Thesis Conducting

HOW THEORIES OF EXPRESSIVE MOVEMENT AND NON-VERBAL
COMMUNICATION CAN ENHANCE EXPRESSIVE CONDUCTING AT

ALL LEVELS OF ENTERING BEHAVIOUR
BY
ANDREW MATHERS
M. Mus Ed., B. Ed. (Sec), A. Mus A.
This thesis is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy in Music
MONASH UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF MUSIC CONSERVATORIUM
SUBMITTED ON 16 JUNE 2008
Copyright Notices
Notice 1
Under the Copyright Act 1968, this thesis must be used only under the normal
conditions of scholarly fair dealing. In particular no results or conclusions should be
extracted from it, nor should it be copied or closely paraphrased in whole or in part
without the written consent of the author. Proper written acknowledgement should be
made for any assistance obtained from this thesis.
Notice 2
I certify that I have made all reasonable efforts to secure copyright permissions for
third-party content included in this thesis and have not knowingly added copyright
content to my work without the owner's permission.
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of Contents ...............................................................................................ii
List of Tables .................................................................................................... iv
List of Figures.................................................................................................... v
Abstract............................................................................................................. vi
Original Statement ........................................................................................... vii
Acknowledgements .........................................................................................viii
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION ............................................................... 1
Research Methodology ................................................................................... 4
CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF LITERATURE .............................................. 7
Review of the Literature on Expressive Movement Theories .......................... 7
Review of the Literature on Non-Verbal Communication ............................. 11
CHAPTER THREE AN EVALUATION OF THE KINAESTHETIC
APPROACH TAKEN BY CONDUCTING TEXTBOOKS IDENTIFIED IN
TWO SURVEYS ............................................................................................. 13
Conducting Textbooks Selected for Examination ......................................... 15
An Evaluation of the Kinaesthetic Approach taken by Conducting Textbooks
Aimed at Beginner Conductors or Conductor/Educators ............................... 20
An Evaluation of the Kinaesthetic Approach Taken by Conducting Materials
Aimed at Conductors of All Levels............................................................... 38
Summary and Conclusions ........................................................................... 49
CHAPTER FOUR THE ROLE OF THE MIND-BODY CONNECTION,
MOTOR SKILL DEVELOPMENT AND PROPRIOCEPTION IN THE
DEVELOPMENT OF KINAESTHETIC LEARNING..................................... 53
Developing Kinaesthetic Learning through Bodily-Kinaesthetic Intelligence 57
I
Connecting Body and Mind .................................................................. 62
Alexander Influences on the Mind-Body Connection ............................ 63
Philosophical Perspectives on the Mind-Body Connection .................... 66
II Motor Skill Development ..................................................................... 70
III Proprioception and its Role in Conducting ............................................ 79
Summary and Conclusions ........................................................................... 83
CHAPTER FIVE FIVE EXPRESSIVE MOVEMENT THEORIES, THEIR
COMMONALITIES, AND THEIR POTENTIAL USE IN THE
ENHANCEMENT OF EXPRESSIVE CONDUCTING ................................... 86
Theories of Movement - Rudolf Laban ......................................................... 88
Theories of Movement - Emile-Henri Jaques Dalcroze ................................. 92
Theories of Movement - Franois Delsarte ................................................... 93
Theories of Movement - F.M. Alexander...................................................... 96
Theories of Movement - Moshe Feldenkrais................................................. 98
Commonalities between Expressive Movement Theories.............................. 99
Potential Use Laban................................................................................. 118
Potential Use Dalcroze ............................................................................ 122
Potential Use Delsarte ............................................................................. 125
Potential Use Alexander .......................................................................... 127
Potential Use - Feldenkrais ......................................................................... 129
Summary and Conclusions ......................................................................... 131
CHAPTER SIX THE USE OF NON-VERBAL SKILLS AND CONCEPTS
TO ENHANCE EXPRESSIVE CONDUCTING............................................ 134
Communicating the Expressive Elements in Conducting ............................ 136
Categories and Coding of Non-Verbal Communication Used by Conductors
........................................................................................................... 140
iii
The Use of Kinesics to Facilitate Expressive Conducting............................147
The Observation and Recording of Non-Verbal Conducting Behaviours .....158
The Development of Emotional Expression in Conducting .........................167
Emphasising the Non-Verbal in Non-Verbal Communication in Expressive
Conducting .................................................................................................172
The Use of Gestural Modes to Enhance Expressive Conducting..................175
Summary and Conclusions..........................................................................179
CHAPTER SEVEN SURVEY RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ..................182
Survey 1 University Level Conducting Teachers......................................182
Survey 1 Discussion.................................................................................194
Survey 2 Secondary School Level Conductors Based Around the
Melbourne Area..........................................................................................196
Survey 2 Discussion.................................................................................206
Survey Findings Related to Main Research Questions.................................208
CHAPTER EIGHT SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS................................................................................210
General Curriculum for Teaching Conducting Incorporating Theories of
Expressive Movement and Non-Verbal Communication .............................213
WORKS CITED.............................................................................................220
APPENDIX A SURVEY OF UNIVERSITY LEVEL CONDUCTING
TEACHERS ...................................................................................................234
APPENDIX B SURVEY OF SECONDARY SCHOOL LEVEL
CONDUCTORS BASED AROUND THE MELBOURNE AREA .................279
iv
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Conducting Textbooks Used by University Conducting Teachers ..... 15
Table 2
Conducting Textbooks Used by Experienced Melbourne Secondary

School Conductors .................................................................... 16
Table 3 Rank Order of Importance of Methods to Assist the Development of

Conducting Expressivity............................................................ 18
Left Hand Use (Survey of Experienced Secondary School
Conductors in Melbourne) ......................................................... 18
Expressive Gestures (Survey of Experienced Secondary School
Conductors in Melbourne) ......................................................... 19
Table 6 Skills a Beginner Conductor Should Already Possess........................ 55
Table 7 Skills a Beginner Conductor Should Immediately Seek to Develop... 56
Table 8 Impact of Sporting Activities on Conducting Improvement............... 73
Table 9 Impact of Movement Activities on Conducting Improvement ........... 73
Table 10 Level of Difficulty Developing Beat Patterns ................................... 77
Table 11 Level of Difficulty Developing Left Hand Use ................................. 77
Table 12 Labans Effort Actions (see Miller 1988:35)..................................... 89
Table 13 Important Attributes of an Effective Conductor .............................. 137
Table 14 Important Attributes of an Expressive Conductor ........................... 137
Table 15 Important Non-Verbal Communication Skills for Conducting Student
Development ........................................................................... 153
Table 16 Methods for Developing Conducting Students Non-Verbal
Vocabulary.............................................................................. 158
Table 17 Prerequisites Required of Potential Conducting Students................ 170
v
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. 1
Four Planes of Conducting ...............................................................24
Fig. 2
Baton Use and Grip (Garofalo and Battisti 2005:4)...........................25
Fig. 3
Dynamic Cone, Showing Possible Alterations in Size of Beat and

Sagittal Motion (Garofalo and Battisti 2005:55) .........................25
Fig. 4
Diagram of the Left Hand Rest Position ...........................................30
Fig. 5
Structure of the Upper Arm, Showing the Alignment of the Radius and
the Ulna (Calais-Germain 1993:144)..........................................32
Fig. 6
Altering Size of the Conducting to Teach Dynamics.........................33
Fig. 7
Conductors Basic Arm Position.......................................................36
Fig. 8a
Rudolfs Neutral-Legato 4-Beat Patterns (Rudolf 1995:3) ................42
Fig. 8b
Rudolfs Expressive-Legato 4-Beat Patterns (Rudolf 1995:22) .........42
Fig. 9
Farbermans Pitch Registration Levels (Farberman 1997a:81) ..........46
Fig. 10
Farbermans Pattern Cube (Farberman 1997a:101)...........................47
Fig. 11
The Central and Peripheral Nervous System (Krschlov 2000:8) ....71
Fig. 12
Two Nerve Cells (Krschlov 2000:10)............................................72
Fig. 13
Labans Concept of the Dynamosphere with Effort Actions (see

Newlove and Dalby 2004:141)...................................................90
Fig. 14
Delsartes Ninefold Accord (Shawn 1974:30)...................................94
Fig. 15
Example of an Including Left Hand Pre-Conducting Behaviour .....95
Fig. 16
Dalcrozes Beat Pattern for 3/4 Time (Jaques-Dalcroze 1920:31) ...105
Fig. 17
Dalcrozes Beat Pattern for 4/4 Time (Jaques-Dalcroze 1920:43) ...105
Fig. 18
Delsartes Chart for the Head (see Shawn 1974:37) ........................106
Fig. 19
Low, Purposeful Centred Gesture ...................................................115
Fig. 20
Opening bars of Egmont Overture (Beethoven 1985:239)...............115
Fig. 21
Quick Frivolous Gestures ...............................................................116
Fig. 22
Opening bars of the third movement of Symphony No.4 (Tchaikovsky

1979:82) ..................................................................................116
Fig. 23
Interpretations of the Ring Gesture Throughout Europe (Morris et al.

1979:116-117) .........................................................................144
Fig. 24
Non-Verbal Communication Sheet (mouth & eyebrows) ................156
Fig. 25
Conductor Non-Verbal Observation Form (Roshong 1978:87) .......161
vi
ABSTRACT
In this thesis, my main research question is whether bodily-kinaesthetic skills,
expressive movement, and non-verbal communication can enhance methods
towards expressive conducting. I investigate the aspects of bodily-kinaesthetic
learning that are being used in conducting textbooks, the role of the mind-body
connection, motor skill development, and proprioception in the development of
kinaesthetic learning. I also investigate how the movement theories of Laban,
Dalcroze, Delsarte, Alexander, and Feldenkrais, and the use of non-verbal
communication skills and concepts, can be used to enhance expressive
conducting.
I discuss how conducting textbooks identified in my two surveys teach
expressive gestures and the use of the left hand, which are two areas that have
been identified by experienced secondary school conductors in Melbourne as
ongoing weaknesses in their conducting vocabularies, noting how each textbook
approaches conducting instruction from a kinaesthetic standpoint. A priority for
the training of conductors at all levels of entering behaviour is to facilitate
instruction in the bodily-kinaesthetic domain, as too much instruction can often
occur in verbal and written form. The significance of proprioception to
expressive conducting is the relationship proprioception stimulates between
movement and sensory awareness, including its influence on the development of
fine motor skills and non-verbal communication.
I explore how the use of the expressive movement theories of Laban, Dalcroze,
Delsarte, Alexander, and Feldenkrais can enhance expressive conducting at all
levels of entering behaviour, and examine commonalities of these five expressive
movement theories. Firstly, all five are strongly in favour of the integration
between body and mind, which is vitally important for conductors, whose
gestures must reflect the music and thought processes happening in their brain.
Secondly, all five represent an educational process, and as such, are highly
relevant to the teaching of expressive conducting, particularly in the early stages.
Thirdly, all five are learnable by anyone, not just those with high entering
behaviour. Being learnable, they should be employed in the earliest stages of
conductor training. Finally, the importance of proprioception is acknowledged in
all five of the expressive movement theories.
Conductors can enhance expressive conducting through an examination of the
categories of non-verbal communication, such as emblems, illustrators, affect
displays, regulators, and adaptors, and the coding of non-verbal communication,
particularly kinesics. Although corrective mode gestures and universally
understood emblems are important for conductors to be taught, as they emphasise
clarity and precision, I believe that more use could be made of illustrators and
affect displays by conducting teachers in order to access the declamatory mode.
Furthermore, more use could be made of regulators and affect displays by
conducting teachers in order to access the narrative mode.
vii
ORIGINAL STATEMENT
This thesis contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any
other degree or diploma in any university or other institution and affirms that, to
the best of the candidates knowledge, the thesis contains no material previously
published or written by another person, except where due reference is made in
the text of the thesis.
______________________________
Andrew Mathers
______________________________
Date
viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
As author of this thesis, I would like to acknowledge the excellent support and
assistance provided by the staff of the School of Music Conservatorium at
Monash University throughout the progress of my research. In particular, I would
like to acknowledge the wonderful support and advice provided by my two
supervisors, Margaret Kartomi and Joel Crotty.
I would also like to thank the university conducting teachers and secondary
school conductors who participated in my surveys, providing a valuable snapshot
into the work of conducting teachers and music educator/conductors.
I would finally like to thank my wife Jenny, and children Gregory, Stephen, and
Joanna for their love and support, and for allowing me to be absent from family
life for extended periods during the course of this thesis.
1
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
Expressive conducting is the movements or gestures made by conductors
intended to invoke an ensemble of musicians to respond by reproducing the
musical message of a score (Yontz 2001:10). This form of conducting also
aims to communicate the interpretation of a work to the musicians. Expression
can be communicated via movement of any part of a conductors body, facial
expression, and eye contact. For the purposes of this thesis, it is assumed that the
ensemble members have a basic understanding of the notes and rhythms of the
music, and will respond to the conductors performance direction. My main
research question is whether bodily-kinaesthetic skills, expressive movement,
and non-verbal communication can enhance methods of expressive conducting.
An expressive conductor uses various types of movements of the hands, arms,
face and body as part of the process of conducting, depending on the skill level
of the ensemble, the level of experience the ensemble has of the work at hand,
and the requirements of the music. Three gestural modes may be used:
declamatory, corrective, and narrative (Koch 2003:136-140). In the declamatory
mode, the conductors musical conception is demonstrated as clearly as possible
through symbolic gesture. In corrective mode, the conducting gesture aims to
achieve performance accuracy and precision of tempo, dynamics and
articulation, the main focus being on preventing errors. In narrative mode, the
conductor grants greater autonomy to the ensemble with the expectation that it
will perform with accuracy and sensitivity. A conductors role in narrative mode
is to highlight desired features of the interpretation for the ensemble to bring out
in its performance.
The literature to date has not covered the enhancement of expressive conducting
at differing levels of entering behaviour. The term entering behaviour will be
used throughout this thesis, as defined by John De Cecco to mean: the present
status of the students knowledge and skill in reference to a future status the
teacher wants him to attain (De Cecco 1968:59). High entering behaviour
therefore implies that there is a high degree of initial competency before
instruction has been undertaken, while low entering behaviour means there is a
low, or negligible, degree. A learners entering behaviour can be influenced by
prior experiences and ability to acquire new knowledge or skills in a certain area.
2
In this thesis, discussion of entering behaviour is limited mainly to learners
starting ability in terms of expressive movement. I will show how expressive
conducting can be enhanced at all levels of entering behaviour by theories of
movement and non-verbal communication.
Expressive movements communicate an idea, thought, or expression to an
individual or group. Movements may be large or small, quick or slow, jagged or
flowing, light or heavy. Contrasting movements communicate a variety of nonverbal information to receivers. Conductors level of skill in expressive
movement is a determining factor in their ability to conduct expressively.
By theories of movement are meant sets of beliefs or philosophies intended to
explain a particular position regarding movement. In this thesis, such theories are
limited to those of Laban, Dalcroze, Delsarte, Alexander, and Feldenkrais.
Others, including tai chi, yoga and Pilates, will not be examined as part of this
study, as there is currently a lack of suitable theoretical literature on them. The
five theories were selected because they are able to support expressive
movements, an important form of non-verbal communication available to
conductors.
Sometimes a sender communicates non-verbally by intention, at other times
unintentionally. Non-verbal communication may occur through ones posture,
gesture, or facial movements and expressions, where posture means the
coordinated positioning of all parts of the body, while gesture means coordinated
movements expressive of thought or feeling, involving only a part, or parts, of
the body. Five categories of non-verbal communication1 will be discussed in this
thesis, each having a different communicative function in conducting: emblems,
meaning non-verbal acts that can be defined in a word or simple phrase (such as
raising a hand to indicate stop); illustrators, meaning movements that are
directly tied to speech and illustrate what is being said verbally; affect displays,
meaning muscle movements, generally facial, associated with a display of
emotion; regulators, meaning acts that maintain and regulate the back-and-forth
nature of speaking and listening between two parties; and adaptors, meaning
habitual behaviours often learned in childhood (Ekman and Friesen 1969:63-84).
1
Ekman and Friesen (1969) initially defined these categories of non-verbal communication.
3
In addition, I contend that non-verbal communication consists of seven different
codes or transmission media: kinesics, vocalics, proxemics, physical appearance,
haptics, chronemics, and artifact use. Kinesics is the study of body motion as
related to the non-verbal aspects of inter-personal communication (Birdwhistell
1952:3). While the other six codes have limited applications to expressive
conducting (worthy of consideration in future studies), only kinesics will be
examined as part of this thesis. Kinesics is the coding that is most relevant to the
enhancement of expressive conducting, as it relates to posture, gesture, and facial
communication, including eye contact.
I shall also use the term bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence, meaning the ability to
use the body in highly differentiated and skilled ways (Gardner 1993b:207). One
of the most important elements of the kinaesthetic sense for conductors is
proprioception, defined by Sir Charles Sherrington as the stimuli given by the
organism itself to the receptors2 (Sherrington 2000:130). Proprioception is the
sense of the positioning of parts of the body relative to other parts.
Early in my thesis research I conducted two exploratory surveys of universitylevel conducting teachers and experienced Melbourne secondary school
conductors, presented in Appendix A and B. The results of these surveys, which
are presented in Chapter Seven, provide data on expressive movement theories
and non-verbal communication and their usage by those surveyed. Although
considerable other data was collected in the surveys, only that which I considered
to be relevant to expressive movement, non-verbal communication, and
expressive conducting is discussed in this thesis.
In this thesis I shall discuss the available literature about the five expressive
movement theories, the factors of non-verbal communication and the bodilykinaesthetic domain. In the main textbooks I examined on conducting, I sought
answers to the following questions about aspects of bodily-kinaesthetic learning:
What is the role of the mind-body connection, motor skill development, and
proprioception in the development of kinaesthetic learning? How can the
Kinaesthetic sensory receptors are located in the skin, muscles, tendons and ligaments. They
detect changes in the state of the musculo-sceletal system, and transmit this information to the
brain (Krschlov 2000:8).
4
movement theories of Laban, Dalcroze, Delsarte, Alexander, and Feldenkrais be
used to enhance expressive conducting? How can the use of non-verbal
communication skills and concepts enhance expressive conducting?
The skills required of a conductor are indeed numerous, acquired through aural
and general music training, including score study, experience in interpretation,
and rehearsal techniques. This thesis will not examine the general music training
or background required of a conductor, nor the individual disciplines that form
part of a conductors training. Many of the skills prized in conducting are those
of skilled teachers. Conductors require the capacity to diagnose problems, offer
immediate solutions, and instruct musicians as to how chosen works should be
performed. These matters, however, lie outside the scope of this thesis, which is
not intended to serve as a how to conducting manual.
Research Methodology
The information contained in this thesis has been gathered from existing
published material on conducting, expressive movements theories, non-verbal
communication, and bodily-kinaesthetic learning, as well as original material
collected from two surveys that I administered. The first survey, which is shown
in full in Appendix A, is of eighty-eight university-level conducting teachers.
The second survey, which is shown in full in Appendix B, is of forty-two
secondary school level conductors based around the Melbourne (Australia) area.
The surveys were needed for this thesis to collect information on the current
level of use of expressive movement activities by the survey respondents, and the
types and methods of non-verbal communication being taught by university
conducting teachers.
The survey questions were directed to gather information on the numbers of
students, their musical backgrounds, and the teaching priorities of the universitylevel conducting teachers. Of the secondary school conductors, I asked about
their family musical background, musical experience, sporting participation, and
experiences learning conducting. Due to the broad exploratory nature of some of
these questions, not all may prove relevant to expressive conducting at the end
point of this thesis.
Responses to the questions on the expressive movement activities, however,

convinced me to focus my investigation on five expressive movement theories,
those of Laban, Dalcroze, Delsarte, Alexander, and Feldenkrais, these theories
being selected not necessarily for being the most popular, but for providing the
strongest frameworks in terms of movement theories and principles that could be
applied to expressive conducting. The mind-body connection, motor skill
development, proprioception, and bodily kinaesthetic learning were not
originally part of the plan for this thesis, but as I researched the movement
theories and non-verbal communication, I became convinced that this was an
important aspect of expressive conducting and an under-researched one. I also
received indications from the surveys that body presence was important for
expressive conductors to develop, but that conducting teachers were unsure how
to go about teaching it.
With regard to selection of participants within the two surveys, all participants
were invited to respond to internet-based surveys, making completion and
collection of the surveys relatively straightforward, and responses completely
anonymous. As the number of university-level conducting positions in Australia
is relatively low, I contacted each of the departments of Australian universities
with music programs and invited conducting teachers to participate. A large
number of conducting teachers (over 2,000) were invited via the College Band
Directors National Association (CBDNA) website bulletin board.
Ninety-two secondary school level conductors around the Melbourne area were
invited to participate mainly through the assistance of the Victorian branches of
the Australian Band and Orchestra Directors Association (ABODA) and the
Australian National Choral Association (ANCA). Of these ninety-two, forty-two
(46%) responded to the survey.
On the basis of my initial research, I developed three main questions:
1.
Are the movement theories of Laban, Dalcroze, Delsarte, Alexander, and
Feldenkrais relevant to the enhancement of expressive conducting?

2.
Can the use of non-verbal communication skills and concepts enhance
expressive conducting?
6
3.
Does the mind-body connection, motor skill development, and
proprioception play a part in the development of bodily-kinaesthetic learning?

Following a review focusing on the literature relating to the five expressive
movement theories and non-verbal communication in the next chapter, Chapter
Three will evaluate the kinaesthetic approach taken by conducting textbooks in
my two surveys. Chapter Four will examine the role of the mind-body
connection, motor skill development, and proprioception in the development of
kinaesthetic learning. I aim to show in these chapters that this development is
vital for expressive conducting at all levels of entering behaviour. Chapter Five
will present five expressive movement theories, their commonalities, and their
potential use in the enhancement of expressive conducting, while Chapter Six
will use non-verbal communication skills to enhance expressive conducting,
including the debate between universal and culturally specific emotional
expression in non-verbal communication, and the use of three gestural modes.
Chapter Seven will present the results and discussion from my two surveys.
7
CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF LITERATURE
This chapter reviews the literature on the expressive movement theories of
Laban, Dalcroze, Delsarte, Alexander, and Feldenkrais, and the literature relating
to non-verbal communication. These theories, the commonalities between them,
their potential use in the enhancement of expressive conducting, and the use of
non-verbal communication skills to enhance expressive conducting are central to
this thesis.
I will reserve discussing the literature on the mind-body connection, motor skill
development, and proprioception until Chapter Four.
Review of the Literature on Expressive Movement Theories
Previous conducting studies have not examined and compared the five selected
expressive movement theories. However, theses by Hecht (1971) and Schreiber
(1980) have compared the theories of Laban, Dalcroze, and Delsarte. Both
focused on movement training for actors rather than conductors, but their
methods of comparison and background research made both valuable
comparative studies for mine.
Hodgson (2001), Newlove and Dalby (2004), and Davies (2006) have
contributed useful general books about Labans theories. Hodgson provided an
insightful evaluation of Labans life and work, Newlove and Dalby provided
practical applications of Labans theories in everyday life and Davies discussed
the ongoing legacy of Labans principles, giving an overview of the development
of Laban Movement Analysis.
Laban wrote numerous books in English or German on dance and movement.
Most useful to conductors is Labans Effort (1974), in which he introduced the
concepts of weight, space, time, and flow, and effort actions3. Also
useful is Choreutics (1966), in which Laban introduced his concept of the
kinesphere, by which he meant the area of space available to the body for
movement. Both The Mastery of Movement (1980) and Modern Educational
These terms will be explained further in Chapter Five.
8
Dance (1980) contain valuable concepts of movement for expressive conducting.
However, the former book is directed to actors and the latter to dance educators.
Numerous studies have applied Laban principles to conducting, including those
by Bartee (1977), Poch (1982), Miller (1988), Holt (1992) , Benge (1996),
Hayslett (1996), Billingham (2001), Yontz (2001), Neidlinger (2003), and
Gambetta (2005). Of these, the most influential for my research was Bartees
thesis, which is a seminal work in the development of a theoretical position on
conducting on the basis of Labans principles. It provided an incentive for others
to make further studies on the application of Laban to conducting. Pochs paper
highlighted the usefulness of Laban for conducting students who do not possess
an innate flair or a natural inclination for conducting. Miller provided evidence
that the use of Labans theories were effective for conductors at all levels of
entering behaviour, Neidlinger advocated Labans method for the promotion of
expressiveness in student conductors, Gambetta found that Laban Movement
Analysis provided a more effective alternative to teaching conductors in the early
stages than beat patterns.
Spector (1990) presented a biography of Dalcroze and an evaluation of his work
and influence. Mead (1996) and Farber and Parker (1987) wrote effective articles
that summarised Dalcrozes training method as well as providing examples of the
types of activities used in eurhythmics classes. Although not intended
specifically to teach expressive conducting, Schnebly-Black and Moore (1997)
provided excellent exercises that can be used by conductors, highlighting the
potential benefits of using Dalcroze as part of conductor training.
Dalcrozes books Eurhythmics, Art and Education (2003) and Rhythm, Music
and Education (2002) consist of essays on Dalcrozes pedagogical ideas. Of the
two, Eurhythmics, Art and Education is the more practical guide for conductors
as it contained two chapters that presented exercises that could assist in the
teaching of expressive conducting. Although Rhythm, Music and Education also
contained exercises that could be used by conductors, the main value of this book
was to show how eurhythmics, solfege, and improvisation, the three elements of
Dalcrozes theory, could work together to enhance musicianship. Another book
by Dalcroze that contained appropriate eurhythmics exercises, as well as
examples of Dalcrozes original conducting patterns, is Rhythmic Movement
(1920). The only studies that specifically apply Dalcrozes theories to conducting
9
are those by Pfrimmer (1926), Dickson (1992), and McCoy (1994). Both
Pfrimmer and Dickson advocated the benefits of eurhythmics on the
development of musicianship for conductors, including the enhancement of the
mind-body connection. McCoy provided the clearest and most effective
examples of the use of Dalcroze in the training of conductors.
Although Delsartes own writing is of interest as a primary source4, it does not
represent a clear statement of his theories, as they are not sequentially presented
and are obviously not intended for publication (Delsarte never published any of
his work). The clearest statement is found in Ted Shawns book Every Little
Movement (1974), which included Delsartes laws and many of his charts, as
well as explanations on how they should be interpreted. Shawn also extensively
reviewed and evaluated the published literature on Delsarte.
The only study that linked Delsartes theories to conducting is by Lyne (1979),
who advocated the use of Delsartes charts by conductors, finding that
conductors who observed Delsartes laws of expression were the most effective
non-verbal communicators.
Gelb (1994) and Jones (1997) provided the clearest general statements on the
Alexander Technique. Gelb clearly discussed the main Alexander concepts, such
as inhibition, end-gaining, and the means-whereby principle5, and he
provided an effective bibliography of Alexander materials. The main significance
of Jones writing is his discussion of the influence of Alexander on major writers
and thinkers of his time, including John Dewey and Aldous Huxley.
Alexanders The Use of the Self (2001) is most useful for conductors, as it
concisely introduces his theories, as well as describing the discovery and
application of the Primary Control.
Other studies that have applied the Alexander Technique to music include
Mayers and Babits (1987), De Alcantara (1997), Knaub (1999), and Conable and
Conable (2000). While Mayers and Babits provided a short, general introduction
to the Alexander Technique, De Alcantara provided a more detailed and practical
resource for musicians. He gives examples of ways in which the Alexander
Delsartes theories appear in the book The Delsarte System of Oratory (1893), which contains a
section entitled The Literary Remains of Franois Delsarte.
5
These Alexander concepts will be discussed in Chapter Five.
10
Technique could benefit all musicians, although he does not mention expressive
conducting specifically. Conable and Conable, along with Knaub, discussed
Body Mapping, which is the name given to a specific application of the
Alexander Technique for musicians. While Conable and Conables book contains
clear and concise anatomical diagrams, Knaubs thesis is more detailed in its
examination of Body Mapping as a teaching and diagnostic tool.
Currently, the only publication to apply either the Alexander Technique or Body
Mapping to conducting is a videocassette by Jordan and Buchanan (2002), which
shows the use of Body Mapping in a conducting class. The video corrects misconceptions about how conductors should use the right hand, thereby alleviating
right hand tension.
To date, there have been no studies applying the Feldenkrais Method to
conducting. Two resources that provide a concise explanation of the Feldenkrais
Method are Frequently asked questions about the method, published by the
Australian Feldenkrais Guild (n.d.), and Awareness Heals by Shafarman (1997).
While the former contained a brief overview of the method, Shafarman provided
a more detailed account of Moshe Feldenkrais, as well as examples of six
Awareness Through Movement lessons that could be used in a conducting
class.
Of Feldenkraiss books, the clearest and most useful for expressive conducting is
Awareness Through Movement (1990) in which Feldenkrais discusses the
development of self-image, an important aspect of Feldenkraiss concept of
awareness, consisting of four components movement, sensation, feeling and
thought. The book also contains twelve practical lessons designed to bring about
change to an individuals self-image.
The only article to discuss the application of the Feldenkrais Method to music is
one by Weinberger (1999). This article gave examples of students at all levels of
entering behaviour learning movement, reinforcing an important argument of this
thesis.
11
Review of the Literature on Non-Verbal Communication
Numerous researchers have linked non-verbal communication to conducting,
including Ostling (1977), Grechesky (1985), Stauch (1986), Julian (1989), Sousa
(1989), Durrant (1994), McClung (1996) and (2005), Ford (2001), and Van
Weelden (2002). Of these studies, Durrant, McClung, and Van Weelden are
significant in the importance they place on the role of non-verbal communication
in the training of conductors, while Grechesky found that conductors who
sharpen their non-verbal communication skills can have a very positive effect on
their groups musical performance.
Ekman and Friesen (1969) provided a major contribution to the understanding of
the categories of non-verbal behaviour, emblems, illustrators, affect displays,
regulators, and adaptors. Conductors can enhance expressive conducting through
an examination of these categories, as well as the coding, particularly kinesics.
Burgoon, Buller, and Woodall (1996), although covering the broadest range of
non-verbal communication, provided the clearest and most concise of the
surveyed books on coding.
The use of facial expression and eye contact is a particularly important aspect of
non-verbal communication of relevance to expressive conducting. Ekman and
Friesen (2003) and Beebe (1974) provided valuable studies on the use of the
facial channel and eye contact. Beebe linked the level of eye contact with
presenter credibility, while Ekman and Friesen described in detail and showed
the facial characteristics of the primary emotions: surprise, fear, disgust, anger,
happiness, and sadness, including various blends of the primary emotions.
As university conducting teachers in my survey acknowledged self observation
and observation of other conductors as important methods for developing nonverbal communication techniques in student conductors, an effective means of
observing and analysing conductors is needed. However, an ongoing problem has
been to find an effective way to observe and record expressive non-verbal
communication behaviours. Researchers who have attempted to do this have
included Leyden (1968), Roshong (1978), Berz (1983), Silkebakken (1988),
Marrin (1996), Marrin Nakra (2000), Brm and Braem (2001), and Kun (2004).
12
Brm and Braems paper is one of the few studies to analyse conductors use of
the left hand. Kuns thesis was the first study to employ motion capture
technology to record conducting movements, although facial gestures were not
measured as part of this study, removing the ability to analyse this area.
Highlighted by the difficulties with observing and recording the expression of
emotions by conductors, learning conducting via the bodily-kinaesthetic domain
is particularly effective for conductors at all levels of entering behaviour due to
the physical and mental connections that conductors can make while developing
their gestural communication technique. In the following chapter, I will discuss
the kinaesthetic approach taken in conducting textbooks used by the university
conducting teachers and practising conductors who responded to my two
surveys.
13
CHAPTER THREE AN EVALUATION OF THE KINAESTHETIC
APPROACH TAKEN BY CONDUCTING TEXTBOOKS IDENTIFIED IN
TWO SURVEYS
Over the past fifty years, textbooks on conducting have provided musicians and
intending conductors with the most accessible information on learning to
conduct. Even in current situations where beginning conductors have access to a
conducting class or a private conducting tutor, the class or individual instructor
will often use one or more conducting textbooks, as shown by my survey of
eighty-eight university conducting teachers across five countries6, where 81%
used conducting textbooks.
The primary aim of this chapter is to evaluate the kinaesthetic approach used by
conducting textbooks identified in the university conducting teacher survey, as
well as in my survey of forty-two experienced secondary school conductors in
Melbourne7, in order to determine which conducting textbooks most effectively
conveyed elements of expressive conducting through the bodily-kinaesthetic
domain, including the use of the left hand, expressive body movement, body
attitude, facial expression and eye contact. I will examine the way each textbook
discusses conducting gestures, the order of concepts covered, and when and how
the use of the left hand is introduced. My review of conducting textbooks is
unique in that it evaluates the kinaesthetic approach taken in the identified
conducting textbooks, therefore accounting for the descriptive content within this
chapter.
The number of available conducting textbooks has grown significantly over the
last fifty years8 as conductors Hermann Scherchen and Max Rudolf discovered
that conducting was both learnable and teachable. Textbooks by Donald
Hunsberger and Roy Ernst (1992), and Robert Demaree and Don Moses (1995),
are aimed at beginner conductors or conductor/educators, particularly those in
university conducting programs, in which case the textbook often serves as a
6
The full survey can be found in Appendix A.

