Tiles...........................................................................................................75
4.2.6.2.2 Ways of sorting..................................................................................75
4.2.6.2.3 Recycling process..............................................................................76
v
4.2.6.2.4 Technologies......................................................................................76
4.2.6.2.5 Recycled material Applications.........................................................76
4.2.6.2.6 Market/End products.........................................................................76
4.2.6.3 Concrete....................................................................................................76
4.2.6.3.2 Ways of sorting..................................................................................76
4.2.7 SUMMARY........................................................................................................78
4.3 Objective 03 - Analysis materials, which are cannot recycle with existing
techniques and can improve recycling perspective of other countries recycling
techniques.....................................................................................................................79
4.3.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................79
4.3.2 MATERIALS WHICH ARE CAN NOT BE RECYCLING WITH EXISTING TECHNIQUES
..................................................................................................................................79
4.3.2.1 Asbestos....................................................................................................79
4.3.3 HOW CAN BE RECYCLING THESE MATERIALS WITH PERSPECTIVE OF OTHER
COUNTRIES RECYCLING TECHNIQUES?......................................................................80
4.3.4 REASONS FOR NOT RECYCLING THESE MATERIALS..........................................80

4.3.5 SUMMARY........................................................................................................80
4.4 Objective 04 - Analysis of economic feasibility of recycling.................................81
4.4.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................81
4.4.2 ANALYSIS ECONOMICAL FEASIBILITY IF MATERIALS ARE RECYCLING USING
EXISTING RECYCLING TECHNIQUES WHICH ARE CAN RECYCLE WITH EXISTING
TECHNIQUES BUT NOT YET RECYCLE........................................................................82
4.4.2.1 Feasibility of Bricks Recycling.................................................................83

4.4.2.2 Feasibility of Concrete Recycling.............................................................84
4.4.2.3 Feasibility of mixed waste (Concrete, bricks, and tiles) recycling...........85
4.4.3 ANALYSIS ECONOMICAL FEASIBILITY IF MATERIALS ARE RECYCLING WITH
PERSPECTIVE OF OTHER COUNTRIES RECYCLING TECHNIQUES WHICH ARE CAN
RECYCLE WITH EXISTING TECHNIQUES BUT NOT YET RECYCLED.............................86
vi
4.4.3.1 Feasibility of Bricks Recycling.................................................................87

4.4.3.2 Feasibility of Concrete Recycling.............................................................88
4.4.3.3 Feasibility of mixed waste (Concrete, bricks, and tiles) recycling...........89
4.4.4 ANALYSIS ECONOMICAL FEASIBILITY IF MATERIALS ARE RECYCLING
PERSPECTIVE OF OTHER COUNTRIES RECYCLING TECHNIQUES WHICH ARE CAN NOT
BE RECYCLE WITH EXISTING TECHNIQUES................................................................90
4.4.5 SUMMARY........................................................................................................90
CHAPTER 05 Conclusion, Recommendation and further research

5.1 Conclusions.............................................................................................................91
5.2 Recommendation....................................................................................................94
5.3 Further research......................................................................................................97
REFERENCES.............................................................................................................98
LIST OF APPENDIcES..............................................................................................104
vii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Comparison of Source separation and Commingled recycling process......13
Table 2.2: Advantages and disadvantages of on-site & off-site crushing and sorting. .16
Table 2.3: Demolition waste processing equipments...................................................37
Table 2.4: Relationships between Disposal, Processing and Recycling.......................41
Table 4.1: Existing demolition waste recycling practice..............................................61
Table 4.2: Timber recycling processing strategies........................................................63
Table 4.3: Concrete, Brick and Tiles recycling processing strategies..........................72
viii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Composition of demolition waste materials...............................................7
Figure 2.2: Water based separating techniques...........................................................17
Figure 2.3: Demolition waste separation process.......................................................18
Figure 2.4: Demolition waste crushing process..........................................................19
Figure 2.5: Flow chart of basic recycling plant and production of aggregate............21
Figure 2.6: Appropriate recycling techniques.............................................................34
Figure 2.7: Cross section of a Jaw crusher mounted on a mobile Equipment............36
Figure 2.8: Demolition waste Processing flow diagram.............................................38
Figure 3.1: Research design........................................................................................52
ix
ABBREVIATIONS
C&D
- Construction and Demolition
UK
- United Kindom
PVC
- Poly Vinyl Chloride
EU Countries
- European Countries
AROR
- Average Rate of Return
NEA
- National Environmental Act
CEA
- Central Environmental Authority
HSC
- Health and Safety Commission
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The research concluded owes much dedication and appreciations to many people who
have contributed in numerous ways and it is my pleasant task to acknowledge all the
individuals those who supported and extend their king corporation in different manner
in order to complete this study successfully.
First and foremost I would like to take this opportunity to convey my heartfelt
gratitude towards my supervisor Dr. R. Rameezdeen, former head of Department of
Building Economics for giving critical insight and for correcting and editing the
dissertation.
I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Sepani Senarathne for her support as the
dissertation coordinator and all the other staff members of Department of Building
Economics for their continuous support towards the achievement of this dissertation.
In addition, I would like to convey my heartfelt gratitude to all the demolition
contractors who appreciate my endeavor, facilitate for the interviews, collection of
information and for extending their helping hands towards me and also for many
people, whose names are not mentioned here.
Also I would like to pay my all batch mates for giving their maximum support to
achieve my goals.
Finally I owe my exceptional appreciation and gratitude to my parents and family
members for the spiritual and emotional reinforcement throughout the study and for
the sustained corporation.
Shantha K.S.
Aprial, 2009
xi
DEDICATION....
To my beloved parents
For their endless encouragement
xii
DECLARATION
I here by declare that this submission is my own work and that, to the best of my
knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by
another person nor material which, to a substantial extent, has been accepted for the
award of any other degree or diploma of a university or other degree or diploma of a
university or other institute of higher learning, except where an acknowledgement is
made in the text.
Shantha K.S.
Date
th
24 of Aprial 2009
xiii
ABSTRACT
As environmental protection had been pressing hardly in all over the world, the
pollution generation from building demolition activities seems difficult to control
while waste problem is the major element in the pollution generation. For control the
demolition waste generations in Sri Lanka reuse and recycling of demolition waste
should be well encouraged. However, the existing waste recycling techniques did not
encourage the various recycling materials and encountered difficulties from various
directions. There fore it is essential to identify potentials for recycling of demolition
waste with perspective of other countries recycling techniques. Hence, this research
focuses only on demolition waste recycling practice and identification of potentials for
demolition waste recycling materials with perspective of other countries recycling
techniques.
Through this research study, analysis of existing Demolition waste recycling practice
and for what extent those materials are recycling and what are the techniques used,
analysis of materials which can recycle with existing techniques but not yet recycling
and how can recycle these by using other countries recycling techniques, analysis
materials which cannot recycle with existing techniques but which are can improve
recycling perspective of other countries recycling techniques, and finally examine the
economical feasibility of above each procedures are the involving main steps. Five
demolition contractors were randomly selected who often have good knowledge on
demolition waste recycling practice and ten interviews conducted among them to
obtain data regarding above matters. Through research studies Concrete, Bricks, Tiles
and Timber were identified as most significant waste materials.
When considering other countries recycling materials and their recycling
techniques there are many possibilities to recycle demolition wastes in to new
products/materials. But still in Sri Lanka recycling of demolition waste is in initial
stage and only few studies were carried out and there are lack of knowledge regarding
demolition waste recycling techniques. Through this research identified potential
recycling materials, recycling techniques and economic feasibility of each recycling
operation and the results of this study provide basic platform to recycling of
demolition waste materials and to enhance recycling of demolition waste in Sri Lanka.
Key words: - Demolition waste, Recycling, Recycling Techniques, Potential materials,
other country's Recycling Techniques, Market Development, Government
Intervention.
xiv
Introduction
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background
Building demolition represents the process in which an erected structure is purposely
destroyed to form a diversity of components and fragments of mixed materials. The
demolition process of a building is normally regarded as an unavoidable annoyance in
its lifecycle (pun et al., 2005). Demolition of constructed structure has earned negative
reputation for the construction industry due to the enormous amount of waste sent to
the landfills (pun et al., 2006).
According to Nancy and Patterson (2004) with the waste generation is increases to
counteract the amount of waste generation communities have instituted recycling
programs. Recycling is the collection and separation of materials from waste and
subsequent processing to produce marketable products (Leigh and Patterson, 2004).
As a major waste management approach more concentration on recycling is important
(Montecinos and Holda, 2006). Recycling has economic and environmental benefits
for communities. First, recycling reduces the need for new landfills and their
associated costs. Second, recycling can provide materials for construction (Leigh and
Patterson, 2004).
Economic benefits in recycling of demolition waste depends on influences of the
techniques used for demolition, ways of sorting and separation, Recovery/Recycling
rate of each material, techniques used for recycling operation, behavior of demolition
workers, etc. Recovery/recycling rate depend on the demolition techniques used
(Dissanayake, 2007). Since many demolition materials have high potential for
recycling the identification of potential for recycling of demolition materials is very
important (Montecinos and Holda, 2006). Demolition waste recycling loop consist of
the three main phases of collection, recycling and marketing (Saotome, 2007).
Examine the barriers to closing the recycling loop and the identification of possible
solutions for promote recycling demolition waste material is essential.
Department of building economics University of Moratuwa
Introduction
For successful recycling operation the techniques utilized must be clearly establish
and the proper equipment and machinery to perform the operation will ultimately be
determined by how efficiently the machinery and crews perform the tasks required
(Peng et al., 2005). So that market development of recycled end uses also improves
the economics of recycling (Sutherland, 2001). When considering a recyclable
materials, three major areas needs to be taken in to account such as economy,
compatibility with other materials and material properties ( Mindess et al., 2003 cited
in Tam and Tam, 2005).
Still in Sri Lanka recycling of demolition waste materials are not very popular in the
industry. The key to an effective recycling operation and waste reduction program is
proper planning, proper techniques uses and proper development of market for
recycled end uses. Identification of target materials that can be recycled is another
important matter and to success the recycling operation target materials should be
generated in significant quantities. According to type of building generated demolition
waste may vary. In Sri Lanka 86.92% of demolition projects are residential building
(Dissanayake, 2005). There fore high amount of demolition waste generated from
residential building.
According to Domingo (2006) demolition waste consist 60% of brick and cabok and
from that around 90% of the waste has opportunity of reusing and recycling and other
materials such as glass, steel, plastics, timber, ceramics, etc have insignificant
contribution to the total demolition waste quantity and these materials has high
potential ability of reuse and recycling.
According to Dissanayake (2005, p26) Demolition waste recycling in Sri Lanka is
limited to wood products only. Therefore, identification of potential of recycling for
other materials and establishing a successful demolition waste recycling operation in
Sri Lanka is very essential. But establishing a successful demolition waste recycling
operation in Sri Lanka is a challenge today. Especially because lack of knowledge on
recycling techniques, lack of knowledge on recycled end materials/uses markets, less
experience in demolition recycling operations, less trained supervisors and employees,
financial capacity, knowledge of environmental and safety regulations, etc (Peng et
al.,1995).
Introduction
In order to identify potential of recycling for demolition waste and to accomplish an

economically, financially, socially, legally and environmentally feasible waste
recycling program it is very much important to be aware techniques used for recycling
operation and other factors such as composition of demolition waste materials, ability
of recycling demolition waste materials, their recycling rates, recycled end
materials/uses, recycled end materials/uses market, economic benefits from recycling
operation, assessment of risk etc. To do this it is most important to aware other
countries recycling materials, ways of collecting, ways of sorting, recycling
techniques, recycled end materials/uses and applications, critical recycling strategies.
1.2 Aim and objectives

