PREPRINT

NO. 1150

(O-1)

A HISTORY OF HIGH QUALITY STUDIO MICROPHONES

by

Harry F. Olson
RCA Laboratories
Princeton, New Jersey

PRESENTED
55fh

AT

THE

CONVENTION

OCTOBER

29-NOVEMBER

i'l

_i_
_I

AN

AUDIO

1, 1976

ENGINEERING

SOCIETY

PREPRINT

This preprint has been reproduced from the author's

advance
manuscript,
without
editing,
corrections
or
review by the Editorial Board. For this reason there
may be changes should this paper be published in the
Audio Engineering Society Journal.
Additional preprints may be obtained by sending request and remittance to the Audio Engineering
Society
Room 449, 60 East 42nd Street, New York, Id. Y. 10017.
Copyright

1976 by

the

Audio

Engineering

Society.

Ail

rights

reserved.

A HISTORY

OF HIGH

qUALITY

STUDIO

MICROPHONES

By
Harry F. Olson
RCA Laboratories
Princeton, NJ
08540

ABSTRACT
The advent
sound

motion

ization
denser

of radio broadcasting,

pictures

all

of high quality
and dynamic

microphones
basic

the art improvements

of

of disk records

the development

as follows:

of the 1920's.
the early

recording

stimulated

microphones

microphones

in these

three

in the 1920's

studio

unidirectional

electrical

and comercial-

The omnidirectional

The bidirectional

1930's.

Microphones

velocity

are still

types of directivity.

Important

and significant

have been made

the years

to the present

through

and

conand

classified
state-of-

time.

INTRODUCTION
The inception
sound

motion

pictures

ization

of high

dynamic

microphones

tional

velocity

commercialized
three

basic

improvements

of

all

quality

in the

types

and

early

The purpose
and

1930's.

follow, the objectives

fundamental

are still

quality
time.

expositions

served

studio

condenser

1920's.
were

developed

and

in these

designs

and

improved

and

reduction

the history

microphones

of the

from

In the considerations

as a foundation

and

The bidirec-

sensitivity

on benchmark

and

state-of-the-art

better

higher

records

and commercial-

classified

is to trace and outline

up to the present

which

in the

microphones

innovations,

of high

are to provide

principles

the development

and significant

in performance,

of this paper

tion in the early 1920's

Microphones

concepts,

of disk

The omnidirectional

Important

to advancements

commercialization

recording

and commercialized

of directivity.

in size.

stimulated

the unidirectional

in the form of new

led

electrical

microphones.

developed

microphone

have

the

in the 1920's

studio

were

materials

development

radio broadcasting,

which

developments

for future

the incep-

involving

developments.

TRANSDUCERS
The
ating

transducer

element,

cal variation
microphones

produced

are electrostatic

When

direct

the electrical

voltage,

i9 a magnetic

to the production

coil, the length

the air

studio

1.

of a movable

plate as shown in

between

the diaphragm

and back plate

of the diaphragm

e, of Fig.

electri-

produces

and

re-

a corres-

lA.

type consists
Motion

is proportional
in the voice

of a voice

of the voice

coil

coil leads

to the velocity

of the

coil and the magnetic

flux in

gap.

The
located

of the conductor

in Fig.

the diaphragm

field as shown in Fig. lB.

e, which

quality

type consists

of the electrodynamic

of a voltage,

depicted

is applied

charge between

in the output
transducer

as

of the gener-

into the corresponding

from a fixed back

voltage

variation

located

ribbon

transducer

in a magnetic

the production

of the electrodynamic

field as shown

of a voltage,

the length of the ribbon,

the

spaced

current

in motion

used in high

of the electrostatic

in amplitude

dynamic

wave,

transducers

the variation

The

voice

sound

a constant,

ponding

the variation

and electrodynamic

transducer

A polarizing

back plate.
mains

The main

in the form of a diaphragm

Fig. iA.

converts

by the impinging

in the output.

The condenser
element

in a microphone

in Fig.

e, which

type consists

lC.

Motion

is proportional

the magnetic

of a thin ribbon

of the ribbon leads

to the velocity

to

of the ribbon,

flux in the air gap and the step up ratio of

transformer.
The

element

electret

condenser

of the electrostatic

in the form of a self-polarized

shown in Fig. iD.

ing variation

A variation

in the output

The piezoelectric
are not

transducer

included

been very

limited

in amplitude

voltage,

transducers,

in Fig. 1 because
even

though

diaphragm

spaced

type consists

from a fixed back plate as

of the diaphragm

e, of Fig.

produces

a correspond-

ID.

in the form of Rochelle

the use in high

the use in medium

of a movable

quality

quality

salt

and barium

studio

microphones

microphones
has been

titanate,
has
quite

extensive.