The full survey can be found in Appendix B.
8
There are currently over fifty different conducting textbooks available in Victorian libraries,
according to the National Library of Australia database, located at
http://www.nla.gov.au/librariesaustralia.
7
14
complete unit of study. Other textbooks by Rudolf (1995) and Elizabeth Green
(Green and Gibson 2004) are intended as all-encompassing conducting manuals,
often written by professional conductors passing on their particular method. A
third category of textbook by Frederik Prausnitz (1983) is intended for the
experienced conductor endeavouring to take their conducting skills to the next
level.
Although different textbooks have different emphases, conducting instruction in
most textbooks can be divided into five main areas; beat patterns, left hand use9,
rehearsal techniques, score study, and expressive gestures10. The textbooks from
the surveys by James Jordan (1996), and Robert Garofalo and Frank Battisti
(2005) I found to be successful in covering left hand use and expressive gestures,
as these books made more effective use of the bodily-kinaesthetic domain
through the effective use of breathing, movement awareness, and imagery than
monographs that attempted only linguistic explanations. By the employment of
movement awareness, these textbooks aim to increase the readers comfort with
body positioning and movement as a first step, before introducing the conducting
gestures.
In examining the textbooks themselves, those that focus primarily on the
beginning aspects of conducting are considered first, followed by the manualtype books, aimed at all levels of conductors. In each of these categories, the
textbooks are examined in order, starting with what I have determined to be the
most successful in terms of kinaesthetic instruction, finishing with the least
successful.
Although the use of the left hand is ultimately an expressive gesture, it is separated in this thesis
into its own category given its stand-alone treatment in most conducting textbooks.
10
This is a very broad area, encompassing all aspects of non-verbal communication including
expressive body movement, body attitude, facial expression and eye contact.
15
Conducting Textbooks Selected for Examination
In my survey of eighty-eight university conducting teachers across five countries,
the teachers were asked about the background of their students, and their
teaching methodologies and priorities. They were also asked to list the
conducting textbooks that they use (Table 1):
Author
Battisti/Garofalo
Curtis/Kuehn
Demaree/Moses
Garofalo/Battisti
Green/Gibson
Hunsberger/Ernst
Jordan
Kohut/Grant
Kuijpers
Labuta
Leinsdorf
Long
Maiello
McBeth
McElheran
McMurray
Nowak/Nowak
Phillips
Prausnitz
Rudolf
Saito
Scherchen
Schuller
Table 1
Title
Guide to Score Study
Guide to Successful Instrumental
Conducting
The Complete Conductor
Lead and Inspire
The Modern Conductor
The Art of Conducting
Evoking Sound
Learning to Conduct and
Rehearse
Basic Conducting Techniques
The Composers Advocate
The Conductors Workshop
Conducting, A Hands-On
Approach
Effective Performance of Band
Music
Conducting Technique
Conducting from the Inside Out
(DVD)
Conducting the Music, Not the
Musicians
Basic Techniques of Conducting
Score and Podium
The Grammar of Conducting
The Saito Conducting Method
Handbook of Conducting
The Compleat Conductor
Instrumentalist Conductors
Anthology
Own Textbooks
Own Exercises
Various
None Indicated
Date
1990
1992
Edition
1st
1st
Number
7
1
Percentage
8%
1%
1995
2005
2004
1992
1996
1990
1st
1st
7th
2nd
1st
1st
2
1
37
21
2
1
2%
1%
42%
24%
2%
1%
2004
1981
1977
1996
5th
1st
2nd
1st
1
13
1
1
7
1%
15%
1%
1%
8%
1972
1st
1%
1989
2003
2nd
1st
2
1
2%
1%
2002
1st
6%
1997
1983
1995
1988
1933
1997
1993
1st
1st
3rd
1st
1st
1st
2nd
3
3
4
1
1
4
1
3%
3%
5%
1%
1%
5%
1%
2
8
2
17
2%
9%
2%
19%
Conducting Textbooks Used by University Conducting Teachers
Seventeen respondents (19%) indicated that they used no conducting textbooks.

Of those remaining, thirty-seven used one book only (52%), nineteen used two
books (27%), and fifteen (21%) used three or more books (one respondent used
seven conducting textbooks). The most popular conducting textbook used was
The Modern Conductor by Elizabeth Green, used by thirty-seven respondents
(42%). The second most popular textbook mentioned was The Art of Conducting
by Donald Hunsberger and Roy Ernst (24%). None of the respondents who used
16
their own textbooks used other textbooks, while 75% of respondents who used
their own exercises used other textbooks.
In my survey of forty-two experienced secondary school conductors in
Melbourne, the conductors were asked to comment on their own backgrounds
and experiences, and any difficulties they had with learning to conduct. They
were also asked to list the conducting textbooks that they had used (Table 2):
Author
Battisti/Garofalo
Berlioz
Curtis/Kuehn
Green
Green/Gibson
Hunsberger/Ernst
Jordan
Labuta
Lisk
Maiello
McBeth
Miles (ed.)
Nowak/Nowak
Rudolf
Saito
Table 2
Title
Guide to Score Study
The Art of the Conductor
Guide to Successful Instrumental
Conducting
The Conductors Score
The Modern Conductor
Evoking Sound
Basic Conducting Techniques
Alternative Rehearsal Techniques
Conducting, A Hands-On
Approach
Effective Performance of Band
Music
Teaching Music Through
Performance Series
Conducting the Music, Not the
Musicians
The Grammar of Conducting
The Saito Conducting Method
ABODA Conducting Course
Notes
None Indicated
Date
1990
1992
Edition
1st
1st
Number
2
1
1
Percentage
5%
2%
2%
1985
2004
1992
1996
2004
1987
1996
2nd
7th
2nd
1st
5th
1st
1st
1
10
1
1
1
4
2
2%
24%
2%
2%
2%
10%
5%
1972
1st
2%
Var.
1st
2%
2002
1st
5%
1995
1988
3rd
1st
1
1
2
2%
2%
5%
22
52%
Conducting Textbooks Used by Experienced Melbourne

Secondary School Conductors
Twenty-two respondents indicated that they used no conducting textbooks. Of

those remaining, fifteen used one book only (36%), three used two books (7%),
and two (5%) used four or more books (one respondent used six conducting
textbooks). The most common conducting textbook used was The Modern
Conductor by Elizabeth Green, used by ten respondents (24%). No other
textbooks came close to this result. The second most popular textbook mentioned
(Alternative Rehearsal Techniques by Ed Lisk, used by 10% of respondents) is
not a true conducting textbook, as it only covers rehearsal techniques.
In selecting the conducting textbooks for this review, I used the published
textbooks identified in the two surveys as my guide as to what people were
using. Out of these textbooks, I only focused on those that contained a substantial
section on conducting gestures, rejecting identified textbooks that focused solely
17
on repertoire (Teaching Music Through Performance series), rehearsal
techniques (Alternative Rehearsal Techniques and Effective Performance of
Band Music), score study (The Conductors Score and Guide to Score Study),
and personal theories on the art of conducting (Berlioz The Art of the
Conductor, Leinsdorfs The Composers Advocate and Schullers The Compleat
Conductor). This left eighteen textbooks and one DVD from the surveys, with
twelve textbooks aimed at beginner conductors or conductor/educators, five
complete conducting manuals, one DVD, and one textbook aimed at advanced
conductors11. Following my examination of the kinaesthetic approach taken by
these materials, I further rejected three textbooks aimed at beginner conductors
or conductor/educators by Phillips (1997), Labuta (2004), and Long (1977); three
complete conducting manuals by Saito (1988), Scherchen (1933), and McElheran
(1989); and the textbook aimed at advanced conductors by Prausnitz, as all being
kinaesthetically ineffective, due to the lack of kinaesthetic imagery employed,
and the over reliance on written instructions.
I took the liberty of adding two other textbooks that were not identified in the
surveys; The Art of Conducting Technique by Harold Farberman (1997), and
Choral Conducting: Philosophy and Practice by Colin Durrant (2003), as I
believe that these textbooks contribute a kinaesthetic approach to the teaching of
conducting gesture, and deserve to be more widely known.
As part of my survey of university conducting teachers, I asked them to rank in
order of importance eight methods that may be used by their students to develop
conducting expressivity (Table 3):
11
I was subsequently forced to reject the elusive textbook The Art of Conducting by Pierre
Kuijpers, as I was unable to locate a copy. As only one person out of both surveys identified this
textbook, I saw the overall effects of its omission as minimal.
18
Practice away from Ensemble

Observation of Other Conductors
Self Observation (Mirror, Video)
Discussion with Teachers/Other Students
Conducting Class/Course/Workshop
Conducting Textbook
Expressive Movement Activity
Just Improved Over Time
None of These
Table 3
Rank Order
3
2
1
5
4
7
6
8
9
Number of 1st Pref

11
13
28
4
23
2
7
1
0
Percentage
13%
15%
32%
5%
26%
2%
8%
1%
Rank Order of Importance of Methods to Assist the Development

of Conducting Expressivity
As can be seen from this table, only 2% of conducting teachers rated textbooks
as the main method for assisting the development of conducting expressivity. As
conducting teachers did not rate conducting textbooks highly as a method for
developing conducting expressivity, I asked experienced Melbourne secondary
school conductors in another survey to rank the methods that had assisted them
in the development of left hand use (Table 4) and expressive gestures (Table 5)
to find out whether the secondary school conductors had found conducting
textbooks any more helpful. These questions were not asked of the university
conducting teachers, as in their survey, I was primarily focssed on their teaching
methodology and student background.
Discussion with Mentor/Teacher
Conducting Textbook
None of These
Table 4
Rank Order
4
1
3
5
2
7
6
8
Number of 1st Pref.

8
10
6
2
13
0
1
1
Percentage
19%
24%
14%
5%
31%
2%
2%

of Left Hand Use (Survey of Experienced Secondary School
Conductors in Melbourne)
The overall rank order to assist the development of the left hand differed from
the number of first preferences among respondents, as some methods ranked
higher on second and third preferences than others. Although observation of
other conductors received a higher rank order than conducting classes, courses or
workshops, more respondents gave conducting classes, courses and workshops
their first preference (thirteen compared to ten for observation of other
conductors). Other discrepancies between the overall rank order and the number
19
of first preferences occurred in self-observation (ranked third, but six first
preferences) and practice away from the ensemble (ranked fourth, but eight first
preferences). Conducting textbooks were down in the list of assistants important
to the development of the left hand (ranked seventh, only one first preference).
Practise away from Ensemble
Conducting Textbook
None of These
Table 5
Rank Order
5
1
2
3
4
7
6
8
Number of 1st Pref.

3
17
9
3
6
0
2
2
Percentage
7%
40%
21%
7%
14%
5%
5%

of Expressive Gestures (Survey of Experienced Secondary School
Conductors in Melbourne)
The observation of other conductors was clearly the most popular method for
developing expressive gestures among the respondents, both in terms of overall
rank order and number of first preferences (40%). Self-observation was a clear
second choice, receiving its highest ranking as a method for expressive gestures.
Nine respondents (21%) chose self-observation via a mirror or video as their first
preference. Discussion with a mentor or teacher was ranked marginally higher
(third) than conducting classes, courses or workshops (fourth), although classes
received twice as many first preferences (six 14%) as discussion (three 7%).
Few respondents believed that expressive gestures would just improve over time.
This method was ranked sixth, with only two respondents (5%) allocating it a
first preference. Conducting textbooks received even less support, ranking
seventh in order, and receiving no first preferences from respondents. The
highest preference conducting textbooks received for expressive gestures was
third preference from two respondents.
The implications from the survey of experienced Melbourne secondary school
conductors are that either they did not find conducting textbooks of much value,
with less than 50% admitting to using them, or they were ignorant of the
conducting textbooks available. The survey also indicated that experienced
Melbourne secondary school conductors preferred practical forms of training,
including specific conducting courses (55% of respondents had attended them),
or learning through observation of a colleague or mentor (64% or respondents).
20
Nevertheless, 81% of university conducting teachers continue to use conducting
textbooks, indicating that university conducting teachers continue to value
conducting textbooks, if not for the development of conducting expressivity, then
possibly for the way the textbooks model a complete method of conducting
instruction than can easily be implemented by university conducting teachers, as
in textbooks by Labuta (2004), Hunsberger and Ernst (1992), and Phillips (1997),
which all begin with beat pattern instruction. As over half the textbooks are
intended for use with beginner conductors or conductor/educators, often in
classes taken by these university conducting teachers, this is the area first
examined.
An Evaluation of the Kinaesthetic Approach taken by Conducting Textbooks
Aimed at Beginner Conductors or Conductor/Educators
In this section, I will examine the way each textbook discusses conducting
gestures, the order of concepts covered, and when and how the use of the left
hand is introduced.
Two university conducting teachers and one experienced Melbourne secondary
school conductor identified James Jordans Evoking Sound (1996)(1st edition) in
the surveys. Intended specifically for the choral conductor, Jordan articulates his
approach to the teaching of conducting early in the book, emphasising the
important relationship between gesture and sound, feeling that this area has been
ignored by mainstream conducting pedagogy. In Jordans opinion, it is easier
instead to write about standard conducting technique, so this is what the majority
of books on conducting do. He suggests that readers refer to other books for
more technical information on conducting, while acknowledging the importance
of technique (Jordan 1996:xiii). Jordan is a strong advocate for conducting
students seeking an understanding of the body and movement, his book being the
only one to refer to both Laban12 and Alexander13.
12
The work of the Hungarian-born movement theorist Rudolf Laban will be addressed in Chapter
Five.
13
The work of F.M. Alexander, who pioneered theories of efficient body use, is discussed in
Chapter Five.
21
This is the most kinaesthetically-focused textbook available. The first part,
entitled Building a Relationship of Gesture to Sound, begins with the concept
of alignment, introducing the Alexander Technique as a method of creating inner
space within the body for the breath. Jordan justifies his use of the Alexander
Technique in the teaching of conducting:
Much of what we do as conductors is highly influenced by our body attitude. As
conductors, our bodies must reflect what is necessary to produce a healthy, open, and
free vocal sound, regardless of the level of the singers with which we work. Many new
and experienced conductors underestimate the impact that correct alignment can have
upon the ensemble that they conduct and the effects that poor and misalignment have
upon their own performance as conductors (Jordan 1996:12).
Jordan therefore uses the Alexander Technique as a way to increase body

awareness in conducting, through having student conductors monitor their body
alignment as an influencing factor in both their own and their ensembles
performance.
From here, Jordan examines the movement potential of conductors via the work
of Laban, including an introduction to the effort actions14 and exploratory
exercises using efforts in combination15, including practical examples of the
effort actions for conductors to practise, such as tracing a picture with a pencil
for a floating gesture, and reaching to shake hands for a gliding gesture (Jordan
1996:33-41). In his thesis on using the principle of Laban Movement Analysis to
create a fresh approach to conducting gesture, Charles Gambetta describes
Jordans book as: An important addition to conducting literature because of his
decision to include Labans effort descriptions as part of his recommended
methodology (Gambetta 2005:15).
The author consistently emphasises the importance of the breath in the art of
conducting in the early stages of the book:
Breath is the core of all conducting gesture, all music making. The breath of the
conductor and the breathing of the choir establishes the most important ingredient for
spontaneous music making. The breath of the conductor establishes tempo, colour, and
affect of the piece. Remarkably, breath also allows the conductor to hear all of the
elements of the score! There is a direct relationship between the ability to breathe and
the ability to hear (Jordan 1996:69).
Jordans correct insistence on the importance of breathing for conductors is

highly significant, as I have found through my experience of teaching conducting
14
Labans eight effort actions, punch, slash, press, wring, float, glide, dab, and flick, are
combinations of weight, space, and time. The effort actions are examined in Chapter Five.
15
The efforts in combination are elements of weight, space, time, and flow.
22
that breathing is the most kinaesthetically important aspect of conducting
gesture.
Jordan teaches the use of both arms in conducting from the very beginning,
advising mirroring the right and left arm movements. He explains that this is
done so that conducting students, from the beginning of their study, become
accustomed to breathing with and for the choir with a balanced gesture that will,
in turn, encourage a deep-seated breath from the choir (Jordan 1996:80). The
linking of breathing to gesture, which Jordan employs throughout the book, is in
my opinion, also a particularly effective way to teach beginner conductors to
become more comfortable with their conducting gestures.
Beat patterns are not discussed until midway through Chapter Eight, as in
Jordans opinion, correct I believe, the study of conducting has become too
pattern focused:
With the advent of texts on conducting, it seemed helpful to diagram not only beat
locations, but to draw the path of the hand between those beat locations. While this
seems like a helpful idea, the advent of such pattern maps made conductors
inadvertently rely on rigid patterns that were not able to spontaneously reflect the
realities of music. More serious, however, conducting pedagogy and the learning of
conducting became a visual, rather than an aural, art. Conducting study became more
preoccupied with the correct pattern, rather than teaching students to listen and respond
to their instincts (Jordan 1996:86).
Jordans comments indicate that in his opinion, conducting has become more
mechanical than kinaesthetic.
Instead of using the terms preparation or preparatory beat, Jordan calls this
gesture the breath impulse (Jordan 1996:93). A departure from other books is
that Jordan appears to ask for a double gesture as a breath impulse prior to the
release of sound, which could be confusing for ensembles not trained to
recognise this.
In teaching dynamics, he effectively links the gesture with the breath, stating: It
is the intensity of the breath and its corresponding gesture that imparts the
character of the dynamic to the singer. Dynamics are not merely a question of
volume; they are changes of intensity borne out of the breath (Jordan 1996:103).
The lack of discussion on baton technique is understandable in a choral
conducting book as many choral conductors choose not to conduct with a baton,
23
believing that the shape of the conducting hand affects the sound produced by the
choir16.
Jordans textbook is a must for choral conductors, but should be considered by
all conductors, due to its kinaesthetic approach throughout.
The instrumental conducting textbook that comes closest to Jordans in its
kinaesthetic approach is Lead and Inspire (2005)(1st edition) by Robert Garofalo
and Frank Battisti, used in the surveys by one university conducting teacher.
This book is one of the most recently written conducting textbooks, and it is
designed to teach conductors the knowledge and skills needed to inspire
expressive musical performances. Garofalo and Battisti correctly claim that: no
other conducting book provides as comprehensive a taxonomy of conducting
skills and gestures (Garofalo and Battisti 2005:v). It is a companion book to the
earlier written Guide to Score Study for the Wind Band Conductor (Battisti and
Garofalo 1990), which was used by seven university conducting teachers and two
experienced Melbourne secondary school conductors in the surveys.
The book is divided in three main parts, part 1 covering The Craft of Podium
Conducting, including parameters of body and space, characteristics of
conducting motion, body language, and facial expressions. The authors suggest
that this section could be used as a conducting class textbook, stressing that the
chapters need not be introduced sequentially, but as determined by the individual
instructor. Part 2 contains music for class conducting and performance, and is
made up of flexibly orchestrated full scores. Instrumental parts can be obtained
from the publisher via their website (www.whirlwind-music.com). Part 3
provides students with opportunities to deal with numerous conducting
challenges using examples from the wind band and orchestra repertoire.
This textbook employs more kinaesthetic learning strategies than any other
instrumental conducting method, such as excellent movement and spatial
exercises, including warm-up stretching and joint sensitivity exercises, which
relate to the size of conducting gestures using conducting frames17. These
16
An example of this occurs in Colin Durrants book Choral Conducting: Philosophy and
Practice in which Durrant describes a gesture in which the palm is lifted as if gently pulling a
puppet string: The importance of this particular gesture is that the raising of the inside of the
palm reflects the raising of the soft palate, which is situated inside the mouth at the rear, which in
turn will assist with tuning certain musical phrases or notes (Durrant 2003:147).
17
Conducting frames are rectangular spaces into which conducting gestures fit, the size of which
are determined by dynamics; the louder the dynamic, the larger the frame.
24
exercises are ideal preparation for correctly employing the shoulder, elbow, wrist
and finger joints in the effective communication of dynamics, as the smaller
joints encourage smaller movements, leading to softer dynamics. The authors
teach four planes of conducting height, the head, shoulders, chest, and waist,
which are used to indicate expressive volume, to communicate with players
according to where they sit, and show the tessitura or contours of the music (Fig.
1)18. Garofalo and Battisti refer to the chest as the power centre of conducting,
the location allowing the conductors gestures to be visible to musicians, but also
allowing the conductors face and eyes to be seen clearly, which the authors
emphasise are enormously important in conveying musical information19.
Fig. 1
Four Planes of Conducting

(Garofalo and Battisti 2005:11)
They devote the entire third chapter to additional movement exercises linking
movement and musical expression, stating that: Conducting motion and musical
expression are inextricably entwined. There is a symbiotic relationship
between a conductors movements and the sounds he or she hopes to evoke from
the ensemble (Garofalo and Battisti 2005:16). Garofalo and Battisti identify four
characteristics of conducting motion: direction, design, velocity, and weight.
They refer to Labans different terminology (weight, space, time, flow) for the
same characteristics, and introduce some effective exercises to allow conductors
to kinaesthetically experience these qualities of conducting motion.
The left hand is included in these early conducting exercises, allowing student
conductors to learn balanced, focused gestures. The authors also present a
comprehensive chapter on left hand gestures, including a description and
evaluation of twenty different left hand signals and their potential usage in
conducting (Garofalo and Battisti 2005:61-64), including diagrams and
photographs. No other conducting textbook presents as thorough an analysis of
18
The term plateau is probably more accurate to describe these four conducting heights, so as
not to confuse students with the three planes of movement, vertical, horizontal, and sagittal
(forward and back), advocated by Laban, and described in more detail in Chapter Five.
19
The concept of the power centre tends to be used more in choral conducting than in
instrumental conducting, although I would argue that the chest is too high for the power centre in
choral conducting, as the waist area would promote better breath support.
25
left hand gestures, enabling the left hand to be portrayed as a learnable element
of conducting.
Baton use and grip is early and in a straightforward manner, with the following
clear instruction: Place the base of the baton handle (the point near the shaft)
between the thumb and first joint of the index finger then gently wrap the other
three fingers around the handle in a natural and comfortable way (Garofalo and
Battisti 2005:4). A clear diagram also supports these instructions (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2
Baton Use and Grip (Garofalo and Battisti 2005:4)
Dynamic expression, which was initially introduced in the opening exercises, is

re-visited in Chapter Seven, where the authors teach four clear ways to control
dynamics, often in combination: altering the size of the conducting frame, using
sagittal20 motion on the podium (forward is louder, backward is softer), using the
left hand, and employing facial expressions and body language (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3 Dynamic Cone, Showing Possible Alterations in Size of Beat and Sagittal
Motion (Garofalo and Battisti 2005:55)
Preparatory and release gestures are taught in Chapter Six, the authors clearly
outlining the necessary elements that an effective preparatory gesture must
20
Forward and backward
26
convey (tempo, dynamics and character) (Garofalo and Battisti 2005:50).
Although diagrams are provided for release gestures, a diagram would have been
helpful and appropriate for the introduction of preparatory gestures as well.
This textbook offers excellent kinaesthetic instruction for conductors at all levels,
but is particularly non-threatening for beginner conductors. Moreover, there is a
chapter on the non-verbal elements of conducting, which is an area that most
books avoid, seemingly unable to put this area into words, but is a most
important aspect of expressive conducting that I will develop further in Chapter
Six.
Although published nine years earlier than the Garofalo and Battisti textbook,
another instrumental conducting textbook with an excellent kinaesthetic
approach is Anthony Maiellos Conducting A Hands-On Approach (1996)(1st
edition), used by seven university conducting teachers and two experienced
Melbourne secondary school conductors from the surveys.
Maiellos textbook has a great deal to offer from a kinaesthetic standpoint,
certainly in the early stages of the book, effectively linking movement to
conducting communication in the introduction:
The study of acting, dance and mime will broaden the horizons of sensitivity in any
human being as they are all linked together in communicating a message. These three art
forms should be considered essential for any conductor wishing to develop and improve
technique. Conducting technique requires graceful movements of the body as used in
dance, combined facial and physical gestures as used in acting, and physical
presentations without speaking as used in mime (Maiello 1996a:7).
Unlike books on conducting by Hunsberger and Ernst, Phillips, and Labuta,

Maiello does not begin with teaching the beat patterns, emphasising instead the
ability to communicate in silence through gesture. Maiello places great
importance on the vertical and horizontal planes, and discusses an
extended/forward intensity plane, much along the lines of Laban21. Although
Maiello uses concepts similar to Laban, there is no indication that Laban was an
inspiration, unlike the textbooks by Jordan and Garofalo and Battisti, which
specifically refer to Laban. Instead it appears that Maiellos exercises were
independently developed, examples of which are Maiellos opening spatially
oriented exercises, designed to create an awareness of space, time and flow
(again, Laban concepts), although Maiello emphasises the importance of travel,
21
As already stated, Laban refers to the extended/forward intensity plane as the sagittal plane.
27
which he defines as the movement of the baton/hands between beats (Maiello
1996a:12). Here Maiellos is one of the only textbooks to teach the importance of
the space between the beats at an early stage of conducting instruction. This is
significant because, as will be discussed in Chapter Six, the space between the
beats is one of the important characteristics of expressive conducting.
Maiello also rightly introduces the left hand at a much earlier stage than most
other textbooks, and has the left hand participate in the special exercises. His
approach is an excellent way to teach sensitivity and independence in the left
hand from the earliest stage, rather than tackling this later on.
Maiello also teaches preparatory and release gestures prior to the introduction of
beat patterns. He emphasises the importance of breathing as a simultaneous part
of the process of delivery of the preparatory gesture, as does Jordan. When
Maiello does introduce the patterns, he takes the approach of introducing each
beat at a time. He begins with a 1 pattern in order to get conductors to simply
feel the delivery of a consistent, steady pulse, complete with practice exercises.
Apart from providing a printed score that is flexible enough to be performed by
any combination of instruments, Maiellos book comes complete with a CD
containing recordings of every example in the book, plus an optional extra video.
Subsequent patterns of 2, 3, and 4 are gradually introduced. He identifies a
problem that many conductors have with the 4 pattern, when the second beat
travels too close to the body, introducing a spatial exercise in front of a wall
maintaining the baton tip one inch from the wall through the whole pattern as an
effective solution to this problem. He teaches dynamics with clear and effective
imagery, relating the dynamic level to the size of the gestures.
Not all of the text is as clear and easy-to-use as the opening, as his chapter on
The Anacrusis and Fractional Pick-ups is presented in a confusing manner, with
too many options given to deliver effective preparatory beats, rather than
allowing readers to achieve comfort with developing skills one at a time, and his
chapter on subdivision appears to be a bit rushed (although this becomes a little
clearer when observed on the companion video, which needs to be purchased
separately! (Maiello 1996b)) Nevertheless, the early stages of the book live up to
the hands-on billing of the title, making this textbook an effective resource.
Like Maiello, the early chapters of Daniel Kohut and Joe Grants Learning to
Conduct and Rehearse (1990)(1st edition) are kinaesthetically effective, due to
28
effective range of motion exercises. One university conducting teacher in the
survey used this textbook. Kohut and Grant are respectively a successful
university instrumental music educator and a successful university choral music
educator. This book was found to be highly usable for beginner conductors by
John Hylton of the University of Missouri, who recommended it as clearly
written and informative (Hylton 1991:90).
Both Kohut and Grant emphasise at the very outset a slow, patient process of
teaching skills one at a time, such as range of motion, ready position, preparatory
gestures, downbeats, and releasing gestures, and not proceeding until each skill is
learned thoroughly, based on repetition.
Following an introduction to the role and function of the conductor, the authors
begin with an excellent series of exercises, exploring range of motion and planes
of motion at conducting pivot points, which are the natural pivot points of the
shoulder, elbow, wrist, hand, and fingers. Kohut and Grant suggest performing
the exercises with eyes closed to heighten the kinaesthetic sense, stating:
In the same way an actor or a mime explores the use of facial expressions, body posture,
and gesture, conductors should investigate the range of motions possible at each pivot
point. Isolate your sense of feeling and kinaesthetic awareness and focus on each of the
pivot points, one at a time (Kohut and Grant 1990:3-4).
These range of motion exercises are extremely worthwhile for conductors to

explore their own body use and increase kinaesthetic sensitivity.
In teaching the preparatory and downbeat motions, they make it clear that the
textbook is designed for use in conjunction with a conducting instructor, creating
opportunities for observation and imitation. Imagery is regularly used as a means
of creating effective kinaesthetic connections, the authors suggesting moving
hands away from a warm stove to encourage the correct upward arm movement
for the preparatory motion, for example. They also suggest that conductors think
of throwing a ball toward the floor for the downbeat (Kohut and Grant 1990:9).
This use of imagery is applauded by conducting teacher Dale Lonis who states:
The authors realise the difficulty of presenting skills through verbal language
and therefore attempt to avoid using step-by-step procedural language as much as
possible (Lonis 1993:39).
All gestures learned in the first chapter involve both the left and right hands.
Most of the standard conducting gestures introduced in Chapter Two are for the
right hand only, the left hand being further discussed at the end of the chapter.
All beat patterns are introduced at this point, initially without the use of a baton.
29
A number of alternative patterns are presented, with the authors discussing the
strengths and weaknesses of each.
According to the authors, there is no simple solution to the challenge of
coordinating right and left hands (Kohut and Grant 1990:39) except through
slow, repetitive practice, which is in contrast with the early focus on kinaesthetic
learning. A poor example is given when they introduce cueing, where they state:
In executing the preparatory gesture and downbeat for the left hand cue, think of
pointing and shooting a pistol (Kohut and Grant 1990:40-41). This particular
example lacks sensitivity to the different styles of cueing available to the
conductor. The authors attempt to clarify their explanation in the following
chapter, in which they write: this is appropriate mainly for marcato style music
performed at a soft dynamic (Kohut and Grant 1990:44), but it is to be
wondered why they didnt provide this clarification in the first place. Lonis also
criticises the textbook for lacking flow within sections, suggesting that some reorganisation would strengthen its effectiveness (Lonis 1993:40).
The book is not very well presented, with small print and very poor quality
photographs affecting the clarity of the examples of holding the baton.
Nevertheless, this is a good starting textbook for teaching beginner conductors,
due to the kinaesthetic approach initially taken.
In contrast to previously discussed textbooks, Jerry and Henry Nowaks
Conducting the Music, Not the Musicians (2002)(1st edition) focuses on teaching
the expressive aspects of performing, which the Nowak brothers claim has long
been largely ignored in most conducting, instrumental and vocal pedagogical
texts (Nowak and Nowak 2002:xiii). The primary philosophy of the Nowak
brothers with regard to conducting teaching is that the gestures used are an
expression of the conductors internal imagery of the music, which stimulates
body movements. Paraphrasing the authors, if this internal imagery is allowed to
dominate physical gestures, then understanding of the music will be expressed in
the conductors movements (Nowak and Nowak 2002:1). Intended for use both
by conducting classes, and by individuals interested in the study of conducting,
this textbook was used by five university conducting teachers and two
experienced Melbourne secondary school conductors from the surveys.
Nowak and Nowak prefer to teach new concepts along with the supplied musical
examples, giving plenty of opportunities to apply the new concepts, although the
30
shortage of pictures and reliance on descriptive language (save for a few
diagrams in the early pages of the book) means that student conductors lack a
physical model of how the skill should look, reducing kinaesthetic effectiveness,
unlike the numerous diagrams and photographs used by Garofalo and Battisti in
Lead and Inspire. Release gestures and dynamics, while adequately explained,
would benefit from clarifying early diagrams. The use of the baton is introduced
early and effectively and does include a diagram. Another excellent feature is an
early diagram and description of the left hand rest position, frequently neglected
in textbooks (Fig. 4):
Fig. 4
Diagram of the Left Hand Rest Position

(Nowak and Nowak 2002:5)
Throughout the textbook, the method of describing the delivery of the

preparatory gesture is confusing, in that although breathing is admirably
encouraged throughout, the breath and the preparatory motion seem
disconnected, the authors stating: Breathe as though you were going to play or
sing before the preparation gesture (Nowak and Nowak 2002:14). Explanations
in textbooks by Jordan and Maiello emphasise the connection between breathing
and the preparatory gesture. Disconnecting the two can result in rigid, stiff
preparatory gestures, a drawback in an otherwise superbly musical textbook.
While the Nowak brothers emphasise phrasing and expression in their textbook,
The Complete Conductor (1995)(1st edition) by Robert Demaree and Don Moses,
used by two university conducting teachers in the surveys, is a useful addition to
the conductors library due to informative chapters on style, interpretation and
specific performance techniques. The major goal of the book is to equip the
conductor with the most comprehensive knowledge base possible. By
comparison, the information and instruction on the physical conducting gestures
31
is less thorough. Less than a quarter of the book is spent on the physical
technique of conducting.
This textbook is intended for use by a choral or instrumental conducting class as
part of a structured course. According to the authors, the movements within the
complex gestures made by the conductor can be isolated, examined, studied, and
adjusted one by one. Efficiency and effectiveness can be enhanced by work on
the detailed physical aspects of this discipline (Demaree and Moses 1995:2).
Although this is true to a point, I believe efficiency and effectiveness is only
achieved if the detailed physical aspects are integrated, allowing conducting
students to develop a kinaesthetic connection to the gestures.
In the second chapter, The Physical Basis, the authors correctly state the
importance of good posture for conductors:
For conductors, good posture is not just a goal in itself. The purpose behind every
physical act is effective and efficient communication, and anything that detracts from
clear and accurate communication is a fault. A great conductor is (among many other
things) a fine actor. You must use your whole body not just your face and eyes to
establish a mood and convey meaning (Demaree and Moses 1995:13-14).
Demaree and Moses discussion of the importance of the total body use of
conductors emphasises the importance of the body in non-verbal communication,
which will be discussed in Chapter Six. Suggestions on how to teach the baton
grip, however, are needlessly complicated and overly wordy, particularly in
comparison with the earlier stated method of Garofalo and Battisti:
Your fingers should be curled slightly around the handle, the stick held lightly between
the thumb and either the middle or the index finger; in any case, the index finger should
rest on one side or the other (for if you keep it on top of the baton it will restrict the
freedom of the stick). The base of the handle probably should touch (but not press
against) the palm of the hand. The point of the baton should aim straight out from the
hand and should not project at an angle (slightly to the left, for example). The thrust of
the arm and the stick together should be slightly upward (Demaree and Moses 1995:19).
The suggestion that the point of the baton should be aimed straight out from the
hand causes unnatural tension in the upper arm and wrist and goes against
anatomical principles advocated by movement therapist Blandine CalaisGermain, who found that such a wrist position causes improper alignment
between two bones in the arm, the ulna and the radius (Fig. 5).
A preferred grip allows the baton a small amount of a point towards the left, as
shown in the earlier diagram of Garofalo and Battisti (see Fig. 2).
32
Fig. 5
Structure of the Upper Arm, Showing the Alignment of the