Aim
The aim of this research can be outlined as identification of potential for Recycling of
demolition waste and strategies for successful demolition waste recycling operations
in Sri Lanka perspective of other countries recycling techniques through qualitative
approach.
Objectives
In order to achieve above aim the following objectives were formulated.
Identify existing Demolition waste Recycling practice and for what extent
those materials are recycling and what are the techniques used.
For this, study the materials which are currently recycling and not recycling,
ways of sorting, ways of collecting, recycling techniques, recycled end
materials/uses, their recycling cost and revenue.
Identify the materials which are can recycling with existing techniques but not
yet recycling.
For this, study the materials which are can recycling with existing techniques
but not yet recycling, for what extent these materials can recycling, what are
those recycling techniques, what are the barriers to recycling and how they can
recycling with perspective of other countries recycling techniques.
Identify the materials which are cannot recycling with existing techniques but
can improve recycling perspective of other countries recycling techniques.
Introduction
For this, study the materials which are cannot recycle with existing techniques,
reasons for that and how can improve recycling of those materials perspective
of other countries recycling techniques including ways of sorting, ways of
collection, recycling process, technology, recycled materials applications/end
uses etc using following interview guidelines.
Examine the economical feasibility by identifying cost and revenue associated

with recycling program to recognize potential recycling materials in Sri Lanka.
1.3 Research Methodology

1.3.1. Literature survey and review
Comprehensive literature survey and review was carried out to identify potential of
recycling materials and promoting recycling program in Sri Lanka. For this, literature
survey and review was carried out identifying other countries recycling materials and
their recycling techniques and successful strategies of demolition waste recycling
operations. Identification of these methods is main objectives of this research study.
This was done referring books, journals, thesis, and electronic materials.
1.3.2. Semi structured Interviews and Observations

Semi structured interviews and observations were conduct among expertise in the
demolition waste recycling field to identify existing demolition waste recycling
practices including demolition waste materials which are currently recycling and not
recycling and to identify how this could be improved perspective of other countries
recycling techniques.
1.4 Scope and limitations

The scope and limitations of this research can be summarized as follows;
The Semi Structured Interviews and observations are limited only for
demolition contractors who selected for case study for data collecting purposes
regarding existing recycling practices of demolition waste materials,
identifying potential recycling materials in Sri Lanka, their recycled end uses,
market conditions, existing technique, and other countries recycling techniques
and how this could be improved.
Introduction
1.5 A Guide to Dissertation

The dissertation comprises with five chapters including the introduction chapter.
Chapter One: - The background to the study, aim, objectives, scope & limitations of
the study and structure of the report were described in this chapter.
Chapter Two: - Comprehensive literature review was given on demolition waste
recycling practices. This chapter describes techniques used in other countries
including origin of waste material, ways of collection, ways of sorting, recycling
technology, recycled
end
material/uses
and applications
of recycled
end
materials/uses.
Chapter Three: - This chapter was allocated for discussion of research methodology
including the data collection methods and data analysis techniques for the study.
Chapter Four: - Research findings analysis and discussion was presented in this
chapter.
Chapter Five: - Conclusion was drawn in this chapter while giving recommendations
and highlighting the areas for further research.
Appendices - 10
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW ON DEMOLITION WASTE
RECYCLING
2.1 Demolition Waste
2.1.1 What is demolition waste?
The construction industry consumes huge amounts of natural resources and produces a
significant quantity of construction and demolition wastes (Poon et al., 2004). Waste is
produced in different types and quantities throughout the life-cycle of a building with the
bulk of the waste being produced during the construction and demolition phases (Dolan,
1999).
Demolition wastes are waste arising from the total or partial demolition of buildings or civil
infrastructure. These materials may be soil, gravel, pieces of concrete, ceramics, coats,
bricks, overlay plates, tiles, plaster, sand, stones, pieces of sanitary ware, etc. The materials
of demolition waste are generally heterogeneous and arise from total or partial (selective)
demolition of buildings or other civil engineering infrastructure (Symonds, 1999).
Ekanayake (2000) defined C&D waste as Any material, apart from earth materials, which
needs to be transported elsewhere from the construction site or used within the construction
site itself for the purpose of filling, incineration, recycling, reusing or composting, other
than the intended specific purpose of the project due to material damage, excess, non use,
or non compliance with the specifications or being a by product of the construction
process.
The waste stream termed C&D waste can cover a wide range of materials and depending on
their origin, they can categorize. Their composition varies depending on the type, shape,
age, use, size and the main material of the building or civil infrastructure. The challenge is
to reduce or eliminate the wastes that follow the various paths leading to the landfill
(Dolan, 1999).Demolition wastes usually contain a large amount of reusable materials. If
sorted properly these materials could be better to reused or recycled (Poon et al., 2004).
2.1.2 Classification and Composition of Demolition Waste

Characterization of demolition waste is very significant to managing the recycling
operation. The potential success of the project will depend on accurately identifying both
Appendices - 10
the nature of the waste and its quantity (Domingo, 2006). According to Domingo (2006)
studies demolition waste composition of residential and commercial buildings within Sri
Lankan can be shown as follows:
Figure 2.1: Composition of demolition waste materials
These estimated compositions guide to demonstrate the types of materials and percentage
that comprise demolition debris. The actual waste compositions from each site can vary
considerably based on the type of construction techniques used, the primary structural
materials employed (e.g., wood, steel, concrete, brick), and the type of structure being
demolished (Lennon, 2005).
Above figure shows that Cabok, Bricks, Mortar, Mixed waste and Concrete shows the
highest waste compositions which are amount to 29.85%, 28.67%, 15.24%, 11.80%, 6.77%
respectively. So that while Timber and Earth/Clay shows between 1%-2%, steel, glass,
wires, etc shows compositions less than 1% out of total waste stream (Domingo, 2006).In
addition to that demolition waste stream consist with significant proportion of hazardous
wastes such as asbestos, lead pipes and roofing material, other heavy metals, hydrocarbons,
paint, adhesives, wood treated with preservatives, contaminated soil and various materials
containing PCBs (polychlorobiphenyls) (Strufe, 2004).
Demolition waste has a high recycling potential because the majority of it consists of
masonry, concrete, and steel (Lauritzen, n.d.). But Domingo (2006) further identified that in
Sri Lanka recycling operation is limited only for timber material. There for identification
and development of potentials for recycling other materials are very important.
2.1.3 Building Demolition techniques

Appendices - 10
There are four demolition techniques as Selective demolition, Mechanical demolition,

Hybrid and Implosion, where identified by several authors (e.g. Hendriks and Pietersen,
2000; Dissanayaka, 2007; Dolan, 1999).
Selective demolition is carried out manually with the help of small tools. It is a process of
selectively and systematically dismantling building to reduce the amount of waste created
and generating and supply of high value secondary materials that are suitable for reuse and
recycling (Schultmann, 2003). Method shows different types and fractions of materials are
removed at the source by step by step and sorted in order to avoided the mixing them. This
result in clean fractions of recyclable demolition materials, leading to higher quality
recycled materials. Thus in this method a major component enabling high demolition waste
recovery rates to be achieved (Dolan, 1999). Main thing is in this method is less plant cost
and less waste disposal charges. This method of demolition requires more labour intensive
inputs and due to the increased labour input, the associated costs can initially increase with
comparing mechanical and traditional demolition methods. Due to the increased labour
input for selective demolition the associated costs can increase than other methods.
(Peterson et al., 2004).
Mechanical demolition is carried out with the assistance of heavy equipment, generally
using backhoe. This method is both efficient and cost effective compared to selective
demolition technique. But in this method material reuse and recycling is not likely to occur
due to lack of separation and contamination and mixed debris are most suitable to sent for
landfills.
Hybrid demolition techniques are combination of mechanical and selective demolition. In
this method cost of demolition, economics benefits and environmental impact is
compromise between high and low value (Poon et al., 2004). This method is the common
method used by most demolition contractors.
For every demolition project it is very important to choose both environmentally and
economically friendly demolition techniques. By Dissanayake (2007) analysed both
environmentally and economically feasible demolition techniques by using cost, revenue,
profit and demolition waste indices. According to findings of several authors revealed that
selective demolition is the best technique because it has the greatest profit over the other
techniques, which offset incurred comparatively higher costs by comparatively higher
revenue earned from selling secondary materials (e.g. Peterson et al., 2004; Schultmann,
Appendices - 10
2003; Dissanayaka, 2007; Tam and Tam, 2005; Poon et al., 2004). Further it has the higher
recovery rates over the other techniques.
Hybrid techniques have second best profit and its greatest cost will offset by its revenue.
The mechanical techniques have the lowest cost. But this method has the lowest profit due
to its low revenue.
2.2 Recycling of demolition waste