However,

Subsidiary

Microphones.

DIRECTIVITY

PRINCIPLES

The
A single

principles
element,

omnidirectional
connected

salt microphone

of operation

of directional

zero order

together

as shown

3C provides

the sensitivities
phased

the directional
MICROPHONE

AND

Consider

SOURCE

are two distinct

sound

energy

density,

Therefore,

the ratio,

decreasing

size of the studio

and television

1920's and early

with walls

and

television.

-_-, of sound

order elements
with

3B and

C depending

located

elements

characteristic
together

of Fig.

as

3C
Two

can provide

all

upon the delay.

of exciting

in a studio 1 as shown in Fig. 4.

the microphone,

in the pickup

of speech

reduces

should

which

be kept as small

the distance

between

of reception

the microphone
means

pickup,

the sound

a large

the studios,

for sound

motion

microphones,

have proven

sound

by increasing

out of the picture

termed sound

pictures,

stages,

Similar

means

built

large

in reducing

the
of the

the effective
in the late

dimensions

studios

for decreasing

by

in sound motion

To reduce

were of very

absorption.

to be very useful
-5-

The ratio ER/E D

and microphone,

of the boundaries

distance.

ER .

the _ntelligibility.

source

absorption

the direct

density,

as possible.

sound

pickup

employing

namely,

energy

by the microphone,

must be kept

of very high

Directional

2.

an

are equal.

one element

sound

ceiling

pickup,

first

sound

1930's

cosine

characteristic

reflected

in speech

phased

of Fig. 2A and B connected

the generally

and by increasing

pictures

Fig.

Two oppositely

cardioid

in Fig.

in Fig. 2A provides

the bidirectional

in series

source

capable

angle,R,

In general,

3A.

are depicted

ED, and

ER/ED,

studio.

reverberation

and sound

by decreasing

the solid

between

shown

in section,

IN A STUDIO

sounds

reflected

can be reduced

and

with a delay

characteristics

a microphone

generally

of the systems

the unidirectional

elements

SOUND

2B provide

be described

microphones

in Fig.

of the zero order

There

Any

in Fig.

will

microphone

as shown

The combination

shown, in Fig.

oppositely

gradient,

characteristic

of Fig. 3B.

when

the Rochelle

are used for

the solid

the ratio,

angle,

ER/ ED

CONDENSER
The

MICROPHONES
first high quality

as a standard
1920's

of measurement.

the condenser

a high quality
microphone

microphone.

is about

in Fig.

5.

7000 Hertz.

and back plate

proper

of stiffness

mechanical
shown

stiffness

in Fig. 5.

diaphragm.
frequency

for constant

the condenser

sound

resonant

The capacitance

this is a reactance

30 Hertz

the combined

in the early

the requirements

of the high quality

frequency

a stiffness

of the stretched
spacing

aluminum

of 1.5 mils between

and mechanical

resistance.

frequency

by cutting

4 .
grooves
zn the back plate

system

is stiffness

controlled

voltage

on the diaphragm.

The diameter

of the polarizing

The

and a
as

the amplitude
pressure

is independent

microphone

In order

sound

Hertz

The overall

3 inches.

of 16 megohms.

of 10,000

for constant

for

condenser

a resonant

of the condenser

resistance

to supply

the open circuit

pressure

in the late 1910's

broadcasting

the very close

of Fig. 5 is about

30 Hertz

least

version

of the frequency

conditions,

microphone

is 1.5 inches.

to provide

of radio

commercialized

However,

the vibrating

these

the advent

introduces

is independent

Under

The

are accomplished

When

of the diaphragm

3 was

microphone 2 was developed

The commercial

the diaphragm
values

With

microphone

is shown

diaphragm

condenser

on the
of the

diameter

of

of the diaphragm

i_ 300 picofarads.

to mair_tain the response

and bia_

resistors

At
to

must be at

50 megohms.
In view of the small

be located
Fig. 6.

next

One,

microphone.
was housed

to the microphone

two and
A three

three

broadcasting

Fig. 6A and B were used

The large

size

of

the pressure

of the condenser

unit.

stage vacuum

stage vacuum

in the amplifier

days of radio

increased

capacitance

Typical

and disk

recording.

the condenser

on the diaphragm

about

must

are shown in

used with the condenser

in Fig. 7.