Radius and the Ulna (Calais-Germain 1993:144)
The use of conducting frames to teach different dynamics is well introduced,

allowing students to easily equate the size of gestures to the resulting dynamics,
in a manner similar to that employed by Garofalo and Battisti. As the dynamic
level gets softer, so the size of the selected frame reduces, which is shown by an
effective diagram (Fig. 6):
33
Fig. 6
Altering Size of the Conducting to Teach Dynamics

(Demaree and Moses 1995:24)
The explanation of the preparatory gesture and the various beat patterns are
introduced early and clearly explained. The release gesture is also clearly
explained but not introduced until Chapter Six. A lot of right hand instruction is
covered before the proper introduction of any left hand gestures, which does not
occur until Chapter Seven (beginning at page 82). Demaree and Moses entire
approach revolves around the internalisation of the right hand gestures so that
they can be delivered without conscious effort.
In the meantime however, there is a perception created that using the left hand is
enormously difficult, which does not explain why the left hand instruction is left
so long:
The left hand is a bte noire, a formidable and troublesome problem for many
inexperienced conductors. You might assume that is because most people are righthanded, but that really has nothing to do with the matter. Even conductors who are
themselves left-handed find difficulty here, for skill with the other hand is not
primarily a question of dexterity; rather, you must develop the independence of your left
hand and a clear concept of that hands unique function within your conducting
technique (Demaree and Moses 1995:82).
A far more effective kinaesthetic teaching approach to left hand instruction is

employed by the textbooks by Jordan, Garofalo and Battisti, and Maiello to
involve the left hand right at the beginning.
Although there is some excellent background stylistic material for developing
conductors, this book presents difficulties for the teaching of beginner
conductors attempting to develop greater kinaesthetic awareness, caused by the
over-use of language, the lack of imagery, and the late introduction of the left
hand.
Like the textbook by Kohut and Grant, A Guide to Successful Instrumental
Conducting (1992)(1st edition) by Larry Curtis and David Kuehn, used by one
34
university conducting teacher and one experienced Melbourne secondary school
conductor from the surveys, is intended for the beginning university conducting
class. While it contains good ideas, such as flexibility exercises, the important
concepts of release and left hand gestures are taught in rather scant detail. Curtis
and Kuehns textbook begins with three pages of errata hardly a promising
introduction to a conducting method. The authors recommend the use of
conducting exercises that can be used by small groups of conducting students,
claiming that the total education required of a conductor should include practical
conducting of musical examples. The book uses specially composed conducting
etudes, which can be used by almost any combination and number of wind and
string instruments (Curtis and Kuehn 1992:xi).
The first chapter outlines a very brief history of conducting, presented mainly to
show how the non-verbal communication aspect of conducting has developed.
The second chapter entitled Basic Techniques of Conducting, begins by
teaching some very good flexibility exercises, which are particularly effective in
that they involve not only the whole body, but also work both right and left hands
equally, much along the same lines as Maiellos exercises, which are even more
effective. Although both hands tend to be operating at the same time and at the
same speed in Curtis and Kuehns exercises, left hand independence is
encouraged through the left hand travelling in a different direction to the right, or
on a different plane.
Most conducting books teach a palm down position for the right hand when
conducting. Some other conducting teachers instead favour the Nikisch grip22,
which places the right thumb on top. This textbook is unique in suggesting a
midway position between the two, with the justification that in this way, the
wrist can move up and down and side to side with equal ease (Curtis and Kuehn
1992:14). This method is used in an effective way to introduce the baton grip.
The teaching of dynamics is well covered by Curtis and Kuehn, with clear and
effective diagrams linking the overall size of conducting gestures to dynamic
range. The introduction of preparatory and cut-off gestures, however, is not done
in a clear manner, with release gestures in particular being needlessly
complicated in the early stages, differentiating between breath releases, releases
into rests, and caesura releases while still in the relatively early stages of
22
Named after the Hungarian-born conductor, Arthur Nikisch, who popularised this baton grip.
35
conducting instruction and before the conducting student can achieve comfort
with the various types of release (Curtis and Kuehn 1992:32-36).
Although initial warm-up exercises, such as basic arm and wrist movements,
holding the baton and the conducting frame are good, discussion of left hand
technique, including the importance of independence of hands, relaxed wrist and
finger position (albeit with clear photographs), and an effective at rest position,
is limited, and just when some helpful assistance is anticipated, Curtis and Kuehn
state: Gestures utilising the left hand will be presented in the (following) etudes
in response to specific musical needs and problems (Curtis and Kuehn 1992:21).
Over seventy pages follow before the etudes are reached towards the end of the
book. At this stage, it is true, there is some brief reference to the left hand, but
without the assistance of any diagrams or photographs, and without any real
teaching of left hand use, the authors simply stating: The left hand may be
brought into action on accents, thus leaving the baton simply to continue pulse. If
the left hand is used, it must prepare the accent on the preceding half pulse
(Curtis and Kuehn 1992:93).
One of the major problems with using this book in the teaching of conductors is
that important concepts of the left hand and cueing are briefly mentioned in the
early sections and left to be more fully covered in the etudes. The fact that these
skills and techniques are mainly taught in the etudes makes it difficult for
beginner conductors to develop confidence and kinaesthetic awareness before
they are swamped with a range of conducting problems, reducing the
effectiveness of this book.
In a similar manner to the Curtis and Kuehn textbook, The Art of Conducting
(1992)(2nd edition) by Donald Hunsberger and Roy Ernst is intended for use in
university level conducting classes, particularly in the training of
educator/conductors, the authors suggesting that the musical excerpts for the
earlier chapters be sung and conducted by the class in unison with the instructor.
This enables the class to learn and practise each technique before individual
students conduct an efficient procedure that makes it possible for the class to
learn the fundamentals of technique very quickly (Hunsberger and Ernst
1992:xviii). This was the second most used textbook among university
conducting teachers surveyed, with twenty-one users, also used by one
experienced Melbourne secondary school conductor from the survey. The
36
reasons for the popularity of this textbook among music educator/conductors
could be due to the reputation of Hunsberger and his work with the Eastman
Wind Ensemble, and for the clarity and ease of use of the books layout.
The authors philosophies on conducting are to teach skills one at a time, like
Demaree and Moses, and internalise those skills over time, rather than develop a
feel for the gestures at the outset. Their main focus in the textbook is on
conducting technique, score reading, score analysis and general rehearsal
procedures, with the goal being to increase the effectiveness of the limited
amount of university-level conducting instruction received.
Chapter One begins with an examination of the posture of a conductor, mostly
delivered as a series of unclear verbal instructions, although the information on
developing a basic arm position is well conveyed by means of visualising the
numbers on a clock face and a clear diagram (Fig. 7).
Fig. 7
Conductors Basic Arm Position

(Hunsberger and Ernst 1992:4)
Lonis also rightly criticises this textbook for over-using descriptive language to
enhance the understanding of a skill, Lonis finding the resulting language
wordy and difficult to comprehend (Lonis 1993:31).
37
Preparatory gestures and downbeats are then introduced, including release
gestures, although only a very short paragraph is devoted to the latter. Basic beat
patterns are introduced early in the book. The only real reference to the
kinaesthetic element of developing gestural feel occurs at the very end of the first
chapter in the Additional Exercises section, where under the label of Muscle
Conditioning, Hunsberger and Ernst make the following statement on posture
and skeletal muscle function:
Good posture and a general knowledge of how the main areas of skeletal muscles
function will help you to develop a conducting technique free of unnecessary tension
and unnecessarily restricted movement. The following exercises will help to acquaint
you with muscle locations. Do them by tightening and releasing each muscle area in turn
(Hunsberger and Ernst 1992:17).
The authors give four exercises that involve contracting and releasing calf and
thigh muscles, biceps, shoulders, and back muscles, and fist clenching, although
these are not really adequate in terms of an examination of skeletal muscle
function, particularly when compared with exercises used in textbooks by Jordan,
Garofalo and Battisti, and Maiello.
Both dynamics and baton grip are clearly and effectively introduced in the first
three chapters. The only mention of the left hand in the first two chapters occurs
when the authors make the following statement in reference to ambidextrous
conducting: The ability to conduct equally well with both hands should be
acquired during the early stages. This will develop flexibility and coordination,
which will reduce awkwardness later when both hands are needed for cues,
dynamic indications, and separate patterns (Hunsberger and Ernst 1992:22).
Although this is a sensible way to introduce the left hand, some specific exercises
as shown by Maiello, would have been helpful, Maiellos approach being to
introduce spatial exercises involving left and right hands independently then
together at the very start.
Hunsberger and Ernst specifically introduce the left hand at the end of Chapter
Three and cueing is discussed as part of Chapter Four. The authors state that the
use of the left hand should be easier if exercises previously introduced in the
book have been practised using both hands. Nevertheless, a large amount of
conducting instruction has taken place before this important stage is reached.
Apart from textbooks aimed at beginner conductors or conductor/educators,
materials by Green (Green and Gibson 2004), Rudolf (1995), McMurray (2003),
38
Farberman (1997), and Durrant (2003), are intended as more general conducting
resources, and these are the next series that will be examined.
An Evaluation of the Kinaesthetic Approach Taken by Conducting Materials
Aimed at Conductors of All Levels
Professional conductors (McElheran, Rudolf, Saito, and Scherchen) wrote four
out of the five textbooks initially examined in this section. Elizabeth Green, who
for many years was the conducting teacher at the University of Michigan, wrote
the fifth, based on a conducting textbook, The Conductor and His Baton (1950),
by her mentor, Russian conductor Nicolai Malko. As each of these textbooks is
presented as the method of these professional conductors, it is noteworthy that
the primary focus throughout these textbooks is more or less on baton technique,
rather than achieving physical comfort with the gestures. Presumably none of the
authors had any difficulties being comfortable with the gestures, as they would
no doubt have exhibited high entering behaviour for conducting. All of these
textbooks were written earlier than the textbooks aimed at beginner conductors in
the previous section, at a time when the teachability of conducting was gradually
gaining acceptance, the Scherchen being written in 1929 (in German), the Rudolf
first edition in 1950, the Saito in 1956 (in Japanese), the Green first edition in
1961, and the McElheran in 1964. Taken in the context of when they were
written, it is only to be expected that these books were written with a lower level
kinaesthetic approach than the more recent (and more educationally focused)
textbooks from the previous section. The professional conductors mainly wrote
about what they regarded as the easiest conducting skills to teach the manual
technique, as shown by the layout of these textbooks. These five textbooks
almost totally ignore the left hand until the right hand has acquired a reasonably
secure technique. The longer it takes a beginning conductor to acquire a secure
right hand technique, the longer it takes for the left hand to be introduced.
Conductors with a high entering behaviour for expressive movement are at a
great advantage in this situation, and consequently, will progress much faster.
For this reason, following my initial examination of these textbooks, as stated
earlier, the textbooks by Saito, Scherchen, and McElheran were rejected from
this chapter as being kinaesthetically ineffective.
39
Elizabeth Green and Mark Gibsons The Modern Conductor (2004)(7th edition)
was overwhelmingly the most used textbook from the surveys, used by thirtyseven university conducting teachers (42%) and ten experienced Melbourne
secondary school conductors (24%). The reasons for its popularity could be a
combination of familiarity, tradition of usage, and the clear format, although the
fact that other textbooks by Jordan, Garofalo and Battisti, and Maiello are more
kinaesthetically effective, indicates that expressive conducting instruction, as will
be shown, continues to be dominated by traditional methods based on technique
over kinaesthetic comfort. The previous six editions of this textbook had been
authored by Green alone, but following her death in 1995, Gibson included
expanded sections devoted to score study, opera conducting, rehearsing, dealing
with new scores and composers, and advice on establishing a professional career.
Some references to conductors of the past have been replaced by more timely
examples (Green and Gibson 2004:xvii).
In an article in the Music Educators Journal Elizabeth Green states that the
human response to gesture is a psychological one, and that when the gesture is
correct, the musicians can understand and respond to it. Teaching conducting,
like any other activity requiring muscular skill, is a matter fundamentally of
understanding what good technique is, of knowing how to acquire it, and then of
correct practice and plenty of it (Green 1961:55).
The Modern Conductor is one of the clearest and easiest to follow textbooks in
terms of basic technique, although it is rightly criticised by Lonis for attempting
to teach physical skills through conceptual wording:
Teaching a skill through the use of written language is difficult. A videotape, or the use
of visual imagery would be helpful to get the ideas across. The book makes
conducting seem more complicated than it need be for the beginning conductor even
though some of the exercises are very helpful. Green has some interesting ideas on
conducting, despite the fact that everything she meant to say is not clearly conveyed
through the written word, and perhaps cannot be (Lonis 1993:28-29).
Chapter One entitled So You Want to Be a Conductor? contains useful

information about the brain and sharpening the physical tools for conducting,
Green stating: The more you reinforce a pattern by repetition (practice!), the
more powerful it becomes. After a while it works automatically, and it is at your
service thereafter (Green and Gibson 2004:1-2). Green introduces good physical
training exercises throughout the book, initially to train the arms by experiencing
relaxation and tension, but these exercises fail to have any connection with
40
imagery or any music, also lacking diagrams or pictures23. The exercises of
Jordan, Garofalo and Battisti, and Maiello are better for teaching conductors to
kinaesthetically experience physical movement.
Although Greens introductory exercises involve the left hand, it is not
mentioned again until Chapter Seven, by which time a great deal of right hand
technique has been covered. No mention is made in the interim of a neutral
position for the left hand, which I consider to be a serious flaw, as no guidance is
given throughout all of the right hand teaching what the left hand should be
doing, unlike the Nowak textbook, which contains an effective diagram of a
neutral left hand position (see Fig. 4).
Preparatory and release gestures, while introduced early in the book, are made
initially complicated by presenting too many options too soon, Green discussing
preparatory and release gestures on all beats, rather than allowing beginning
conductors to develop confidence with just beat 1. The diagrams supplied only
add to the confusion (Green and Gibson 2004:13-14). The baton grip is
introduced with clear and effective photographs although Green, like Demaree
and Moses, incorrectly insists on the baton pointing forward, creating excessive
wrist tension (Green and Gibson 2004:22-23).
Throughout the book, Green does not clearly teach the link between dynamics
and size of gestures, not allowing beginner conductors to develop a kinaesthetic
connection with the gestures. Garofalo and Battisti, Demaree and Moses, and
Curtis and Kuehn better handle this, all employing conducting frames to link
dynamics to size of gestures.
23
The training exercises were originally introduced by Greens teacher, Russian conductor
Nicolai Malko, in his book The Conductor and His Baton. In this book, Malko provided diagrams
to accompany the training exercises (Malko 1950:40-56), which for some reason were not
included or replicated in Greens book.
41
Not until page 124 is the gesture/communication side of conducting discussed in
a section entitled The Shift from Technique to Music Making:
As ones skills mature, the young conductor finds that concentration on technique is
gradually replaced by a personal response to the score itself, influencing his or her
gestures. It will reveal itself differently in every conductor for physical reasons as
well. No two mature conductors conduct exactly alike (Green and Gibson 2004:124).
Greens assumption throughout the textbook is that with experience and

musicianship, conductors will naturally become expressive. As shown earlier in
the chapter, most university conducting teachers in the survey do not support this
view, with just improving over time ranked last in order of importance of
methods to assist the development of conducting expressivity (see Table 3).
Despite the popularity and clarity of this textbook, it lacks some of the
kinaesthetic elements of textbooks by Jordan, Garofalo and Battisti, and Maiello,
particularly in the approach taken to teaching left hand use and the development
of expressive gestures.
Apart from Greens book, another well-established conducting textbook is Max
Rudolfs The Grammar of Conducting (1995)(3rd edition), which was used by
four university conducting teachers and one experienced Melbourne secondary
school conductor.
At the very opening of his textbook Rudolf states his belief that to obtain an
artistic result the conductor must be able to communicate nuances in dynamics,
phrasing, articulation and general expression not through mere time beating, but
through appropriate gestures. It is through technical control that artistic mastery
is achieved (Rudolf 1995:xv). Rudolfs method, while incredibly detailed, is
difficult for conducting students lacking a high entering behaviour for
kinaesthetic awareness, as at no stage is any attempt made to develop a feel for
the gestures.
In teaching the use of the baton (without a diagram), Rudolf vaguely writes:
The choice of a baton with or without a handle depends upon the individual. You must
also decide for yourself which grip is the most convenient. You must be able to control
the baton completely and feel perfectly at ease; this is the test of a good grip. The most
advisable way to hold the baton is with the thumb, the first and second fingers, and with
the butt against the palm of the hand. You will feel more secure in the energetic beats if
you use a fuller grip (Rudolf 1995:xvi).
In comparison with Garofalo and Battistis instructions and diagram (see Fig. 2),
Rudolfs explanation leaves a lot to chance. Lonis also finds the level of detail
42
employed by Rudolf inconsistent, stating: At times the author discusses a
concept or skill in extreme detail while, at other times, glossing over important
concepts or skills (Lonis 1993:33).
In this book, every technical conducting problem is covered, complete with
examples from the orchestral repertoire in piano score. Rudolf introduces the
beat patterns in a neutral-legato form (Fig. 8a), before introducing an
expressive-legato two chapters later (Fig. 8b):
Fig. 8a
Fig. 8b
Rudolfs Neutral-Legato 4-Beat Patterns (Rudolf 1995:3)
100
Rudolfs Expressive-Legato 4-Beat Patterns (Rudolf 1995:22)
80
60
East
40
West
20
0
North
1st 2nd 3rd
Qtr Qtr Qtr
4th
Qtr
43
Not until Chapter Twenty-Five is the problem of Achieving Complete Physical
Control mentioned, which seems very late compared with textbooks by Maiello,
Jordan, and Garofalo and Battisti:
On the podium you need freedom of motion more than other musicians, because
conducting consists of musical expression directly by gestures. Like other performers, a
conductor must find a happy medium between tension and relaxation; you will show this
in the way you mount the podium and face the players and indeed in every gesture you
make (Rudolf 1995:307).
While stressing the importance of achieving gestural control, Rudolfs only

solution to achieving this is through practice, ease of movement being a desirable
goal without a method of teaching. Rudolf believes that ease of movement will
occur over time, which, as shown in the survey of university conducting teachers
from earlier in the chapter, is not supported by the majority of university
conducting teachers.
Rudolf advocates learning the conducting patterns with the left arm, as well as
the right, as an ideal way to learn true left arm independence:
The most rigid way to test brachial independence is the ability to perform all conducting
patterns with the left arm, not in reverse motion, but in strict conformance to the
movements that are normally assigned to the right arm. Aside from the possibility that
an accident may put a conductors right arm out of action, the skill derived from such
exercise will make the effort worthwhile (Rudolf 1995:311).
This method has merit, in that the left arm is involved in conducting from the
early stages, as opposed to hanging there while the right arm gets all of the work.
Rudolf introduces the preparatory beat early and effectively, with clear
instructions and a simple diagram, linking the gesture with lifting a bow or taking
a breath (Rudolf 1995:6). The chapter on dynamics also contains worthwhile
exercises, and effectively links the size of gestures to the dynamics.
Although an excellent resource for experienced conductors, Rudolfs book is
daunting for beginner conductors, with the overall emphasis placed on complex
technique to the detriment of developing a kinaesthetic connection with the
gestures.
Although also containing excellent material for experienced conductors, the
DVD Conducting from the Inside Out (2003)(1st edition) by Allan McMurray, is
far less daunting for beginner conductors than the Rudolf textbook. One
university conducting teacher from the surveys used the McMurray DVD. An
advantage of the DVD medium (or video) over written textbooks is that DVD
44
allows action footage of conductors and conducting concepts, allowing
conducting students to build visual images of total gestures, as opposed to
textbooks, which use photographic snapshots or written descriptions of
movements. For this reason, it is curious that there are not more conducting
instructional materials to make use of the DVD or video formats.
According to McMurray, the study of instrumental conducting is the study of
movement to communicate music. This DVD employs a strongly kinaesthetic
approach throughout, aided by excellent modeling by McMurray and effective
use of imagery.
Although this DVD is aimed at experienced conductors, it could also be used
effectively by less experienced conductors. It contains an introduction and
thirteen chapters in which McMurray demonstrates concepts in front of the
camera and also works with other conductors in a masterclass situation.
McMurray states at the outset that good conducting begins with an awareness of
the body, so he starts with an exploration of conducting hinges, such as the
shoulder, elbow, wrist and fingers, the focus being on developing a kinaesthetic
feel for the gestures, as conducting, according to McMurray, is based on leading
through gesture (McMurray 2003). McMurray links the quality of sound gained
by the conductor to the use of the conductors hinges.
Preparatory gestures are introduced early and effectively in Chapter One,
McMurray emphasising the importance of the three elements of a beat, the
preparation, ictus, and rebound, and demonstrating how facial gesture and even
eyes can deliver these. The baton is introduced as another hinge, which through
the correct angle of the baton visibly communicates the energy of gestures at the
tip. The baton is used in combination with face and eyes, McMurray insisting
that the field of beating be placed below the level of eye contact to avoid
disruption of this line of communication (in a similar manner to Garofalo and
Battisti). Eye contact is covered in Chapter Three, McMurray making effective
use of the DVD medium to demonstrate how eye contact engages the musicians,
enhancing communication.
McMurray encourages conductors to get away from beat pattern conducting as
soon as possible to communicate the music, defining a conductors role as to
look like the music (McMurray 2003). As earlier stated, he regards the control
of the left hand as one of the most subjective aspects of conducting, but through
visual demonstration and imagery manages to create a tangible left hand
45
vocabulary. A particularly effective aspect of left hand communication that
McMurray introduces is the use of the sagittal plane to emphasise the importance
of the hands. If the left hand is projected forward of the right hand, then the left
hand gesture assumes prominence, and if the right hand is projected forward of
the left, then the right hand gesture assumes prominence. This simple gestural
concept is not covered as effectively in any of the conducting textbooks.
McMurrays DVD is one of the most kinaesthetically effective materials
available for conductors, no doubt enhanced by the possibilities of the DVD
format, giving an insight into the possibilities of the medium for conducting
instruction into the twenty-first century.
One instrumental conducting textbook that was not identified inexplicably in the
surveys needs to be covered as part of this review, as Harold Farberman in The
Art of Conducting Technique (1997)(1st edition) proposes a completely new
system of teaching conducting technique.
A respected conductor and conducting teacher, Farberman takes a completely
new approach to the acquisition of expressive conducting technique in this
textbook, articulating his approach to the teaching of conducting in an article in
the Music Educators Journal:
After continuous years of score study, why do we devote practically no time at all to the
delivery of the music? Basic patterns do not have musical content, yet we cling to them.
Remarkably, we use patterns that have remained unchanged for hundreds of years, while
music itself has undergone successive revolutions in orchestra size, instrumentation, and
compositional concepts. Is there, in fact, conducting technique beyond patterns? Yes.
The constantly changing physical movements drawn from the music itself create
technique. But we conductors tend to do the opposite. We impose the same repetitive,
nonmusical, metric patterns on every measure of every kind of music, despite its
changing content. In the cold light of day, this seems senseless (Farberman 2001:40).
As an alternative to traditional conducting textbooks, Farberman proposes a new

system whereby the conductor, through score study, selects gestures to use
appropriate to the music at the particular time. Farberman calls this new system
Visual Score Study/Baton Placement. New gestures are created through pitch
registration (Fig. 9):
46
Fig. 9
Farbermans Pitch Registration Levels (Farberman 1997a:81)
Farberman advocates the use of a pattern cube to describe the physical

movements that create the patterns (Farberman 1997a:87). The pattern cube
contains five columns. The first column (far left) indicates the number of beats in
the bar (indicated from bottom to top). The second column indicates the pitch
registration levels described above for each beat. The third column indicates the
three dynamic registration zones for each beat (zone 1 closest, zone 3 farthest
47
away). The fourth column indicates spatial registration, which can be either in
front of the body, on the right side of the body, or the left side of the body. The
fifth column indicates the movements of the left hand, except when the left hand
assumes the responsibility for maintaining pulse. Any switch in duties from right
to left hand is shown in the space at the bottom of the cube, called the
Information Box. Any important or
unusual physical movements are also
shown in the information box. An
example of a pattern cube, with the five
columns and information box, is shown
(Fig. 10):
Fig. 10
Farbermans Pattern Cube (Farberman 1997a:101)
Farbermans textbook, available with an optional accompanying video

(Farberman 1997b), presents a refreshing and innovative approach to teaching
conducting gestures. Farberman begins in Chapter One with an identification and
exploration of the conductors space or working area. Farberman defines the
dimensions of a conductors immediate space as determined by the length of the
arms at full extension, and the conductors extended space as being the
connective tissue which binds orchestra to conductor (Farberman 1997a:1-2).
The entire stage area is part of the complete space. Farbermans exercises for
physically describing the immediate space are not unlike exercises prescribed as
part of Labans movement theories, which will be discussed in Chapter Five.
Farbermans instructions on baton use and grip, while detailed, are clear and
aided by effective diagrams. This is the only textbook to acknowledge that
attempting to force the wrist into making a straight line with the baton causes
muscle tension (Farberman 1997a:19). Employing effective kinaesthetic
instruction, Farberman introduces preparatory gestures, with clear and simple
instructions to assist the communication of the initial tempo, dynamics, and
articulation.
48
Although this is a system that could take time for beginner conductors to
assimilate and incorporate, Farbermans textbook is a comprehensive departure
from traditional beat pattern dominated instruction, as acknowledged by
conductor Leon Botstein, who writes in The Music Quarterly:
Farbermans approach is designed to provide the conductor with a highly varied and
subtle repertoire of physical gestures that can be adapted to the fresh ideas, talent, and
intentions each individual conductor should bring to the score and podium. He has
analysed the space the conductor occupies and the dynamics of gesture and created a
textbook that can help an individual develop a command of the elaborate rituals of
pantomime that conducting must be, whose underlying grammar is recognised by
musicians the world over. He offers a way out of the trap of mere time beating so that
the conductor can create sound, line, and musical meaning through physical motion
(Botstein 1997:10).
The book incorporates effective kinaesthetic suggestions to re-define the

conductors space, linking expressive gesture to the demands of the music, and
encouraging the music to create the conducting gestures.
In a similar manner to Farbermans textbook, one choral conducting textbook
that was not identified in the surveys also needs to be covered as part of this
review, as Colin Durrant in Choral Conducting: Philosophy and Practice
(2003)(1st edition) takes a highly kinaesthetic approach to the learning of
conducting.
This book is essentially about communication. For this reason, although it is
aimed at choral conductors, I believe that all instrumental conductors would find
it of value.
The text is laid out in two sections: philosophy and practice, with the first six
chapters covering the philosophy of conducting, and the last five covering the
practice of conducting. There is no instruction at any stage on beat patterns, the
author referring the reader to other books to find these (Durrant 2003:139).
Durrant describes two essential ingredients to a conductors gestures, the first
being a literal element, such as time beating, pulse and cueing, while the second
element is described as connotative gesture, creating the expressive character of
the music (Durrant 2003:138). It is the second element that Durrant is
particularly concerned about throughout the book.
Durrant describes kinaesthesia, or feeling through movement, as an underused
and undervalued sense in Western classical musical culture (Durrant 2003:97).
Phenomenologist philosopher Maurice Merleau-Ponty outlines the benefits of
bodily experience to kinaesthetic learning in the next chapter of this thesis.
49
In his observation of conducting students, Durrant astutely notes: Many
conducting students are stuck in a physical modus operandi. This is especially
true of more experienced conductors, or at least those who have got into
particular and often inappropriate habits of posture, stance, or gestures (Durrant
2003:167). This is a condition that F.M. Alexander describes in Chapter Five as
faulty sensory awareness. Durrant describes how students are required to
employ conscious correction through observation and kinaesthetic re-education
to correct these faults.
I regard Durrants textbook as being an important addition to the literature of
conducting, not only for the practical suggestions contained within (of which
there are many), but for its consistent emphasis on the importance of kinaesthetic
awareness and non-verbal communication in conducting.
Summary and Conclusions
As indicated in Tables 4 and 5, over half of the experienced secondary school
conductors in the Melbourne area have a low opinion of the value of conducting
textbooks as an aid in learning conducting, indicating that any encounters or
experience with available conducting textbooks they may have had has not been
positive.
Nevertheless, 81% of university conducting teachers continue to use conducting
textbooks, indicating that university conducting teachers continue to value
conducting textbooks, if not for the development of conducting expressivity, then
possibly for the way the textbooks model a complete method of conducting
instruction than can easily be implemented by university conducting teachers, as
in textbooks by Labuta (2004), Hunsberger and Ernst (1992), and Phillips (1997),
which begin with beat pattern instruction.
Although most conducting textbooks contain a wealth of information on score
study, rehearsal techniques and beat patterns, I have focused in this chapter on
how the textbooks identified in the two surveys teach expressive gestures and the
use of the left hand, which are two areas that have been identified by experienced
secondary school conductors in Melbourne as ongoing weaknesses in their
conducting vocabularies, noting how each textbook approaches conducting
instruction from a kinaesthetic standpoint.
Jordans (1996) book provides excellent kinaesthetic assistance to all conductors.
It also presents the most comprehensive material on the relationship between
50
gesture and sound. Garofalo and Battistis (2005) book is the most
kinaesthetically effective of instrumental textbooks. The early chapters of
Maiellos (1996a) textbook are also first rate, providing well-constructed
exercises for both the right and left hands. Both Jordan and Maiello place great
importance on the link between breathing and gesture. Kohut and Grant (1990)
contain some very good initial exercises involving both right and left hands.
Effective imagery is used for these exercises. The Nowak brothers (2002) also
use imagery, stressing that the music will influence the gesture, but they could
provide more basic information to aid the beginning conductor.
At a more advanced level, McMurrays (2003) DVD has the advantage of
presenting action footage of conductors and conducting concepts, allowing
conducting students to build visual images of total gestures, as opposed to
textbooks, which use photographic snapshots or written descriptions of
movements.
Farbermans (1997) textbook, although not identified by the surveys, provides a
refreshing alternative by the way he advocates linking gesture to what the music
is actually doing, presenting opportunities for conducting gestures to effectively
compliment the music and avoid routine time beating. Durrant (2003), also not
identified by the surveys, also provides excellent kinaesthetic suggestions for
conductors, including the importance of non-verbal communication.
Textbooks by Curtis and Kuehn (1992), and Nowak and Nowak (2002), present
information in a way that requires the substantial assistance of a conducting
instructor, which, while in itself is not a bad thing, relies on the instructors
ability to be discerning in selecting which material to use and what to leave out.
In particular, the manner of left hand instruction leaves a lot to be desired from
these books. Textbooks by Curtis and Kuehn, Demaree and Moses (1995), Green
(Green and Gibson 2004), and Hunsberger and Ernst, almost totally ignore the
left hand until the right hand has acquired a reasonably secure technique. The
longer it takes a beginning conductor to acquire a secure right hand technique,
the longer it takes for the left hand to be introduced. Conductors with a high
entering behaviour for expressive movement are at a great advantage in this
situation, and consequently, will progress much faster.
Beginning conductors using the Jordan, Garofalo and Battisti, Maiello, or Kohut
and Grant books, or the McMurray DVD, have the opportunity to learn
conducting on a more kinaesthetic level. Because some expressive movement
51
exercises are built in to these textbooks, they give all beginner conductors a
chance to develop kinaesthetic feel for the gestures. Therefore these textbooks
are recommended as effective resources and models for conducting best
practice.
In this review, two textbooks by Jordan (1996) and Durrant (2003) are intended
primarily for choral conductors. Although the basic conducting technique
required to conduct instrumentalists appears to be identical to that required to
conduct vocalists, an important fundamental difference is the impact that
conducting gesture has on the production of sound of those who sing. There are
generally few barriers such as instruments or music stands between the choral
conductor and the ensemble, so the lines of communication are more direct and
open to influence. As was demonstrated to me in a conducting class taken by
noted choral conductor Rodney Eichenberger in 1997, the conductors own selfuse has a direct effect on the posture and resulting vocal health of the singers.
This would explain the greater emphasis on the conductors self-usage in the
Jordan and Durrant books compared to the other textbooks. Nevertheless,
instrumental conductors should also be aware of the message that is
communicated through posture and gesture, as there may be an effect on
intonation, tone quality and character of sound, particularly for wind players.
Kinaesthetic awareness plays an important role in a conductor being comfortable
with conducting gestures. American conductor Michael Tilson Thomas does not
believe that a conductor can really know a piece of music until they have
achieved a physical connection with the conducting gestures. He comments:
In the conducting profession they say that you can have a piece in your head, but do you
have it in your arm yet? Having a piece in your arm is a different thing, because it means
that youve actually moved through space and time with that piece of music, you can
actually feel the plasticity of the notes within time, in your arm, your body, your face
everything becomes expressive of how you the mean the contour and the intensity of the
music to be played, to be heard (Tilson Thomas 1994:18).
The physical act of moving through a piece of music plays an important part in
getting to know the music, almost as if the movements and gestures promote an
understanding of the music at the cellular level. A student conductor should learn
to maintain a connection between the body and the music to allow the body to
52
process the music with the gesture, which does not always occur, as noted by
conductors Larry Rachleff and James Hainlen:
Rachleff noted: So much of our conducting curriculum deals with only the physical
issue but not necessarily with the bodys comfort with the physical issue. Hainlen
explained: How gesture is connected to the content of the piece of music is one of the
hardest things to teach student teachers. Theres not a connection to the line of music
because they have no connection internally to their bodies (see Harris 2001:57).
Drawing on the statements above from Tilson Thomas, Rachleff and Hainlen,
and earlier from Durrant, developing a bodily connection is the key to bodilykinaesthetic learning, as double bassist and author of The Inner Game of Music
Barry Green shows in his work with dancers:
I discovered that although choreographers do have a written notation for the various
moves they want the dancers to perform, the dancers themselves seldom work from it.
The instructor or choreographer demonstrates a series of movements while the dancers
watch. Then the dancers form a mental image of what they have seen and imagine their
own bodies recreating the movements. Finally, when they have both seen the moves and
felt through them in their bodies, they are able to execute the moves on the dance
floor.
Feeling the moves in your body allows you to rehearse them before you go through
the motions. Recent findings suggest that this style of kinaesthetic rehearsal actually
programs and makes use of those parts of the nervous system that will be involved in
physical execution.
Using your bodys kinaesthetic memory in this way prepares the body for accurate
performance (Green 1987:72).
The same use of the bodys kinaesthetic memory that Green observed in dancers
can be applied to enhancing expressive conducting gestures, by encouraging
conductors of all levels of entering behaviour to develop their own gestures
through observation and experimentation and by developing their bodilykinaesthetic intelligence.
In the next chapter I will discuss the role of the mind-body connection, motor
skill development, and the kinaesthetic sense known as proprioception in the
development of kinaesthetic learning.
53
CHAPTER FOUR THE ROLE OF THE MIND-BODY CONNECTION,
MOTOR SKILL DEVELOPMENT AND PROPRIOCEPTION IN THE
DEVELOPMENT OF KINAESTHETIC LEARNING
As was shown in the previous chapter, I have come to regard the learning of
conducting via the bodily-kinaesthetic domain to be particularly effective for
conductors at all levels of entering behaviour, due to the personal and lasting
physical and mental connections that conductors can make while developing
their gestural communication technique. As will be shown in Chapter Six, these
connections can be more reliable and have more meaning than instruction via
verbal, written, and even visual domains, as conductors must communicate with
other musicians in performance via the medium of their bodies.
The aim of this chapter is to highlight the role of the mind-body connection,
theories of motor skill development, and proprioception in the development of
movements and gestures appropriate for expressive conducting. The mindbody
connection is the integration between mind and body, which is regarded by
educational psychologist Howard Gardner (1993b) as an important aspect of
kinaesthetic learning. The discussion in this chapter emphasises the development
of kinaesthetic learning which needs to take place before expressive conducting
can occur. Therefore, only passing references will be made to expressive
conducting in this chapter, before the presentation of expressive movement
theories and non-verbal communication concepts as ways to enhance expressive
conducting, which will be discussed in subsequent chapters.
In the first part of this chapter I will explore conducting as a form of bodilykinaesthetic intelligence, using examples of Inner Game24 principles, as shown in
writings by Barry Green (1987). I will also refer to Multiple Intelligence theory25,
as supported by writings of Howard Gardner (1993b), the unique physical
attributes of conductors, as argued by Schuller (1997) and Elizabeth Green
24
The object of Inner Game principles, first introduced in The Inner Game of Tennis by Timothy
Gallwey, is to quiet the mind of verbal instructions (Self 1), and allow the body to perform the
task at hand (Self 2). The Inner Game has also been applied by Gallwey to golf and skiing, and
with double bass player Barry Green, to music.
25
Multiple Intelligence theory is initially introduced in Howard Gardners book Frames of Mind,
in which Gardner originally proposed seven intelligences: logical-mathematical, linguistic,
spatial, musical, bodily-kinaesthetic, inter-personal, and intra-personal. Since the publication of
this book, Gardner has added an eighth intelligence, naturalist, and is considering two additional
intelligences, spiritual and existential.
54
(Green and Gibson 2004), and conducting as an expression of musical feeling, as
shown in writings by Harris (2001), to demonstrate how conducting can be seen
as a form of bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence.
In the second part of this chapter, I will present the work of contemporary and
recent writers and philosophers Aldous Huxley (1941), John Dewey (1896),
(1928) and (1958), Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1978), and Richard Shusterman
(1999) and (2000) to support the importance of the mind-body connection to the
development of kinaesthetic learning, which I will show to be a vital aspect of a
conductors development.
Emphasising the continual interaction between the mind and the body, the
introduction of Dynamic Systems Theory in the 1980s allowed for non-linear
self-organisation, influenced by the research of Russian physiologist Nicholas
Bernstein (1967) into the complexity and redundancy of motor skill
development, and I will explore this area in the third part of this chapter. The
most fundamental principle of Dynamic Systems Theory is that patterns of
behaviour can emerge spontaneously from the cooperation of multiple
subsystems or components. Detailed plans for new behaviours, therefore, are not
represented beforehand in the brain, nor do movement patterns, including
walking or talking, arise from an inevitable maturation of neural centres or fixed
pattern generators.
In terms of the refinement of motor skills, these may be developed by
consciously interpreting the sensations arising in the musculo-skeletal system.
This perception of the position and state of movement of the parts of the body is
known as kinaesthetic awareness (Krschlov 2000:8). The term given to this
kinaesthetic sense is proprioception. Proprioception is the sense of the position of
parts of the body, relative to other neighbouring parts of the body. I will examine
the role of proprioception in conducting in the fourth part of this chapter. The
significance of proprioception is the relationship it stimulates between movement
and sensory awareness, including its influence on the development of fine motor
skills and non-verbal communication.
I will argue that the development of proprioception is essential for all conductors
regardless of entering behaviour, as all conductors must have awareness of the
position of their bodies in space.
55
In Conducting With Feeling, author Frederick Harris regards the ability to