2.2.1 What is Recycling?
Definition
Recycling is the collection and separation of materials from waste and subsequent
processing to produce marketable products (Leigh and Patterson, 2004). Recycling prevents
useful material resources being wasted, reduces the consumption of raw materials and
reduces energy usage, and hence greenhouse gas emissions, compared to virgin production
Dolan (1999). Recycling is a key concept of modern waste management and is the third
component of the waste hierarchy (Reduce, Reuse, Recycling). Numerous materials can be
recycled, with the most common being wood, concrete, Brick, Metals (Montecinos and
Holda, 2006). Recycling is widely assumed to be environmentally beneficial, although the
collection, sorting and processing of materials into new products also entails significant
environmental impacts (Craighill and Powell, 1999).
The benefits of recycling of waste streams from building demolition include diversion of
waste materials from landfill sites and reduced depletion of natural resources (Thormark,
2000; Nisbet, n.d.; Gorgolewski, 2006).
Further, Recycling Supplies valuable raw materials to industry, Prevents emissions of many
greenhouse gases and water pollutants, Saves energy, Creates jobs, Stimulates the
development of greener technologies (Leigh and Patterson, 2004):
The requirements for recycling of Demolition waste are:
As Symonds (1999) following requirements to be fulfill for recycling of Demolition waste.
-
Land filling of Demolition waste must be prohibited or permitted with very high
costs
Landfills must be well managed, and fly tipping of waste must be uncommon and
subject to sanctions
Appendices - 10
The opportunity must exist for the main bulky inert fraction of the Demolition waste
to be treated or recycling
Planned demolition, including selective demolition and separation, must take place
to allow for effective recycling.
Acceptance by all parties concerned that Demolition waste recycled products should
meet no discrimination in the market place.
The opportunity must exist to receive economic benefits from the recycling
operation.
Should possess required technological level to produce good quality recycled

products
Recycling of demolition waste is still a new concept to the Sri Lankan construction industry
(Domingo, 2006). But considering other countries especially European countries such as
Germany, Denmark, Netherland Sweden and UK etc can see they reach high level of
recycling rate. According to Symonds (1999) European countries such as the Germany,
Netherlands and Denmark have achieved higher recycling rates between 80% and 90% and
in addition to that Sweden and UK also have relatively high level of recycling rate than
other EU countries.
According to COWAM study (2007) Germany and Denmark each recycle more than 85%
of all C&D wastes and the UK and Sweden recycle 68% and 28% (estimated) respectively.
Therefore, in this research high priority gives to details available in Germany, Netherlands,
Denmark, Sweden and UK for recycling techniques analysis.
In these countries waste management hierarchy, recycling ranks higher than incineration
with energy recovery and land filling ranks lowest. Recycling is the highest ranking waste
treatment form and it ensures better exploitation of resources in waste (Montecinos and
Holda, 2006).
2.2.2 Benefits of Recycling of Demolition waste

Recycling of demolition waste materials in to new products will lead to gain environmental,
economical and social benefits:
It reduces the demand for raw materials by extending their life and maximizing the
value extracted from them.
Reduce the illegal dumping is one of the main benefit from recycling and it will
leads to following sub benefits including (Leal et al., n.d.),
10
Appendices - 10
elimination of illegal dumping on roads will reduce problems with traffic jams
and accidents caused by bulky waste, dangerous blockages of storm water drains
Eliminating of illegal landfills will leads to reduce drinking water
contaminations, preventing monsoon runoff and causing floods and promoting
mosquito breeding.
It reduces the habitat damage, pollution and waste associated with the extraction of
raw materials.
It reduces transport costs and pollution from transporting raw materials and
manufacturing new products.
It saves energy in the production process when compared with the energy consumed
in using raw materials.
It reduces emissions to air and water in the production process.
It reduces disposal shock (if more waste is recycled, less waste goes to landfill or
incinerators).
It promotes personal responsibility for the waste we create.
Helps communities, contractors, and building owners comply with state and local
policies, such as disposal bans and recycling goals
2.2.3 Recycling methods

2.2.3.1 Source separation
Source separation means separating different recyclable materials from other waste and
intending to recycle (Lennon, 2005). That is, workers keep metals separate from wood and
wood separate from concrete, and so on, and place each material into a different container.
These containers are then transported to different markets. This enhances recycling
possibilities and large proportion of building and demolition waste can take directly to a
recycling plant (Lennon, 2005). The economic benefits of recycling are highest if waste
materials can be separated from each other and recycled individually.
2.2.3.2 Commingled recycling

Commingled recycling is the mixed waste recycling method and it is an alternative to
source separation. Commingled recycling means placing all recyclable materials into a
single container which is contains mixed recyclable demolition waste and it is then
transported to a processing facility, where different materials are separated by hand or by
automated equipment (Lennon, 2005; Anon, 2004).
11
Appendices - 10
2.2.3.3 Comparison of Source separation and Commingled recycling

process
In these two methods the biggest tradeoff is the complexity versus economics. Source
separation is more complex because workers must separate waste materials before they
throw them away, there are more containers on site, and there are more markets. In most
cases, source separation is economically more advantageous than commingled recycling,
because (Lennon, 2005):
Source separation produces materials that are ready to go directly to market; there is
no need to pay a processor to sort materials.
Source separated materials are generally of higher quality, with fewer contaminants,
so theyre worth more in recycling markets.
Source separation and commingled recycling have following advantages and disadvantages
(Lennon, 2005).
Recycling Method
Advantages
Disadvantages
Source Separation
Higher recycling rates
Lower
revenues
Commingled
Recycling
2
recycling
paid
for
Multiple containers on site
costs;
Workers
some
materials for recycling
must
separate
materials
More complex logistics
Often a cleaner, safer work site
Multiple
Only one or two containers on
information to manage
Lower recycling rates
site
Higher recycling costs
No
need
separate
for
workers
materials
markets;
more
to
for
recycling
Easier logistics
One market; less information

to manage
Table 2.1: Comparison of Source separation and Commingled recycling process
12
Appendices - 10
Complexity is usually not much of an issue. Its no harder for workers to throw different
materials into different containers than to throw them out mixed together. Being smaller,
containers for source separated materials can often be placed close to work areas, so that
source separation actually takes less time and effort than carrying wastes to a central
container for mixed debris.
On balance, source separation is generally preferable to commingled recycling. It costs less,

and recycling rates are typically higher. There are some jobs where commingled recycling
is the only option possible, because of site limitations, job size, or schedule. In these cases
the goal is to identify the commingled processor who can achieve the best combination of
price and recycling rate. But where its feasible, source separation should be considered the
best recycling option.
2.2.4 Demolition Waste processing

Demolition waste processing consists with crucial factors such as Sorting, Separation,
Crushing, Sifting and secondary crushing. The initial operation may be a simple manual
sorting (e.g., salvage) of the demolition waste and it is a more complicated process with
considering time factor because most of contractors main aim is rapid demolition and
disposal of structures (Symonds, 1999). The organization of the processes into elements
that perform discrete tasks (e.g., separation, size reduction) is based on an understanding of
the characteristics of the demolition waste stream to be handled. Because many systems
contain mobile equipment, the initial choice of infeed, discharge and recycling systems may
be revised as characteristics of feed and products change (Stein and Savage,1994).
Demolition contractors are quite familiar with the practice of recycling materials that can be
separated and recovered from building debris. However demolition Waste processing
strategies may consist with either;
Sort and separate, Crush and reduce or;
Crush and reduce, Sort and separate.
Processing systems may incorporate trommel, disc or vibratory flat-bed screens to separate
rocks and soil from the remaining waste. Density separation (e.g., pneumatic or hydraulic
sink/float operations) diverts wood scrap from heavier fractions. After processing, a
substantial non recyclable fraction of the waste stream usually remains as a process residue
requiring disposal.
Various approaches have applied for processing C&D debris into useful products.
13
Appendices - 10
These approaches are generally classified as (Stein and Savage,1994):
Mechanically intensive or labour intensive
On-site or off-site processing (e.g. at a central facility).
The selection of the location where the management of C&D waste (crushing and
separation) could take place (on-site or off-site) is based on the following parameters
(Kourmpanis et al., 2008).
Availability of machines.
Required quality of recyclable materials in order to be used at the worksite.
On-site space availability.
Distance between the worksite and the nearest Recycling Centre.
2.2.4.1 Comparison of Mechanically intensive versus labour intensive

processing
A labour intensive process means that operators are selecting and sorting material, with the
aid of mechanical equipment. The difference between mechanically intensive and labour
intensive can also be characterized as automated versus manual (Stein and
Savage,1994).The following advantages favor the selection of a labour-intensive process:
Workers can sort materials that cant be mechanically separated
Work force is available for other assignments between jobs
Low capital cost for the process
The following advantages favor the selection of a mechanically intensive process:
High production rates
Greater worker safety
Smaller work force involve
2.2.4.2 Comparison of on site and off site crushing and sorting

Before implementing recycling program it is very important to decide whether use on site
or off site crushing and sorting facilities. When contractors can store, recycle demolition
materials on-site, on site crushing and sorting represents one of the most efficient methods
of recycling, saving transportation, storage and some processing costs. For sites that can
coordinate on site crushing and processing however financial benefits can be significant
(Burgoyne, n.d.).Following table summarizes the key factors associated with a choice
between on site and off site crushing and sorting facilities (Symonds, 1999).
On-Site Crushing and Sorting
14
Appendices - 10
Advantages of on-site crushing and Disadvantages

sorting:
of
on-site
crushing
and
sorting:
lower
materials
handling
and
transport costs
demands for materials and machinery
lower machinery capital costs
less
transport
surrounding
conflicts between site operations and space
areas
disruption
(if
materials can be used on-site)
of C&DW
to
recycled
higher machinery operating costs per tonne
more local noise and dust nuisance
construction may be delayed
Off-Site Crushing and Sorting

Advantages of off-site crushing and sorting:
Disadvantages of off-site crushing and
sorting:
Easier to reduce and/or mitigate adverse

environmental impacts on surrounding
essential (to avoid arrival of unknown
More practical to use a wider range of
quality materials)
Higher
materials
handling
and
transport costs
lower machinery operating costs per tonne

of C&DW
Higher machinery capital costs
Easier to control quality of recycled
Fixed costs of recycling the site (land
materials
Proper control of demolition process
areas
higher capacity equipment
etc)
Possible to hold stocks, thereby making

positive marketing of recycled materials
easier.
Table 2.2: Advantages and disadvantages of on-site and off-site crushing and sorting
Material is most often processed in a sequence of sorting, crushing, sifting and a second
sorting to yield a final product ready for use. As crushing and separating become very
important steps of recycling, these two stage are dealt in detail under 2.2.4 and 2.2.5
2.2.5 Separation Process in Recycling