This unit was

The amplifier

picture

microphone

enclosures

were

is shown

o_ Fig. 6C.

in sound motion

amplifier

tube amplifiers

tube amplifier

enclosure

micropl_one, the amplifier

This amplifier

popular

enclosures

in the early
shown

in

recording.
introduced

2000 Hertz.

diffraction

effects 5 which

As a result

the microphone

f,

is directional
diaphragm
cavity

introduced

acting

response

in the high

in the high

cavity
very

effects

the development

resonance

follower

due to the resonance

of these effects was

5 represents

essentially

for radio broadcasting,

Electric

of a smaller

Microphone

394 Condenser

The

disk

of the

a nonuniform

the condenser
recording

Microphone

as the diaphragm
the microphone

of the cathode

Microphone

range.

follower

shown

above

microphone 6.

in Fig. 8.

and

and the RCA

2000 Hertz

An example

The diameter

and the diffraction

of the miniature

impedance
response

effects

condenser

is the

is one inch.
are

The

confined

of this amplifier
down

is shown

to the

metal

As a result
The vacuum

the diffraction

tube amplifier

diagram

frequency

range.

in the early

1950's

A plated

diaphragm.

a
of

is very high which makes

to the low audio

in Fig. 10.

microphone,

by the circuit

microphone 8 commercialized

of a stretched

is 3/4 inch.

The directional
characteristic

input

condenser

instead

frequency

microphone

tube amplifier 7 as depicted

a uniform

miniature

the Altec Miniature

condenser

condenser

shown

capacitance

type vacuum

to obtain

Another

4 _

in front of the

range.

Fig. 9 was employed.

very high

in Fig.

of the large

has been eliminated

frequency

it possible

3000 Hertz

the cavity

region.
shown

_n the 1920's

In view of the small

cathode

In addition,

Microphone.

640A Miniature

high

around

as the Western

diffraction

stimulated

range.

The net result

frequency

pictures,

llA Condenser
The

peak

microphone

commercialized

sound motion

Western

a broad

as a short pipe.

The condenser
microphone

frequency

quartz

The overall
effects are

as

plate is used
diameter
confined

used with this microphone

of
to the
is

type.

pattern

of the

in Fig. 3A.

condenser

microphone

The effective

sterodians.
-5~

solid

is the omnidirectional

angle

of sound

reception

is

DYNAMIC

MICROPHONES

The

first high

and commercialized
Moving

quality

for constant

sound pressure

output

is a product

of the velocity

pendent

of

made it possible

any loss or frequency

and voice

over

sound

pressure

long lines

discrimination.

was

In later

designs

impedances

becomes
The

dynamic

characteristic

occur

in the high

microphone

10 over

the frequency

Directional

Microphone.

respect

to frequency.

semi-sound

effects

The directional
in Fig. 3A.

A screen

transmitting.

the diffraction

This impedance
without

microphones

the

This
so

pattern

that
of

above

range

a nondirectional

and the microphone

or omnidirectional

30 to 15000 Hertz

and designated
forms

effects

2000 Hertz

was

as the Western
a part

above

developed

Electric

of the spherical

2,500 Hertz

placed

above

the microphone
the dynamic

microphone

The solid angle of sound reception

-6-

the diaphragm

is completely

and com-

630A Nonsurface.

are very smooth

in the form of a disk is frequency

disk

As a result dif-

range.

12 with

The diaphragm

the diffraction

range

frequency

of Fig.

in the late 1930's

conditions

The electri-

used to step up to

of Fig. 11 is about 3 inches.

in the frequency

mercialized

these

was

is inde-

of 30, 150 and 250 ohms.

of the microphone

directional

output

amplifier

of dynamic

voltage

of the conductor

30 ohms.

to the monitoring

these

of the fre-

on the diaphragm.

microphones

618-A

Under

the open circuit

coil, the length

electrical

effects

controlled.

Since

of the voice coil was lower and a transformer

fraction

Electric

coil is independent

resistance

The diameter

11 was developed

flux in the air gap, the voltage

coil of early

to transmit

is resistance

of the voice

for constant

the voice

in Fig.

as the Western

on the diaphragm.

the magnetic

of the frequency

cal resistance

system

of the diaphragm

quency

coil and

and designated

The vibrating

the velocity

in the voice

microphone 9 shown

in the late 1920's

Coil Microphone.

conditions

dynamic

w_th

selective

conspires

Under

and

to counter

omnidirectional.

is the omnidirectional

is 4 _T stera_ians.

shown

VELOCITY

MICROPHONES

A pressure
tricai

gradient

response

space.

or velocity

corresponds

to the difference

When

the distance

between

of the sound

the pressure

gradient

The velocity
1/lO mil

in thickness,
field

is about

12 Hertz.

the two sides

frequency.