communicate expressively through the body as the key to expressive conducting
(Harris 2001:67). In my survey of university conducting teachers, I was initially
interested to know what skills the conducting teachers thought a beginner
conductor should possess (Table 6).
Analytical Skills
Aural Skills
Basic Left Hand Skills
Charisma
Clear Beat Patterns
Coordination
Desire to Learn
Ensemble Skills
Enthusiasm
Expressive Gestures
Facial Expressivity
Fundamental Baton Technique
General Knowledge
Harmonic Knowledge
Historical Knowledge
Instrumental Skills
Intellect
Kineasthetic Ability
Knowledge of Instruments
Leadership
Musicianship
Music Theory Knowledge
Personal Presentation
Piano Skills
Research Skills
Rehearsal Techniques
Score Reading Ability
Secure Pulse
Self Confidence
Self Discipline
Sight Singing Ability
Teaching Ability
Verbal Communication Skills
Table 6
4
24
3
2
8
2
3
3
1
3
1
6
2
2
13
20
1
2
3
3
26
30
1
8
1
2
15
7
3
2
2
3
5
5%
27%
3%
2%
9%
2%
3%
3%
1%
3%
1%
7%
2%
2%
15%
23%
1%
2%
3%
3%
30%
34%
1%
9%
1%
2%
17%
8%
3%
2%
2%
3%
6%
Skills a Beginner Conductor Should Already Possess
The most popular responses to this question were music theory knowledge
(34%), musicianship (30%), aural skills (27%) and instrumental skills (23%).
Only two respondents indicated the importance of kinaesthetic ability in beginner
conductors. The results indicate that background musical and performance skills
are most highly valued in beginner conductors by conducting teachers, rather
than any particular entering behaviour for the bodily-kinaesthetic domain or
expressive movement.
56
As a follow up, I was interested to know what skills the conducting teachers
thought a beginner conductor should immediately seek to develop (Table 7).
Skill
Arranging Skills
Aural Skills
Awareness
Baton Technique
Beat Patterns
Clarity
Control of Movements
Debating Skills
Dynamic Control
Ensemble Balance
Ensemble Empathy
Expressive Gestures
Good Stance & Posture
Harmonic Knowledge
Imagery
Instrumental Skills
Interpretation
Knowledge of Repertoire
Leadership
Left Hand Independence
Musicianship
Non-verbal Communication Skills
Piano Skills
Podium Presence
Research Skills
Score Reading Skills
Self Confidence
Understanding of Style
Table 7
No. of Responses
1
25
4
28
12
5
13
1
1
1
1
13
5
1
2
2
2
8
4
5
4
13
22
2
19
2
3
12
2
26
4
4
Percentage
1%
28%
5%
32%
14%
6%
15%
1%
1%
1%
1%
15%
6%
1%
2%
2%
2%
9%
5%
6%
5%
15%
25%
2%
22%
2%
3%
14%
2%
30%
5%
5%
+/- from Table 6

+1
+1
+4
+28
+4
+5
+13
+1
+1
+1
+1
+10
+5
-1
-11
+2
-18
+8
+1
+5
+1
+10
-4
-28
+19
-6
+3
+10
+1
+11
+1
+4
Skills a Beginner Conductor Should Immediately Seek to Develop
The most popular responses to this question were baton technique (32%), score
reading skills (30%), aural skills (28%), musicianship (25%), and non-verbal
communication (22%). More respondents felt that the beginner conductor should
develop expressive gestures and left hand independence than already possess it.
From these results, some conducting teachers clearly believe that beginner
conductors can develop their bodily-kinaesthetic sense. I was interested to know
what methods conducting teachers regarded as being important to assist the
development of conducting expressivity within their students. This survey
question has already been shown in Table 3.
Among respondents, self-observation was clearly the most popular method for
developing conducting expressivity in students, both in terms of overall rank
order and number of first preferences (32%). Although the primary function of
57
self-observation here is visual, I argue that an important aspect of selfobservation is also kinaesthetic. Conductors can learn a great deal about
expressive conducting by listening to their bodies.
Similarly, conducting teacher Craig Kirchhoff links the teaching of practical
expressive movement with the teaching of communication:
If I lived in a perfect world and could redesign college conducting programs, I would
prohibit students from learning patterns until they could demonstrate expressive
conducting with their faces and arms. I have always believed that the way someone
conducts directly influences the way students play. Ive come to the conclusion that
students will breathe and move air in accordance with the way a conductor moves his
arms. These motions have a direct relationship to the quality of the sound produced (see
Thomson 1994:12).
Kirchhoff stresses that having students develop their bodily-kinaesthetic

intelligence is more important than learning beat patterns in the early stages of
conductor training, and I will further discuss the development of kinaesthetic
learning through bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence in the next section.
Developing Kinaesthetic Learning through Bodily-Kinaesthetic Intelligence
Author Barry Green captures the essence of bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence and
its relationship to music when he writes:
I feel theres something almost unfair about trying to teach a skill by putting it into
words. We learn so much more when we learn through our senses and our experience.
Maybe there are information subjects where verbal instruction works best, but music is
something the body is going to have to perform and its best learned by the body thats
going to do the performing (Green 1987:147).
58
Howard Gardner, who developed the concept of bodily-kinaesthetic
intelligence26 as being one of seven intelligences (logical-mathematical,
linguistic, spatial, musical, bodily-kinaesthetic, inter-personal, and intrapersonal) as part of his Multiple Intelligence theory, writes about dancer Martha
Grahams bodily-kinaesthetic experimentations in his book Creating Minds:
The crucial bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence was represented in the course of its own
experimentation, its transformations and retransformations, rather than thought through
or encoded in a self-standing symbol system. As the dance historian Lynn Garafola puts
it: Graham was her body; she became who she was because of it and through the
discipline that made it strong, eloquent and beautiful. What it could and could not do
defined the limits of her invention and prompted the exercises that became the basis of
her technique. Regrettably, no records of Grahams experiments-in-movement exist;
one must rely on the recollections of individuals who danced with Martha Graham and
on the descriptions of successive dances as they were created in the middle decades of
the century. Those dances that were less successful, in particular, may be seen as drafts
of later, more comprehensive and more effective works (Gardner 1993a:296).
Gardner regarded Grahams bodily-kinaesthetic observations and

experimentation as crucial to her artistic and technical development. Conducting
teacher James Hainlen has used dance instructors to help his students achieve an
understanding of physical movement, as Harris explains:
Hainlen also incorporates the practice and metaphorical use of physical motion in his
teaching and conducting. He explained: We bring in a dance instructor every year to
work with the orchestra. I think (the students) bodies should be able to create a musical
line by the way they move. This approach has proven to be a powerful tool for Hainlen
and he described an example that illustrated how the students transferred some of this
work to their musical performance. They were having trouble attaining the right feeling
with a particularly difficult passage in a Sibelius symphony, so he had them perform a
physical exercise jumping around chairs. This exertion caused them to pant, so he told
the students, Okay, when you play this passage you should be metaphorically panting at
the end. He explained: I never had to conduct that passage again, because their bodies
had a physical emotion to go with it (Harris 2001:46-47).
Hainlen indicates that kinaesthetic learning has proved the most effective form of
learning with his conducting students.
Schuller also believes that a conductors unique physical attributes profoundly
affect conducting ability, but that these can be trained through gestural
experience (Schuller 1997:9-10). From my own observations of conductor
training programs, many of the movements for conducting are taught in a one
size fits all manner. As conductors are built in a variety of shapes and sizes it
seems illogical to teach all conductors the same way without taking into account
the variety of body types, as smaller built conductors will use gestures differently
from larger built conductors. This is acknowledged by conducting teacher
26
For a detailed explanation of bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence, refer to Gardners chapter on this

subject in Frames of Mind (Gardner 1993b:206-237).
59
Elizabeth Green, who wrote: A 250-pound, 62 man will conduct differently
than a 130-pound, 56 woman, not better or worse, but differently. No two
mature conductors conduct exactly alike (Green and Gibson 2004:124). As will
be shown in the next chapter, knowledge and awareness of the Alexander
Technique and Feldenkrais greatly assists conductors of all sizes. The recently
developed Alexander system of Body Mapping allows conductors to observe and
map their body structures, including discrepancies between their perceptions of
their own physical structures, compared with the reality of how they are actually
structured. As movements are affected by mis-perceptions of physical structure,
conductors can perform with greater efficiency and expression by aligning their
movements with how they are actually structured.
Jorge Mester saw his job as a conducting teacher to help his students free
themselves from physical tension so that music and energy could flow through
their bodies, describing the types of conducting problems his students were
having as having to do with: The barriers they put up between their bodies and
the music. Almost every human being has some kind of muscular or motor
lockage at some point within their body that interferes with the delivery of
expression (see Bradle 1982:17).
Conducting teacher Harry Begian encourages all conductors to work in a manner
that feels comfortable and natural, to never copy anyone else, and to be
themselves. He recommends that conductors watch themselves in a mirror to
evaluate their movements (see Ellis 2004:25-26). Kirchhoff agrees, adding: All
conductors should have a distinctive body language. I have no interest in
changing students into carbon copies of me. I take their gestures and clarify
them (see Thomson 1994:10).
60
Noted Russian conducting teacher Ilya Musin, who was at the St. Petersburg
Conservatory for many years, required his students to develop a physical
relationship with the music as if sculpting sound. One of his former students,
Russian conductor Semyon Bychkov, describes Musins teaching approach:
He paid attention to everything, from your posture to the way your arms moved and how
your eyes looked. But the primary concern was the expression itself. Musin would
demonstrate various physical possibilities, explaining what each one would give in
terms of expression itself. So the two dimensions were always connected: the expression
and the way to achieve it. It was fascinating for everybody to observe how Musin
dealt with these two subjects: firstly, the music itself its expression; secondly, how to
translate this expression through physical application of a conductors arms, body, eyes,
and mind. This is of course something that transcends the purely physical aspect of
conducting (see Leach 2004:23-24).
Musin regarded these expressive elements as learnable by his conducting

students.
A priority for the training of conductors at all levels of entering behaviour is to
facilitate instruction in the bodily-kinaesthetic domain. In my survey of
university-level conducting teachers, they were asked how any movement
activities undertaken had helped their students improve their conducting. Among
the general responses to this question, five teachers believed that participation in
movement activities had helped students to develop improved body awareness.
Another five believed that improved self-awareness and confidence resulted. One
respondent felt that the development of the kinaesthetic element had occurred. As
previously stated by Barry Green, too much instruction can occur in verbal and
written form, words being imprecise and inadequate to describe the nature of
effective, expressive conducting, and just as poor at imparting it. Choral
conductor Weston Noble, when doing a workshop for other conducting teachers,
discovered that the teachers present admitted that they taught through
knowledge-based instruction over 95% of the time, instead of allowing their
students to experience learning in a kinaesthetic manner (see Harris 2001:80-81).
Tennis coach Gallwey states: In tennis there are only one or two elements to be
aware of visually, but there are many things to feel. Expanding sensory
knowledge of your body will greatly speed the process of developing skill
(Gallwey 1974:113).
The term given to this kinaesthetic sensory knowledge is proprioception, which
is the sense of the position of parts of the body, relative to other neighbouring
parts of the body. The significance of proprioception to expressive conducting is
the relationship proprioception stimulates between movement and sensory
61
awareness, including its influence on the development of fine motor skills and
non-verbal communication. Through the influence of proprioception comes
musical feeling, which Harris defines as: an internal conscious state involving
the mind, body, and spirit; it is a responsive act relying upon memory,
imagination and introspection. Musical feeling is used to describe that which is
derived from a musical text or score; manifest through performing or listening
experiences. Or in other words, a persons physical, mental, and spiritual reaction
to musical sounds (Harris 2001:8). The next section examines ways to connect
the body and the mind in order to allow the communication of musical feeling to
occur.
Developing the mind-body connection contributes to enhanced expressive
movement and non-verbal communication in conductors, as supported by
conductor Peter Paul Fuchs (1969). In The Psychology of Conducting, Fuchs
states that the conductor does not make the sound, but his movements and
appearance ultimately determine the quality of sound achieved:
We often resent ungainly stage mannerisms in a pianist or violinist. There they may be
distracting to the audience, but at least they are not likely to interfere with the quality of
the music. With a conductor the situation is far more serious since he operates only
partially through manual skill and mainly through skillful psychology. Therefore, no
matter how great a musician he may be, his gawkiness will somehow be reflected in the
finished product, the sounds that are produced by the orchestra (Fuchs 1969:61).
An important part of a conductors expressive art, therefore, is the way he or she

uses their body to communicate with the musicians. According to Fuchs
statement above, skilled musicianship is insufficient. It must be connected to
effective body use.
I will now examine the contribution made by writers and philosophers Huxley,
Dewey, Merleau-Ponty and Shusterman to the mind-body connection debate.
Although none of them wrote specifically about conducting, I believe their
comments are relevant to the development of expressive conducting, as they all
comment on the importance of the bodily-kinaesthetic domain as a most
important part of learning.
62
I
Connecting Body and Mind
In his well-known book on Multiple Intelligence Theory, Frames of Mind,

Howard Gardner describes the characteristics of bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence
as:
The ability to use ones body in highly differentiated and skilled ways, for expressive as
well as goal-directed purposes. The capacity to work skillfully with objects, both
those that involve the fine motor movements of ones fingers and hands and those that
exploit gross motor movements of the body (Gardner 1993b:207).
Gardners definition, although aimed at bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence, is also

an accurate definition of an expressive conductor, the object in the above
passage being a sound-object that can be manipulated by an expressive
conductor.
Gardner goes on to describe a radical disjunction in Western culture between
the activities of reasoning and the manifestly physical part of our nature, as
epitomised by our bodies. The divorce between the mental and physical has
often undervalued what we do with our bodies in comparison with relatively
abstract symbolic systems, such as language and logic (Gardner 1993b:208).
Gardner however notes that: Psychologists in recent years have discerned and
stressed a close link between the use of the body and the deployment of other
cognitive powers (Gardner 1993b:209). As shown in statements made by writers
Huxley, Dewey, Merleau-Ponty and Shusterman in the past eighty years, the
mind-body connection is becoming more valued in Western thought.
One of the difficulties of conducting is the combination of mental and physical
skills required. While conductors are located in the present in time, they must
gesture physically ahead of other musicians and the music, in order to influence
the music before it happens. Mentally, conductors must think ahead of the music
in order to anticipate the requirements of the musicians, while at the same time
analysing the performance that has just occurred to determine if it fits their
conception of the music. This combination of physical and mental skills presents
great challenges to student conductors, who often resort to last minute gestures to
musicians, and become so caught up in the technique of conducting that they fail
to listen to the resulting performance, restricting their ability to analyse what has
occurred and diagnose solutions. In the next chapter, I will show that
examination of the five expressive movement theories selected in this thesis
63
(Laban, Dalcroze, Delsarte, Alexander, and Feldenkrais) can greatly assist
conductors to integrate the physical and mental aspects of conducting.
Alexanders ideas, however, as will be shown, had a direct influence on the
writings of Huxley and Dewey.
Alexander Influences on the Mind-Body Connection
According to Alexander teacher and researcher Frank Pierce Jones (1997), writer
Aldous Huxley had daily lessons on the Alexander Technique from F.M.
Alexander in 1935, helping to resolve a severe case of writers block and also
influencing Huxleys ideas on mind-body connection (Jones 1997:56-57).
Grateful for Alexanders assistance, he modelled a character in his book (Eyeless
in Gaza) on Alexander (Jones 1997:56). Huxleys ideas on the mind-body
connection, expressed in Ends and Means of 1937 are similar to those of
Alexander, expressed only five years earlier in The Use of the Self. Huxley states:
In the world as we know it, mind and body form a single organic whole. What
happens in the mind affects the body; what happens in the body affects the mind.
Education must therefore be a process of physical as well as mental training
(Huxley 1941:219).
Huxley goes on to advocate the Alexandrian concepts means-whereby and
inhibition27. He even cites Alexander by name (Huxley 1941:223). Discussing
body awareness and integration, he writes:
The body must be trained to think. True, this happens every time we learn a manual
skill; our bodies think when we draw, or play golf, or take a piano lesson. But all such
thinking is specialist thinking. What we need is an education for our bodies that shall be,
on the bodily plane, liberal and not merely technical and narrowly specific. The
awareness that our bodies need is the knowledge of the proper way to apply that
principle in every phase of physical activity (Huxley 1941:221-222).
Huxleys advice is certainly relevant for conductors, who must convey to other
musicians during performance their wishes via the bodily plane. I have observed
that conductors who have a high entering behaviour for expressive movement
have an enormous advantage over awkward or self-conscious conductors, when
communicating with musicians in performance. It is possible that lower entering
behaviour conductors who are encouraged to explore the bodily plane will be
27
According to Alexander, the means-whereby a reliable sensory appreciation can be developed

and maintained is brought about not through subconscious, instinctive action, but through
conscious, reasoning guidance and control (Alexander 1985:150). Alexander used the term
inhibition in the sense of meaning to stop, or consciously control an action.
64
more successful with expressive movement than by engaging in merely
technical and narrowly specific movement.
The philosopher John Dewey also studied the Alexander Technique with F.M.
Alexander intermittently throughout the 1920s and 1930s (see Jones 1997:104).
Dewey had already indicated his opposition to dualist mind-body thinking in an
1896 article The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology28. Dewey describes the
reflex arc, not as an organic unity, but as a patchwork of disjointed parts. At the
time Dewey believed: it is the movement which is primary, and the sensation
which is secondary, the movement of body, head and eye muscles determining
the quality of what is experienced (Dewey 1896:358). Dewey expresses his
disdain for the contemporary view that the reflex arc was no more than a passive
stimulation of the organism provoking a physical response. In Deweys opinion,
the reflex arc sensation directly influences idea and action:
The older dualism between sensation and idea is repeated in the current dualism of
peripheral and central structures and functions; the older dualism of body and soul finds
a distinct echo in the current dualism of stimulus and response. Instead of interpreting
the character of sensation, idea and action from their place and function in the sensorymotor circuit, we still incline to interpret the latter from our preconceived and preformulated ideas of rigid distinctions between sensations, thoughts, and acts (Dewey
1896:357-358).
At the time, Dewey believed that the greatest benefit of body movement was
heightened experience. However, the greatest benefit Dewey received from his
Alexander lessons was the ability to stop and think before acting (inhibition) (see
Jones 1997:97). It was this increased importance of sensory awareness that was
missing from Deweys Reflex Arc article.
According to both Jones and a 1958 thesis by Eric McCormack, Deweys work
with Alexander influenced Deweys subsequent ideas on the importance of
sensory awareness. Although Dewey provided an introduction to three of
Alexanders books29, Alexandrian concepts began to appear in some of Deweys
own writings30, as highlighted in McCormacks thesis. In a 1928 talk to the New
28
A reflex arc is the simplest arrangement of receptor-adjustor-effector units. Sensory cells carry
afferent impulses to a central interneuron, which makes contact with a motor neuron. The motor
neuron carries efferent impulses to the effector, which produces the response (Nervous system. In
Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online [cited 9 January 2006].
Available from http://search.eb.com/eb/article-75816)
29
Mans Supreme Inheritance (1910), Constructive Conscious Control of the Individual (1923),
and The Use of the Self (1932).
30
Human Nature and Conduct (1922) and Experience and Nature (1925)
65
York Academy of Medicine, Dewey again testifies to the necessity of seeing the
mind and body as an integral whole:
The question of integration of mind-body in action is the most practical question we can
ask of our civilisation. It is not just a speculative question, it is a demand a demand
that the labour of multitudes now too predominantly physical in character to be
inspirited by purpose and emotion and informed by knowledge and understanding. It is a
demand that what now pass for highly intellectual and spiritual functions shall be
integrated with the ultimate conditions and means of all achievement, namely the
physical, and thereby accomplish something beyond themselves. Until this integration is
effected in the only place where it can be carried out, in action itself, we shall continue
to live in a society in which a soulless and heartless materialism is compensated for by
soulful but futile idealism and spiritualism (Dewey 1928).
At the very start of his talk, Dewey discusses the prevalent divide between body
and mind. According to Dewey, part of the problem is that there is no one word
to name the mind-body unity. In attempting to establish this unity, we have a
tendency to perpetuate the division, by speaking of body and mind (Dewey
1928).
McCormack claims that from Deweys output, his book Experience and Nature
is the one in which Alexanders principles stand out most clearly and have
penetrated most deeply (McCormack 1959). In this book, Dewey presents a
chapter on Nature, Life and Body-Mind. He introduces the term psychophysical to indicate a level of organisation pervading activity, as a distinction
with purely physical, which Dewey regards as inanimate (Dewey 1958:253255). Central to Deweys argument in this chapter is that mind and body (matter)
form an interconnected whole, a concept that, in Deweys opinion, fails to be
understood by mind-body dualists:
The idea that matter, life and mind represent separate kinds of Being is a doctrine that
springs, as so many philosophic errors have sprung, from a substantiation of eventual
functions. The fallacy converts consequences of interaction of events into causes of the
occurrence of these consequences a reduplication which is significant as to the
importance of the functions, but which hopelessly confuses understanding of them
(Dewey 1958:261-262).
Psycho-physical is a term that was earlier used by Alexander in his book

Constructive Conscious Control of the Individual (Alexander 1985:31). Dewey
blames what he terms early Christian ideals and teachings for the mind-body
division: The Body is earthly, fleshly, lustful and passionate; Spirit is Godlike,
everlasting; flesh is corruptible, spirit incorruptible (Dewey 1958:249). Deweys
criticism is directed at the Christian Churchs mistrust and rejection of bodily
experience and pleasure and the subsequent emphasis and teaching of spiritual
thought, as exemplified by the writings of Ren Descartes.
66
Philosophical Perspectives on the Mind-Body Connection

The philosopher Maurice Merleau-Ponty blames Descartes for the last few
hundred years of division between mind and body, due to Descartes
objectification of the body. Appearing first in Descartes fourth Discourse on
Method of 1637, his statement I think therefore I am firmly emphasised the
mind over the body. Referring to the potential for the mind to exist outside the
body, Descartes writes:
I thereby concluded that I was a substance, of which the whole essence of nature
consists in thinking, and which, in order to exist, needs no place and depends on no
material thing; so that this I, that is to say, the mind, by which I am what I am, is
entirely distinct from the body, and even that it is easier to know than the body, and
moreover, that even if the body were not, it would not cease to be all that it is (Descartes
1979:54).
Descartes therefore entirely rejects the body as a vehicle for knowing and
experiencing. In his Sixth Meditation, published four years after the Discourses,
Descartes also refers to the division between mind and body when he writes:
There is a great difference between mind and body, in that body, by its nature, is
always divisible and mind is indivisible (Descartes 1979:164).
In the years that followed, human thought dominated action. The body was
viewed as a shell or casing for the mind. Intellectual rigour triumphed over
bodily experience. In the development of conductors, the equivalent would be
to limit the study of conducting to score study only.
Rejecting this mind-body dualism, phenomenologist Merleau-Ponty in the 1950s
argued that the body plays a significant role in our experience and understanding
of the world. He criticises mainstream philosophy, particularly Cartesian
philosophy with its focus on objectifying the body:
The psycho-physical event can no longer be conceived after the model of Cartesian
physiology and as the juxtaposition of a process in itself and a cogitatio. The union of
soul and body is not an amalgamation between two mutually external terms, subject and
object, brought about by arbitrary decree. It is enacted at every instant in the movement
of existence (Merleau-Ponty 1978:88-89).
67
Merleau-Ponty argues in favour of the continual kinaesthetic feedback provided
by the body, including an image of the bodys movement and positioning in
space:
Body image was at first understood to mean a compendium of our bodily experience,
capable of giving a commentary and meaning to the internal impressions and impression
of possessing a body at any moment. It was supposed to register for me the positional
changes of the parts of my body for each movement of one of them, the position of each
local stimulus in the body as a whole, an account of the movements performed at every
instant during a complex gesture, in short a continual translation into visual language of
the kinaesthetic and articular impressions of the moment (Merleau-Ponty 1978:98-99).
According to Merleau-Ponty, the body is central to the learning process.

Movement is the vehicle of that learning:
A movement is learned when the body has understood it, that is, when it has
incorporated it into its world, and to move ones body is to aim at things through it; it
is to allow oneself to respond to their call, which is made upon it independently of any
representation (Merleau-Ponty 1978:139).
An example of a conducting movement that the body is required to learn and

understand in order for it to be effective is a preparatory gesture. In order for the
tempo to be consistent every time for a given passage, the conductor must have a
kinaesthetic image of the body experiencing that tempo prior to actually making
the preparatory movement. Otherwise the tempo is unlikely to be consistent or
delivered with conviction.
To further emphasise the mind-body connection, American philosopher Richard
Shusterman in 1999 proposed a new discipline in the field of philosophical
aesthetics, a discipline that Shusterman calls somaesthetics31. Influenced by
Baumgartens eighteenth century Aesthetica, Shustermans goals in proposing
this new discipline were to revive Baumgartens idea of aesthetics as a lifeimproving cognitive discipline; to end the neglect of the body that Baumgarten
introduced into aesthetics; and to propose an enlarged, somatically centred field
(somaesthetics) that can contribute to many crucial philosophical concerns, thus
enabling philosophy to more successfully redeem its original role as an art of the
living (Shusterman 1999:301-302). The goal of somaesthetics is to correct the
functional performance of our sensory perception by an improved direction of
31
Shusterman defines somaesthetics as the critical, meliorative study of the experience and use
of ones body as a locus of sensory-aesthetic appreciation and creative self-fashioning
(Shusterman 1999:302).
68
ones body, since the senses belong to and are conditioned by the soma32. This
goal is supported by Alexanders observation and description of the condition
that he called faulty kinaesthetic awareness. Alexander writes: Speaking
generally, it will be found that the pupil is quite unable to analyse his own
actions. The imperfectly poised person has not a correct apprehension of what
he is really doing (Alexander 2005:213). Faulty kinaesthetic awareness is an
important concept for conductors to consider, as I have often observed a
difference between the action conductors think they are performing and the
actual resultant action.
Shusterman acknowledges the somatic benefits of yoga, Zen meditation and tai
chi, as well as Western body disciplines such as the Alexander Technique, the
Feldenkrais Method, and Bioenergetics33. He claims that experiential
somaesthetics works at improving awareness of our bodily states and feelings,
thus providing greater insight into both our passing moods and lasting attitudes.
It can therefore reveal and improve somatic malfunctionings that normally go
undetected even though they impair our well-being and performance
(Shusterman 1999:302-303).
In Performing Live Aesthetic Alternatives for the Ends of Art, Shusterman
makes a distinction between experiential somaesthetics and what he calls
representational somaesthetics, which exteriorises the body as a mechanical
instrument and dominates our culture, entrenching the division of mind and spirit
and serving the aims of what Shusterman calls capitalist consumerism, in that
the body serves as an object for billboard-style advertising and magazines.
Experiential somaesthetics, in comparison, focuses not on the external body but
on bodily consciousness and agency, on embodied spirit (Shusterman 2000:161).
Somaesthetics, while still a relatively new discipline, reinforces the importance
of the bodily-kinaesthetic domain as a form of intelligence. Its potential
application to conducting deserves to be further investigated in future.
Music education philosopher David Elliott in 1995 described his musical
philosophy as a particular form of musical action that is purposeful and situated,
32
The soma is defined by Thomas Hanna as the body experienced from within (Hanna 1990).
Bioenergetics, invented by Alexander Lowen, incorporates violent movements and shaking.
Bioenergetics sees life as movement of feeling (Shusterman 2000:174-175). Due to potential
movements injurious to the body in bioenergetics, this system will not be studied as part of this
thesis.
33
69
and assigns it the term praxial34. Elliott advocates the development of
musicianship as embodied action:
An unfortunate legacy of dualistic thinking is the false belief that to really possess
musical understanding one must possess a storehouse of verbal information about
musical works. The corollary of this belief is that pencil-and-paper tests of verbal
concepts are measures of musicianship. This is also false.
What I am urging, however, is that a musical performance ought to be valued for
what it is: an embodiment of a students musical understanding of a given work and its
related practice (Elliott 1995:75-76).
Elliotts musical philosophy stated here is clearly in support of bodilykinaesthetic intelligence for performing musicians, instead of the verbal
concepts of logical-mathematical intelligence.
As will be shown in Chapter Six on the significance of non-verbal
communication in conducting, many musicians have found the description of
musical experiences to be difficult to put into words.
Using movement and sensation gives musicians the opportunity to express
feelings and emotions aroused by these experiences. The neurologist Antonio
Damasio (1994) supports these expressions. Operating from the premise that
feeling is an integral component of the machinery of reason, Damasio does not
accept that emotions or feelings are intangible. Instead, he insists that emotions
and feelings can be medically explained:
I do not see emotions and feelings as the intangible and vaporous qualities that many
presume them to be. Their subject matter is concrete, and they can be related to specific
systems in body and brain, no less so than vision or speech. Nor are the responsible
brain systems confined to the subcortical sector. Brain core and cerebral cortex work
together to construct emotion and feeling, no less so than in vision (Damasio 1994:164).
Damasio proposes that critical networks on which feelings rely include not only
the limbic system, but also pre-frontal cortices and sectors that map and integrate
bodily signals35. This collection of systems holds both innate and acquired
knowledge about the body proper, the outside world, and the brain itself as it
interacts with the body and the outside world. This knowledge is used to deploy
and manipulate the images that constitute our thoughts, stored in the in-between
brain sectors. Biological regulation, memory of previous states, and planning of
future actions result from cooperative activity not just in early sensory and motor
34
From praxis, meaning action that is embedded in, responsive to, and reflective of a specific
content of effort (Elliott 1995:14).
35
In between the brains five main sensory input sectors and three main output sectors lie the
association cortices, the basal ganglia, the thalamus, the limbic system cortices and limbic nuclei,
and the brain stem and cerebellum (Damasio 1994:93-94).
70
cortices but also in the in-between sectors. There is no single region in the human
brain equipped to process representations from all the sensory modalities
(Damasio 1994:93-95). In conclusion, Damasio sees the brain as a dynamically
evolving structure, in cooperation with the body:
This dynamic map of the overall organism anchored in body schema and body boundary
would not be achieved in one brain area alone but rather in several areas by means of
temporally coordinated patterns of neural activity. The sensory representation of all
parts with a potential for movement would be connected to various sites and levels of
the motor system whose activity can cause muscular activity. In other words, the
dynamic system of maps I have in mind is somato-motor (Damasio 1994:231).
Damasio as a neurologist supports the mind-body connection, and therefore

rejects Descartes dualist ideas. Furthermore, Damasio supports the role of
movement in learning, which seems to allow for a more flexible approach to
motor skill development, due to differences in body type and entering behaviour.
In the next section, I will discuss the role of motor skill development in the
enhancement of kinaesthetic learning.
II
Motor Skill Development
As stated earlier in the chapter, I have observed that many of the movements for
conducting are taught in a one size fits all manner. As conductors are built in a
variety of shapes and sizes it seems illogical to teach all conductors the same way
without taking into account the variety of body types, as smaller built conductors
will use gestures differently to larger built conductors. A dancer and movement
teacher, Jarmila Krschlov, also argues for knowledge of anatomy for all those
involved in teaching live movement:
The usual method of teaching anatomy in schools is detached from live movement. I
consider it essential that these two subjects be tied together as closely as possible. I build
my analysis on mutual interweaving of these two standpoints. The prospective teacher of
movement should have regular opportunity to compare their own theoretical knowledge
with the live movement of practical sessions. It is essential to have anatomical
knowledge of the movement mechanics of the human body, in order to understand
movement and its analysis (Krschlov 2000:16).
For conducting teachers, knowledge of anatomy is also important to assist their

students to correct inaccurate perceptions of the way their bodies are structured,
which interferes with functioning. An example of this occurs in the instructional
video of Body Mapping, in which choral conducting teacher Heather Buchanan
alerts her students to the correct structure of the shoulder joint, enabling an
71
enhanced range of shoulder movement from popular misconceptions of shoulder
structure (Jordan and Buchanan 2002). Knowledge of anatomy for conducting
teachers should also extend to the nervous system. The nervous system consists
of the brain and the spinal cord, which together make up the central nervous
system, and the free running nerves supplying all parts of the body, which make
up the peripheral nervous system (Fig. 11).
A - Cerebrum
B Cerebellum
C Spinal Cord
D Peripheral nerves supplying structures on the
left side
of the neck
D1 Peripheral nerves supplying structure to the
left side of thorax and abdomen
E and F Peripheral nerves to upper and lower
limbs respectively
Fig. 11
The Central and Peripheral Nervous System (Krschlov 2000:8)
72
Nerve cells have a nucleus, several small branches called dendrites for the
reception of messages, and normally one branch, the axon or nerve fibre, for
message transmission (Fig. 12). A nerve cell with its branches forms the basic
unit of the nervous system and is called a neurone.
A Axons
B Dendrites
Inset the meeting between
axons and dendrites, showing
the contact but anatomical
separateness (synapse)
Fig. 12
Two Nerve Cells (Krschlov 2000:10)
The characteristic function of nervous tissue is the carrying of nervous impulses.