A necessary condition for the recycling of demolition waste is careful sorting and
separating of the waste. However, the sorting of waste from demolition is a more
complicated process (Lauritzen, n. d.). Most frequently different building materials are
separated by manual sorting after a demolition. In Germany for separation process use
either an air flow based or a water based separation device, from that majority of German
recycling plants use air flow based separation devices although the water based technique
provides the better quality (Schultmann, 2003). Before go to regular sorting techniques it is
15
Appendices - 10
essential that hazardous wastes remove from the buildings before these are demolished
(Anon, 2000). This enables:
(a) Contamination of the general waste stream to be avoided for recycling or land filling
purposes and
(b) To ensure that the dangerous wastes extracted in this way are managed in an appropriate
manner.
The main hazardous wastes covered by such separation at source are as follows: asbestos,
lead piping or roofing material, other heavy metals, hydrocarbons, paint, and adhesives,
wood treated with preservatives, contaminated earth and various materials containing PCBs
(Polychlorobiphenyls) (Strufe, 2004).
There are two types of separation techniques as an air flow based or a water based
separation device, whereby the majority of recycling plants use air flow based separation
devices, than water based technique (Schultmann, 2003).
2.2.4.1 Water based separation

Wet separation techniques use water to separate lighter and heavier materials. . In some
cases other substances are added to the water to increase the specific weight of the water
and to change the point light materials flow up. Some water based separating devices use
supplementary water jets or air to support the separation by density differences
(Schultmann, 2003).As described by Schultmann, (2003) a general overview of the
different kinds of water based separating techniques can figure out as below, which is
differentiated by the four categories: Thin film separation, Jig separation, up current
separation, Float and sink separation. Within these four categories several different devices
are available based on the same techniques which each vary in detail (Schultmann, 2003).
density based
separation
thin film
separation
jig
separation
up current
separation
float and sink

separation
Figure 2.2: Water based separating techniques.
2.2.4.2 Air flow based separation

16
Appendices - 10
Air flow based separating devices use the air flow to "blow away" light materials and to
isolate the lighter non mineral materials from the heavier material materials. In general the
airflow-based techniques are characterized by lower operating costs. But the resulting
material separation is not as exact as with the wet techniques (Schultmann, 2003).
In airflow based separating devices there can see two fundamental systems such as "reverse
air flow sorting technique" and the "cross air flow sorting technique. Cross airflow sorting
has the advantage that the materials remain in the device for a much shorter time, which
increases performance. In addition the geometric form of materials to be separated is much
more important when separating waste materials. It is more in cross air flow technique
than reverse airflow sorting and as a consequence, modern cross air flow sorting devices
use the correlation of geometric form and the quality of material separation to achieve a
better sorting.
Further another modification of the cross airflow sorting technique is the "exhaust of
foreign matter". Instead of using a free fall system, the materials to be sorted lie on a
vibrating conveyor belt that pre separate the light materials from the mineral fraction. The
reverse air flow sorting techniques have increased their effectiveness of sorting by using
Zig-zag separation devices, because the zig-zag form has the same effect as a succession of
several single cross air flow sorting devices (Schultmann, 2003).
In general, steps which the separation process consist can be shown as follow as the
(Broere, n.d.; Hendricks and Pietersen, 2000):
Pre Sorting [Coarse wood, Coarse metals, Coarse rubble]
Feeder
Screening [Sand]
Wind Shifting [Plastics, Paper and Wood]
Magnetic belt separator [Ferrous melts]
Conveyor hand picking [Wood, PVC piping, non ferrous

metals]
Concrete and Masonry Debris [To Crusher]
Masonry
Debris [To Crusher]
Department of buildingConcrete
economicsand
University
of Moratuwa
17
Appendices - 10
Figure 2.3: Demolition waste separation process
2.2.6 Crushing process in Recycling

Crushing process involves two basic types of crushers are compression crushers and impact
crushers. Compression crushers have two basic types of crushers Cone crushers and Jaw
crushers. Impact crushers can be either vertical or horizontal (Hendriks and Pietersen,
2000).
Most recycling plants have both primary and secondary crushers; however some plants out
put produce (e.g. aggregates) by primary crushing only. In plants with both levels of
crushing, the primary crusher normally reduces the material down to about 3/4 in. The
material then passes t h rough two screens that separate the aggregate into sizes, greater
than and less than 3/8 in. The larger material is fed to the secondary c rusher where the
maximum desired coarse aggregate size is set (Symonds, 1999). The best particle shape is
usually achieved by primary crushing and then secondary crushing, but from an economic
point of view, a single crushing process is usually most effective (Khalaf and Devenny,
2004).
In general, steps which the crushing process consist can be shown as follow as (Broere,
n.d.; Hendriks and Pietersen, 2000):
Pre Sorting [Coarse wood, Coarse metals, Coarse rubble]
Feeder
Screening [Sand]
Primary Crusher
Magnetic belt separator [Ferrous melts]
Secondary Crusher
Conveyor hand picking [Wood, PVC piping, non ferrous

metals]
Screening [granular materials]
Screening
[granular
materials]
Department of building economics
University
of Moratuwa
18
Appendices - 10
Figure 2.4: Demolition waste crushing process
2.2.7 Demolition waste material, Origin, Ways of collection,

Ways of sorting, Recycling process, Technologies and End
market/products
When consider demolition waste materials recycling, its recycling techniques differ from
materials to material including their origin, ways of sorting, ways of collection, recycling
process, technologies and end markets/products and their applications. Since concrete,
brick, wood/timber, metals (ferrous), metals (non ferrous), tiles, plastics and asbestos are
commonly recycling materials in other countries and common materials can see in
demolition waste materials, here for details studies has given priority for above materials.
2.2.7.1 Concrete
Concrete is one of most commonly recycling materials in other countries and its recycling
techniques can be summarizing as following as:
Origin
Concrete is the primary material for larger buildings in foundations, retaining walls, walls,
roofs and floor construction (Leal, 2006).
Ways of collection
Recovered from concrete demolition sites it can be unprocessed or preferably, pre crushed
by excavator breaker or mobile crushing machine (Leal, 2006). By reducing volume of
concrete can reduce transportation cost and it allows for fewer loads.
Ways of sorting
In general following process is continuing in central sorting plants (Leal, 2006). Demolition
materials are sent to sieving machine for pre sieving process. Then remaining sent to impact
crusher and after that steel components are sorted by overhead magnet sorting and
manually. Remaining RC building materials sent to sieving machine and then sort
aggregate.
Recycling process
Followings are involved in recycling process:
In situ sorting by removing dressings and rebar.
Reduced by crusher and sorted by kernel size (Leal, 2006). Crushing can do either
in situ or centralized.
19
Appendices - 10
Removal of metals by magnetic sorting.
By Rolling/Scalping removes large fractions.
Sizing according to standards by Sieve sorting.
As Nisbet et al. (n.d.) flow chart of basic recycling plant and production of aggregate can
figure as follow as:
Figure 2.5: Flow chart of basic recycling plant and production of aggregate
Technologies
Plants for producing recycled concrete aggregates are similar to plants for production of
crushed aggregate from other sources. They incorporate crushers, screens, transfer
equipment, and devices for removal of foreign matter (Nibset, n.d.).
Recycled material Applications

Recycled concrete as reused in low value applications such as fill or road sub-grade is a
well recognized application. Concrete can be crushed and ground to aggregate. The
majority of it has to be sorted and used as fill (Leal, 2006). The value of in situ concrete in
terms of recycling is low (Berge, 2000 cited in Leal, 2006). According to Leal (2006)
Following are the applications of recycled materials.
Road base and construction fill Several authors has said that crushed concrete can
be used as base fill in the construction of roads (e.g. Leal, 2006; Burgoyne, n.d.;
Tam and Tam, 2006). The crushed material is used in place of lime rock. Crushed
concrete may also be used as primary road surface material on unpaved roads in
rural areas. The use of crushed concrete for driveways can also be practiced. The
purity (i.e. presence of wood, dirt, other contamination) of the material may also be
an issue (Leal, 2006).
20
Appendices - 10
Aggregate in concrete - Aggregates can be recovered from concrete crushing

process and used in the production of new concrete (Burgoyne, n.d.). According to
(Townsend, 1999 cited in Leal, 2006) the addition of crushed concrete fines has
been used, but the quality does not always meet the same results as when using
clean sand and rock aggregate.
Drainage material - Crushed concrete that has been well screened of fine particles
provides similar drainage characteristics as new rock or gravel. It can be used for
drainage applications in construction. Other possibilities include septic drain fields
and landfill leachate collection systems (Leal, 2006).
Producing concrete bricks and paving blocks (Poon et al., n.d.).
Market/End products
RC-Frost protection material 0/32 - Base/Filter layer under surface or between
foundation slabs
RC Concrete - SPLITT 0-8 - Self hardening Paving
RC Concrete - SPLITT 8-16 - Reinforcing of road and walkways, loose top coat
RC Concrete - SCHOTTER 16/32 - Drainage layer and basement wall protection
2.2.7.2 Brick
Origin
Standard Bricks made from Clay, sand and light mineral materials which are wet mixed
formed and kiln fired. Bricks are frequently coming from walls of building.
Ways of collection
Collection ways are manual dismantling, cleaning and stacking. Brick rubble is lifted by
sieve shovels with excavators, thus partial sorting is possible during collection (Leal, 2006).
Ways of sorting
Rubble bucket lifting, sieving, magnetic separation and manual sorting are the most
commonly used (Leal, 2006).
Recycling process
It involves Crushing and sorting according to kernel size, separation from metal
components (Leal, 2006).
Technologies
Breakers and Crushers are identical. For that Mobile, semi-mobile, stationary crushing
plants are more familiar (Montecinos and Holda, 2006).
21
Appendices - 10

Road base and construction fill Several authors has said that Crushed brick can be used
as base fill in the construction of roads (e.g. Ozkan and Duzgunes, 2000; Leal, 2006;
Tam and Tam, 2006). The crushed material is used in place of lime rock. The benefits of
such reuse are often dictated by the local availability of lime rock deposits, as hauling
costs are substantial. The purity (i.e. presence of wood, dirt, other contamination) of the
material may also be an issue.
Crushed brick may also be used as primary road surface material on unpaved roads in
rural areas. Clean, crushed brick as sports field lining and lightweight concrete addition
and, with portions of flashes, mortars and ceramic, as crushed stone replacement or low
density concrete aggregate.
Drainage layer
Recreational trail top coat
Mechanical soil stabilizer, inertness of material is well suited to this application
Market/End products
RC-Rubble 0/32 - Under layer or Filter layer for foundations
RC-Rubble 32/56 - Top layer for path and public space surfaces
RC-Rubble 0/X - Mechanical Soil stabilizer
2.2.7.3 Wood, Timber

Origin
Wood C&D waste is largely recovered from old buildings and as forming material. Timber
can be used to cover roofs as shakes, shingles or planks. As cladding it can be used as
paneling or wattle, and as flooring it can be used as boards, parquet tiles or timber sets. The
sheeting is produced as fiberboard, cork, chipboard or veneer.
Ways of collection
It can collected either alone from a site or mixed with other C&D wastes. If the material
quantity is large, in-situ shredding can help reduce transportation costs.
Ways of sorting
According to material quality, degree of contamination, size and type recovered wood
wastes are sorted. Further sorting is carried out according to intended processing (Leal,
2006).
22
Appendices - 10
Recycling process
As Leal (2006) recycling of wood waste are involve following process.
Wood is collected onsite with or without foreign materials.
Sorting is done by hand and machine
Wood is shredded, sometimes onsite and sometimes with foreign matter
Further separation, like air blower and magnetic is performed on shredded material
Shredded wood is marketed
Technologies
Mainly used technology is Shredders in shredders following two forms are available
Single Shaft Shredder Specially designed high performance shredders are

available specially designed for the wood processing.
Powerline - The Powerline shredder series are highly economical and specially
designed for the production of substitute fuels (RDF) and offer a wide variety of
innovative equipment and ancillaries. It guarantees a maximum rate of productivity.
Low power consumption and low wear costs are the basis for the Powerline's
economic efficiency.
In addition to that Saw, hand tools, etc is also used.