The

The velocity
acoustical

electrical

reactance

conditions

is driven
This

is the ratio

sound

is independent

The electrical

pressure
of the

resistance

frequency

to step up the impedance

of the ribbon

a line to the monitoring

console.

The directional
characteristic
4'_7/3

sounds.
very

shown

steradians

reduction

in Fig. 3B.

which

The directional
in reducing
speech.

effects

See Fig.

solid

-7-

to the

of the ribbon.
and the

pressure

250 ohms

is used

for transmission

is the bidirectional
angle

output

in free

A transformer

of sound

microphone.

microphone

upon

of the

the voltage

sound

of reverberation

of the velocity

of reverberation

between

of the length

sound pressure

is 25 ohms.

microphone

sound pickup

]C.

is the product

and the velocity

is 1/3 that of an omnidirectional

properties

is proportional

for constant

The effective

is mass controlled

Therefore,

to 30, 150 and

of the velocity

of 5 db in the effective

useful

reproduced

pattern

in a

of the ribbon

This ratio is independent

in free space.

of the ribbon

ribbon

suspended

frequency

system

of the actuating
load.

to the wavelength

in sound pressure

of the ribbon

in

velocity.

in length

in pressure

field

two points

compared

The resonant

in the magnetic

the elec-

of a corrugated

the vibrating

difference

of the ribbon and air

for constant

and 2 inches

by the difference

output voltage

the flux density

of the ribbon

of the ribbon
space.

ribbon

of the ribbon.

of the ribbon,

frequency

The

these

is small

to the particle

magnet.

in which

between

in Fig. 13 consists

by a permanent

Under

in pressure

corresponds

3/16 inch in width

supplied

is a microphone

the two points

microphone 11 shown

magnetic

above 20 Hertz.

microphone

over

cosine

reception

is

This means a

and other

unwanted

have been found

the intelligibility

of

to be

The RCA
The

Velocity

RCA 44B Velocity

velocity

microphone

RCA 44BX Velocity

developed

44A shown

Microphone
with

shown

improved

Microphone.

same for the three

been

Microphone

in Fig. 13 was

in Fig. 13 was commercialized

magnet

material

The enclosure

microphones.

Smaller

and commercialized,

commercialized

and higher

shown

versions

in Fig.

in 1940.

sensitivity

the current

The

is the

13 is essentially

of the velocity

as for example,

in 1931.

tile

microphone

RCA BK-11A

have

Velocity

Microphone.
The frequency
frequency

range

practical
order

limit

with

consists

pressure

of the ribbon

pipe.

the cardioid

as shown

microphone

microphone
is exposed

The other

the pressure

with

combined

The damped

very

the thermal

which

high sensi-

agitation

is, of course,

practically

and

shown

to both sides

of

the absolute

impossible

to attain

this

microphone

is the unidirec-

in the manner
is coupled

controlled.

magnetic

flux

gap determined

to step up the low resistance

over a line to the monitoring

-8-

The

microphone

of a ribbon

of the conventional

A part
velocity

to a long acoustically
to the ribbon and

A permanent
pieces.

See

magnet

as a result

supplies

A transformer

Fig. lC.

damped

pipe is folded

to 30, 150 and 250 ohms

console.

omnidirec-

microphone.

The long damped

by the pole

of the ribbon

velocity

resistance

in the lower half of the microphone.

to the air

of Fig. 3C.

and a bidirectional

14 consists

bidirectional

an acoustic

is resistance

pattern

2C.

in Fig.

part of tile ribbon

pipe presents

section

microphone

in Fig.

ribbon

velocity

directional

enclosed

transmission

the

type of microphone.

of an omnidirectional

The unidirectional

microphone.

smooth over

of providing

in which

on noise

to the bidirectional

13,14

the outputs

tional

developed

It appears

in any other

complement

microphone

microphone

is very

MICROPHONE

A logical
tional

is capable

the limitation

on sensitivity.

of sensitivity

UNIDIRECTIONAL

microphone

microphone 12 was

in air was

type velocity

Hertz.

type velocity

A velocity

the molecules

of the ribbon

30 to 15,000

The ribbon
tivity.

response

and

the
is used

suitable

for

The directional
characteristic
steradians

pattern

of Fig. 3C.

which

of

the unidirectional

The effective

solid

microphone

angle

is 1/3 that of an omnidirectional

tion of 5 db in the effective

sound

pickup

is

the cardioid

of sound reception

microphone.

of reverberation

is 4_/3

This means a reduc-

and other

unwanted

sounds.
The RCA

77A Unidirectional

commercialized
directional
other

in 1933.