Kinaesthetic awareness occurs at the moment when the cerebellum receives and
interprets information from the kinaesthetic receptors via the sensory nerves.
Without this information, expressive, refined and economical movement is
impossible. Technique becomes purely mechanical (Krschlov 2000:9-10).
Krschlov describes three stages of refining kinaesthetic awareness. Firstly,
kinaesthetic sensory receptors, located in the skin, muscles, tendons and
ligaments, need to be intact. These detect and transmit information about changes
of state of the musculo-skeletal system. Secondly, the brain must be in a
condition to receive and interpret this information from the periphery. Thirdly,
the brain sends a response back to the muscles concerned, via the motor nerves.
In this way the brain conveys a more precise set of messages back to the
musculo-skeletal system, resulting in more finely differentiated and coordinated
movements (Krschlov 2000:8). As conductors are required to make finely
differentiated and coordinated movements as part of conducting expressively, the
importance of the back-and-forth nature of the kinaesthetic information sent and
received by brain and receptors is reinforced.
73
In my survey of secondary school conductors in Melbourne, I was initially
interested to discover if the participants had related any improvement in their
conducting to sporting participation. I thought that sporting participation may
have improved kinaesthetic awareness (Table 8).
No Impact
Improved Timing
Improved Self Awareness
Physical Preparation
Improved Fitness
Improved Coordination
Development of Natural Arm Motions
Develop Sporting Analogies
Table 8
30
1
1
1
6
3
2
2
71%
2%
2%
2%
14%
7%
5%
5%
Impact of Sporting Activities on Conducting Improvement
However, 71% of respondents reported no impact. Six respondents (14%)

reported improved fitness and three respondents reported improved coordination.
Although there may be a relationship between sporting activities and expressive
conducting, it has not been found in this thesis.
On the surface it would appear that the majority of respondents also failed to
acknowledge any link between their participation in movement activities and
their conducting (Table 9).
No Impact
Relaxes Body & Mind
Improved Fitness
Focus on Specific Parts of Body
Improved Well-Being
Enhanced Control of Movements
Enhanced Freedom of Hands/Arms
Natural Flow of Energy
Understanding of Human Movement
Dalcroze and Alexander
Table 9
29
3
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
69%
7%
2%
5%
2%
2%
2%
2%
2%
2%
7%
Impact of Movement Activities on Conducting Improvement
However, the majority of those who indicated No Impact had not participated
in any movement activities (86%). Of those who had participated in movement
activities, over 73% found some benefit toward their conducting. Despite the low
level of participation, there was an indication that kinaesthetic awareness could
be promoted.
In the 1940s the Russian physiologist Nicholas Bernstein was the first to argue
that motor acts cannot be controlled by explicit one-to-one mappings between
74
neural commands and movement trajectories. Bernstein explains the significance
of his findings in his book The Coordination and Regulation of Movements:
It appeared important to me to demonstrate that a movement could not be understood in
terms of some nuance in operation of a single impulse, but that it is the result of the
simultaneous cooperative operation of whole systems of impulses, while the structure of
this system its structural schema is important for the understanding of the result. It is
only a short step from this to the central argument in this report, that the innervation and
localisation of this structure is in reality not only contradictory to the observable
structure of the movements of the organism but is necessarily an exact representation of
the latter (Bernstein 1967:36).
He recognised that controlling each body component (muscles or joints)

separately could very quickly become an impossibly unwieldy endeavor. He
refers to this complexity and redundancy as the degree of freedom problem:
Like every other form of nervous activity which is structured to meet particular
situations, motor coordination develops slowly as a result of experiment and exercise.
When someone who is a novice at a sport, at playing a musical instrument or at an
industrial process first attempts to master the new coordination, he is rigidly, spastically
fixed and holds the limb involved, or even his whole body, in such a way as to reduce
the number of kinematic degrees of freedom which he is required to control (Bernstein
1967:107-108).
His solution was that we learn to constrain muscle groupings to act as interactive
units, which he called coordinative structures. These structures interacted with
the brain in a continual dialogue. In assessing the influence of Bernstein on the
development of human motor actions, Requin, Semjen and Bonnet state:
In Bernsteins view, the complete mastery of coordination consists in a judicial
utilisation of reactive forces, i.e., the introduction of the necessary impulse at the proper
time. Such a skill certainly could not be exerted without the permanent and powerful
intervention of the processes of anticipation of the spatio-temporal characteristics of
events. The circular and uninterrupted flow of information between the periphery and
the centre, whose importance was stressed by Bernstein, is the immediate condition as
well as the consequence and the subsequent expression of coordination (Requin,
Semjen, and Bonnet 1984:495).
75
Bernstein believes that it is this interaction between the periphery and the centre
that allows the coordination of expressive movement to occur. Commenting on
the use of practice to solve motor skill problems, Bernstein states that the
solution is not in the repetition, but in the perfection of techniques required to
improve:
Even in the case of such uniformly repetitive acts the variability in the motor picture
and in the range of initial conditions may at first be very great, and a more or less fixed
program develops depending on the extent to which a motion is practised, and by no
means at the first attempt. The process of practice continues towards the achievement of
new motor habits essentially consists in the gradual success of a search for optimal
motor solutions to the appropriate problems. Because of this, practice, when properly
undertaken, does not consist in repeating the means of solution of a motor problem time
after time, but in the process of solving this problem again and again by techniques
which we changed and perfected from repetition to repetition (Bernstein 1967:134).
Bernstein noticed that when practice was effective, subsequent repetitions

stripped away inefficient and redundant movements. From this statement, an
important consideration for conductors is that blind repetition will not facilitate
expressive movement without some form of modification occurring from
repetition to repetition. Without this modification, no improvement in expressive
movement can be made.
As movement pathways are developed and practised, a refinement of fine motor
skills needs to occur. Maintenance of awareness between the mind and the body
is essential for this to happen, so that the body does not engage in mindless
repetition.
Additionally, in a 1984 reassessment of Bernsteins work which supports
Bernsteins criticism of Descartes theory, Turvey and Kugler criticise the
Cartesian influence on scientific thinking, claiming that the Cartesian program is
not a scientifically tractable program:
We believe that the Cartesian program must be abandoned if a scientifically acceptable
account is to be provided of the perceptual objectivity that Bernstein regards as the sine
qua non of action. To ease the break with tradition, it may help to remember that
Descartes built his perceptual theory around thought, not action (Turvey and Kugler
1984:381).
The essence of Bernsteins theory is therefore that dynamic kinaesthetic

movement, involving both mind and body, is the optimum vehicle for learning
coordinated expressive movement.
The work of Bernstein provided an important step in the study of motor skills as
the motor behaviourist Beverley Ulrich (1997) began to adopt a dynamic systems
approach, and by the early 1980s she began to recognise that human organisms
76
demonstrate the basic properties common to all dynamic systems. The basic
criterion for a dynamic system is that it changes over time, and change often
occurs as a nonlinear shift from one pattern of organisation to another.
Ulrich summarises the advantages of adopting a dynamic systems approach:
Dynamic Systems Theory proposes that there are no rules of development. There is
complexity and there are relations among subsystems in open, thermodynamic and
active systems. There is real-time heterarchical cooperation among the organisms
intrinsic dynamics, the goal and the context. Solutions arise from the constraints
inherent in the context and the task, given the many solutions available to complex
human organisms. From the continuous process of multimodal and multilevel perception
and action, infants and children discover the fit between their capabilities and their goals
and acquire stable and functional motor behaviours (Ulrich 1997:341-342).
Although more research in this area is needed, I believe that Dynamic Systems
Theory may also be applicable to conducting, as conducting movements have the
ability to self-organise, consist of patterned movements, require destabilisation to
change habitual gestures, and serve as a continual interaction between the
perception and action subsystems. In dynamic systems terms, conductors can
develop skills via multiple pathways, catering more for varieties of body type
and entering behaviour.
As a form of comparison, Maturation Theory states that motor development
occurs as part of a pre-determined, pre-programmed design. Over time, the
nervous system would inevitably mature, as defined stages in development were
reached. Maturation Theory developed largely due to the work of psychologist
Arnold Gesell in the 1930s, 40s and 50s. It was Gesells belief that physical
structure must be present and developed before function can occur and behaviour
is not possible until the necessary structures are developed (see Salkind 1981:43).
As can be seen from my examination of the kinaesthetic effectiveness of selected
conducting textbooks earlier in this thesis, textbooks by Phillips (1997), Labuta
(2004), Long (1977), Saito (1988), Scherchen (1933), McElheran (1989), and
Prausnitz (1983) that do not incorporate a kinaesthetic approach appear to follow
the maturationist view to motor skill development in conducting, incorrectly in
my view. It is simply assumed that by following a pre-ordained process, a
conductors gestures will inevitably become expressive. A great deal of
instructional material is separated into physical or mental categories. Physical
skills are introduced one-by-one, and new skills are not introduced until earlier
skills are mastered. An example of this is right hand technique, which is
77
generally introduced as a beat pattern, and repeated until some form of mastery is
reached. It is not until this time that other skills such as left hand technique are
introduced, ensuring that subsequent skills are developmentally far behind the
initially introduced right hand technique. This appears to be confirmed by my
survey of secondary school conductors in Melbourne, who were asked to
determine the difficulty they had in developing a range of skill areas, including
beat patterns, left hand use, and expressive gestures. The results for beat patterns
are shown in Table 10.
Valid No Response
Slightly Difficult
Slightly Easy
Very Easy
Total
Table 10
Frequency Percent Valid Percent

1
2.4
2.4
4
9.5
9.5
18
42.9
42.9
19
45.2
45.2
42
100.0
100.0
Cumulative Percent
2.4
11.9
54.8
100.0
Level of Difficulty Developing Beat Patterns
The overwhelming majority of respondents found the beat patterns easy to learn.
Only four respondents (just under 10%) found the beat patterns slightly difficult.
None found the beat patterns very difficult, or were still uncomfortable with
them. The results for left hand use are quite different, however (Table 11).
Valid Still not Comfortable

Very Difficult
Slightly Difficult
Undecided
Slightly Easy
Very Easy
Total
Table 11

4
9.5
9.5
4
9.5
9.5
19
45.2
45.2
4
9.5
9.5
9
21.4
21.4
2
4.8
4.8
42
100.0
100.0
Cumulative Percent
9.5
19.0
64.3
73.8
95.2
100.0
Level of Difficulty Developing Left Hand Use
64% of respondents found the use of the left hand in conducting difficult. Indeed,
just fewer than 10% of respondents stated that they were still not comfortable
with using their left hands. Just fewer than 10% of respondents were undecided.
Nineteen respondents (45%) found the left hand slightly difficult to use. Only
26% of respondents found the left hand in any way easy to use.
As an alternative, knowledge of and instruction in expressive movement allows
for the possibility of nonlinear development of gestural skill, because viewing
expressive gestural development in conducting as a dynamic system recognises
78
the contribution of expressive movement to the ability of multiple subsystems to
self-organise. A dynamic systems approach to conducting also allows for the
mind-body connection and individual differences, permitting conductors to
engage in the process of learning conducting, instead of conforming to a
stereotyped end product.
There are multiple possible solutions to many conducting problems. In
combination with developing technique, all conductors would benefit more
through listening to their bodies and developing gestures through a kinaesthetic
approach. Conducting consists of patterned movements (attractors36). Altering
habitual gestures and mannerisms requires perturbation of previous patterns to
allow the body to explore the kinesphere. As all bodies and body types are
different, so are all conductors different. Conductors have differing entering
behaviours, differing reactions to situations, and differing rates of improvement.
Working with expressive movement allows all conductors the opportunity to
self-organise their own movement patterns. Developing expressive non-verbal
gestures as a means of communication with the musicians serves as a continual
interaction between the perception and action subsystems.
Further experimental research in this area is required. For this to be undertaken,
more specific knowledge of bio-mechanics, psychology and physiology is
needed. Therefore, beyond the presentation of a hypothesis and rationale on
dynamic systems, no supporting research will be undertaken as part of this thesis.
As Krschlov has already noted, more refined motor skills may be developed by
consciously interpreting the sensations arising in the musculo-skeletal system.
This perception of the position and state of movement of the parts of the body is
known as kinaesthetic awareness (Krschlov 2000:8). The term given to this
kinaesthetic sense is proprioception. I will now expand upon the importance of
proprioception, as all conductors must develop a kinaesthetic awareness of the
position of their bodies in space in order to communicate effectively with their
ensembles through gesture.
36
Attractors are behavioural states that assemble into preferred patterns (Buchanan and Ulrich
2001:317).
79
III
Proprioception and its Role in Conducting
Proprioception, which is the sense of the position of parts of the body relative to
other neighbouring parts, provides feedback solely on the bodys internal status.
Based on my experience working with conductors, I have observed that some
conductors are naturally gifted proprioceptively, but others, independent of their
musical abilities, lack awareness of the positions of their bodies in space. As
noted earlier in the thesis, in some conducting textbooks, so much early work is
put into right hand technique, that the left hand, body, and face are left far
behind. Many conductors lack awareness of the position or expression of the left
hand, body, and face, and express surprise at their appearance during a video
review of their conducting. The left hand, body, and face are very important in
the communication of the conductors wishes, and should be effectively taught as
part of conductor training. As has been shown, the beat pattern, representing a
mechanically repeated task, is easy to learn and implement. Left hand use and
expressive gestures, on the other hand, require a level of proprioceptive
sensitivity present in high entering behaviour conductors. Proprioception,
therefore, has a major role in expressive conducting, but can all levels of entering
behaviour develop it?
Sir Charles Sherrington, one of the pioneers in the field of neuroscience, wrote a
paper in 1906 on the Proprio-Ceptive System that assigned the term
proprioception to the deep field37 wherein the stimuli to the receptors are
delivered by the organism itself (Sherrington 1906:472). An important
characteristic that Sherrington noted of the deep receptors in the proprioceptive
field was their tendency to induce and maintain tonic reactions in the skeletal
musculature (Sherrington 1906:473). Sherrington concluded: Though of many
reflex reactions the outcome is movement and the muscles reacting are thus used
as organs of motion, much of the reflex reaction expressed by the skeletal
musculature is not motile, but postural, and has as its result not a movement, but
the steady maintenance of an attitude (Sherrington 1906:474). This is a feature
37
Sherrington made the distinction between the surface field of the body, rich in receptive organs,
which he termed extero-ceptive, and the deeper, internal receptive organs, which he termed
intero-ceptive (Sherrington 1906:468-471).
80
of proprioception that was later also noted by Feldenkrais (see the following
chapter).
The combination of both muscle and joint receptors forms an integral component
of a complex sensory-motor system that plays a role in the proprioceptive
mechanism. The proprioceptive mechanism is part of a system initiated by the
activation of mechanoreceptors38. The sensory (afferent) input from the
mechanoreceptors is relayed by the peripheral nervous system (PNS) to the
central nervous system (CNS). The CNS responds to the afferent stimulus by
discharging a motor (efferent) signal that modulates muscle function by
controlling joint motion and/or position. The afferent and efferent pathways
involved with this complex system mediate proprioception at three distinct levels
within the CNS. At the spinal level, proprioception operates unconsciously with
reflexes subserving movement patterns that are received from higher levels of the
nervous system. The second level of motor control is at the brain stem, connected
to the cerebellum, where joint afference is relayed to maintain posture and
balance of the body. The input to the cerebellum about this information emanates
from the joint and muscle proprioceptors, the vestibular centres in the ears, and
from the eyes.
The final aspect of motor control includes the highest level of CNS function, the
motor cortex, located within the back portion of the frontal lobe of the cerebrum
(see Fig. 11), and is mediated by cognitive awareness of body position and
motion. Proprioception at this level functions consciously, and is essential for
proper muscle and joint function in sports (music), activities of daily living, and
occupational tasks (see Lephart and Borsa 2005:5-6). Proprioception is another
example of the mind-body connection, as the combination of brain, nervous
system, muscles and joints communicates spatial position and facilitates
expressive movement.
38
Mechanoreceptors signal mechanical deformation of soft tissue (Lephart and Borsa 2005:3).
81
Researchers Silow (2002), Herman (1983), and Barr and Lewin (1994) have
investigated proprioception in learning. In 2002 Theresa Silow completed a
thesis on the importance of the kinaesthetic sense in the exploration of sensation,
in which she particularly advocates the use of proprioception (which she termed
kinesthesia) as a research tool:
The term kinesthesis was coined at a time when research was based on introspective
rather than experimental procedures. Today, even after enormous advances in
neuroscience, I still regard introspection as the major source for insight into the inner
experience. No technology can actually relay the experience itself. There is immense
knowledge to be gained by simply listening to the subtleties of the body, regardless of
any quantifiable measure or statistical significance. Kinesthesia thus implies value for
the holistic experience and a holistic mode of enquiry (Silow 2002:26).
Similarly, I maintain that no book or description of conducting can replace the

value of kinaesthetic movement as a vehicle towards expressive conducting.
Silow links movement with the development of sensory abilities. Beginning from
birth, our organism learns and develops through movement and consequent
sensory awareness. Through the course of extensive non-linear movement and
sensory development (supported by Dynamic Systems Theory), the sensory
system becomes enormously complex, even at toddler stage, and continues to
expand from there. Furthermore, Silow links this movement and sensory
development with an emerging sense of self, and personal identity (Silow
2002:27-30).
Another important link that Silow makes is the link between stress and sensorymotor amnesia39 (Silow 2002:60). From a physiological point, one of the greatest
manifestations of stress for young conductors is the loss of connection with
breathing, which in turn affects communication. The breath, as part of the
preparatory gesture for conducting, communicates vital information about the
character, tempo, and dynamic of the music.
As part of her findings, Silow concludes that sensory-motor amnesia results in
progressive changes in the functioning of our nervous systems, which become
accepted by individuals as natural, diminishing our sense of self and ability to
experience fully. This is the phenomenon which Alexander calls faulty sensory
awareness. Silow finishes by attacking the pervading dualistic body/mind
39
According to Thomas Hanna, the founder of Somatic Education, as many as fifty percent of the
cases of chronic pain suffered by humans are caused by a condition that he calls sensory-motor
amnesia (or SMA), a condition in which the sensory-motor neurons of the voluntary cortex have
lost some portion of their ability to control all or some of the muscles of the body (Hanna 1990).
82
paradigm as devaluing bodily experience and fostering the neglect of kinaesthetic
awareness (Silow 2002:206).
The writers Herman, and Barr and Lewin concur with Silow. P.J. Herman in
1983, for example, linked the lack of integration between movement and sensory
awareness with childrens learning difficulties (Herman 1983:167). Herman also
links the kinaesthetic system and visual perception, maintaining that the
cooperation of the two aid the development of laterality into directionality and
mediate elementary locomotor skills (Herman 1983). In terms of expressive
performance, Barr and Lewin in 1994 investigated the integration of the
kinaesthetic sense with cognitive skills in relation to dance. They criticise
traditional teaching through imitation and command, finding that movement, to
be understood, must be appropriated kinaesthetically. They maintain that
traditional teaching values the end goal over the process (Barr and Lewin
1994:84). For conductors, kinaesthetic movement can maintain awareness in the
process and feel of the movement (Alexander refers to this as the meanswhereby principle), while imitation and verbal instruction can lead to an overemphasis on the final product, or look of the movement, which Alexander
refers to as end-gaining.
There have been cases described by Oliver Sacks (1986) and Beth Azar (1998)
where people have lost their proprioceptive sense. Sacks described the case of
Christina, who lost all proprioception due to acute polyneuritis. She became
disembodied, only able to control her movements and position in space through
vision alone:
She continues to feel, with the continuing loss of proprioception, that her body is dead,
not real, not hers she cannot appropriate it to herself. She can find no words for this
state, and can only use analogies derived from other senses: I feel my body is blind and
deaf to itself it has no sense of itself (Sacks 1986:49).
Another case, described by Azar, was of Ian Waterman, who had his
proprioceptive nerves destroyed by a viral infection in 1972. Waterman lost all
feeling below his neck, and was unable to tell without looking how his body is
positioned:
Cases like Watermans are remarkable in the precision of the damage: Waterman lost
none of the nerves that control muscle movement and he is still able to feel temperature,
pain, deep pressure and muscle fatigue. He has lost all of the cutaneous nerves that
provide the skin with the sense of touch and all of the nerves attached to muscles and
tendons that provide a sense of joint and limb position (Azar 1998).
83
In both cases, the patients managed to regain some form of recovered movement,
via conscious control and observation of what they were doing. If something
distracted their attention, however, or they were unable to observe their
movements, they both crumpled like rag dolls.
As has already been stated, it is vital for all conductors to develop the sense of
proprioception. Conductors must be able to sense the position of their limbs and
bodies in space. Such proprioceptive sensitivity also includes facial expression,
which, as will be determined in Chapter Six, communicatively is one of the last
frontiers for conductors.
In this chapter, I have examined the development of kinaesthetic learning
through bodily-kinaesthetic interlligence. Educational psychologist Howard
Gardner (1993b) describes the devaluation in Western culture of bodily
experience and knowing, caused by the separation of mind and body. Gardner,
however, acknowledges that psychologists in recent years have appreciated the
integration of mind and body, which constitutes an important part of bodilykinaesthetic intelligence.
Many of the skills requiring mastery by conductors can be separated into
physical or mental categories. The beat patterns, starts and stops, the use of the
baton, the left hand, and cueing are physical. Rehearsal techniques, score study,
and interpretation are mental. The separated physical and mental categories are
the easiest to teach to conductors. The physical skills can be developed and
internalised through diligent practice. The mental skills can be honed through
study, research, and experience.
With regard to motor skill development, knowledge of and instruction in
expressive movement appears to allow for the possibility of nonlinear
development of gestural skill. Viewing expressive gestural development in
conducting as a dynamic system recognises the contribution of expressive
movement to the ability of multiple subsystems to self-organise.
84
Proprioception, which is the sense of the position of parts of the body relative to
other neighbouring parts, provides feedback solely on the bodys internal status.
Beginning from birth, our organism learns and develops through movement and
consequent sensory awareness. Yet according to Barr and Lewin (1994),
traditional teaching through imitation and command continues to devalue
kinaesthetic learning.
Skills such as body presence, facial communication, and expressive gestures,
involving the development of a combination of mental and physical aspects,
present difficulties for all conductors, as will be discussed in the next chapter.
Even high entering behaviour and experienced conductors may have difficulty
with one or more of these areas. Body presence constitutes far more than merely
assuming a posture. The movement theories of Laban, Dalcroze, Delsarte,
Alexander, and Feldenkrais show that the body requires alertness and a dynamic
quality of movement that is both active and reactive. Research into non-verbal
communication, which will be discussed in Chapter Six, shows that the face
requires a plasticity of expression (particularly eyebrows and mouth) that is
unforced, natural, and communicative, and that eye contact is paramount in facial
communication. Expressive hand and arm gestures consist of elements of weight,
space, and time, reflecting the theories of Laban. The weight of a gesture
conveys the musical style. The space of a gesture conveys the dynamics and
intensity, and the time of a gesture conveys the tempo of the music. All of these
skills go together to create a total package, a combination of mind and body.
Based on my experience in teaching conductors, I believe that one of the most
effective ways to enhance expressive conducting is through theories of
expressive movement, which I will discuss in the following chapter. Such
teaching benefits all conductors, regardless of entering behaviour. Fennell
(1978:16) correctly states that the body is the conductors instrument, and I
maintain that this instrument must be expressively trained. Even though
expressive movement activities ranked low (sixth) in order of importance of
methods to assist the development of conducting expressivity in my survey of
university conducting teachers shown in the previous chapter (see Table 3), one
aspect that came through clearly from my survey, as stated earlier in the chapter,
was that that most teachers who did use movement activities found them to be
85
effective with their conducting students in the very areas that the teachers
themselves assigned most importance in their conducting priorities (body
awareness, confidence, independence of hands, and non-verbal communication).
In order to understand the importance of a kinaesthetic approach to conducting, I
will investigate in the next chapter the influence of the five expressive movement
theorists who have greatly influenced this thesis. Rudolf Laban, Emile JaquesDalcroze, Franois Delsarte, F.M. Alexander and Moshe Feldenkrais have
developed commonalties within their expressive movement theories relevant to
the enhancement of expressive conducting.
86
CHAPTER FIVE FIVE EXPRESSIVE MOVEMENT THEORIES,
THEIR COMMONALITIES, AND THEIR POTENTIAL USE IN THE
ENHANCEMENT OF EXPRESSIVE CONDUCTING
In this chapter, the aims are to explore how the use of the five expressive
movement theories selected (Laban, Dalcroze, Delsarte, Alexander, and
Feldenkrais) can enhance expressive conducting to all levels of entering
behaviour, and to examine commonalities of these five expressive movement
theories. Taking into consideration the data received from both of my surveys
shown in Appendices A and B, I have selected Laban, Dalcroze, Delsarte,
Alexander, and Feldenkrais, not necessarily for being the most popular
movement activities, but for providing the strongest frameworks in terms of
movement theories and principles that could be applied to expressive conducting.
In the first part of this chapter, I will briefly introduce the theories of each of the
five movement activities. As other writers have written extensively on each of
the theories, including the theorists themselves, I will make reference to these
sources and only discuss the theories in broad terms myself.
In the second part of this chapter, I will examine each commonality in depth, the
commonalities being a strong emphasis on the mind-body integration, the
emphasis on an educational process as part of the theory, the fact that they are
usable by and teachable to anyone, and the importance of the sixth kinaesthetic
sense known as proprioception. The significance of the mind-body integration
and proprioception to the development of bodily-kinaesthetic learning was
discussed in the previous chapter.
In the third part of this chapter, I will present an overview of the research
undertaken into each theory relevant to the enhancement of expressive
conducting, and examine ways that conductors at all levels of entering behaviour
could potentially use each of the theories.
Although acting has been used by a majority of university conducting teachers,
as indicated by my survey, other movement activities have failed to achieve
general support. However, most teachers who have used movement activities
have found them to be effective with their conducting students.
87
Although acting and dance were both popular among conducting teachers, the
very broadness of both areas made them unsuitable for a comparative study such
as this. Each area of acting and dance is worthy of further study on its own.
Similarly, Pilates, tai chi and yoga are worthy of examination as individual
studies, but there is currently a lack of theoretical literature suitable for this
present study. Another movement activity worthy of further study is mime,
which was identified in the survey of university conducting teachers as being
used by 10% of respondents.
I was further influenced by previous theses on movement training for actors by
Patsy Hecht (Hecht 1971) and Lesley Schreiber (Schreiber 1980) that used
Delsarte, Dalcroze and Laban for comparison. Although no theses had used
Alexander and Feldenkrais as part of a comparative study, I found that their
theories were compatible with the other three for this present study, due to the
presence of the four commonalities (mind-body integration, educational process,
teachable to all, importance of proprioception).
The first section will briefly introduce each of the five theories of movement,
which are further developed in the later section on commonalities40. I will not be
discussing the biographies of the theorists, as these have already been discussed
in the listed publications. Instead I will discuss the essence of each theory and
why they are useful to conductors. Later in the chapter, I will discuss how
conductors might potentially use the theories.
The first movement theory to be discussed is that of Rudolf Laban.
40
Other writers have also extensively covered each theory, including the theorists themselves.
For Laban, his own books include The Mastery of Movement (Laban 1980a), Choreutics (Laban
1966), Modern Educational Dance (Laban 1980b), and Effort (Laban and Lawrence 1974).
Other useful books include Laban for All (Newlove and Dalby 2004), Mastering Movement
(Hodgson 2001), and Beyond Dance (Davies 2006). For Dalcroze, his own books include
Eurhythmics, Art and Education (Jaques-Dalcroze 2003), and Rhythm, Music and Education
(Jaques-Dalcroze 2002). Other useful books include The Rhythm Inside (Schnebly-Black and
Moore 1997), and Rhythm and Life (Spector 1990). No publications by Delsarte exist. Useful
books on his theories include Every Little Movement (Shawn 1974), and The Delsarte System of
Oratory (Delaumosne 1887). For Alexander, his own books include The Use of the Self
(Alexander 2001), Mans Supreme Inheritance (Alexander 2005), and Constructive Conscious
Control of the Individual (Alexander 1985). Other useful books include Indirect Procedures (De
Alcantara 1997), and Body Learning (Gelb 1994). For Feldenkrais, his own books include
Awareness Through Movement (Feldenkrais 1990), and The Potent Self (Feldenkrais 1985).
Another useful book is Awareness Heals (Shafarman 1997).
88
Theories of Movement - Rudolf Laban
Laban believed that the body is the instrument of expression through movement,
writing in his book The Mastery of Movement:
The body acts like an orchestra in which each section is related to any other and is part
of the whole. Its various parts can combine in concerted action, or one part may perform
alone as a soloist while others pause. It is also possible that one or several parts take
the lead and others accompany (Laban 1980a:34).
He also believed in the greater expressive power of movement, stating:

Movement can say more, for all its shortness, than pages of verbal description
(Laban 1980a:87).
Conductor Stephen Miller states that: The primary value of Laban Movement
Theory and Labans system of notation was his understanding and representation
of the dynamic quality of movement (Miller 1988:32). Based on my experience
working with conductors, I believe that it is Labans utilisation of the expressive
power of movement that makes his theory so important for the enhancement of
expressive conducting. Laban believed that it is possible to describe any
movement of the body by determining which part of the body moves, in which
direction the movement occurs, at what speed the movement takes place and
what degree of force is required for the movement (Laban 1980a:23).
Laban used effort and shape (Labans terms) as variables in his analysis and
description of movement.
There are four factors in Labans definition of effort: force (weight), described as
strong or light, heavy or weightless, firm or gentle, forceful or delicate, powerful
or weak; space (direction), described as straight or curved, direct or flexible,
spirally or undeviating, growing or shrinking, advancing or retreating, rising or
sinking, widening or narrowing, folding or unfolding, opening or closing,
gathering or scattering; time (speed or duration), described as slow or quick, long
or short, sustained or sudden, lingering or instantaneous, lethargic or fleeting;
and flow, described as free or bound, constant or intermittent, abandonment or
rigidity (see Miller 1988:18).
I have observed that low entering behaviour conductors in particular have
difficulty conveying the contrasting effort factors described by Laban, due to a
lack of body awareness on the part of the low entering behaviour conductors,
caused by a low bodily-kinaesthetic sense. For example, variations in force or
weight of gesture are required to convey contrasting textures or moods in the
89
music (light or dark, transparent or thick). Variations in the conductors use of
space and direction of movements can influence the phrasing, dynamics and
expression of the music, such as reinforcing a high point in a phrase, or
controlling a diminuendo. Variations in the speed of the conductors movements,
including the preparation of these movements through clear upbeat motions are
important for the delivery and maintenance of appropriate tempi. Variations in
the flow of the conductors movements can influence the variety of articulations
and styles within the music. Low entering behaviour conductors appear to be less
able to deliver these variations in effort through their gestures.
Laban determined eight basic effort actions that are combinations of time, force
and space (Table 12). He conceptualised these eight combinations with both
objective function and sensation in mind.
Effort Action
Press
Wring
Glide
Float
Punch
Slash
Dab
Flick
Table 12
Time
Slow
Slow
Slow
Slow
Quick
Quick
Quick
Quick
Force
Strong
Strong
Light
Light
Strong
Strong
Light
Light
Space
Direct
Indirect
Direct
Indirect
Direct
Indirect
Direct
Indirect
Labans Effort Actions (see Miller 1988:35)
The effort actions present first-rate kinaesthetic images to conductors, effectively

demonstrating how the effort factors can be combined. As shown later in the
chapter, Labans concepts of weight, space, time and flow, plus the eight effort
actions, make powerful teaching and imagery tools, such as a conductors use of
space relating perfectly to dynamic control, weight relating to dynamics and
texture, time relating to tempo, and flow relating to style and articulation. The
effort actions make excellent and easily understood descriptors of mood and
style. I have also used the effort actions in my teaching of conductors, by asking
student conductors to match musical examples to each effort action, consistently
finding that the students conducting was more expressive when the effort
actions and the musical example were matched, as opposed to not thinking of the
effort actions.
90
Shape factors are comprised of movements in the vertical, horizontal, and sagittal
planes. The outer shape of each bodily movement is defined by changes of
position in space. The link between two positions is the path that the movement
follows. Laban called this lingering impression of shape the trace-form.
Just as the body moves within an area of space called the kinesphere, the forces
of movement vary within a range of force called the dynamosphere (Fig. 13).
Laban hypothesised that most movement in the dynamosphere is composed of
three basic dynamic motion factors or efforts: time (speed), force (weight), and
space (directional flux). Each dynamic motion factor has different degrees of
intensity. Rapidity (fast) is a higher degree of speed than slowness (slow);
strength (strong) is a higher degree of force than weakness (light); straightness
(direct) is a higher degree of directional flux than roundaboutness (flexibility)
(see Miller 1988:33-34).
Fig. 13
Labans Concept of the Dynamosphere with Effort Actions (see

Newlove and Dalby 2004:141)
The dynamosphere is a combination of the effort and shape factors. In his

discussions of space, Laban differentiated between space in general and the
specific space within reach of the body. He called the space within reach of the
body the kinesphere. The kinesphere is not unlike the Conductors Immediate
Space, discussed by Harold Farberman in Chapter Three (Farberman 1997a:1-
91
2), except that it surrounds the body in all directions. The kinesphere is not static,
and is transported by movement.
In a similar manner to the effort factors, I have observed that low entering
behaviour conductors also have difficulty with the shape factors described by
Laban, due to low bodily-kinaesthetic awareness. Conducting using the beat
patterns as they are shown in conducting textbooks are one, or in a limited
fashion, two-dimensional forms, utilising predominantly the vertical plane, with
a small amount of horizontal plane. The more horizontal plane used, the more
emphasis is placed on phrasing and expression, as Furtwngler notes in Chapter
Six. The sagittal plane, as has been shown in Chapter Three, appears to be almost
totally neglected in conducting textbooks, possibly due to a perception that it is
harder to see by ensemble members located directly in front of the conductor.
However, the neglect of this plane limits the range of expressive movement
possibilities available to conductors, particularly with regard to the left hand.
Sixty-six percent of respondents from my survey of university conducting
teachers had never used Laban with their conducting students. Of those
remaining, 81% of thirty respondents found Laban effective with their
conducting students, while 19% were undecided. More research has been carried
out on applications of Laban to expressive conducting than any other expressive
movement theory, including studies by Bartee (1977), Poch (1982), Miller
(1988), Benge (1996), Billingham (2001), Yontz (2001), Neidlinger (2003), and
Gambetta (2005). Yet the glut of research into Laban in comparison with the
dearth of research into other expressive movement theories and their relationship
to expressive conducting is difficult to fathom. Certainly in the United States,
Laban has become very fashionable among researchers into conducting, with no
less than four theses since the year 2000 being written about Laban applications
to conducting41, while Dalcroze for example, has failed to attract the same
amount of attention, possibly, according to Schreiber, due to the difficulty of
learning all of the elements of Dalcroze training; eurhythmics, solfge and
improvisation (Schreiber 1980:72-73).
In his thesis, Charles Gambetta claims that music performance in general and
conducting in particular are better understood through the principles of Laban
41
Theses by Billingham (2001), Yontz (2001), Neidlinger (2003), and Gambetta (2005).
92
Movement Analysis (LMA), which recognises that movement is also the channel
through which internal musical abstractions become transformed into audible
musical expression, than through Dalcroze eurhythmics, which creates responses
to external musical stimuli (Gambetta 2005:90-91). However, I believe that
Gambettas criticism of Dalcroze is unsupported by writings shown later in the
chapter by Claire McCoy, particularly in consideration of the amount of
proprioceptive feedback provided by the study of Dalcroze eurhythmics, which
will also be investigated later in this chapter. Certainly Schreiber advocates the
presentation of both movement theories, writing: Because neither Eurhythmics
nor Effort/Shape (Laban) are in themselves performance techniques, as opposed
to dance or mime or fencing, it is strongly suggested that advanced studies in
both be offered if ever a training program is designed for movement teachers
(Schreiber 1980:199). Schreiber adds that the more successful teachers of stage
movement have already come to realise that no one approach is effective for all
students (Schreiber 1980:200), which I believe is also the case with the
enhancement of expressive movement for conductors. For this reason,
conductors should also examine the expressive movement theories of Dalcroze.
Theories of Movement - Emile-Henri Jaques Dalcroze
According to Dalcroze teachers Anne Farber and Lisa Parker, Dalcroze
questioned the conventional music education methods of his time, influenced by
his frustration with the lifeless, mechanical performance habits of his own
conservatory students. He developed the idea that the body should be the point of
educational focus, and that musicianship began with and resided in the whole
body. Dalcrozes conception of music education was that the body would play
the role of intermediary between sound and thought, so becoming an expressive
instrument (Farber and Parker 1987:43-45). This corresponds with the
importance of bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence to the enhancement of expressive
conducting, which was discussed in the previous chapter.
Apart from eurhythmics, Dalcroze training also involves strong emphasis on ear
training (solfge) and improvisation. These areas promote the development of
musicianship, which, although outside the limits of this thesis, were regarded by
university conducting teachers from my survey as among the most important
93
skills required of a conductor. Furthermore, 17% of forty-two experienced
secondary school conductors in Melbourne from my other survey regarded
musicianship as among the most important attributes of an expressive conductor.
Despite this, 65% of eighty-eight respondents from my survey of university
conducting teachers had never used Dalcroze with their conducting students. Of
those remaining, 70% of thirty-one respondents found Dalcroze effective with
their conducting students, while 30% were undecided. Based on my experience
with Dalcroze training courses, as well as my conducting teaching experience, I
believe the study of eurhythmics can help conducting students build a vocabulary
of physical responses to music, supported by Farber and Parker, who believe that
gesture, design, shape, isolation, as well as opposition and coordination of parts,
are explored for their capacity to enact musical realities in physical space. The
movements should set up a circuit of information and response moving
continuously between brain and body (Farber and Parker 1987:44-45).
According to Dalcroze biographer Irwin Spector and authors Eden Davies and
John Hodgson, both Laban and Dalcroze were directly influenced by Franois
Delsarte, whose theories were described in Schreibers thesis investigating
methods of movement training for actors, Schreiber stating that Delsartes was
the first truly scientific study of both human behaviour and of expressive
movement (Schreiber 1980:191).
Theories of Movement - Franois Delsarte
Essential to an understanding of Delsartes theories is his Law of Trinity, which
expresses the central relationship between body and mind. Dancer and Delsarte
scholar Ted Shawn outlines the Law of Trinity:
Thus the three principles of our being, life, mind and soul, form a trinity. Because life
and mind are one and the same soul; soul and mind are one and the same life; and life
and soul are the one and the same mind (Shawn 1974:24).
From Delsartes Law of Trinity arises the concept that each object has a centre,
and two opposite ends, or extremes. Every movement has tension/relaxation,
balance, and form. Delsarte invented his own technical terms, which can be used
to indicate a centre (normal), a going out from the centre (excentric), and a going
in from the centre (concentric).
94
As each unit of a trinity is capable of being divided into three aspects Delsarte
called this pattern The Ninefold Accord and used it as the design for all his
teaching charts, drawing it as a box (Fig. 14):
EXCENTRIC
Excentric
NORMAL
Excentric
CONCENTRIC
Excentric
EXCENTRIC
Normal
NORMAL
Normal
CONCENTRIC
Normal
EXCENTRIC
Concentric
NORMAL
Concentric
CONCENTRIC
Concentric
Fig. 14
Delsartes Ninefold Accord (Shawn 1974:30)
Delsarte also produced a chart of the relation of the hand to an imaginary cube in
front of the body:
Palm of hand against face of cube nearest body to reject
Palm of hand on face of cube farthest away from body to include, protect
Palm of hand on top surface of cube to bless
Palm of hand on bottom surface of cube to support
Palm of hand on outside surface of side of cube to hold, possess, include
Palm of hand on inside of side surface of cube to remove, set aside (see Shawn
1974:42)
Conductors, to develop their variety of left hand gestures, can use this chart. For
example, conductors can use a palm up left hand gesture to indicate to the
musicians that they want them to support the sound. Such a gesture is very useful
when working with wind players or singers to indicate a sustaining of the sound.
Conductors can also use an including, or protective left hand gesture in
combination with a starting raise of the right hand as an effective pre-conducting
95
behaviour (Fig. 15). This gesture creates an inclusive, non-threatening space
between the conductors hands, encouraging the involvement of the ensemble
members.
Fig. 15
Example of an Including Left Hand Pre-Conducting Behaviour
96
Delsarte discovered that movement itself is divided into three great orders or
classifications, which Delsarte called oppositions, parallelisms, and
successions42 (see Shawn 1974:33-34).
All of the charts are useful to conductors, as they provide a physical guide for
expressive movement possibilities. For example, Delsartes oppositions and
successions encourage the independent use of the right and left hands, stronger
gestures being created by moving the right and the left hands in opposite
directions, while more expressive gestures are created by establishing a gesture
in one hand, then reinforcing it with the other hand in a fluid, successive motion.
However, 90% of university conducting teachers from my survey had never used
Delsarte with their conducting students. Of those remaining, 60% of nine
respondents found Delsarte slightly effective with their conducting students,
while 40% were undecided.
Alexander began his career a generation later than Delsarte, also intending to be
an actor. Alexanders problems with his own voice led him to observe movement
and body use in great detail.
Theories of Movement - F.M. Alexander
Alexander advocated a learning process that regulates the workings of the whole
self. According to Alexander, this process involves the relationship of the head to
the neck, and of the head and neck to the back. Alexander called this relationship
the Primary Control. The Alexander Technique seeks to alter use, not
functioning, through indirect changes in the use of Primary Control (Alexander
2001:51-52).
Through a long period of painstaking self-observation, often using mirrors,
Alexander discovered that it was his self-use which affected his functioning. He
discovered a tendency to pull his head back and down (Alexanders terms) in
everyday usage, a tendency that became exaggerated when Alexander recited.
42
Delsarte defined oppositions as any two parts of the body moving in opposite directions
simultaneously, and expressive of force, strength, physical or emotional power; parallelisms as
two parts of the body moving simultaneously in the same direction, and denoting weakness from
a physical standpoint; and successions as any movement passing through whole or any part of
the body, which moves each muscle, bone and joint in a fluid, wavelike movement, and is the
greatest order of movement for the expression of emotion (see Shawn 1974:33-34).
97
Through allowing his head to move forward and up, Alexander observed an
improvement not only in his voice, but also in his general functioning.
The ultimate cause of misuse, in Alexanders understanding, is the universal
habit of end-gaining (where the rush to get to the end product overrides the
process). The antithesis of the end-gaining principle is called the meanswhereby principle. This principle calls for a creation and use of the best possible
means to achieve any given end (Alexander 1985:153). This involves the
exercise of vigilance in not disturbing the natural integration of Primary Control.
One of the most important aspects of the Alexander Technique for conductors is
the achievement of integration between posture and gesture afforded through its
use. Both conductors gestures and postures need to be convincing, so that the
gestures are not perceived as being artificial. I have observed that many low
entering behaviour conductors ignore their postures in their efforts to concentrate
on their gestures, contributing to the presence of conflict in their non-verbal
communication. This aspect of non-verbal communication will be discussed in
Chapter Six. The integration between posture and gesture can be greatly
facilitated through the employment of the means-whereby principle, which
avoids the end-gain of producing the gesture alone. Body mapping, which is
discussed later in the chapter, assists conductors to discover how they are
actually using their bodies when conducting. Despite this, 50% of university
conducting teachers surveyed had never used the Alexander Technique with their
conducting students. Of those remaining, 76% of forty-four respondents found
the Alexander Technique effective with their conducting students, while 22%
were undecided, and 2% found the Alexander Technique to be not effective with
their conducting students.
The final movement theory to be introduced is the Feldenkrais Method, which,
like the Alexander Technique, is a somatic education process, which Thomas
Hanna defines as: the field which studies the soma43: namely, the body as
perceived from within by first-person perception (Hanna 1986).
43
As earlier stated, the soma is defined by Hanna as the body experienced from within (Hanna
1990).
98
Theories of Movement - Moshe Feldenkrais
The Feldenkrais Method uses gentle movement and directed observation to
improve movement and enhance bodily functioning. The method is based on
principles of physics, biomechanics and an understanding of learning and human
development. According to the Australian Feldenkrais Guild, through increased
awareness, students learn to abandon habitual patterns of movement and develop
new alternatives, resulting in improved flexibility and coordination (Australian
Feldenkrais Guild n.d.:3-5). For conductors, the main benefit of the use of the
Feldenkrais Method is the elimination of extraneous and distracting movements,
the increase of movement efficiency, and a heightened sense of awareness, not
just of movement, but of sight and sound. However, 86% of respondents from
my survey of university conducting teachers had never used Feldenkrais with
their conducting students. Of those remaining, 44% of twelve respondents found
Feldenkrais to be effective, while 56% were undecided.
According to the Australian Feldenkrais Guild, the similarity that exists between
the Alexander Technique and the Feldenkrais Method is that both are educational
approaches fostering kinaesthetic awareness through movement (Australian
Feldenkrais Guild n.d.:3-5). The difference is that Feldenkrais puts less emphasis
on the Alexander principle of Primary Control, Feldenkrais maintaining that
because the body/mind is an integrated system, an imbalance anywhere in the
system creates imbalances everywhere. The best place to intervene to bring the
system back into balance will vary with the individual, and will not always be the
head/neck/back, but will be achieved by heightening the individuals selfawareness. As an example a Feldenkrais teacher might ask a conductor to lock
their knees and place their weight back on their heels while moving their arms,
before trying the same arm movements with their knees unlocked and their
weight forward on the balls of their feet. In this situation, the teacher would
avoid telling the conductor which set of movements was correct, but would
simply ask the conductor to be aware of any differences in the quality of their
arm movements in each movement set.
I selected the theories of Laban, Dalcroze, Delsarte, Alexander, and Feldenkrais,
as I believe they show the strongest frameworks in terms of movement theories
99
and principles that can be applied to expressive conducting. The appearance of
commonalities in the five featured expressive movement theories highlight the
importance of the material. The commonalities also highlight the advantages of
focusing on multiple theories, as noted earlier by Schreiber, rather than
concentrating on one theory only, to the neglect of all others.
Commonalities between Expressive Movement Theories
I observed the following commonalities of relevance to the enhancement of
expressive conducting among the five expressive movement theories examined.
Firstly, all five are strongly in favour of the integration between body and mind.
This integration is vitally important for expressive conducting, as a conductors
gestures must reflect the music and thought processes happening in their brain.
Supported by the five expressive movement theories examined in this thesis, I
believe that developing the mind-body connection contributes to enhanced
expressive movement and non-verbal communication in conducting, as discussed
in the previous chapter. Secondly, all five represent an educational process, and
as such, are highly relevant to the teaching of expressive conducting, particularly
in the early stages. Thirdly, all five are teachable to anyone, not just those with
high entering behaviour. Being teachable, they should be employed in the earliest
stages of conductor training. Finally, the importance of the sixth kinaesthetic
sense known as proprioception is acknowledged in all five of the expressive
movement theories. I argue that the development of proprioception is essential
for all conductors regardless of entering behaviour, as all conductors must have
awareness of the position of their bodies in space, as discussed in the previous
chapter. I will now introduce each commonality in turn before further exploring
the potential use of the five expressive movement theories in the enhancement of
expressive conducting in the next section.
All five of the expressive movement theories examined are strongly in favour of
the integration between body and mind.
As has been shown in the previous chapter, a conductors gestures must reflect
the music and thought processes happening in their brain. I have observed that
some conductors, particularly those of lower entering behaviour, have difficulty
bodily expressing what they want the music to do. One of the difficulties of
100
conducting is the combination of mental and physical skills required. While
conductors are located in the present in time, they must gesture physically in the
future of other musicians and the music, in order to influence the music before it
happens. Mentally, conductors must think ahead of the music in order to
anticipate the requirements of the musicians, while at the same time analysing
the performance that has just occurred to determine if it fits their conception of
the music. This combination of physical and mental skills presents great
challenges to student conductors, who often resort to last minute gestures to
musicians, and become so caught up in the technique of conducting that they fail
to listen to the resulting performance, restricting their ability to analyse what has
occurred and diagnose solutions.
Each of the five expressive movement theories examined can greatly assist
conductors to combine the physical and mental aspects of conducting, as none of
the five theories make any distinction between the physical and mental, regarding
them as inextricably linked. Too often in conductor training, the physical and
mental sides are taught as separate functions, as has been shown in my
examination of conducting textbooks in Chapter Three. Baton technique is
drilled as manual training. Score analysis and repertoire is taught as
musicianship.
Labans philosophy, according to Newlove and Dalby, is based on the belief that
the human body and mind are one and inseparably fused (Newlove and Dalby
2004:16). Laban comments on this relationship between body and mind in his
book The Mastery of Movement:
Each phase of movement, every small transference of weight, every single gesture of
any part of the body reveals some feature of our inner life. Each movement originates
from an inner excitement of the nerves, caused either by an immediate sense impression,
or by a complicated chain of formerly experienced sense impressions stored in the
memory. This excitement results in the voluntary or involuntary inner effort or impulse
to move (Laban 1980a:19).
Movement, therefore, is a natural result of inner feelings and memories, and is

most expressive of these.
101
Regarding education, Laban writes in Modern Educational Dance: It is the
happy combination of mind and body developing alongside each other for which
the teacher should work without inhibiting the one or over-developing the other
(Laban 1980b:22). Also with regard to the teaching of movement, Laban states:
Modern dance training has to be based on the knowledge of the stimulating power which
movement exerts on the activities of the mind. The impact of movement on the mind has
been studied, and it has been found that bodily movements consist of elements which
create actions reflecting the particular qualities of the inner effort from which they
spring (Laban 1980b:25-26).
Labans comments emphasise the importance of conductors developing their

interpretations in tandem with their physical gestures.
For Dalcroze, harmony between body and mind is created through eurhythmics:
Rhythmic gymnastics starts from the principle that the body is the inseparable ally of the
mind; it affirms that body and mind should harmoniously perform their diverse
functions, not only separately but simultaneously (Jaques-Dalcroze 2003:108).
Like Laban, Dalcroze here is clear about the importance of the mind-body
connection. He further comments on the importance of body involvement in
learning:
I look forward to a system of musical education in which the body itself shall play the
role of intermediary between sounds and thought, becoming in time the direct medium
of our feelings. The child will thus be taught at school not only to sing, listen
carefully, and keep time, but also to move and think accurately and rhythmically. One
might commence by regulating the mechanism of walking, and thence proceed to ally
vocal movements with the gestures of the whole body. That would constitute at once
instruction in rhythm, and education by rhythm (Jaques-Dalcroze 2002:8-9).
I have found that conductors who can maintain a consistent tempo from one
rehearsal to the next are greatly appreciated by ensembles, particularly those
containing singers, or involving dancers. Dalcrozes emphasis on the
development of a rhythmic sense is therefore of enormous value to conductors.
As earlier stated, Delsarte expressed the relationship between body and mind as a
Trinity. Shawn further outlines in the following way Delsartes philosophy of
mind/body integration through the Law of Correspondence:
Delsarte stated the Law of Correspondence thus: To each spiritual function responds a
function of the body; to each grand function of the body corresponds a spiritual act
(Shawn 1974:22).
102
According to Delsarte, each gesture is expressive of something, and is preceded
and given birth to by a thought, a feeling, an emotion, a design or a motive. He
believed that gesture is the communication of the soul:
Gesture has been given to man to reveal what speech is powerless to express. The
gesture, then, like a ray of light, can reflect all that passes in the soul. Hence if we desire
that a thing shall always be remembered, we must not say it in words; we must let it be
divined by gesture. Speech may be termed the sense of the intelligence. Gesture is the
sense of the heart (see Shawn 1974:58).
Delsartes ideas are supported by the importance of non-verbal communication

over verbal communication, which will be emphasised in Chapter Six. Enhancing
the expressive use of gesture is vital for conductors, who are usually unable to
use words to communicate in performances. According to Delsarte, gestures are
more powerful anyway!
For Alexander, the concept of the Use of Self does not differentiate between
body and mind. Alexander explained his discovery of this unity in his book, The
Use of the Self (Alexander 2001:21):
I must admit that when I began my investigation, I, in common with most people,
conceived of body and mind as separate parts of the same organism, and
consequently believed that human ills, difficulties and shortcomings could be classified
as either mental or physical and dealt with on specifically mental or specifically
physical lines. My practical experiences, however, led me to abandon this point of
view and readers of my books will be aware that the technique described in them is
based on the opposite conception, namely, that it is impossible to separate mental and
physical processes in any form of human activity (Alexander 2001:21).
Based on my conducting experience, I have found that much of the pure mental
work of conducting is achieved by the conductor prior to working with an
ensemble through a combination of score study, knowledge of styles and
performance practice, and practical experience. This preliminary work creates
feelings about the music and sensory impressions within the conductor that are
required to be bodily communicated to the ensemble when they meet in rehearsal
and performance. I have also found that my most successful communications
with an ensemble have occurred when I have conceived the bodily movements
(gestures) as a direct result of my feelings and sensory impressions, thereby
developing the sensation and the movement in combination in a way described
by Alexander.
In common with the other four expressive movement theories, Feldenkrais
emphasises the connection between mind and body. For Feldenkrais, the learning
103
processes activated through movement contribute to mental awareness.
Feldenkrais stresses the importance of muscular activity as part of the learning
process:
In the early stages of learning, we are entirely concerned with linking up sensory
perceptions with muscular activity, and with recognizing the situation by the emotional
effect it produces in us. My contention is that learning always does involve the whole
frame, and all learning that does not directly involve muscular activity is poor
(Feldenkrais 1985:130-131).
The importance of the bodily-kinaesthetic domain through the mind-body

connection to the enhancement of expressive conducting is here supported by
Feldenkrais. Learning based on repetition (such as practising a beat pattern) may
ingrain the movement, but does not involve the mind. I have observed that beat
pattern conducting is the cause of a great deal of unexpressive conducting, a
situation also noted by Farberman earlier in this thesis. I have already evaluated
the bodily-kinaesthetic approach taken by several conducting textbooks in
Chapter Three. Experienced secondary school conductors in Melbourne from my
survey also fail to support just improving over time as a method to develop
skills in conducting. When asked to rank in order of importance methods to assist
the development of beat patterns, left hand use, and expressive gestures,
respondents ranked just improve over time sixth on each occasion. Clearly,
respondents did not believe that conducting improvement would just happen.
Each of the five expressive movement theories represents an educational process,
and as such, is highly relevant to the teaching of expressive conducting at all
levels of entering behaviour. Laban, Dalcroze, Delsarte, Alexander and
Feldenkrais were all gifted teachers, who not only taught their techniques to
others, but also trained others to teach their techniques in their own right. The
fact that these theories are educational rather than purely health-giving or
psychological means that the ideas from these theories can be transferred to other
fields, including the teaching of conducting.
Laban strongly believed in the expressive movement concepts of effort and
shape, introduced earlier in the chapter, as part of his educational process.
The significance of the effort factors to the enhancement of expressive
conducting is that they provide excellent kinaesthetic resources to enable
conductors to move expressively. The factor of force assists conductors to move
convincingly when conducting music of varying textures, heavy textures
104
requiring different movements from light textures. The factor of space assists
conductors to convincingly communicate dynamic variety. As has been shown in
conducting textbooks by Garofalo and Battisti (2005), Demaree and Moses
(1995), and Curtis and Kuehn (1992), which were discussed in Chapter Three,
the size of the gestures (or the amount of space covered by the conductor) is a
determining factor in the resulting dynamic of the ensemble. The factor of time
assists conductors to comprehend and communicate tempo to the ensemble. The
factor of flow allows conductors to non-verbally communicate stylistic
information about the music to the ensemble. Smooth flowing movements
communicate legato articulations and phrasing, while short, bound movements
communicate staccato.
As an educational process, of initial importance to expressive conducting is the
overall improvement in musicianship offered by Dalcrozes method. Among the
eurhythmics exercises, subdivision exercises are very useful for conductors as
preparatory exercises, subdivision exercises possibly involving stepping quarter
note beats, clapping eighth note beats, and singing half note beats
simultaneously, for example. On a signal from the instructor, the quarter note
beats may change from the feet to the hands, the eighth note beats from the hands
to the voice, and the half note beats from the voice to the feet. Also of some use
for developing manual independence are disassociation exercises that may
involve conducting a three pattern with the right hand at the same time as
conducting a four pattern with the left, and swapping on a signal from the
instructor.
Incidentally, Dalcroze developed his own conducting patterns for use in his
exercises, and I have attended Dalcroze workshops where these have been used
(Fig. 16 and Fig. 17). Although these patterns provide a useful kinaesthetic
sensation of beat points (as do most beat patterns), I consider them to be
inappropriate for expressive conducting due to their large size and lack of flow
between the beats, factors that in my opinion also need to be taken into
consideration by conductors using traditional conducting patterns in order to be
expressive of the musical content.
105
Fig. 16
Dalcrozes Beat Pattern for 3/4 Time (Jaques-Dalcroze 1920:31)
Fig. 17
Dalcrozes Beat Pattern for 4/4 Time (Jaques-Dalcroze 1920:43)
106
As stated earlier in the chapter, Delsarte used his Ninefold Accord as the design
for all his teaching charts. Upon this basic chart were fashioned charts for the
nine attitudes of the head, nine stances of the feet and legs, and many others.
Here is Delsartes chart for the head (Fig. 18):
Fig. 18
Delsartes Chart for the Head (see Shawn 1974:37)
107
Delsarte developed Nine Laws of Motion (different from the Ninefold Accord),
which attribute expressive meaning to the various ways in which movement is
possible. Knowledge of these laws is beneficial to conductors, as they once again
provide a guide for expressive movement possibilities:
The Nine Laws of Motion
(1) The Law of Altitude: Positive assertion rises, negative assertion falls; in general, the
constructive, positive, good, true, beautiful, moves upward, forward and outward the
destructive, negative, ugly, false, moves downward, inward and backward.
(2) The Law of Force: Conscious strength assumes weak attitudes; Conscious weakness
assumes strong attitudes.
(3) The Law of Motion: Excitement expands motion, thought contracts motion, love and
affection moderate attitudes.
(4) The Law of Sequence: Let your attitude, gesture and face foretell what you would
make felt. The thought comes first, then the expression of the face and attitude of the
body, and the gesture is a result of this cause and only last does speech come.
(5) The Law of Direction: Lengths are passional, heights and depths are intellectual,
breadths are volitional. In stage directions these would be: directly toward or directly
away from the audience lengths; from side to side of the stage breadths; up and
down as to elevation from the floor heights and depths. Diagonals, arrived at by the
opposition of two directions, have an element of conflict in them.
(6) The Law of Form: Straight form is vital; Circular form is mental; Spiral form is
moral, mystic. Circular form is, generally speaking, more pleasing, due to its
associations with the pleasant feel of round things as against angular objects; and thus
by implication, angular forms are more unpleasant.
(7) The Law of Velocity: The rhythm and tempo of gesture is proportionate to the mass
to be moved. This law is based on the vibration of the pendulum. Great levers have slow
movement; small agents more rapid ones. In proportion to the depth and majesty of the
emotion is the deliberation and slowness of the motion, and vice versa.
(8) The Law of Reaction: Every object, agreeable or disagreeable, which surprises us,
makes the body recoil. The degree of reaction should be proportionate to the degree of
emotion caused by the sight of the object. Every extreme of emotion tends to its
opposite: Concentrated passion tends to explosion, explosion to prostration. Thus the
only emotion which does not tend to its own destruction is that which is perfectly
moderated, balanced, controlled.
(9) The Law of Extension: The extension of the gesture is in proportion to the surrender
of the will in emotion. Extension in space beyond the body may be achieved by an
arresting of the body at the moment of the culmination of the gesture, with held breath
(see Shawn 1974:48-49).
As an example, conductors can make use of the Law of Altitude for dynamic
control. A crescendo moves upward, forward and outward, while a diminuendo
moves downward, inward and backward. Conductors could also make more use
of the Law of Sequence to develop greater facial and body communication, as in
the delivery of a cueing gesture, which is most effective when set up by eye
contact between conductor and musicians, followed by an alteration in the
conductors body attitude to face the musicians, followed lastly by the gesture.
As will be shown in Chapter Six, the face and the body are vitally important
aspects of non-verbal communication, and Delsartes request to consider the face
and body before the gesture is relevant for conductors wishing to enhance their
108
expressive communication. Conductors can make use of the Law of Form to
communicate style and articulation. Straight, angular form indicates staccato,
while circular, smooth form indicates legato phrasing.
Alexander taught his Technique between the years of 1895 and 1955. As a
teacher, he strongly believed that learning must take place in a hands-on
fashion, as merely telling a student what to do was insufficient:
The belief is very generally held that if only we are told what to do in order to correct a
wrong way of doing something, we can do it, and that if we feel we are doing it, all is
well. All my experience, however, goes to show that this belief is a delusion (Alexander
2001:33).
Alexander therefore believed that verbal instruction was ineffective, finding that
only learning through the bodily-kinaesthetic domain was reliable, which serves
as a reminder to conducting teachers to utilise movement as part of their
instructional technique.
According to Alexander, observing a teacher is also insufficient:
In any sphere of learning on a subconscious basis we have to face the fact that pupil and
teacher are imbued with the erroneous idea that the pupil, by observing the teacher doing
something successfully, will be able to copy it and succeed also. The pupil is quite
convinced as to this, and the teacher is certain that if he teaches the pupil to do as he
believes he does himself, he will succeed in enabling the pupil to succeed (Alexander
1985:255-256).
As verbal and visual instruction are considered by Alexander to be unreliable, the

problem for conductors is how to accurately interpret information received
through the bodily-kinaesthetic domain. One particular application of the
Alexander Technique for musicians (and particularly conductors) that has
recently come to light is Body Mapping, which is described by Alexander
teacher Barbara Conable: Body Mapping is the conscious correction and
refining of ones Body Map to produce efficient, graceful, and coordinated
movement. Body Mapping, over time, with application, allows any musician to
play like a natural (Conable and Conable 2000:5). Body Mapping is a term
originally used by William Conable, Professor of cello at the Ohio State
University School of Music, who observed a discrepancy between his students
perceptions of their own physical structures, compared with the reality of how
they were structured. Their movements became affected by their misperceptions. By aligning his students movements with how they were actually
109
structured, Conable discovered they could perform with greater efficiency and
expression (Conable and Conable 2000:5).
For conductors, Body Mapping emphasises the observation of the realities of
individual conductors movements, rather than following a prescribed model of
conducting behaviour. As has been stated in the previous chapter, every
conductor has a different body type and style of movement, so there is little value
in imposing a one size fits all approach to conducting gestures. Therefore a far
more effective method is to work with an individual conductors movement
characteristics to build an expressive technique consistent with their Body Map.
Feldenkrais work is done in two formats, Awareness Through Movement and
Functional Integration. During group lessons (Awareness Through Movement), a
Feldenkrais teacher verbally leads students through a sequence of movements in
basic positions, sitting or lying on the floor, sitting on a chair or standing. These
precisely structured movement explorations involve thinking, sensing, moving
and imagining. Many of these movements are based on developmental
movements and ordinary functional activities. Some are based on more abstract
explorations of joint, muscle, and postural relationships. The emphasis is on
learning which movements work better and noticing the quality of these changes
in the body, which is relevant to learning expressive conducting.
Private Feldenkrais lessons (Functional Integration) are tailored to each students
individual learning needs. Functional Integration is a hands-on form of tactile,
kinaesthetic communication. The teacher communicates how students organise
their bodies and, through gentle touching and movement, conveys the experience
of comfort and ease of movement while students learn how to reorganise their
body and behaviour in new and more expanded functional motor patterns.
110
The Feldenkrais Method employs similar techniques to Alexander Body
Mapping, which has already been shown to be relevant to expressive conducting.
Feldenkrais discusses the importance of developing an accurate self-image:
Each one of us speaks, moves, thinks, and feels in a different way, each according to the
image of himself that he has built up over the years. In order to change our mode of
action we must change the image of ourselves that we carry within us. What is involved
here, of course, is a change in the dynamics of our reactions, and not the mere replacing
of one action by another. Such a change involves not only a change in our self-image,
but a change in the nature of our motivations, and the mobilisation of all the parts of the
body concerned.
These changes produce the noticeable difference in the way each individual carries our
similar actions handwriting and pronunciation, for instance (Feldenkrais 1990:10).
I have noticed that many developing conductors have difficulty communicating

contrasting dynamics, particularly dynamics in the softer range, due to a lack of
awareness of the actual size of their gestures. Using Feldenkrais techniques to reeducate their self-image, conductors can effectively re-adjust the size of their
gestures. For example, conductors could contrast the feel of large and small
movements through the shoulder, then the elbow, then the wrist, then finally the
fingers, to discover which hinges feel most effective at delivering loud or soft
dynamics. Rather than telling conductors which hinge is correct, they can
discover for themselves through the exploration of their own movements, which
provides a more effective and lasting learning experience.
All five of the expressive movement theories are teachable to anyone, not just
those with high entering behaviour. As has already been discussed at the end of
Chapter Three, the role of the body is often neglected in the teaching of
expressive conducting, according to conductors Michael Tilson Thomas (1994),
Larry Rachleff and James Hainlen (see Harris 2001). As will be shown, even
high entering behaviour conductors can benefit from increased movement
awareness. Conductors with low or moderate entering behaviour can still achieve
their maximum potential through expressive movement training.
111
From his own writing, it would appear that Laban supports the idea that
expressive movement is teachable to all people, not just those with high entering
behaviour. In his book The Mastery of Movement he writes: The ability to
observe and comprehend movement is like a gift, but it is also, as in music, a
skill that can be acquired and developed through exercise (Laban 1980a:95).
In another book Choreutics he adds:
Both impulse and response appear to be more easily felt by a person who has a certain
gift for moving expressively. However, almost anyone can develop a certain degree of
awareness of the connection between motion and emotion through appropriate exercises.
The expression will always be more or less personal, but the fundamental responses,
given by different people to the same impulse, all seem to have some typical
characteristics, based on the harmonic laws which rule all movements in space (Laban
1966:66).
I have found that using Labans effort actions, examples of which I have already
given, have been very effective when working with conductors at all levels of
entering behaviour. In particular, lower entering behaviour conductors have
appreciated the imagery of a familiar action, such as dabbing paint onto a canvas
to indicate a staccato movement, or floating through the air like a feather to
indicate a legato movement.
Dalcroze makes reference to born musicians and the teachability of music to all
abilities in his book Rhythm, Music and Education, indicating that he would
consider conducting teachable to all:
There is a theory regarding the born musician, according to which no amount of
musical study can have any influence on temperament. On this is based the verdict of
certain seers that rhythmic movement can be of no direct service to the art of music; for,
on the one hand, it has nothing to teach the born musician, and, on the other, a person
not born a musician can never be made one! This theory, which is held by many
musicians, will not hold water. Eurhythmics reveals to the born musician a host of
subconscious resources, which he could otherwise acquire only by dint of long years of
laborious and repeated personal researches and experiments. On the other hand, alone
among all systems of musical education, eurhythmics is capable of awakening dormant
or moribund temperament, of provoking in the organism the conflicts necessary for
establishing the control and balance of resistances, and of bringing to consciousness, by
means of the harmonisation of cerebral and motor centres, and the canalisation of
nervous forces, undreamt of sources of creative and artistic vitality (Jaques-Dalcroze
2002:146-147).
My brief experience with Dalcroze eurhythmics leads me to concur with