Recycled wood can be ground into wood chips or wood flour and used to make composite
or engineered lumber products, mulch, animal bedding, compost or many other products
(Burgoyne, n.d.).
Market/End products
By studies of several authors identified following end markets from wood recycling (e.g.
Leal, 2006; Burgoyne, n.d.).
Fuel - Germany has significant biomass generating capacity (ie: domestic wood pellet
heaters) and Wood can be a green supplement in coal generators (Leal, 2006).
Engineered Wood - Production of various pressboards and fiberboards is possible with
these wood fibers
Mulch or Compost Amendment - Cleanliness of the product is particularly important for
such uses
Animal Bedding
In addition above end uses are identified by (Jackson et al., 2003; James, 2003; Orme,
2003; Anon, 2005).
23
Appendices - 10
Manufactured wood products

Alternative wood fiber-based materials (e.g., particle board, MDF)
2.2.7.4 Metal (Ferrous)

Modern building construction, industrial, commercial and institutional, and residential, is
using metals for improved performance, durability and appearance (Nisbet et al., n.d.).
Steel Demolition debris is very recyclable due to its lack of contamination by dissimilar
materials (Burgoyne, n.d.). Scrap steel is almost totally recycled and allowed repeated
recycling (Coventry, 1999 cited in Tam and Tam, 2006).
Origin
Steel is the most important structural metal and is used in all the structural components of a
building from foundations (usually combined with concrete) to the roof. Steel used in
structural cases is often unalloyed (Leal, 2006).
Ways of collection
The way of Collection is the removal of materials directly from a building. Large sections
may be cut or shredded onsite before transport. When collected in conjunction with other
materials such as concrete, brick, wood, plastic and others metals must be sorted out from
other materials at a central processing site (Leal, 2006).
Ways of sorting
Density Separation
Manual separation
Magnetic Separation
Eddy Current Separation
Recycling process
Recycling operation involves Sorting and separating activities and Recycling operation
itself. Sorting and separation activities include manual sorting and dismantling, cutting,
flattening and shredding. Manual sorting and dismantling may be applied to products and
materials with significant value. Cutting and flattening may be used to reduce the size of
large homogenous metal items (predominantly iron, steel and aluminium items), thereby
making them suitable for further handling and transport (Holm et al., 2002).
So that after onsite separation from concrete and other materials involves shredding and
further sorting of reduced material and marketing it domestically or internationally to
24
Appendices - 10
foundries. Further sorting will done using various methods including Magnetic sorting for
ferrous fractions and Density separation to separate other metals using Eddy Current
separators (Leal, 2006).
Both collected old scrap and new scrap from manufacturing is sorted with ensuring
homogenous high quality materials. If steel is unsuitable for direct reuse it is melted to
produce new steel (Tam and Tam, 2006).
Technologies
In Germany following two different steel production methods are used (Leal, 2006), each
with different possible levels of scrap steel content.
The Basic Oxygen Furnace Method (BOF) (approx. 71 % of 2000 total production)
works with a scrap iron employment between 20 % and 30 %.
The Electric Arc Furnace steel production method (EAF) (approx. 29 % of 2000 total
production) is capable of employing 100 percent scrap metal in production.
The recycled content of EAF relies on the embodied energy savings of the steel created in
the BOF. And the BOF infuses a greater supply of new steel in to service to provide for
continued economic development (Crawford, 2001).

Recycled products are used for produce new steel
Market/End products
Processed or unprocessed scrap steel
2.2.7.5 Metal (Non ferrous)

A number of nonferrous metals have found wide application in the building industry.
Aluminum is used in window framing as well as cladding. Copper, is used in wiring and as
the main component of water distribution networks while lead piping was often used in
older plumbing systems. Zinc is used in steel galvanizing as well as in brass alloys. Nickel
is used in production of stainless steel. Other nonferrous metals are also used to produce
various alloys and to modify / improve the properties of steel (Nisbet et al., n.d.). But in
these study mainly focused on Aluminum material only.
Origin
Aluminium is a frequently used metallic material where light structures and as roofing or
exterior siding material. Aluminium can be recycled after having undertaken adequate
25
Appendices - 10
treatment and preparation without any loss in quality because its properties and
characteristics are not affected even after it has been used in a product. The high value of
the metal is maintained through multiple reapplication cycles with giving sufficient
economic incentive for its collection and recycling into a similar or comparable product
(Leal, 2006).
Ways of collection
Collection can done either onsite or during post collection of mixed wastes or mixed metal
wastes. Aluminium, once reduced by crusher and shredder with mixed waste that can be
effectively separated from a mix by eddy current separation (Leal, 2006).
Ways of sorting
Ways of sorting involves:
Separation from foreign materials
Magnetic separation
Eddy Current Separation (can distinguish alloys and non ferrous metals)
Density separation (dry and wet cyclonic)
Inspection and removal
Separation in melting
Recycling process
Recycling process for non ferrous aluminium involve following course of action (Leal,
2006).
Collection and recovery - Old and new scrap are collected and recovered by the
metal trade or the refiners and remelters themselves.
Preparation and treatment - The scraps recovered are treated according to their
quality and characteristics. Common treatment processes are for example sorting,
cutting, baling or shredding. Turnings are dried and crushed. Free iron is removed
by magnetic separators. Aluminium skimmings, a mixture of aluminium metal and
aluminium oxide, are crushed or ground and air separated.
Charging - As a rule computer controlled selection and mixing of scrap types whose
chemical composition is as close as possible to that of the required alloy.
Melting - Various furnace types are available for melting aluminium scrap. In
Germany, scrap for the production of casting alloys is commonly melted in rotary
furnaces under a layer of liquid melting salt (flux). Producers of wrought alloys
prefer open hearth furnaces in varying designs.
26
Appendices - 10
Refining - The alloy production in rotary furnaces is followed by a refining process.

The molten alloy is fed into a holding furnace (converter) and purified through the
addition of refining agents.
Quality control - Every single charge of the furnace is tested in the plants
Laboratories with modern computer controlled analytical technology equipment
and, provided that the result is positive, receives a certificate.
Casting - The molten aluminium is either cast into ingots or transported in liquid
form to a foundry. The ingots weigh, depending on the shape of the mould used,
between 4 and 25 kg. Liquid aluminium is filled into pre-heated thermos containers
and transported to the foundries, where the liquid metal is filled into holding
furnaces and processed immediately.
Homogenising - Heat treatment of extrusion billets in special furnaces in order to

obtain a metal structure which is appropriate for further processing and to remove
residual stress of the casting.
Technologies
Shears, Shredders, Magnetic and Eddy Current Separators, Furnaces/melting, etc are the
commonly used technologies. (Leal, 2006; Tam and Tam, 2006).

Once sorted products can be sold to scrap metal merchants or directly to end-users by
melting (Tam and Tam, 2006).
Market/End products
Scrap aluminium from product manufacture or at the end of a product's service life
becomes a secondary raw material which has markets world-wide. Primarily two kinds of
firms purchase aluminium scrap.
Refiner - Produces casting alloys and deoxidized aluminium from old and new scrap
and supplies them in the shape of ingots and liquid aluminium.
Remelter - Produces wrought alloys from mainly clean and sorted wrought alloy
scrap and supplies them in the shape of rolling slabs, extrusion billets or master
alloys.
Casting alloys - Casting alloy, standardized or produced according to specific

customer requirements, are supplied in ingot or liquid form to foundries which cast
them into high quality components. Typical applications are cylinder heads, engine
blocks or gear boxes in automobiles, components and parts in the mechanical and
electrical engineering industries, casings for household equipment etc.
27
Appendices - 10
2.2.7.6 Tiles
Origin
Tiles are Clay, Sand and Metal oxides are wet formed and kiln fired
Ways of collection
Ways of collection is Onsite collection and here required careful labour intensive removal.
Ways of sorting
Separation of non frost resistant material, Wobbler feeders, sifting
Recycling process
Tiles are crushed, often along with brick and concrete. The mixtures are then sorted
according to kernel size (Leal, 2006). Concrete roof tile can be salvaged for reuse.
Damaged tiles can be recycled by recyclers and combined with other inert materials such as
brick, asphalt and concrete (Burgoyne, n.d.).
Technologies
Main recycling plants technologies use to crush tiles are practically identical as those used
to crush brick and concrete.