microphones
pattern

The microphone

characteristic

undesired

sounds,

with

particularly

tool

in the pickup

of Fig. 3C has continued

to the present

was improved

with

magnetic

Two transformers
ribbon.

of the RCA

a high sensitivity,

a higher

were

Microphone,
casting,

15 was

disk

arrangement

pressure

shown

Electric

as shown

the means

resultant

to provide

in Fig. 16 was

of

the cardioid

Microphone,
15.

a smaller
The magnetic

materials

increased

which

pro-

sensitivity.

bidirectional

of the
and uni-

15.
as the RCA

of a ribbon

77B Unidirectional

was used

in radio broad-

microphone

diagram

the outputs

unidirectional

Microphone.

velocity

The circuit

to combine

commercialized

-9-

and

pictures.

the cardiod

Unidirectional

reverberation

of the two sections

This microphone

in Fig. 16.
used

by

and new magnetic

in Fig. 15, and designated

is shown

the uni-

The popularity

as shown in Fig.

in Fig.

in 1937.

in 1931 and

time.

omnidirectional,

microphone 16 consisting

depicts

639A

to obtain

and sound motion

microphone

microphones

microphone

patterns

commercialized

recording

pressure

of speech.

as depicted

flux in the air gap and

shown

A unidirectional

in overcoming

used to step up the impedances

directivity

The microphone

to design

developed

success because

77A Unidirectional

was developed

respect

This made it possible

directional

Western

an instant

characteristic

structure

phone

was

a unidirectional

_ersion with

dynamic

of Fig. 14 was

was a very powerful

In view of the success

vided

Microphone

and micro-

of the velocity

pattern

of Fig. 3C.

in 1939 and designated

and

as the

and
The

SINGLE

ELEMENT

UNIDIRECTION

A unidirectional
delay

to provide
A dynamic

MICROPHONES

microphone

consisting

a unidirectional

microphone

at both

the front

provide

a unidirectional

directivity

consisting

and back

of the diaphragm

characteristic

due to the inertance

front of the diaphragm

180 or sounds
For sounds

arriving

from the front

and the response

the cardioid

characteristic

and commercialized

A single
coupled

element

aperture
phone.

When

bidirectional

there

limacon
Fig. 18.

The microphone

directional

characteristics.

The microphone

shown

When

in Fig.

in Fig.

of the shutter
For

the sake

18.

directivity

to

occurs

for

pattern

shown in Fig.

a ribbon

aperture

17 was

The

off the

pressure

microis a

as shown

of clarity

these

in

can be operated

In the commercial
provide

of the

closes

aperture

shutter

dev-

transducer

18B the microphone

small

is

Microphone.

at the back

the shutter

which

in Fig. 18 was developed

-10-

response

due

at 90 the only delay is due

18 employing

microphone.

as shown

namely,

as the Shure Unidyne

With an appropriate

positions

equal for

is a minimum.

is an ommidirectional

open as shown

is a unidirectional

are three more

a delay at

are made

the maximum

The resultant

microphone

microphone.

on

for the front of the diaphragm

pipe with a variable

of the microphone

originating

is no delay

is shown in Fig. 18.

is wide

to

the response

in Fig. 18N the microphone

Fig. 18U the microphone

phone

damped

the aperture

from the outside

3C.

elements

As a result

is down 6 db.

unidirectional

velocity

two delays

For sound arriving

of Fig.

to the ribbon

as shown

These

in 1941 and designated

to an acoustically

pipe connector

Sound

to sound

a delay at the back of the dia-

As a consequence,

at the front or 0.

to inertance

eloped

acoustic

the voice coil and the pole and

there

2D.

element 17 exposed

in Fig. 17.

encounters

and an acoustic

in Fig.

for sound at the back of the diaphragm,

and the inertance.

sound arriving

is shown

dynamic

is shown

from the back.

but there are two delays

diffraction

between

microphone

and appropriate

due to diffraction.

arriving

pattern

of a single

the axis at the back of the microphone

phragm

of a gradient

three

micro-

additional

are omitted

and commercialized

in

in 1941

and designated
with

as the RCA

improved

performance

A single

element

coupled

ia the RCA 77DX

unidirectional

to an acoustically

connector

to the ribbon

provides

damped

is shown

the delay which,

characteristic.

pattern

Polydirectional

The

in Fig.
with

19.

19 employing

a ribbon

smooth

and very high sensitivity.