Dalcrozes remarks. Eurhythmics demands a physical response from musicians
of all levels of entering behaviour, encouraging conductors to explore their
individual movements at their own level. As eurhythmics movements are
personal and not prescriptive, they allow conductors to develop their own
112
movement solutions, based on their own bodies and movement patterns. For
example, conductors could be asked as a eurhythmics exercise to feel the beat in
one part of their bodies, such as walking to a beat. At the same time, they could
be asked to clap twice as fast with their hands, while moving their arms twice as
slow as their feet. Such an exercise allows conductors of all levels of entering
behaviour to feel important tempo relationships and reinforces the physical
feeling of subdividing the beat.
I believe Delsarte would regard conducting as teachable as, according to Shawn,
education in the language of the body (Shawn 1974:78) would benefit all
people. Delsarte intended his charts and laws to be used by people in everyday
life, and I have given examples throughout the chapter of how some of his charts
and laws could be used by conductors.
Conscious control through proprioception would, in Alexanders understanding,
allow conducting to be teachable to all. In Alexanders opinion Mans Supreme
Inheritance44 is conscious control, which is available to neither savages (sic) nor
animals. Only through bringing action from a subconscious to a conscious level
can Human-kind inhibit destructive habits and thought processes. Alexander
believed that natural aptitude relied too heavily on the subconscious. Others
could be aided by the employment of conscious control:
Every one who has had experience, personally or vicariously, of the many methods
and systems of teaching breathing, speaking, singing, physical culture, golf, fencing,
etc., must have noticed that whilst the failures of these methods are many, the
successes are comparatively few.
The successes are of course set down to exceptional natural aptitude, whilst the teacher
has an explanation of those cases more flattering to himself and prefers not to consider
too closely the average of his failures. The truth is that all these systems break down
because the pupil, in the attempt to adopt them, is guided always by his subconscious
direction and is forced to depend too much on what is called natural aptitude. When
guidance by conscious control and reason supersedes guidance by instinct, we shall be
able to develop our potentialities to the full (Alexander 2005:204-205).
The concept of learning conducting by observing and imitating a teacher or

mentor still remains a model for conducting instruction, as shown by my survey
of university conducting teachers, in which observation of other conductors was
favoured by 13% of respondents as a method for developing students non-verbal
44
This was the title of Alexanders first book.
113
vocabulary45. As shown by Alexander, learning through observation alone is
unreliable, denying the significance of bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence.
Provided kinaesthetic instruction is enabled, the Feldenkrais Method promotes
teachability to all levels of entering behaviour. All levels of entering behaviour
can use the examples I have shown throughout the chapter of Feldenkrais
applications to conducting effectively, as the exercises are aimed at enhancing
the self-awareness of the individual conductors. Feldenkrais comments on the
adverse effect of repetition without self-awareness, in discussing the nature of
talent:
everything we learn is based largely on the principle of repetition and committing to
memory. This may make it easier to understand why one man may practise daily on a
musical instrument and fail to make any progress, while another shows daily
improvement. Perhaps the nature of talent that is the accepted explanation for this
divergence of achievement derives from the fact that the second student observes what
he is doing while he plays while the first one only repeats and memorises and relies on
the assumption that sufficient repetition of a bad performance will somehow bring about
musical perfection (Feldenkrais 1990:137).
This reinforces an important point for expressive conducting, as no amount of

practice will make an inexpressive performer expressive, unless there is a process
involved to allow the performer to become expressively aware.
As has been shown in Chapter Four, the development of proprioception is
essential for all conductors regardless of entering behaviour, as all conductors
must have awareness of the position of their bodies in space. I believe that
knowledge and use of the five expressive movement theories examined can assist
conductors with their proprioceptive sense.
With regard to the development of proprioception, Laban wrote in Modern
Educational Dance:
To develop the sense of movement, with which we all are endowed to a greater or lesser
degree, is of paramount importance. For this a conscious awareness of motor sensations
is necessary, combined with those arising from the interplay of effort and the body in
space.
We are not all endowed with an equally fine kinaesthetic sense, that is the sense by
which we perceive muscular effort, movement, and position in space. Its organs are not
situated in any one particular part of the body, as those of seeing or hearing, for instance,
but they are nerve endings embedded in muscle fibres all over the body. Through
musical sound we try to refine our sense of hearing; through the interplay of colours and
shapes in art we try to refine our sense of seeing; and through dancing we try to refine
our kinaesthetic sense (Laban 1980b:110-111).
45
Other models favoured by respondents included self-observation (16%), getting the

conductors faces to convey the musical mood (14%), and just through experience (10%).
114
I have used kinaesthetic awareness when working with conducting students by

having them move with their eyes closed. Moving in this way, they are forced to
use other senses than their eyes, sensing the position of their arms, the attitude of
their head and neck, and then comparing this sensation with the reality of their
positioning.
According to Farber and Parker, it was Dalcrozes belief that bodily movement
was an experience felt by a sixth muscular sense (proprioception), consisting of
the relationship between the dynamics of movement and the position of the body
in space, between the duration of movement and its extent, and between the
preparation of a movement and its performance (Farber and Parker 1987:44).
Dalcroze teachers Julia Schnebly-Black and Stephen Moore explain that from a
Dalcroze standpoint: Proprioception, our sixth sense, conveys information to the
brain about the bodys position. Without looking, we know whether our arm is
raised, our heel is off the floor, or our wrist is bent (Schnebly-Black and Moore
1997:28).
The essential purpose of movement through proprioception, according to the
Dalcroze philosophy, is to convey information back to the movers themselves,
which is very important for student conductors as they learn to integrate their
musical ideas with their gestures. Dalcroze himself wrote in Rhythm, Music and
Education with regard to proprioception:
Bodily movements are a muscular experience, and are appreciated by a sixth the
muscular sense. Which controls the multiple nuances of force and speed of those
movements in a manner appropriate to the emotions that inspire them, and which will
enable the human mechanism to refine those emotions, thus rendering dancing a
complete and essentially human art (Jaques-Dalcroze 2002:270).
As conducting is a physical form of communication, it makes sense to develop

conducting movements through physical learning as provided by Dalcroze
eurhythmics. Learning conducting through verbal or visual instruction is far less
efficient, as ultimately what is learned must be translated into physical form
anyway.
Although the proprioceptive sense was yet to be named at the time of Delsarte46,
he recognised the influence of the bodily-kinaesthetic domain on gesture.
Delsarte stated in his Doctrine of Special Organs that the meaning of a gesture
46
As stated in the previous chapter, Sir Charles Sherringtons observation and definition of
proprioception was made in 1906.
115
was strongly coloured by the part of the body in which the movement originated,
but was also further modified by the realm in space in which the gesture
culminated (Shawn 1974:33). For conductors, this is demonstrated by conducting
varieties of texture in different parts of the body. For example, when conducting
a heavy or dark texture, this is communicated most convincingly by using low,
purposeful, centred gestures, as if transporting a heavy weight (Fig. 19).
Fig. 19
Low, Purposeful Centred Gesture
A musical example of this is found in the opening four bars of Beethovens

Egmont Overture (Fig. 20), which demands low, purposeful centred gestures.
Fig. 20
Opening bars of Egmont Overture (Beethoven 1985:239)
116
Alternatively, a light texture is communicated convincingly at the bodys
extremities and up high, with quick frivolous movements (see Fig. 21).
Fig. 21
Quick Frivolous Gestures
Such gestures could be used to conduct the opening of the third movement of
Tchaikovskys Symphony No.4 (Fig. 22), which uses pizzicato strings only.
Fig. 22
Opening bars of the third movement of Symphony No.4

(Tchaikovsky 1979:82)
117
Alexander regarded proprioception as the chief guide for all precise human
movement. He wrote on the phenomenon of proprioception in his book
Constructive Conscious Control of the Individual, although he referred to it as
sensory appreciation:
Sensory appreciation, from our point of view, has a much wider significance than is
generally attributed to it. But it will be sufficient at this point to state that, taken even in
the most limited sense, it includes all sensory experiences which are conveyed through
the channels of sight, hearing, touch, feeling, equilibrium, movement, etc., and which
are responsible for psycho-physical action and reaction throughout the organism.
If we raise an arm, move a leg, or if we make any other movements of the body or
limbs, we are guided chiefly by our sensory appreciation or, as most people would put it,
by our sense of feeling. This applies to the testing of the texture of a piece of cloth
between ones fingers, or to the gauging of size, weight, distance, etc. in fact, to the
employment of the physical mechanisms in the processes of hearing, seeing, walking,
talking, and in all the other activities of life (Alexander 1985:34).
For conductors, the development of faulty sensory awareness can be offset by the
process of Body Mapping as stated earlier in the chapter, together with routine
check-ups to note any changes. For this, the regular use of a video camera by
conductors is very beneficial to compare how conductors think they are moving
with the realities of the actual movements.
Feldenkrais regarded proprioception as the most important sense, writing in his
book The Elusive Obvious:
All mammals, men included, have skeletal muscles which are of no use at all without
senses, especially without the most important, the kinaesthetic sense. All of this
complexity is utterly useless without the autonomic nervous system and the central
nervous system. To act, to move, to feel, to think, to do anything, all of these structures
must function (Feldenkrais 1981:118).
Kinaesthetic awareness is an important feature of the Feldenkrais Method for

conductors. For example, conductors could explore an exercise linking breathing
to raising the arms by comparing the proprioceptive feedback received from the
body first from inhaling as the arms are raised, then exhaling as the arms are
raised, then deciding which feels most natural. This method presents a
kinaesthetic alternative to a verbal explanation for conducting teachers.
As earlier stated, the presence of commonalities highlights the importance of
material. The commonalities also highlight the advantages of focusing on
multiple theories, as noted earlier by Schreiber (1980), rather than concentrating
on one theory only, to the neglect of all others.
118
In the next section, I will explore the potential use of the five expressive
movement theories in the enhancement of expressive conducting.
Potential Use Laban
The advantage of using Labans ideas, according to dance teacher Ed Groff, is
that they provide an easily understood way to describe and analyse movement:
A knowledge of movement helps clarify what is needed to perform an action effectively
and efficiently. LMA (Laban Movement Analysis) practitioners, whether coaches,
teachers, or physical therapists, acknowledge that each individual fulfils the demands of
a specific task differently. A comprehensive system of analysis provides a coach,
teacher, or therapist with tools to help correct ineffective or damaging movement habits
and help students or clients develop maximal functioning. The approach can be tailored
to the unique signature and learning style of each individual student. Skill learning and
mastery can be taught from the standpoint of the movement coordination required for
effective performance, focusing on the process as well as on the result (Groff 1995).
I believe Groffs advice could also be applied to the description, analysis and
enhancement of expressive conducting movements, as LMA is flexible enough to
cater for individual differences in conducting. Individual conductors can be
described and analysed based on the combinations of weight, space, time, and
flow present in their conducting, and deficiencies in any of these areas can be
identified as a way of enhancing expressive conducting possibilities.
As stated earlier in the chapter, more research has been carried out on
applications of Laban to expressive conducting than any other expressive
movement theory, including studies by Bartee (1977), Poch (1982), Miller
(1988), Benge (1996), Billingham (2001), Yontz (2001), Neidlinger (2003), and
Gambetta (2005).
119
First was Neale Bartees thesis, in which he develops a theoretical position on
conducting using principles of body movement as explicated by Laban. Although
Bartees was a theoretical document and untested by experimentation, he came
up with the following nine general implications of Labans principles for
conductors:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Labans Effort-shape analysis system is a viable means of observation and

assessment of body movement.
Movement is a manifestation of the inner being of man.
Body movement, in and of itself, is a conscious means of communication.
Movement thinking integrates the inner world of impulses with physical
expression in movement.
Education in the concepts and techniques of Effort-shape improves ones
movement capabilities in the following areas:
a)
awareness
b)
range of expressive movement
c)
selectivity
d)
effort balance
e)
economy of effort
Labans concept of the kinesphere is a valuable aid in orienting the body in
space.
The body and its limbs are able to execute certain effort patterns more naturally
through certain shaping movements than others.
The ordering of a movement can be determined by where it originates, and how
it relates to other parts of the whole body.
Single movements are organised in patterns of pathways and sequences or
phrases (Bartee 1977:148-159).
Bartees thesis was important for being the first study to consider the potential
use of Labans theories by conductors. I consider Bartees thesis to be a seminal
work in the recognition of the value of expressive movement theories for
conductors. Bartees work provided the necessary theoretical framework for
future practical studies, the first of which was by choral conductor Gail Poch.
Pochs paper was significant, in that he was one of the first to incorporate
Labans ideas in his conducting classes, finding that:
Movement study has also proven to be extremely useful as a remedial tool for those who
do not possess innate flair, or a natural inclination for conducting. Many of these
students are vitally interested in developing effective communication skills, but they are
inhibited by their apparent awkwardness. Once they have experienced the movement
efforts and realise how a gesture is shaped so that it connects with the music, they gain
confidence and their abilities improve rapidly. Often it is these students who ultimately
become the most compelling conductors. They frequently possess a greater degree of
musicality and sensitivity than their peers who were initially more demonstrative or
better coordinated (Poch 1982:22).
An additional significance of Pochs article is that it was the first to acknowledge

the benefits gained by lower entering behaviour conductors through using Laban
principles.
120
The most recent studies that have considered the potential use of Labans
theories by conductors have been by Erica Neidlinger (2003), Timothy Yontz
(2001), and Charles Gambetta (2005).
Neidlingers thesis examined the effect of Laban Effort/Shape instruction on
young conductors perception of expressiveness across arts disciplines. She
correctly observes that many music educators struggle with the expressive
elements in conducting, arguing that expressive movement training afforded by
Laban can provide a solution:
There are many music educators who are highly skilled in beating time but are less adept
at expressing feeling. By drilling the same skills (often time beating) with young
conductors, perhaps their expressive development is inhibited. A constant focus on the
execution of beat patterns may instill such a strong kinaesthetic memory that departing
from those patterns becomes increasingly difficult. Instead, a better approach may be
to introduce the expressive elements of movement through which students can convey
inner intentions early in their training to allow for the simultaneous development of
expression and skill (Neidlinger 2003:6-7).
Expressive conducting, according to Neidlinger, is learnable at the outset through

the application of Laban principles:
Expressive movement is often misconstrued as a mystical ability that cannot be put into
words. On the contrary, the elements of expressive movement can be dissected and
analysed in a specific manner, thereby making expressive evaluation an objective task.
If the use of expressive movement (through observation, kinaesthetic application, and
evaluation) was introduced and reinforced to a beginning conducting class perhaps
students would emerge with enhanced expressive abilities (Neidlinger 2003:25).
Neidlinger therefore views the bodily-kinaesthetic domain in combination with

visual observation of self and others as important ingredients in the acquisition of
enhanced expressive abilities. She also regards expressive movement as a
tangible and learnable element. Yet she laments the fact that no instrumental
conducting textbook emulates Jordans Evoking Sound in beginning with Laban
movement exercises (Neidlinger 2003:138), as does Yontz (Yontz 2001:108).
This has now occurred in Lead and Inspire by Garofalo and Battisti (2005), in
which the entire third chapter is devoted to movement exercises, including Laban
concepts of weight, space, time, and flow. Neidlinger also observes that there has
been no research to this time on the effect of expressive movement training on
conductors other than at the beginner stage. She suggests that it would be
interesting to discover if already highly expressive conductors received any
expressive movement training, or experience in other arts disciplines. This has
been done in my survey of experienced Melbourne secondary school conductors
discussed throughout this thesis, results indicating that 36% of these conductors
121
had undertaken expressive movement activities since they first started to
conduct. Although this is a low number, those respondents who had undertaken
expressive movement activities did find them beneficial47.
In the early stages of Charles Gambettas thesis on creating a fresh approach to
the teaching of conducting gesture through the principles of Laban Movement
Analysis, Gambetta argues:
Clearly the art of conducting should be as firmly rooted in the art and science of human
movement as it is in the art of music. Mastery of either discipline without a
complementary mastery of the other has been insufficient for nearly two hundred years.
Metronomic precision combined with strict adherence to traditional beat patterns (the
hallmarks of time-beating) are simply not enough (Gambetta 2005:7).
Gambetta brought to this study his ten-year experience with Laban Movement
Analysis, which he used to design a study in which four conductors, following a
conducting pre-test, completed five weekly one-hour sessions on Laban
Movement Analysis (LMA), after which they were given a conducting post-test
(Gambetta 2005:20-21).
Among the resulting implications of Gambettas study, he found that:
The researchers application of LMA establishes a truly viable alternative to the
methodical use of metrically based beat patterns as the dominant organising principle of
conducting technique.
Conductors cling to beat patterns because they are widely taught and because they create
a convenient physical context (not a connection) for musical events in the absence of a
richer, more effective framework for the conception and execution of conducting
gestures. Beat patterns work to some extent, but in the hands of conductors with little or
no connection between the expressive qualities of their gestures and elements of musical
expression, they rob music of its breath, its continuity, its very life (Gambetta 2005:171172).
Gambetta claims that music performance in general and conducting in particular

are better understood through the principles of LMA, which recognises that
movement is also the channel through which internal musical abstractions
become transformed into audible musical expression, while Dalcroze
eurhythmics creates responses to external musical stimuli (Gambetta 2005:9091). I consider Gambettas dismissal of the effects of Dalcroze eurhythmics on
internal stimuli to be far-fetched, unsupported by writings shown later in the
chapter by Claire McCoy, particularly in consideration of the amount of
proprioceptive feedback provided by the study of Dalcroze eurhythmics.
47
See Appendix B.
122
In the training of conductors, Labans concepts of weight, space, time and flow,
plus the eight effort actions, make powerful teaching and imagery tools. A
conductors use of space relates perfectly to dynamic control48, weight relates to
dynamics and texture, time relates to tempo, and flow relates to style and
articulation. The effort actions make excellent and easily understood descriptors
of mood and style. Practising floating and gliding effort actions, for example,
enhance the ability of young conductors to be able to convey legato gestures,
while practising dabbing and flicking effort actions enhance staccato gestures,
simply and with a minimum of verbal explanation required.
Labans theories, as indicated in the survey of university conducting teachers, are

the most widely known and used of the five expressive movement theories. The
other theories have either not been used as extensively, or conducting teachers
are ignorant as to their potential. Such is the case with the theories of Dalcroze.
Potential Use Dalcroze
Given the implications of Dalcrozes employment of body movement and the
linkage between movement and sound, it is remarkable that there has been so
little written about the potential relationship between Dalcrozes work and
expressive conducting. No theses have been undertaken in this area, although
papers by Albert Pfrimmer, John Dickson and Claire McCoy have touched on the
subject, particularly in the area of choral conducting.
48
In the mid-1980s, I witnessed a magical performance of Mahlers Symphony No.1, conducted

by Claudio Abbado. At the opening of the symphony, Abbado was almost motionless, coaxing a
barely audible pianissimo out of the London Symphony Orchestra. As the movement developed,
Abbado increased the size and space of his gestures to build to the climax of the movment. I
found this to be an object lesson in space relating to dynamics.
123
It is claimed by Spector that conductors Wilhelm Furtwngler, Rudolph Ganz
and Albert Pfrimmer were strongly influenced by eurhythmics, although Spector
provides no real evidence to support this claim with regard to Furtwngler.
Spector describes the presentation made by Pfrimmer at the First Rhythmic
Conference in Geneva in 1926, outlining the benefits of eurhythmics for
conductors:
The Dalcroze method, he remarked, is the key to preparing conductors; it has its
pedagogic influence, accentuates and intensifies rhythmic sense, sharpens the hearing
for harmony and for phrase, strengthens the musical memory, and develops the ability to
express, through mime or plastic, a form of body expression. The latter point, he said, is
in itself a system of expressing rhythmic movement and feeling. Besides the
development of all musical faculties he stressed the value of concentration on left hand
and right hand independence (Spector 1990:269).
Toward the conclusion of his presentation, Primmer emphasises the importance

of the connection between body and mind for conductors that can be provided by
the Dalcroze method:
The art of the conductor is not simply an imitation or a variant of rhythmic gymnastics,
but a very special and personal art. He has his own particular and individual technique,
which goes beyond the framework of rhythmic gymnastics. However these gymnastics
provide him with a great part of his elements, even with the conditions sine qua non of
his technique: the psycho-physical disposition. Given that the gestures of the conductor
must express the sensations, the sentiments and the ideas of the music to be played, it is
necessary that orders given by the brain and the consequent actions be in perfect
harmony without stopping, without impediments, without irregularities. It is therefore
necessary to eliminate all resistances to teach the future conductor to achieve complete
relaxation of the body and the mind and then to develop his spontaneity, the ease and
intelligibility of his gestures (Pfrimmer 1926:191-192).
Pfrimmer here argues that Dalcroze work enhances the ability of a conductor to
personalise his or her gestures according to the conductors own physical
characteristics. Bodily-kinaesthetic learning is paramount in learning Dalcroze,
rather than following verbal instructions, or copying another conductors
gestures.
124
Taking the same approach of developing individuality in conducting students,
choral conductor John Dickson urges the training of conductors through the
methodology of kinaesthetics as advocated by Dalcroze. Dickson explains:
Movement has not generally been used with adults or with conductors. This is
unfortunate, for although one would not necessarily deny the necessity of rudimentary
skills, many conducting programs often limit instruction by teaching only abstract
mechanics and techniques of gesture which, in many cases, are divorced from the music
making process. As a result, conducting robots are created who understand the
mechanics of gesture, but have little concept of the music itself its shape, flow, and
direction.
In my teaching of conducting, I attempt to focus on the connection between the body
and conducting gestures. Whether I concentrate on a feeling of lift in the upper body,
facial expression, bodily position, or dance, my approach is the physical development of
gestures. Unless students gain a broad understanding of the concepts behind the
gestures, their knowledge of music remains incomplete. In addition to this, the concepts
of bodily movement I teach are born out of my own kinaesthetic experiences with
music. My challenge, then, lies not in simply teaching gesture, but in opening students
up to the complete kinaesthetic process (Dickson 1992:15-17).
Dicksons teaching is therefore based on the view that kinaesthetic learning is

more thorough and holistic than abstract mechanics, which is a view I share.
Choral conductor Claire McCoy has written one of the few articles on the subject
of eurhythmics and conducting teaching, and states that the conductor uses the
body as a medium of musical expression:
How can musical imagination and the physical ability to communicate musical ideas be
developed in conductors? A promising approach lies in supplementing the traditional
study of conducting with experiences in whole-body movement. One research study
found that Labans principles of movement can be successfully employed in the training
of conductors. An even more comprehensive approach to training the body to be a
vehicle for musical expression is Dalcroze eurhythmics. In the study of eurhythmics,
music and movement are inextricably linked; eurhythmics is a process of education in
music that engages the whole body in response to music (McCoy 1994:21).
Having used eurhythmics exercises in workshops with conductors myself, such

as those provided in The Rhythm Inside (Schnebly-Black and Moore 1997:117140), I am in full agreement with McCoy as to the benefits of eurhythmics for
conductors. An initial warm-up activity, for example, focuses awareness on
breathing and various parts of the body. Using music improvised on the spot,
conductors practise moving different parts of their bodies to reflect the beat.
Changes to the localisation of the beat should be smooth and instantaneous.
Conductors then step the beats, alternating between forward and backward
movements. Changes should be smooth and instantaneous, with almost no time
to think between the instruction and the reaction. Conductors then practise
internalising the beat through sound and silence. When the music stops,
125
conductors should continue to feel the pulse of the music. As a variation, the
conductors silently feel the beat while the music plays, and show the beat in
some way when the music stops. Conductors should change the speed of their
movements as determined by the pulse of the music heard. They should show
different pulses simultaneously in different parts of their bodies. Finally,
conductors respond to the music in canonic form, such exercises being
particularly challenging for conductors proprioceptive sense. Canonic exercises
require a relaxed concentration and heightened awareness. They are excellent for
sensing movements, and developing fine motor skills within the body. Best of all
for conductors, these exercises are all carried out through the medium of music.
Potential Use Delsarte
Shawn found that one of the problems with studying Delsarte is that the man
himself never published any of his own writings, feeling that his ideas were still
evolving and incomplete. Steele Mackaye, Delsartes most famous pupil, and
anointed by his master as his successor, lectured and taught all his life, but died
before publishing any of his own work on Delsarte (see Shawn 1974:12). Both
Hecht in her thesis (Hecht 1971:9-18) and Shawn in his book (Shawn 1974:118119) describe some of the difficulties interpreting Delsartes own surviving
writings, which are stored in the library at Louisiana State University. Most of
these writings appear as random ideas, scribbled down on scraps of paper,
lacking consistency of form or thought. Delsartes ideas were instead
documented by his students, such as LAbbe Delaumosne and students of
Mackaye, many of who took copious verbatim notes of Delsartes lectures and
classes.
126
Conductors, conducting teachers and writers on conducting have largely ignored
the work of Delsarte, as shown in the two surveys. Gregory Lynes (1979) article
is one of the few to acknowledge the relevance of Delsartes theories to
expressive conducting, Lyne urging conductors to be more than mere time
beaters. He makes reference to the expression charts set out by Delsarte as a
method of getting more expression into conducting gestures.
Towards the end of his paper, Lyne writes:
I should like to entertain the idea that through a conscious awareness of the Delsartian
ideas and the utilisation of these basic principles, the communication with our singers
may be heightened, and a more artistic musical product may be the result. The
awareness of nonverbal and gestural communication may well enable us to avoid some
of those moments in rehearsal when we might be accused of uninspiring conducting
(Lyne 1979:24).
My surveys have shown that conductors use less Delsarte than the other
movement theories, possibly due to their theoretical nature, which provide less
practical opportunities for usage. Also, many conductors may simply be unaware
of Delsarte. Hecht shows how the popularity and mis-interpretation of Delsartes
ideas in America in the 1880s and 1890s may have caused a backlash of neglect
in the twentieth century that continues into the twenty-first, due to the mistaken
idea that Delsartes teachings were only dramatic poses (Hecht 1971:77-78).
Nevertheless, I consider study of Delsartes charts to be useful for conductors, as
are knowledge of the Delsartian concepts of oppositions, parallelisms and
successions, and the Nine Laws of Motion, as they provide a physical guide for
expressive movement possibilities. For example, oppositions (any two parts of
the body moving in opposite directions simultaneously) can assist conductors to
convey strength in gesture, parallelisms (two parts of the body moving
simultaneously in the same direction) convey weakness, and successions (any
movement passing through whole or any part of the body) can assist in the
expression of emotion in gesture. Earlier in the chapter, I provided examples of
how oppositions and successions can aid the development of right and left hands
working together. I showed how the use of Delsartes cube (see p. 94) assists
more variety in left hand gestures. I also gave examples of how the Laws of
Altitude, Sequence and Form (from the Nine Laws of Motion) can be used by
conductors to increase their expressive movement potential.
In a 2005 thesis, Kayoko Dan advocated exercises to activate facial expression in
instrumental conductors. As part of Dans research, he experimented with the
127
angle of conductors heads while conducting, in order to assist with the portrayal
of different emotions, finding that altering the head angle enabled different
emotions to be communicated more easily (Dan 2005:27-28). Following on from
Dans findings, conductors attempting to develop their range of emotional
portrayal could use Delsartes chart of attitudes for the head (see Fig. 18 earlier
in the chapter).
Potential Use Alexander

The Alexander Technique has assisted many musicians over the years, including,
according to Alexander teacher Pedro De Alcantara, conductors Adrian Boult
and Colin Davis. An article written on the application of the Alexander
Technique that makes reference to conductors is Hillary Mayers and Linda
Babits article in the Music Educators Journal, which states:
Conductors may perceive how their own physical movement affects the sound that they
elicit from their ensembles. A band instructor will better understand how instruments
become part of the physical balance of the musicians. A choral conductor will
experience how postural distortion can interfere with vocal quality and breath capacity.
Ultimately, in each of these cases, the teachers good physical use will serve as a model
for his students (Mayers and Babits 1987:54).
I have certainly observed the reverse to be also the case, in that conductors who
exhibit poor physical use are at worst mirrored by their ensembles posture, or at
best, totally ignored.
De Alcantaras book on the Alexander Technique is written primarily for
musicians, with the foreword written by conductor Colin Davis, who comments
on his own introduction to the Alexander Technique:
I shall always remain grateful to Sir Adrian Boult, who sent me to Wilfred Barlow for
my first Alexander lesson. My boy! he said, youll be a cripple if you go on like that!
That was some forty years ago. Now my wife is an Alexander teacher herself and our
family of musicians takes lessons from her. It is clear that we are all convinced of the
importance of the Technique (De Alcantara 1997:xi).
De Alcantara refers frequently to two conductors who he holds up as models of