Crushed tiles with portions of brick, mortars and stones and concrete may be used as gravel
and crushed stone replacement Applications include: noise protection barriers, soil
stabilizers, cover material and backfill of excavations. Followings are recycled tiles
applications.
Use as a filling material
Use in road base material
Use as a hard core material
Market/End products
Crushed tiles, in conjunction with brick and concrete make for useful underlay and drainage
material. Similar to brick and concrete the largest market for crushed recycled tiles (in
mixed form) is in road construction (Leal, 2006).
2.2.7.7 PVC/Plastics
Origin
28
Appendices - 10
PVC Pipes, Cutters, PVC floor mats, PVC roof sheets, PVC plastic windows, roller-type
shutters and doors profiles, Shutters and blinds, Paneling and cladding, Ducts for electrical
cable etc (Leal, 2006).
Ways of collection
According to Leal, (2006) studies identified that, PVC floor mats, PVC roof sheets, PVC
plastic windows, roller-type shutters and doors are collected over a country wide by
separate collecting system and supplied to the processing in recycling plants.
Ways of sorting
Manual sorting is the ways of sorting
Recycling process
Recycling process mainly involves Flooring removal, Material Sorting, Recycling system,
Shredding, Shredded Chips (30mm).
The sorted old PVC floor mats are cut up first into chips measuring at the most 30
millimeters. After a magnetic metal separation process, a hammer mill releases the chips
from adhering screed and adhesive remainders. Thereupon they are separated in a sieve
jigger from these reduced impurities. For following fine grinding the PVC material with
liquid nitrogen is cooled on a temperature of minus 40 C. By the cooling the PVC chips
briefly embrittled and finely ground into particles with a diameter of no more than 0.4
millimeters (Leal, 2006).
Technologies
There are two principal ways to recycle (COWAM study, n.d.a,):
Mechanical recycling: PVC waste is ground into small pieces that can be processed
into new PVC compounds ready for extrusion or lamination.
Feedstock recycling: PVC waste is broken down into its chemical constituents,
which can be used again to make PVC or other materials.
In PVC recycling following mechanical recycling Technologies are involve (Plinke, 2000):
Pre-sorting
Granulating: post-consumer plastics are ground and washed.
Flotation tank: if the different kinds of plastics are not sorted, they are separated in a
flotation tank (density of the different plastics).
Drying: clean plastic pellets must be dry because dampness decreases the quality of
the end product.
29
Appendices - 10
Melting: heat and pressure melt the plastic in an extruder (each type of plastic has a
different melting point).
Filtering: the molten plastic is forced through a fine screen to remove any
contaminants that may have eluded the washing cycle.
Pelletizing: the strands are cooled and chopped into pellets to be sold.

The PVC recycled is used in the production of fillcasing in cables, hoses and signfooting.
Recycled pipes are used together with virgin PVC as equivalent material (Montecinos and
Holda, 2006).
Market/End products
Although the market for PVC recycling is still limited following markets can identify
(Montecinos and Holda, 2006).
PVC producers.
2.2.7.8 Asbestos
Origin
Asbestos is the name for a group of naturally occurring, fibrous minerals. White asbestos
(Chrysotil) and blue asbestos (Krokydolith) were most frequently used. Since asbestos is
extraordinarily heatproof and very chemically stable, it was used for the production of
various products. As Leal (2006) it was applied in two forms.
Firm fiber (non-friable) connection asbestos was used in cement products, pipes, and other
building materials. It was also widely used in brake linings. Such materials are stable and
present fewer risks.
Weak fiber connection (friable) asbestos was often in the form of asbestos sprayed on as
fire protection. It was also however used in asbestos boards; pre cast plates, electric
insulation, noise insulation and heat and vapour protection.
Ways of collection
30
Appendices - 10
In order to make possible and easy processing of the usable components of building wastes
as well as the normal disposal of the asbestos contaminated Components should collect
carefully.
Ways of sorting
Materials are further separated which are cleaned and those to be disposed. Sorting is
important in order to ensure appropriate treatment for each particular type of asbestos form.
Recycling process
Loading, Shredding, Chemical bath (dewatering), Furnace (the rest of the moisture
removing), Rotary kiln, Ejecting, Sealing are the main steps in Asbestos recycling process.
Technologies
At present chemical, thermal and mechanical procedures for asbestos fiber destruction are
used for asbestos recycling (Leal, 2006). Sprayed asbestos and asbestos types of dust which
are preferable to dispose should solidified or stabilized by means of suitable inorganic
bonding agents, like glass, at the point of accumulation. Depending upon the condition of
the asbestos contaminated wastes, different methods of the surface treatment or the packing
are required.
Chemical procedures for the chemical treatment of asbestos contaminated wastes largely
use hydrofluoric acid. Byproducts of this neutralization process include calcium fluoride,
metallic oxides and hydroxides as well as silica. Use of the byproducts of asbestos
treatment are directed at cement and concrete production, as fluxing agent and as secondary
raw material for hydrofluoric acid Thermal procedures include
Vitrification of asbestos contaminated wastes involves melting them at temperatures

around 1400
Asbestos-free glass granulates are the process output.
Asbestos minerals are converted in special rotary kilns at temperatures by 800 C

into other minerals, such as forsterite and olivin.

Recycled materials mainly use as a filling material after mixing it with soil
31
Appendices - 10
Market/End products
End products are filling materials.
2.2.8 Commonly used Recycling Plant Technology

According to Symonds (1999) there is a wide range of possible technical solutions which
can be applied to demolition waste recycling, from simple mobile crushers to fully
integrated fixed Demolition Waste recycling centers. These technical solutions are may be
inappropriate to the circumstances they face and the mix of waste requiring to be processed.
Mobile facilities are set up on larger demolition sites, so that the demolition waste can be
processed on site. In stationary facility consist with its own complex configuration. Due to
this by processing building waste in stationary facility it is possible to produce high quality
recycled materials than mobile facilities (Schultmann, 2003).
In following figure shows appropriate techniques related to circumstances (Symonds,
1999).
A = Mobile crusher
sieving plant
B = A plus metal
removal and more
complex
sorting/sieving
C = B plus hand
sorting, washing plant
and facilities for other
C&DW streams
(wood etc)
Inadequate
quality
control
Level 1
Level 2
Excessive
expensive
Level 3
Inert C& D
Mixed (mainly inert)

C&D
All types of C&D
Figure 2.6: Appropriate recycling techniques
Three broad levels of recycling technologies and their applications are as follow as:
(i) Level 1, which comprises mobile crushing and sorting plant, and is only really suited
to the processing of inert C&DW;
(ii) Level 2, which also has metal removal and more complex sorting and sieving
facilities, and is therefore capable of dealing with mixed (mainly inert) C&DW; and
32
Appendices - 10
(iii) Level 3, which adds hand sorting, washing plant and facilities for other C&DW
streams (such as wood) to Level 2 plant, and can deal with any (mixed and contaminated)
C&DW if required.
However, as a general observation it is fair to say that Level 1 technology is mainly
associated with low levels of recycling, Level 3 with high levels, and Level 2 with an
intermediate position (Symonds, 1999).
2.2.8.1 Demolition waste processing equipment

Generally, Recycling Plants consist only of manual pre-sorting system, crushers; manual
sorting that removes contamination, conveyor belts and screenings (Angulo et al., n.d.).
Symonds (1999) stated that Deutag Remex (Or Remex) is the leading operator in Germany
at demolition waste recycling centers and it shows common recycling process, which is
used in most recycling plants(Symonds, 1999). The equipment includes crushers, sieving
and screening equipment, magnetic separators, air classifiers, manual and mechanical
sorting, and other materials handling processes.
According to Symonds (1999) in Remex recycling operation can see following process:
The incoming inert fraction is weighed and inspected, and placed in to one of a
series of separate stockpiles such as Broken bricks and tiles, Reinforced concrete,
non-reinforced concrete, Mixed C&DW, etc.
Then broken bricks, tiles, reinforced concrete and non-reinforced concrete are
screened through a pre-sieving process to remove the 0-45mm fraction (divided into
0-4mm and 4-45mm).
The remaining material goes to an impact crusher. Material coming out of the
impact crusher passes through a magnetic separator to remove ferrous metals before
being sieved to divide it into 0-45mm and >45mm. The >45mm fraction is placed
onto a temporary stockpile for re-crushing, while the 0-45mm fraction is sieved into
sub-fractions of 0-4mm, 4- 8mm, 8-16mm, 16-32mm and 32-45mm. These subfractions can be re-combined into mixes defined by the end user, or into proprietary
(branded) mixes.
Instead of sieving into the sub-fractions described above, the 0-45mm fraction can
be passed through an air classifier, washed, passed through a further metal separator
and screened through either a vibrating screen or a free-fall screen. This produces a
range of washed, sorted and quality-graded materials. Any oversize materials
(which are more common with jaw crushers than with impact crushers) can be sent
back to the crusher for re-processing.
33
Appendices - 10
In the Remex system, mixed C&DW is generally subjected to hand sorting even
before it is screened and passed through a magnetic separator for the first time. This
is followed by further manual (or in some cases automated) sorting to remove
plastics, paper, wood and other non-ferrous metal wastes.
The mixed C&DW is then passed through a jaw crusher and magnetic separator
before being passed through an air separator which removes light materials (small
pieces of paper and plastics which escaped the earlier sorting processes and the 04mm fraction of the inert material. The 4-45mm fraction can then be sieved or
screened, as with the brick, tile and concrete waste.
Following figure is a relatively sophisticated mobile plant fitted with a jaw crusher. Fixed
plants also very similar to this and it have higher processing capacities with providing
hydraulic legs rather than crawler tracks or wheels.
Key:
1. Feed hopper, with extension (1a) and
grizzly feeder (1b)
2. By-pass chute
3. Jaw crusher
4. Belt protection plate
5. Main conveyor, with hydraulic controls

(5a) and reinforced belt (5b)
6. Magnetic separator
7. Engine unit, with generator (7a)
8. Fuel and oil tanks
9. Tracks
Figure 2.7: Cross section of a Jaw crusher mounted on a mobile chasis with associated Equipment
The choice between an impact crusher and a jaw crusher may vary according to operators
and usage to which material will be put. Impact crushers produce an aggregate with a
smaller range of sizes. Even though they are substantially cheaper to buy on a size-for-size
basis, when considering hard materials like some reinforced concretes their running costs
are much higher (Symonds, 1999).
34
Appendices - 10
Impact crusher produces a more consistent and predictable aggregate, with sharper edges on
the individual granules. It use a high speed rotor inside a container into which the material
to be crushed is fed. There are typically four or six hammer plates mounted on the rotors
which break the material against face plates set at operator-determined positions on the
inner surface of the container. The cutting action is very like that on a conventional
cylinder lawnmower (for cutting grass). The throughput is greatly affected by the clearance
between the rotating hammer plates and the fixed face plates, and the rate of wear on the
plates varies greatly according to the hardness of the material being processed (Hendriks
and Pietersen, 2000).
Jaw crushers are typically shaped like a wedge, in which one of the faces moves relative
to the others, producing a chewing action which grinds the material into progressively
smaller pieces as it passes towards the narrow end. Material is fed in at the wide end (the
top), and falls out at the narrow end. The narrow end can be set to a range of openings to
determine the nature of the resultant material. In general impact crushers tend to be
designed for higher throughputs than jaw crushers (Hendriks and Pietersen, 2000). On-site
and off-site sorting and processing is accomplished by manually, semi manually and
stationary machines: these are consisting with Manual sorting lines, Shredders, Crushers,
Aggregate sifters, Water Based Density separators, Magnetic separators, Eddy current
separators, Air blower separators (Montecinos and Holda, 2006).
Equipment
Equipment selection is based on ruggedness, processing capacity, maintenance and
operating requirements, ability to process feedstocks of widely varying composition, and
energy consumption (Stein and Savage,1994). The equipment most commonly employed in
the processing of demolition debris recycling can listed as follow (Stein and Savage,1994;
Peng et al., 1995).
Size reduction
Screening equipment
Other equipment
equipment
Hammerill (e.g. wood
Disc screen
hog)
Grizzly screen
Hydraulic breaker or
Trommel
Magnetic separator
jackhammer
Vibratory screen
Belt conveyor
Impactor
Reciprocating bar
Steel pan conveyor
Jaw crusher
Air classifier, air

knife
35
Appendices - 10
Rotary shear
shredders
Screw shredders
Stump grinder
Table 2.3: Demolition waste processing equipments
2.2.8.2 Demolition waste Processing flow diagram