The aperture

diffraction,leads

is designed

for boom

frequency

transducer
of the pipe

in the pipe connector

to a cardioid
of sound

response,

uniform

of Fig. 19 was

Unidirectional

microphone

in the back

pickup

The microphone

as the RCA KU-3A

current

Microphone.

pipe with a fixed aperture

by providing

and designated

Microphone.

microphone

together

The microphone

tures and television

in 1948

77C Polydirectional

directional

in motion

pic-

directivity

commercialized

Microphone.

20 21
A directional microphone employing an electrostatic
transducer
'
in the
r
form of two diaphragms and a common back plate is shown in Fig.
20. Each diaphragm
is spaced
acoustic

at a small distance
capacitance

are interconnected
with

and an acoustic
by small

the polarizing

shown in Fig.
tional

3,

voltage
With

characteristic

zero or mid position

potentiometer
of Fig.

as

The

provides

of Fig.

phase

means

in the full

A vacuum

in Fig. 20.

With

position

M49 Microphone.
-11-

position

the potentiometer

is located

of the microphone

20 was

system

all the directivity

the nondirectional

commercialized

an

the diaphragms

of Fig. 3C is obtained.

tube amplifier

in Fig.

provides

behind

in the vibrating

set at full negative

The principles

shown

The cavities

to obtain

characteristic

positive

The small spacing

shift

3B is obtained.

a cardioid

The microphone

the Neumann

holes.

plate.

resistance.

the potentiometer

3A is obtained.

unit as shown
1930's.

set

from the back

combined

patterns
the bidirec-

set in the
With

the

characteristic

next to the condenser

were

developed

in tha

in 1953 and designated

mid

AXIAL

AND UNIAXIAL
Axial

MICROPHONES

and uniaxial

are microphones

end of a case essentially

omnidirectional
microphone

microphone.

in which

of the microphone.
towards

cylindircal

and uniaxial

A first order

gradient

acoustically

damped

in the folded
shifting

unidirectional
directivity,
magnets.

pipe to ribbon

The effective
directional

type.

of pickup
This means

The RCA BK-5B

filter

sharper

portion

which

two apertures

will be of the
to

cavity

the increased
between

pattern

shown

the

of Fig. 3C.

is 1/4 that of an omni-

of 6 db in the effective

Microphone

in an

of the phase

contribute

than the cardioid

a reduction

Uniaxial

pattern

and the damped

is %r steradians,

The

time.

character-

terminated

networks.

that

was

to the present

of a ribbon

elements

axis

of microphones

a unidirectional

form the essential

the blast

solid

microphone.

22 with

so that the directional

is slightly

angle

to the cylindrical

has continued

shifting

to the

to a unidirectional

in the design

consists

phase

are additional

the lobes,

corresponds

at one

pickup

of

in Fig. 21 was commercial-

in 1954,
A first

in which

order

the front

as the frequency
There

connector

directivity

reverberation.
ized

There

is applied

microphone

is located

The term axial is applied

This style

acoustic

delay network

namely,

The

types.

the transducer

the trend

The transducer

pipe with

or acoustic

1950's

uniaxial

istic is shown in Fig. 21.

uniaxial

sensitivity

By the early

the axial

in form.

The term

the maximum

in which

gradient
to back

uniaxial
distance

pressures,

on the back of the diaphragm

networks

is obtained
of operation
directional

or delay

over a major portion

are four actuating

acoustic

microphone 23 with

as outlined

Microphone

of the response

so that

effect

of Fig.

range

characteristic

approximately

is shown

sound paths

the cardioid
sections.

is reduced.

The

22 was commercialized

-17-

With

pattern

the variable

Electro

and the others

of Fig. 22.

directional

The
of Fig. 3C

distance

Voice Variable

in 1954.

inversely

in Fig. 22.

one on the front of the diaphragm

in the preceding

the proximity

of Fig. 2D varies

shown by the dotted

are designed

a unidirectional

type

D Uni-

As mentioned
axial

in the introduction

and uniaxial

case essentially
are

in general

with

cylindrical
cylinders

the larger

typical

of Fig.

the microphones

directional

the transducer

pressure

in the section

characteristic

is shown

Microphone

type with
The

Dynamic

of the dynamic

a slightly

described

in one end of a
in which

there

located

in the part

tapered

case.

Four

the omnidirectional

system

is essentially

the same as

Microphones.

unidirectional

in Fig.

towards

types will be described.

3A is shown in Fig. 23.

microphone

the Shure Unidyne

with

uniaxial

of the dynamic

is located

are some deviations,

or in some other versions

described

A uniaxial

There

and

the trend has been

the transducer

in form.

of the axial

microphone

characteristic

in which

of two diameters

diameter

microphones

An axial

as

microphones

to this section,

24.

type with

The system

in the section

a cardioid

is essentially

Single

Element

the same

Unidirectional

Microphones.
24
A breakthrough
as depicted
been
ial

in electrostatic

in Fig.

electrically

iD.

charged

microphones

The diaphragm

consists

to produce

an external

such as polyfluorethylenepropylene

plastic

diaphragm

the plastic

film.

the electric

stretching

required

in order

placed

provide

of

3A is shown

to obtain
between

above

resistance

a uniform

25.

Hertz.

to provide

response
-13-

An insulating

type with

as far as

in the

control

resonant

back plate

at the resonant

characteristic.

magnet.

is plasti%only

characteristic
The

to

the omnidirectional

stiffness

plate.

is applied

analog of the permanent

The

mater-

for the purpose.

A high voltage

response

and back

damping

film that has

Since the diaphragm

Some holes

transducer

The foil electret,

can be employed.
frequency

field.

suited

electrostatic

the diaphragm

frequency

is well

is the electrostatic

a uniform

10,000

electric

is permanent.

in Fig.

electret

of a thin plastic

on one side.

the electret

of the diaphragm

trapped

to a high acoustic
thereby

is concerned,

of Fig.

nominal

is metalized

charge storage

microphone

characteristic

from the air

The

charge

An axial

is usually

of Teflon

(Teflon)

ia the foil

which

is

is obtained
frequency

are connected

frequency

and

Another
static

breakthrough

or condenser

impedance

which

contributes

microphone

of the field

is the field effect

effect

transistor

using a field effect

transistor

required.

the feedback

Employing

can be 50 megohms.
uniform

response

amplifier

A uniaxial
directional
polarized

microphone

plastic

stant

diaphragm

depicted

The input

high.

No polarizing

space

pressure

in Fig. 27.

occupied

and vacuum

constant

in pressure
amplitude

the system

The directivity

type with

microphone 25

by means

between

to frequency

is very low.

For

sound arriving

there is no delay at front of the diaphragm

the delay

and response

to the back of the diaphragm

the front and the response

0.
SECOND

is a maximum.

The net

result

controlled

ORDER

GRADIENT

A second

order

gradient microphones
and connected

system

of the microphone

but there is a maximum

For sound arriving

is one half

directional

as

are the same

at the front of the microphone

delay

to the back

at the side or 90

of that for sound arriving

down 6 db from that of sound arriving

is the cardioid

for con-

of the gradient

from the back

the two

to the frequency.

to the front and back of the diaphragm

of the sound paths

a voltage

and commercial-

is proportional

must be resistance

sound arriving

with

in pressure

with respect

is obtained

a cardioid

was developed

by the difference

This difference

in free space

A similar

tube amplifier

is driven

to obtain

unidirectional

the distance

of the diaphragm

resistance

by the transistor

For

the response

is

As a consequence,

and delay as shown in Fig. 2D.

and

amplifier

resistor
input

3 picofarads.

The

electrical

A transistor

26 the effective

is about

to 30 Hertz.

in Fig. 27.

The diaphragm

in order

sound

capacitance

of Fig.

of the electret

is shown

of the diaphragm.

Therefore,

circuit

26.

electro-

small.

pattern

ized earlier.
sides

The input

in Fig.

of the eleetret

transistor.

ia exceedingly

is shown

can be maintained

is very

to the success

pattern

from

at the front or

of Fig. 3C.

MICROPHONE
gradient

uniaxial

microphone 26 consisting

of the type shown in Fig.

in apposition.

The resultant
-14-

of two first

21 are arranged

directional

order

as shown in Fig. 28

characteristic

shown

in Fig.

28 is given by Cos _
incident

sound.

it possible

Order

SUBSIDIARY

microphone

Gradient

microphones.

of pickup
of three

reverberation

commercialized

is 4 _/9

steradians

of the
which makes

times that of an omnidirectional

in the pickup

of sound.

in 1957 and designated

The

second

as the RCA BK10

Microphone.

have been

is, microphones

However,

should

microphones
high

angle

at a distance

was

sections

That

today.

mention

solid

t_ is the angle of the direction

MICROPHONES

The preceding

in use

), where

for the same effective

gradient

Second

The effective

to pick up sound

microphone
order

(1+ Cos

in order

describing

cannot

as benchmark

which

established

the principles

to make

the history

of the paper complete

be made of high quality

which

what may be termed

be classed

microphones

as high

and systems
some

in use only a short time and

quality

but for the purpose

are indeed

quality.
A microphone

27 employing

was

used for a short

The

elements

of the Rochelle

are

cemented

together

a direct

time in the 1930's

crystal

as a bimorph

Fig. 29.