Demolition waste processing can summarize as following showing method in figure (Peng
et al., 2005);
36
Appendices - 10
Figure 2.8: Demolition waste Processing flow diagram
2.3 Economics of the recycling of Demolition waste

When considering a recyclable materials, three major areas needs to be taken in to account
such as economy, compatibility with other materials and material properties ( Mindess et
al., 2003 cited in Tam and Tam, 2005). Recycling economics mainly refers to assess the
costs associated with a recycling program including the cost of collecting, sorting,
screening, crushing, and transportation to the crushing plant, as well as the cost of
37
Appendices - 10
transportation to the place of use (Khalaf and Devenny, 2004). This can be done firstly
detailing the quantity and composition of materials found in waste stream and secondly
evaluating the costs associated with recycling programs for the target materials. This
involves the capital cost and operating cost of recycling plants and labour cost (Symonds,
1999). If recycling program is off site operation it should pay careful consideration with
transportation costs also.
Economic feasibility of a recycling program depends on whether the added costs (increased
time, effort, and equipment) associated with the recycling program are less than the avoided
costs (tipping fees, surcharges, labour, hauling fees, maintenance, permit fees, and taxes)
plus sales revenue. If the added costs exceed avoided costs plus revenue, the operation
should not be undertaken (Anon, 2005).
Therefore it is critical that careful economic analysis be performed to determine whether a
project should include a recycling program. Costs of program have a greater impact on the
feasibility of waste recycling and cost savings motivates the demolition industry to
implement recycling program (Leigh and Patterson, 2004). The value of the final
marketable waste or market price is determined by the cost of competing products at the
point of application. This free market price is based on the material cost, processed cost,
transportation cost and profit and free market price is equal to sum of above factors
(Anon, 2005).
Material costs include the cost of procuring the raw waste stock from the generator.
Processing costs generally depend on the sophistication of the equipment and the
amount of labour required handling, process, and prepare or package the products.
Overhead costs, such as administrative costs, should also be computed in the
processing cost.
Transportation costs depend on the distance from the site of processing to its
market. If it is off site operation, distance from original demolition site to processing
center and distance from processing center to market also involve.
Profit is set by the processing facility to cover the risk involved in operating a waste
processing facility.
Once the free market price is calculated, this information can be used to compare the
products with those produced with virgin materials. The level of economic analysis will
depend on the scale and scope of the recycling operation (Anon, 2005). If the extent of the
operation is not much large prepare waste materials by sorting on-site, and then the analysis
easily involved determining:
38
Appendices - 10
(1) The cost of labour and equipment needed to separate the waste (added costs),
(2) The hauling, permit, and tipping fees of disposing of the material in a landfill (avoided
costs), and
(3) Any revenue expected from sale of the debris.
If the added costs are less than the avoided costs plus the revenue, then it would be costeffective to separate the waste and sell it to a recycling facility.
While many Demolition waste materials are suitable for recycling, there are external factors
that influence the spread of Demolition waste recycling. The value of recycled and salvaged
goods in the marketplace, labour costs for removal, sorting and processing and relative
disposal costs etc all factors play a role in calculating cost for recycled goods (Anon, 2005).
Recycled and salvaged goods must be price competitive and perceived to be as desirable as
or even more desirable than products produced from virgin materials. Competitive pricing
is impacted by subsidies, incentives on virgin materials, and market demand.
When evaluating economic feasibility of recycling demolition waste using three types of
processing facilities, it can say that (Symonds, 1999):
Level 1 is the lowest cost approach, consisting of mobile C&D crushing and
screening machinery which are brought to a demolition site and processed.
Level 2 represents facilities typically including a large tipping floor for hand-sorting
of large and valuable items as well as crushers, conveyors, screens, magnets and
other equipment such as air classifiers. Therefore level 2 shows higher cost
approach than level 1
Lever 3 technologies includes the traditional demolition waste recycling equipment

available in Level 2 plants, as well as equipment that enable further processing of
recovered materials such as washing systems.
Costs for disposal of demolition debris have the most impact on demolition debris recycling
and evaluating economic feasibility. So that Tipping fees can make or break efforts to
recycle (Leigh and Patterson, 2004). If recycling costs more than disposal, then there will
always be a very good reason not to recycle. But if recycling is cost-competitive or less
expensive than disposal, then recycling should be considered as part of every job. Symonds
(1999) studies demonstrate following relationships between disposal, processing and value
of recycled product.
Disposal
Value of
of
Recycled
C&DW
Product
Outcome
39
Appendices - 10
Processing costs must be low enough to compete with landfill if

Cheap
and
legal
Low
any recycling is to occur. Transport costs are very important.

(For inert C&DW, this is typified by Level 1 technology).
Higher than
Processing costs can rise above those of Level 1 technology.
disposal
Competition among processors becomes more important as a way
costs
of containing costs for holders of waste.

Processing costs (but not the prices received for recycled
products) can rise above those of Level 1 technology, and these
Expensive
but legal
rises can be passed on to holders of waste (i.e. owners of

Low
buildings), thereby allowing more sophisticated recycling.

Competition between demolition contractors and between
processors becomes more important as a way of containing
demolition and recycling costs.
Since prices for recycled materials are largely governed by nonrecycled alternatives, competition between processors is essential
Illegal
to keep gate prices for recyclable products low. Any temptation to
Not
important
award processors monopolistic concessions will probably lead to

cost-plus charging and generally higher gate prices. Only
competition between processors or sophisticated and well
informed regulation will keep costs to holders of waste down.
Table 2.4: Relationships between Disposal, Processing and Recycling
2.3.1 Market analysis of Recycled products

It is very important to determine whether recycled end markets are complying with required
Quality (Specifications), Quantity and Price (Lauritzen, n. d.). Recycling programs must
have stable markets for processed materials in order to assure a programs sustainability and
cost effectiveness. A recycling programs success is largely dependent upon its ability to
consistently produced high quality, marketable end products. In order to obtain the highest
possible price, recyclers must demonstrate to the end markets that processed materials
conform to specifications and it is consistently available in sufficient quantities.
2.3.1.1 Specification (Quality)

The importance of producing quality recyclable materials is clear. Therefore all the recycled
products should fulfill the standards and norms given for secondary and recycled materials
(Dorsthorst, n.d.). A specification is primarily a description of something to be made or
done, produced with the aim of controlling the quality of materials, their production and
40
Appendices - 10
use. It allows a contract to take place and gives confidence to the parties to the contract by
controlling the risks (Symonds, 1999). However, specification depends on accepted
practice, conditions of virgin materials and other market competitive products (Carghill and
Powel, 1999). Generally, secondary and recycled materials have to comply with the same
requirements as raw materials. Identification of properties and qualities required for
materials, appropriate to their proposed use is crucial.
According to Symonds (1999) the specifications can be developed specifically for
secondary and recycled materials or can be developed to permit the use of all materials
irrespective of their resources. There are two types of specifications such as Recipe
specification and Performance specification. It is needed to address particular issues
which are related to solely to secondary and recycled materials.
Recipe based specifications define the physical constituents of a material rather than setting
performance criteria which it must meet. But it not addresses the issue which is potential
for leaching of contaminants. Performance specifications are developed special standards
which are adapted to especially for secondary and recycled materials.
In addition to that quality of product can improve by limiting recycling technical process
and by improving quality control in demolition site. Quality can improve by using selective
demolition due it avoids mixing of various materials and contamination of non-hazardous
components (Schultmann, 2003).
2.3.1.2 Quantity
The demand for materials for particular end uses also needs to be given careful
consideration (Domingo, 2006). The recycling operation should consist with ability to
supply recycled products as demanded by the market. Even if demolition wastes are
recycled, the quantities can be meeting a comparatively small proportion of the demand.
The recycling operation might not be economical unless there is considerable amount of
demolition waste materials that can be recovered and there is considerable amount of
recycled end uses. Therefore it is needs to estimate these quantities before implementing a
recycling program.
2.3.1.3 Price of the recycled product
41
Appendices - 10
From a purely economic point of view the recycling of building waste is only attractive
when the recycled product is competitive with natural resources in relation to cost and
quality (Lauritzen, n.d.). Market price for recycled materials or products depends on the
cost of storage, collection, transportation etc. so that quality of product is heavily affected
to the cost of recycled materials. For success of the market of recycled products it should be
price competitive with virgin materials or product.
2.4 Market Development

Market development is a challenging process necessitating careful policy implementation at
high governmental levels but it is a challenge that must be met in order to advance
recycling (Anon, 2004). Without effective market development of end markets there can be
no growth in recycling (Anon, 2005). The term market depends largely on perspective. For
a generator of waste material, the market is the recycler who collects the materials and then
sorts, grades, and processes the materials for his market. For recycler the market is the end
users who are a manufacturer use these materials as a raw feedstock for his product. End
users then sell his product to his market, a consumer and who are purchases the finished
products. There fore market development means development of end users of secondary
materials (Sutherland, 2001).
Before go to the Market development program it is essential to do the systematic analysis of
sales methods, market area, price trends, merchandising techniques, alternate usage data,
and buyer interests for the purpose of improving proceeds (Anon, 2005). So that knowledge
of existing markets, access to these goods, and networking within these communities are
crucial to the success of C&D projects (Leigh and Patterson, 2004). Generally, marketing of
recyclable demolition waste is organized in line with marketing of virgin materials. Thus
most reprocessing and recycling centers trade in both virgin and recycled materials
(Montecinos and Holda, 2006). Market development can be promoted in a variety of ways,
42
Appendices - 10
According Sutherland (2001) to market development strategies fall in to following

categories:
1. Set goals for Market development
2. Identification the Barriers and opportunities
2.4.1. Set goals for Market development