Two bimorph

elements

Fig. 29.

The voltage

output

must be stiffness
Exposed
activity

to temperatures
permanently.

be used under
Titanate

controlled.

with

element.

is proportional

in excess
Therefore,

piezoelectric

would withstand

high temperatures.

Rochelle

salt.

Therefore,

adequate

sensitivity.

could not be

microphone

Uniform

these

salt

are

conductors

to form a microphone
to the amplitude.

salt

characteristics

produced.
-15-

crystal

was

a practical

Two

crystals

shown in

cell as shown

in

the system

can be obtMned.

microphone
picture

developed

the sensitivity

recording.

its piezoelectric

in a motion

must be used with

conditions

loses

are

crystal

Therefore,

to 15,000 Hertz

of the lights

However,

and disk

shown in Fig. 29.

The plate

response

the Rochelle

piezoelectric

broadcasting

of 130 F the crystal

a diaphragm

Under

Rochelle

in radio

are assembled

the high temperatures

ceramic

actuated

set.

later.

was much

the ceramic
high

could

quality

not
Barium

This

lower

ceram_

than

to obtain
microphone

A short acoustic
microphone

as shown

line 28 of about
in Fig.

30 has been used

frequency

range of 150

have been

used as shown in Fig.

studios

for special

the quality
not

from

to 1,000

pickup

a foot in length

Hertz.
30.

the standpoint

to increase

Three

different

This microphone

situations.

However,

of uniform

connected

to a unidirectional

the directivity
types

in the

of acoustic

lines

has been used in television

the use is not widespread

frequency

response

because

and directivity

is

of a high order.
Miniature

microphones

and electret
studios.

transducers

The dynamic

type as shown

in Fig.

is completely

adequate

size is not

a problem

less than a foot.

tret transducer
response

of

the lavalier 29 and tie clasp

as shown

microphones

31 are

of various

3lA and B exhibit

because

the sound

A very small

down

in widespread

sizes

uniform

for speech pickup,

employing

use

response

to the tie clasp

down to 100 Hertz which

due to the smaller

level is high due to a pickup

transistor

or condenser

amplifier

dynamic

in television

from the lavalier

the lower sensitivity

electrostatic

and a two stage

is uniform

in Flg.

types

microphone

distance
with

of

an elec-

is shown in Fig. 31C.

The

to 100 Hertz.

ADDENDUM
From
lining

the standpoint

the characteristics,

a certain

class

In this case,
a limitation
the epoch

from the early

the author

Any historical

subjective

is confined

omitted

or included

subject

matter

of microphones

Therefore,

preprint.

-16-

during

microphones

time, which

out-

and development

involves

both

welcomes

in

epoch.

which

places

Fortunately,

includes

the

of micro-

objective

there may be objections

the author

account

a particular

to ali microphones.

with research

of some

written

of the developments

studio

to the present

In the minds

subjects.

of this

as contrasted

has been concerned

considerations.

of progress,

to high quality

1920's

consideration

is a systematic

and interdependence

in the steps

on the area of coverage

extends

history

significance

nf microphones,

the subject

span in which
phones.

of this paper,

and

to either

any suggestions

on the

REFERENCES
1.

H. F. Olson, Modern

Sound

Reproduction,

Van Nostrand

Reinhold

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N. Y. 1972.
2.

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3.

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4.

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5.

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6.

H. C. Harrison
p. 451,

Phys. Rev., Vol. 11, No. 6, p. 449, 1918.

Rev. Vol.

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Bell Syst. Tech. Jour., Vol. 11, No. 3,

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10.

E. C. Wente

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R. H. Marshall

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H. F. Olson, Proc. IRE, Vol.

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Von

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Jour. Soc. Mot. Pic. Engrs.,

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Braunmuhl

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-17-

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21.

F. W. O Bauch, Jour. Aud. Eng. Soc., Vol. 1, No. 3,

22.' H. F. Olson, J. Preston

and J. C. Bleazey,

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RCA Review,

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1953.
23.

A. M. Wiggins,

24.

G.M.

Sessler

Jour. Acous.

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and J. E. West, Jour. Audio

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H. F. Olson and J. Preston,

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H. F. Olson, J. Preston

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A. L. Williams,

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H. F. Olson,

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N. Y.,
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Pic. and Tel. Engr., Vol. 67, No. 1,

1958.
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Jour. Soc., Mot.

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and J. C. Bleazey,

1961.

-iS-

Jour. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol. 9, No. 4,

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