To address the ways of promoting the development of end uses as the final market for
recyclable materials can set the goals for market development. There are several
appropriate goals for market development (Sutherland, 2001).
Promote economically sustainable recycling - Market development improves the

economics of recycling. An improvement in the economic motives to recycle makes
all varieties of recycling programs more viable and sustainable. Market
development promotes the demand for recyclable materials and it will increase the
price of end uses.
Prevent unbalances - First goal of market development is to create a system balance

between collection and end use. Where collection grows rapidly compared to end
market, have resulted in severe material excess that threaten the operational and
financial viability of many recycling programs. Therefore it is important to match
the end use infrastructure growth with collection infrastructure growth.
Minimize need for government intervention
Conserve ancillary resources
2.4.2. Identification the Barriers and opportunities

In order to meet the challenges of recycling, it is necessary that all opportunities, barriers
and obstacles are detected and considered (Lauritzen, n.d.).
Market development can be promoted in a variety of ways, market development strategies
fall in to following categories (Sutherland, 2001).
Supply - Market development depends upon a reliable, high volume, high quality
stream of secondary raw materials.
Consumer demand - Market development can only succeed if consumers purchase

the finished goods that have recycled content.
Technology Effective Market development will require investment in new

technologies as industry moves away from using virgin raw materials.
43
Appendices - 10
Government role Government action can have a large impact. It can be positively
or negatively affect on market development.
Economics - Market development is primarily economically driven.
Alternative markets Developing nontraditional end uses can take the pressure off
oversupplied markets.
The overcoming of these barriers and obstacles must be planned well and carried out
through a long-term action plan combined with adequate research and development. It is
requires that implementation of the necessary legal, economic and technical instruments by
involving legislation and regulations (Lauritzen, n.d.).
2.5 Government Intervention

Government intervention or Government action regarding Construction and Demolition
Waste management practices can have a large impact on Construction and Demolition
Waste Recycling. It can be positively or negatively affect on market development. To create
a level playing field for construction and demolition debris recycling, there are three ways
for government intervention.
1. The first is Regulation and Regulations restrict activities to achieve desired
behaviors.
2. The second is Incentive-based market support and Incentives foster an economic
climate that supports and nurtures environmental stewardship and economic
development.
3. The third option is a combination of regulation and incentive based market support
and this approach has proven to be the most effective means of policy intervention.
2.5.1 Regulatory Background in Other countries to Support

C&D Recycling
Regulation creates limits for activities that are undesirable and holds all projects and
companies subject to the same standards. Where regulation is able to reduce uncertainties in
supply and demand, it can create more stable market conditions. Regulation also eliminates
advantages of firms that would ordinarily not be required to comply. Without supportive
programs, regulation can increase costs and slow market development of the industry.
44
Appendices - 10
Government regulation is manifested in a variety of ways. Regulation for C&D waste

recycling may take the form of a ban, tax, or process requirement perspective of other
countries.
1. Bans disallow the disposal of a particular type of waste.
For example: Hazardous waste is banned from municipal solid waste and
construction and demolition waste landfills.
Ban on the disposal of unprocessed C&D waste.
However these materials require special treatments and facilities. Banning materials
also requires consideration for what will happen to materials and where they will be
disposed.
2. Taxes are a second method of regulation used to encourage C&D Recycling
practice. By increasing the cost of the undesirable behavior, businesses will likely
choose the more desirable behavior. Taxes can be imposing for C&D waste
materials which are land filling C&D waste materials without processing. A landfill
tax or increase in tipping fee raises the cost of disposal. Rationally, contractors
seeking to minimize cost would find other methods for disposal or locate a market
for the waste such as recycling. The taxes are used to fund recycling and reuse
programs.
3. Provide Incentives and subsidies to Promote C&D Waste Minimization
Promote C&D source reduction
Promote building materials exchanges
Promote existing loan and grant programs
Promote new end-use markets for processed C&D materials;
Work with the design and construction industry to promote better design for
recycling and source separation of recyclables through technical assistance
and education;
Assist the waste industry and municipalities who are seeking to expand or
site new C&D processing facilities;
Allow C&D residuals to be used to close inactive unlined landfills.
Establish a preference for C&D and other residuals disposal facilities
Implement pilots for job site separation of C&D for public projects and
residential homebuilding;
45
Appendices - 10
Encourage local building permits to provide incentives to contractors to

recycle the materials they use;
Explore additional specifications for the reuse of salvaged material, use of

materials with recycled content, and use of appropriate C&D recyclables on
state projects.
Promote buy recycled by local and state government and private industry.
Promote government procurement of recycled products
2.5.2 Regulatory Background in Sri Lanka

The integrated management scheme for recovery of materials for reuse and/or recycling
must be based on the provisions and principles of the relative environmental policy and
legislation. In Sri Lanka the first legislation focusing primarily on environment protection
and management was enacted as the National Environmental Act (NEA) No 47 of 1980.
The Central Environmental Authority (CEA) was set up subsequently in 1981 as the main
agency for the purpose of implementing this act. Discharge of solid waste is one of the
main areas of environmental pollution covered under NEA. Subsequently, several other
regulations/amendments came into place to reinforce NEA through government gazette
notifications and it clearly shows that solid waste management has been included in NEA
from the very beginning.
Important laws and regulations with regard to solid waste are the National Environmental
Act, the Pradeshiya Sabha Act, and the Urban Council and Municipal Council Ordinances.
The Environmental Act restricts the emission of waste materials into the environment, and
states the responsibilities and powers of the CEA.
Even though through above regulations fairly prohibited illegal dumping of solid waste
there should have proper way to support these regulations and to proper way to remove
those solid wastes such as dumpsites. The local Government Acts and Ordinances state that
the local authorities are responsible for proper removal of non-industrial solid waste, and
for providing suitable dumpsites. But these acts are not acting properly in Sri Lanka due to
there are no proper ways to dumping those wastes or dumpsites.
46
Appendices - 10
There fore in Sri Lanka solid waste management regulations are in infant stage and there
can see shortage of government intervention regarding form of a ban, tax, or process
requirement which promotes recycling of demolition waste. Further clearly it can see there
are no prohibition regulations for land filling without recycling if there are available
possibilities to recycle.
2.6 Summary
Building demolition waste has a negative impact on environment and demolition waste
cause number of problems throughout the world due to inappropriate handling of debris.
There fore it is essential to take more appropriate actions to avoid causing of inevitable
problems in near future. As a waste management strategy the recycling of demolition waste
therefore has become more important because recycling serves environmentally,
economically and social benefits to the society.
Numerous materials from demolition waste stream have potential ability to recycling.
Through this literature review identified that the most commonly recycling materials are
concrete, brick, wood, metals (ferrous and non ferrous). In addition to that, tiles PVC and
plastics are also recycling to considerable extent. Recycling techniques of those materials
are differing from materials to material. The extent of recycling is depend heavily upon the
used techniques, composition of generated waste, production of good quality recycled end
material/products, market conditions (including demand and supply) etc. To identify
potential of recycling demolition waste it is very important to study recycling techniques
used in other countries. For the purpose of studying of demolition waste recycling used in
other countries, literature review was done through the identifying each materials origin,
ways of collection, ways of sorting, recycling plant technology used, recycled materials end
products/uses and their applications.
Through this study identified that there has common recycling plant technology which can
used for some materials such as crushing and separation techniques for concrete, brick, tiles
materials and melting for ferrous and non ferrous materials. Further, selected recycling
techniques should be important in environmentally, economically and socially. Successful
recycling operations of potential recycled materials will depend upon understanding of
47

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 02 Literature Review on Demolition waste Recycling

2.2.3 RECYCLING METHODS......................................................................................12

RECYCLING PROCESS, TECHNOLOGIES AND END MARKET/PRODUCTS......20

2.5 Government Intervention........................................................................................46

CHAPTER 03 Research Methodology

3.3.2.1 Method of Data Collection.......................................................................57

3.3.3.1 Method of data collection.........................................................................57

3.3.4 ANALYSIS OF ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF RECYCLING EACH WASTE MATERIALS

CHAPTER 04 Research Findings Analysis and discussion

4.2.3 PARTICULAR RECYCLING TECHNIQUES WHICH CAN RECYCLE THESE MATERIALS

4.3.4 REASONS FOR NOT RECYCLING THESE MATERIALS..........................................80

4.4.2.1 Feasibility of Bricks Recycling.................................................................83

4.4.3.1 Feasibility of Bricks Recycling.................................................................87

CHAPTER 05 Conclusion, Recommendation and further research

- Construction and Demolition

- Poly Vinyl Chloride

- Average Rate of Return

- National Environmental Act

- Central Environmental Authority

- Health and Safety Commission

Department of building economics University of Moratuwa

Department of building economics University of Moratuwa

In order to identify potential of recycling for demolition waste and to accomplish an

1.2 Aim and objectives

Department of building economics University of Moratuwa

Examine the economical feasibility by identifying cost and revenue associated

1.3 Research Methodology

1.3.2. Semi structured Interviews and Observations

1.4 Scope and limitations

Department of building economics University of Moratuwa

1.5 A Guide to Dissertation

Department of building economics University of Moratuwa

2.1.2 Classification and Composition of Demolition Waste

Figure 2.1: Composition of demolition waste materials

2.1.3 Building Demolition techniques

There are four demolition techniques as Selective demolition, Mechanical demolition,

2.2 Recycling of demolition waste

Department of building economics University of Moratuwa

Should possess required technological level to produce good quality recycled

2.2.2 Benefits of Recycling of Demolition waste

Department of building economics University of Moratuwa

It reduces emissions to air and water in the production process.

It promotes personal responsibility for the waste we create.

2.2.3 Recycling methods

2.2.3.2 Commingled recycling

2.2.3.3 Comparison of Source separation and Commingled recycling

Higher recycling rates

Multiple containers on site

materials for recycling

More complex logistics

Often a cleaner, safer work site

Only one or two containers on

Higher recycling costs

One market; less information

Table 2.1: Comparison of Source separation and Commingled recycling process

Department of building economics University of Moratuwa

On balance, source separation is generally preferable to commingled recycling. It costs less,

2.2.4 Demolition Waste processing

Sort and separate, Crush and reduce or;

Crush and reduce, Sort and separate.

These approaches are generally classified as (Stein and Savage,1994):

Mechanically intensive or labour intensive

On-site or off-site processing (e.g. at a central facility).