Alexander principles, Wilhelm Furtwngler and Leopold Stokowski, although
there is no evidence that either actually studied the Alexander Technique. Both
of these conductors, however, did possess the undoubted ability to communicate
with the musicians through their movements.
128
As mentioned earlier, one particular application of the Alexander Technique for
musicians (and particularly conductors) that has recently come to light is Body
Mapping. While not directly mentioning body mapping, Alexander teacher
Michael Gelb advocates knowledge of the workings of our bodies (Gelb
1994:128):
An understanding of the workings of all the joints is crucial to good Use of the self. Our
joints not only make movement possible, they are also centres of our kinaesthetic
feedback system. If a joint is misused the kinaesthetic information coming from it to the
brain will be distorted, leading to further misuse. The simple fact is the majority of us do
not know where any of the major joints of the body are located, and we misuse ourselves
accordingly (Gelb 1994:128).
To this point, Maribeth Knaub has written the only thesis about body mapping,
presenting it as an instructional strategy for teaching the Alexander Technique to
music students. Although this thesis contains no references to conducting, two of
its findings are relevant to it. The first relates to the position of the right hand
when conducting. Knaub explains:
An example of a functional misconception is that few people realise that the ulna (in the
forearm) is the stable bone and the radius rotates around it. This affects the alignment of
the thumb and the other fingers when playing an instrument. Tendonitis can result from
this problem (the mis-alignment of the ulna and radius) (Knaub 1999:40).
As was observed in Chapter Three, in developing baton technique in conductors,

conducting textbooks by Demaree and Moses and Green teach that the baton
should serve as an extension of the right arm, the implication being that the
baton should stretch out in a straight line from the arm. Body Mapping, however,
maintains that this is an unnatural position for the wrist, examination of the arm
structure appearing to support this finding (see Fig. 5) (Calais-Germain
1993:144).
The second significant finding occurs in the Recommendations for Future
Study section, in which Knaub states:
Further research can open the door wider and wider for music teachers and their students
to understand what enables musicians to be free of unnecessary tension as they play or
sing. A suggestion for future study is to combine the Alexander Technique with other
approaches that view the mind-body as one entity. Very beneficial results could come
out of such a study (Knaub 1999:109).
Knaubs recommendation backs up my contention that it is the knowledge and

experience of a number of movement theories that combine to assist a conductor
to develop more expressive gestures.
129
One of the more recent applications of Body Mapping to conducting was the
release of a companion video in 2002 to Jordans textbook Evoking Sound:
Fundamentals of Choral Conducting and Rehearsing. This video, Evoking
Sound: Body Mapping Principles and Basic Conducting Technique, also makes
reference to lining up the right hand little finger with the ulna, backing up the
findings of Knaub (Jordan and Buchanan 2002).
Conductors wishing to effectively use the Alexander Technique must inhibit the
desire to look right or stand up straight, or to copy other conductors. Instead the
focus is on sensory awareness and allowing the head and neck to be free. There is
a total and continual vigilance required to maintain the Primary Control, which is
process-related, rather than aiming to achieve a particular end product.
Conductors through observation should construct their own body maps to gain an
awareness of the realities of their body structure and use, instead of their faulty
perceptions of their structure and use.
Potential Use - Feldenkrais
As can be seen from the surveys earlier in this chapter, musicians are largely
ignorant of the benefits of the Feldenkrais Method, little having been written
linking the Feldenkrais Method to music. Rozanna Weinberger interviewed
Frank Wildman, director of the Movement Studies Institute of America, on the
benefits of the Feldenkrais Method for musicians, Weinberger commenting:
But the Feldenkrais Method asks, How does one physically learn? How can we take
you back to that place where youre not even thinking about improving, but rather
much like a baby learning to take its first steps sensing body movements
kinaesthetically? When we do things for the pleasure inherent in the movement, then
were working with the true foundations for coordination (Weinberger 1999:77).
It is the development of movement awareness that the Feldenkrais Method

allows that is of particular benefit to conductors. There are currently no theses on
the application of the Feldenkrais Method to expressive conducting.
Although Feldenkrais has less practical applications for conductors than Laban
and Dalcroze, for example, one of the useful concepts of the Feldenkrais Method
is that it works to re-organise patterns of movement to achieve maximum
efficiency and ease of use, which is relevant for the enhancement of expressive
conducting. For example, Feldenkrais describes an exercise in which the
130
movement of the eyes organises the movement of the body (Feldenkrais
1990:145-154). Beginning with an arm swinging movement first to the right,
then to the left, conductors should first try this movement with eyes closed, just
observing the smoothness of the movements and noticing which part of the body
turns first: the eyes, the head, or the pelvis. Conductors should then try the
movements with eyes open, noticing if the eyes now move in a different way
than before. They should compare the quality of the movements with eyes open
and eyes closed to see if there is a difference in the smoothness and fluidity of
the movements one way or the other. Conductors should also sit on the floor and
move the left hand across the body as far to the right as possible, following the
movement with the eyes. Through the use of the eyes, the turning angle is
widened. According to Feldenkrais, the eyes play an important role in
coordinating the musculature of the body, greater even than the role played by
the neck muscles (Feldenkrais 1990:148). Eye use also has a decisive influence
on the manner in which the neck muscles contract. In my observations of
conductors, muscle tension appears to be shown greatest by the tensing of the
neck muscles. If conductors through the improved use of their eyes (and eye
contact is shown in Chapter Six to be one of the most important forms of nonverbal communication) can reduce muscle tension, then that is a significant
enhancement to their conducting.
Using awareness, conductors can develop improved efficiency of movement,
therefore eliminating unnecessary or distracting movements. Useful examples of
Feldenkrais lessons are provided by Shafarman, whose fourth lesson in
particular, Uninhibited Breathing, (Shafarman 1997:102-115) is of value to
conductors. As mentioned earlier, effective and efficient breathing is one of the
most important communication tools for conductors. The lesson consists of
conductors lying on their backs, observing breathing, observing abdominal
movement, and controlling breathing; performing similar movements lying on
their fronts, and sitting in chairs. Apart from the importance of breathing for
communication of the preparatory beat, breathing has the significant benefit of
relaxing conductors before performances.
131
In this chapter, I have explored how the use of the five expressive movement
theories selected (Laban, Dalcroze, Delsarte, Alexander, and Feldenkrais) can
enhance expressive conducting at all levels of entering behaviour, and examined
commonalities of these five expressive movement theories.
Although acting has been used by a majority of conducting teachers, other
movement activities have failed to achieve general support, however, most
teachers who have used movement activities have found them to be effective
with their conducting students.
Taking into consideration the data received from both surveys, I selected five
movement activities for examination in this study; those of Laban, Dalcroze,
Delsarte, Alexander, and Feldenkrais, not necessarily for being the most popular
movement activities, but for providing the strongest frameworks in terms of
movement theories and principles which could be applied to expressive
conducting.
Studies of Labans ideas on conducting by Bartee (1977), Poch (1982), Miller
(1988), Benge (1996), Yontz (2001), Neidlinger (2003), and Gambetta (2005),
have been written. More research has been carried out on applications of Laban
to conducting than any other expressive movement theory, although the glut of
research into Laban in comparison with the dearth of research into other
expressive movement theories and their relationship to conducting teaching is
difficult to fathom.
Given the implications of Dalcrozes employment of body movement and the
linkage between movement and sound, it is remarkable that there has been so
little written about the potential relationship between Dalcrozes work and
expressive conducting. No theses have been undertaken in this area, although
papers by Pfrimmer (1926), Dickson (1992) and McCoy (1994) have touched on
the subject.
Conductors, conducting teachers and writers on conducting have largely ignored
the work of Delsarte, as shown in the two surveys. Lynes (1979) article
represents one of the few to acknowledge the relevance of Delsartes theories to
expressive conducting.
The Alexander Technique has assisted many musicians, including conductors
Adrian Boult and Colin Davis. Documents written on the application of the
132
Alexander Technique by Mayers and Babits (1987), and De Alcantara (1997)
make reference to conductors.
One particular application of the Alexander Technique for musicians (and
particularly conductors) that has recently come to light is Body Mapping. To this
point, the only thesis written about body mapping, by Knaub (1999), presents it
as an instructional strategy for teaching the Alexander Technique to music
students.
As can be seen from the surveys shown in the Appendices, musicians are
ignorant of the benefits of the Feldenkrais Method, little having been written
linking the Feldenkrais Method to music. There are currently no theses on the
application of the Feldenkrais Method to expressive conducting.
I observed four commonalities of relevance to conducting among the five
expressive movement theories examined. The appearance of commonalities in
the five featured expressive movement theories highlight the importance of the
material.
Firstly, all five are strongly in favour of the integration between body and mind,
which is vitally important for conductors, whose gestures must reflect the music
and thought processes happening in their brain. Supported by the five expressive
movement theories examined in this thesis, I believe that developing the mindbody connection contributes to enhanced expressive movement and non-verbal
communication in conducting.
Secondly, all five represent an educational process, and as such, are highly
relevant to the teaching of expressive conducting, particularly in the early stages.
Laban, Dalcroze, Delsarte, Alexander and Feldenkrais were all gifted teachers,
who not only taught their techniques to others, but also trained others to teach
their techniques in their own right.
Thirdly, all five are teachable to anyone, not just those with high entering
behaviour. Being teachable, they should be employed in the earliest stages of
conductor training. According to statements made by Laban, Dalcroze, Delsarte,
Alexander, and Feldenkrais, even high entering behaviour conductors would
benefit from increased movement awareness. Conductors with low or moderate
entering behaviour can still achieve their maximum potential through expressive
movement training.
133
Finally, the importance of the sixth kinaesthetic sense known as proprioception is
acknowledged in all five of the expressive movement theories. I argued in the
previous chapter that the development of proprioception is essential for all
conductors regardless of entering behaviour, as all conductors must have
awareness of the position of their bodies in space.
So far in this thesis, I have emphasised the importance of the bodily-kinaesthetic
domain to the enhancement of expressive conducting. In the next chapter, I will
investigate how the expressive elements of conducting are communicated,
emphasising the importance of non-verbal communication, and introduce three
different gestural modes, which allow for a varied range of gestures depending
on the musical circumstances faced by the conductor.
134
CHAPTER SIX THE USE OF NON-VERBAL SKILLS AND
CONCEPTS TO ENHANCE EXPRESSIVE CONDUCTING
In this chapter, the main aim is to highlight the enhancement of expressive
conducting through the use of non-verbal communication skills in conducting,
through an examination of the categories and coding of non-verbal
communication available to conductors, and an exploration of the use of
kinesics49 by conductors. Additional aims are to examine the use of observation
and recording of non-verbal communication of relevance to expressive
conducting, and to consider the use of non-verbal communication, facilitated by
the declamatory and narrative modes as described in a thesis by Christopher
Koch (2003), to enhance expressive conducting.
In the first part of this chapter, I will investigate how the expressive elements of
conducting are communicated, given that emphasising communication is a vital
element in the enhancement of expressive conducting to all levels of entering
behaviour. The discussion will be informed by statements of writers Frederick
Harris (2001), Philip Hart (1983) and Barry Green (2003), and conductors
Claudio Abbado (see Matheopoulos 1982), Charles Munch (1955) and Pierre
Boulez (see Matheopoulos 1982). My own experience of conducting and the
results from my surveys suggest that non-verbal communication is the essential
element in expressive conducting for all levels of entering behaviour.
In the second part of this chapter, I will discuss non-verbal communication
research by the scholars Judee Burgoon, David Buller, Gill Woodall (1996), Paul
Ekman and Wallace Friesen (1969), and conducting research by Faye Julian
(1989) and Gary Sousa (1989) as part of my introduction to the categories and
coding of non-verbal communication available to conductors.
In the third part of this chapter, I will discuss the work of the writers and
researchers William James (1932), Mary Key (1975), John Bulwer (2003),
Michael Argyle (1975), Steven Beebe (1974), Ekman and Friesen, and Albert
Mehrabian (1972), neurologist Frank Wilson (1999), and conductor Robert
Grechesky (1985) to show how the use of kinesics can enhance expressive
49
The term kinesics is defined by anthropologist Ray Birdwhistell as the study of body motion
as related to the non-verbal aspects of inter-personal communication (Birdwhistell 1952:3).
135
conducting, including posture, movements of the hands and arms, and especially
the use of the face and eyes.
In the fourth part of this chapter, I will present methods advocated by Norman
Leyden (1968), Jan Roshong (1978), Thring Brm and Penny Boyes Braem
(2001), Teresa Marrin (1996), Teresa Marrin Nakra (2000), and Jessica Kun
(2004) to observe and record non-verbal communication behaviours of relevance
to expressive conducting, including movement analysis, film, observational
instruments, and computer technology.
In the fifth part of this chapter, I will discuss the arguments for and against the
universality and the cultural context of emotional expression in non-verbal
communication. Charles Darwins view was that the expression of emotions is
innate and universal throughout human-kind, however, the anthropologist Ray
Birdwhistell (1970) argued that emotional expression is learned and culturally
based. Ekman (1998) takes a third position, arguing that emotions are universal,
but that the context for their expression is cultural. Ekmans findings propose
that for conductors, a limited set of universal emotional expressions are learnable
under the cultural display rules that tradition has set down for a conductor. This
tradition permits verbal and non-verbal communication in rehearsal but only nonverbal communication through facial expression, including eye contact, and the
motion and attitude of a conductors hands, arms and body in performance.
In the final parts of this chapter, I will outline the advantages of non-verbal
communication for expressive conducting, arguing that Kochs declamatory and
narrative modes can be effectively taught to conductors through the use of
illustrators, regulators and affect displays. Taken at face value, non-verbal
communication would appear to be an impossibly broad and disjointed area for
conducting teachers to cover. However, kinesics including posture, hand and arm
movements, incorporating universally known emblems, expressive illustrators
and regulators; and eye contact and facial interest, incorporating affect displays
are all learnable expressive communication tools.
136
Communicating the Expressive Elements in Conducting
As conducting is a silent art, a conductor elicits a response from the musicians
via his or her physical gestures. Choral conductor Jameson Marvin associates a
conductors arm movements with their realisation of sound:
Physical gestures require energy and they generate energy. The quality of the response is
a mirror of the quality of the energy projected. The more meaningful the conducting
gesture, the more focused the energy. The more focused the energy, the greater the
power to elicit the desired response. Onward flows the circle of energy from conductor
to chorus and back to conductor. The cycle is revitalising for both. This process is real
but invisible; it is thus often felt to be spiritual, and its essence inspires and enriches the
lives of the participants (Marvin 1988:26).
The communication of energy and focus, which Marvin regards as an important

aspect of gesture, is often missed in conducting training programs, according to
conductor and teacher Thomas Dvorak, who states:
Conducting classes are too pattern oriented. Instead we should educate young
conductors to develop a greater responsiveness to music, to get their feelings involved
and allow their faces and minds to open up, to share their involvement in the music.
Our goal should be to teach students to add their inner-most feelings to their physical
skills. The big task is to communicate the essence of the music (see Knight 2004a:16).
Dvorak cites the example of the mime artist Erwin Bud Beyer of Northwestern
University50 who teaches communication via subtle movements of the face and
torso. These physical areas most clearly communicate feelings to other people,
feelings that are not easily or clearly communicated verbally.
So, how important for a conductor is the ability to communicate? In my survey
of experienced secondary school conductors, I asked them to list the most
important attributes of an effective conductor (Table 13) and an expressive
conductor (Table 14):
50
Bud Beyer has been successfully presenting communication workshops for conductors around
the USA for twenty-five years.
137
Ability to Communicate
Balance between Functional & Artistic
Clarity
Decisive
Efficient Technique
Expressive
Humour
Interpretation
Leadership
Listening Skills
Motivator
Musicianship
Patience
Preparation
Rhythm
Score Study
Strength of Personality
Stylistic Understanding
Teaching Ability
Timing
Understands Musicians
Table 13
12
2
9
1
2
1
4
5
2
3
2
2
5
1
2
6
8
1
1
1
3
2
2
12
29%
5%
21%
2%
5%
2%
10%
12%
5%
7%
5%
5%
12%
2%
5%
14%
19%
2%
2%
2%
7%
5%
5%
29%
Important Attributes of an Effective Conductor
The most important attributes of an effective conductor, as listed by respondents,

were the ability to communicate and an understanding of musicians (both 29%).
The next most important attributes were clarity (21%) and rehearsal techniques
(19%).
Baton Control
Clarity
Communication
Encouraging Attitude
Ensemble Empathy
Expressive Movements
Inspirational
Interpretation
Joy in Music Making
Keeping Time
Knowledge of Score
Listening Skills
Manual Independence
Musicianship
No Excessive Gestures
Phrasing
Physical Embodiment of Music
Range of Gestures
Sense of Humour
Suspend Time Keeping
Table 14
3
3
14
1
3
6
4
2
3
2
2
2
2
7
6
1
3
2
1
3
2
7%
7%
33%
2%
7%
14%
10%
5%
7%
5%
5%
5%
5%
17%
14%
2%
7%
5%
2%
7%
5%
Important Attributes of an Expressive Conductor
138
The most important attributes of an expressive conductor, as listed by
respondents, were communication (33%), musicianship (17%), expressive
movements and no excessive gestures (each 14%).
Communication can occur in two forms, verbal or non-verbal. Although clear
and succinct verbal communication is important to a conductor in a rehearsal
situation, only non-verbal communication is normally available to a conductor in
performance. Although good communication skills are regarded by practising
conductors as the most important attribute of expressive conductors, conducting
teachers, as shown by my surveys, appear to lack an effective way to teach nonverbal communication skills to lower entering behaviour students.
The twelve conductors surveyed by Frederick Harris51 all agreed that non-verbal
gestures must reflect the nature of the music and that the use of the face and the
eyes are the most powerful means by which a conductor can communicate how
he or she feels (Harris 2001:48). Conductor Claudio Abbado also agrees, adding
the importance of the hands as well as the face and eyes (see Matheopoulos
1982:74), features which Philip Hart noticed in his observation of Abbados
communication with an orchestra (Hart 1983:88). Of conductor Daniel
Barenboim, Hart observes:
Although Barenboim is an extremely articulate talker about music, he curbs his verbal
facility on the podium. He communicates a great deal with gestures that are extremely
orchestral for a musician so completely at home at the keyboard. Players sitting in
front of him all agree that he communicates a great deal with his eyes, an observation
that will surprise no one who has talked face to face with him (Hart 1983:30-32).
Barenboims eyes were a vital factor in his non-verbal communication with

musicians. Conductor Charles Munch confirms the importance of facial
expression and gesture in expressively communicating with musicians, adding:
The look in his eyes is often more important than the motion of a baton or the
position of a hand (Munch 1955:70).
In providing advice for teaching young conductors, composer-conductor Pierre
Boulez states:
The first and most important thing you have to learn is communication, how to explain
what you want, not always verbally, but through gestures. And it was interesting for
me to observe at a conducting class I once taught in Basle how some students who knew
the scores well and were also technically gifted, still could not get through to the
orchestra because they lacked this ability to communicate (see Matheopoulos 1982:33).
51
Frank Battisti, Frederick Fennell, James Hainlen, Craig Kirchhoff, Stephen Massey, William
McManus, Gustav Meier, Weston Noble, Larry Rachleff, Malcolm Rowell, Gunther Schuller,
and Stanislaw Skrowaczewski.
139
Boulezs observation reinforces my contention that conductors with a low
entering behaviour for expressive communication struggle to work effectively
with ensembles, regardless of the technique and musical ability of the conductor.
Conductor and teacher John Knight often observes a transformation of
conductors when they get on the podium to conduct, suggesting that they
concentrate so intently on what they have to do as conductors, that their faces
assume a blank expression of concentration, rather than expressively
communicating with the musicians through facial interest. Knight states: Some
directors talk personably in the hallway, but when they jump on the podium a
metamorphosis occurs. They become so stiff that tension in their back is apparent
from the first downbeat, even at a dynamic of piano (see Ling 1998:14). I have
observed this same phenomenon among conductors many times: an articulate and
animated person off the podium, who uses a variety of hand and facial gestures
and good eye contact, becomes an expressionless, characterless conducting
automaton a few minutes later on the podium.
Barry Green suggests that the phenomenon of entrainment is an important aspect
of expressive communication52. According to Green, entrainment was first
documented by Dutch scientist Christian Huygens, who noticed in 1665 that two
pendulum clocks, mounted side by side on a wall, would swing together in
precise rhythm; in fact, they would hold their mutual beat far beyond their
makers capacity to match them in mechanical accuracy (Green 2003:23-24).
Entrainment can also occur between musicians in performance, such as between
a conductor and an ensemble. Green describes the entrainment process in music:
This isnt one person following the other, it is more a matter of the two artists
responding to music that was within each of them hearing it and responding to
its shape, sound, rhythm, and character (Green 2003:15).
Green also believes that the entrainment process can involve the audience as well
as the performers:
When musicians entrain, they merge and synchronise their actions. These synchronised
actions in turn have the potential to reach and entrain the audience as well. And when
that happens, as the final crash is heard or last long note fades at the end of a piece, the
audience is one, as you can tell from the stunned silence and thunderous applause
(Green 2003:24).
52
Entrainment is defined by Clayton, Sager, and Will as: a process whereby two rhythmic
processes interact with each other in such a way that they adjust towards and eventually lock in
to a common phase and/or periodicity (see Clayton, Sager, and Will 2004:2).
140
Although the process of entrainment has been recognised for over three hundred
years, the effect of entrainment on the communication between conductor and
ensemble has yet to be researched. Although outside the scope of this thesis, it is
highly recommended for future research.
Conductor Malcolm Rowell, who teaches conducting at the University of
Massachusetts, describes the importance of using drama teachers and non-verbal
communication experts when working with student conductors, as words are
inadequate to describe feelings:
The bottom issue here is describe what it means to smell a rose, or describe to me
what it means to be in love. And words are just very inadequate. But you can express to
someone what it means to play beautifully, you can express to someone what it means to
be in love it might be a glistening of the eye, it may be reaching out, or it may be an
opening up, it may be something as simple as a smile (see Harris 2001:62-63).
As previously stated, based on my own experience of conducting and on the

results from my surveys, I believe that non-verbal communication is at the
essence of enhancing expressive conducting to all levels of entering behaviour.
Categories and Coding of Non-Verbal Communication Used by
Conductors
From my experience of the teaching of conducting, I maintain that it is important
for conductors to be aware of the categories and coding of non-verbal
communication available to conductors so that they can better understand and
analyse the non-verbal behaviour that they use. Each of the five expressive
movement theories discussed in the previous chapter emphasise the employment
of movements that convey a unified meaning through the whole body, rather than
disconnected gestures. Warren Lamb, a student of Laban, makes the distinction
between postural movement, which involves coordination through all parts of the
body, and gestural movement, in which only part or parts of the body are
involved (Lamb 1965:14-15). Lamb writes:
If there are frequent occasions when Gesture merges into Postural adjustment there is no
feeling of artificiality. If many Gestures are observed which do not merge and therefore
appear unrelated to Posture, or if there is so little postural adjustment for them to merge
into, a distinct feeling of artificiality is created (Lamb 1965:32).
For conductors, who routinely use gestural movement as part of their conducting
technique, it is important that they allow these gestures to merge into a
141
complimentary postural adjustment in order that their movements appear sincere
and convincing. Studying the different categories and coding of non-verbal
behaviour aids the enhancement of expressive conducting, as will be shown.
Since the 1960s, there has been an explosion of research into non-verbal
communication, as shown by the work of researchers Paul Ekman and Wallace
Friesen (1969), Michael Argyle (1975), Judee Burgoon (1996), Mary Key
(1975), and Albert Mehrabian (1972). According to Burgoon, Buller and
Woodall, for communication to occur there must be a sender and one or more
receivers. The sender communicates with the receiver(s) either intentionally or
unintentionally (Burgoon, Buller, and Woodall 1996:10-13). For example, the
sender/conductor who winks at the percussion section in an ensemble during a
performance to show his approval of a well-played piece of music does so
intentionally, while the sender who yawns while listening to a long speech does
so either intentionally or unintentionally, depending on whether they were aware
of sending the yawning signal while it was occurring.
It would be easy, then, to say that anything interpreted by the receiver as a
message is communication, however, this definition is rather too broad for
practical purposes. As advocated by Burgoon, Buller and Woodall, a message
orientation is defined as communication only when behaviours form part of a
socially-shared coding system. This includes behaviours that are typically sent
with intent; are used with regularity among members of a given social
community, society, or culture; are typically interpreted as intentional; and have
consensually recognised meanings (Burgoon, Buller, and Woodall 1996:13-14).
An example of a conducting non-verbal message is when a conductor uses a
small amount of space to indicate a soft dynamic, in contrast with using a large
amount of space to indicate a loud dynamic. Musicians routinely understand
these signals. Similarly, a conductor sends a non-verbal message to an ensemble
through the speed of his or her arms, communicating the tempo of the music to
the musicians.
In the 1960s, Ekman and Friesen made a major contribution to the understanding
of non-verbal behaviour by assigning the terms origins, usage and coding to
the circumstances of non-verbal behaviour. In the opening paragraph of their
142
paper The Repertoire of Nonverbal Behaviour: Categories, Origins, Usage, and
Coding, they state:
If we are to understand fully any instance of a persons non-verbal behaviour that is,
any movement or position of the face and/or the body we must discover how that
behaviour became part of the persons repertoire, the circumstances of its use, and the
rules which explain how the behaviour contains or conveys information (Ekman and
Friesen 1969:49).
The way in which the non-verbal behaviour originally became part of the
persons repertoire is known as the origin of a behaviour. The usage refers to
regular and consistent circumstances surrounding the occurrence of a non-verbal
act, including the external conditions found whenever the act occurs; the
relationship of the act to the associated non-verbal behaviour; the persons
awareness of emitting the act; the persons intention to communicate; feedback
from the person (people) observing the act; and the type of information conveyed
by the act (Ekman and Friesen 1969:53).
Ekman and Friesen describe five categories of non-verbal behaviour that can
enhance expressive conducting, as each category has a different communicative
role:
Emblems are non-verbal acts which can be translated, or defined in a word or
two, or perhaps a phrase (such as raising a hand to indicate stop); Illustrators
are movements which are directly tied to speech and illustrate what is being said
verbally; Affect displays are muscle movements, generally facial, associated
with a display of emotion; Regulators are acts that maintain and regulate the
back-and-forth nature of speaking and listening between two parties; and
Adaptors are behaviours often learned in childhood and maintained by habit,
and the most difficult form of non-verbal behaviour to describe (Ekman and
Friesen 1969:63-84).
Ekman and Friesens categorisation of non-verbal behaviour is relevant to the
enhancement of expressive conducting, as each of the five categories serve as
valuable gestural tools for conductors. For example, as words are usually
impossible in performance, conductors rely on emblems that are understood by
all musicians to get clear messages across, such as using a preparatory breathing
gesture to start the music. Illustrative movements, including Laban effort actions
described in the previous chapter, such as gliding gestures to indicate legato and
dabbing gestures to indicate staccato, are widely used by conductors to portray
143
the desired character and style of the music, and these are excellent examples of
illustrators. Conductors use affect displays, such as smiling or frowning, to
communicate their feelings and reaction to the performance, while adaptors,
such as facial mannerisms and habits, are unconsciously used by conductors,
possibly serving as a distraction to the musicians unless they are identified and
controlled in the early stages.
From the 1980s, conductors began to show an interest in these categories of nonverbal communication, as demonstrated by Faye Julians article Nonverbal
Communication: Its Application to Conducting, which appeared in the Journal
of Band Research, Julian stating:
A conductor deliberately chooses from four of the gesture categories and may use the
fifth group without knowing it. The technique of conducting might be described as
emblematic with certain agreed-upon movements of the hands having a set meaning.
The illustrators a conductor chooses might well punctuate, accent, and point out. Just as
ideograph illustrators are used more frequently with more difficult messages in spoken
communication, perhaps more gesturing is used by the conductor when more difficult
passages of music are interpreted.
Conductors use many and varied forms of affect displays many with their faces, some
with their bodies, and a few with their feet. Even the least musical audience member is
able to read degrees of feelings in the conductors face and body. Likewise, both
musicians and audience can pick up distracting adaptors. If the conductor displays
mannerisms which are odd and disconcerting, all attention will go to the mannerism and
little if any to the music (Julian 1989:51).
While contributing little new research, this article concisely summarises Ekman
and Friesens research into the five types of gestures (emblems, illustrators,
regulators, affect displays and adaptors). Julian gives examples of how each of
the five could be used, such as placing the index finger on the top of the thumb of
the same hand for the OK sign as an emblematic gesture; pounding a fist on a
table for urgency as an illustrator; nodding the head as a regulator, clenching
tight the hands as an affect display; and tapping a pen as an adaptor (Julian
1989:51). Julian fails to mention that not all emblems are universally understood,
or have a consistent meaning to all cultures. Desmond Morris, in his examination
of the meaning of the OK gesture described by Julian (which Morris calls the
ring), gives four different meanings to this gesture throughout Europe and the
Mediterranean region alone (see Fig. 23); OK for Britain, Scandinavia, most of
Italy and Spain; an orifice for Greece and Turkey; zero for France and
Belgium; and a threatening gesture for parts of North Africa (Morris et al.
1979:116-117).
144
Fig. 23
Interpretations of the Ring Gesture Throughout Europe (Morris

et al. 1979:116-117)
As shown by Morris, conductors need to be sensitive to the cultural

representation of their ensemble members before selecting certain gestures to use
as emblems, in order to avoid unintended or possibly offensive signals being
sent.
Gary Sousas thesis specifically examined the universal understanding of
conducting emblems by requesting performers at three levels (university, high
school, and middle school) observe and identify conducting gestures, asking
them: What are the specific non-verbal conducting gestures commonly used by
and taught to instrumental conductors to communicate musical concepts? Do
these musical conducting gestures have precise meanings and common
interpretations among instrumental performers? Which of these gestures can be
considered musical conducting emblems? Is the ability to interpret the meanings
of these musical conducting emblems acquired over a period of time by
instrumental performers (i.e., during the elementary, secondary, or collegiate
145
period of instrumental study), or are they common gestures whose meanings are
understood by all levels of instrumental performers? (Sousa 1989:5-6)
Sousa identified fifty-five gestures as conducting emblems, only nineteen being
identified by the total population of performers in his study, indicating that
gestures considered by many to be emblematic were not necessarily understood
by all performers. Sousas results indicate an increasing level of accuracy in
interpreting conducting gestures as performers increase in age and experience.
Among the conclusions of his thesis of relevance to conducting teaching, Sousa
writes:
It can no longer be assumed that the conducting gestures commonly taught in the college
classroom and recommended in conducting textbooks have universal interpretation by
instrumental performers. Even the college population did not recognise all of the
gestures thought to be in common usage. It should also be noted that only seven of the
fifty-five instrumental conducting gestures had 100% recognition by the college
students.
As well, those who teach instrumental conducting at the university level should be
sensitive to the fact that some gestures may be more effective than others in the
communication of specific musical ideas. They should also make their conducting
students aware that some of the ensemble problems relating to tempo and dynamics may
be inherent in the gestures that conductors use (Sousa 1989:90).
The conducting gestures that rated the poorest in terms of emblematic

recognition involved preparatory beats and tempo changes. Sousas examples
used conducting technique as shown in five textbooks: The Art of Conducting by
Hunsberger and Ernst; Basic Conducting Techniques by Labuta; The
Conductors Workshop by Long; The Grammar of Conducting by Rudolf; and
The Modern Conductor by Green (Sousa 1989:32)53. It is possible that the low
recognition of some of gestures signifies a weakness in the conducting technique
as shown in the five textbooks. It is also possible that other aspects of non-verbal
communication beyond the technique are required to consolidate the emblem,
such as the expressive use of the body, face, eyes, and hands/arms.
Although emblems are an essential part of conducting, in that they are supposed
to represent a signal that is universally understood, the inconsistency of the
recognition of emblems identified in Sousas thesis indicates that conductors
should also use other aspects of non-verbal communication, such as the coding.
53
All five of these textbooks were identified in my survey of university conducting teachers. Four
of the five were identified in my survey of experienced secondary school conductors in
Melbourne, the only one not being identified was the book by Gerry Long.
146
According to Burgoon, Buller and Woodall, the coding of non-verbal
communication can be differentiated according to the transmission medium and
channel used:
Typically, body movement, facial activity, and gaze are combined into kinesics, or what
is known in the popular vernacular as body language. Vocal activity forms another
category known as paralanguage or vocalics. Likewise, touch is treated as a separate
code called haptics. The use of space, called proxemics, and the use of time, called
chronemics, are also given independent status. Finally, physical appearance is often
separated from the use of artifacts (Burgoon, Buller, and Woodall 1996:18).
Having recognised the existence of seven non-verbal communication codes, only

one, kinesics, will be considered as part of this thesis54, kinesics being defined as
the study of body motion as related to the non-verbal aspects of inter-personal
communication (see Birdwhistell 1952:3). For conducting teachers, kinesics
moves beyond the standard beat pattern conducting gestures of the corrective
mode described by Koch later in the chapter, to involve expressive movements of
the hands, arms, and body, posture, facial expression, and eye contact, which
constitute Kochs declamatory and narrative modes.
54
Kinesics is the coding most relevant to the enhancement of expressive conducting. The other
six codes can be used by conductors in the following ways:
Vocalics can be intentionally used by conductors in rehearsal as a teaching tool, including bodygenerated sounds, such as clapping and tapping (Berz 1983:4), or unintentionally in performance,
including grunts, groans, and singing along with an ensemble, which can distract the audience
from the music.
Conductors in a limited sense can use proxemics, in that although restricted by the presence of a
podium and the need to be seen by the musicians, conductors can still make use of their personal
space in the vertical, horizontal, and sagittal planes. For conductors, the concept of space equates
with dynamics and intensity: the more space utilised by the conductor, the louder the dynamics
and the greater the intensity.
Conductors are constantly working with chronemics, as music lives for only a moment in time.
Although conductors indicate beat points by way of a beat pattern, it is the way they use the space
between the beat points that adds expression to the music. Conductors with a high entering
behaviour for chronemics appear to do this effortlessly, although most conductors work with a
metronome at various stages to improve their chronemic sense.
Conductors in a musical performance also use certain artifacts, music stands creating a
communicational barrier between the conductor and the ensemble, although this is normally more
of a problem for instrumental groups than for choral groups, who do not generally use music
stands. Some conductors may memorise their music so that they can do without a music stand.
Many conductors choose to use a baton to increase the visibility of the beat, particularly for
conducting large ensembles, or where a large distance exists between conductor and performers,
such as when conducting singers on stage separated by an orchestra pit.
The physical appearance of the conductor can become an issue in performance if it becomes a
distraction. Traditionally, conductors in performance are dressed in all black, or black and white,
to make the hands or the baton more visible.
Haptics, in the truest sense, is not available to conductors in traditional Western music
performance, as they are normally unable to touch other performers. However, a form of haptic
communication can occur by way of the sensitivity and gradation of the conductors gestures.
147
The Use of Kinesics to Facilitate Expressive Conducting
Ray Birdwhistell coined the term kinesics for the study of human body motion as
communication. In his book Kinesics and Context Essays on Body Motion
Communication he analyses the importance of body motion, arguing that like
other events in nature, no body movement or expression is without meaning in
the context in which it appears; like other aspects of human behaviour, body
posture, movement, and facial expression are patterned and, thus, subject to
systematic analysis; and while the possible limitations imposed by particular
biological substrata are recognised, until otherwise demonstrated, the systematic
body motions of the members of a community is considered a function of the
social system to which the group belongs (Birdwhistell 1970:183-184).
In this case, conductors are the members of the community described by
Birdwhistell, and the social system is the conventions of Western classical music
to which conductors adhere.
In the mid-seventeenth century, the significance of the non-verbal
communication of the hand was recognised by the English physician John
Bulwer, who writes in Canon V of his Chironomia:
The Hand directed towards the Auditors (audience), with a kind of impetuous agitation
of the arm, maintaining its gravity with a swift recourse, is an action intense and full of
vehemence, fit to threaten, denounce, reprehend, and by its extension, implies power and
a prevalent authority (Bulwer 2003:31-32).
Although not intended for conductors, the historical importance of Bulwers

writing must be acknowledged. Bulwer attempted to explain the various
movements and gestures of the hand and to define their communicative function.
As the hands are among the most important and recognisable tools available to
conductors, some development of the communicative capability of their hands is
required for the enhancement of expressive conducting.
148
The neurologist Frank Wilson recognised the importance of the human hand in
brain development, finding that as children develop, an important part of their
learning is through manipulation of objects with their hands. Wilson writes:
The brain is not a passive witness to the expansion of these mechanical and
sensorimotor explorations and accomplishments. It even, I suspect, creates an
internal perceptual biological clock scaled to and calibrated by observable changes in
the extrapersonal world which means the brain acquires, and tunes itself to, the
rhythms that the legs, shoulders, arms, hands, chest, tongue, and lips invent in their
responses to the world. There is in fact strong neurophysiologic evidence that a specific
part of the brains motor system, the supplementary motor area, actually performs this
function (Wilson 1999:195-196).
Wilsons description of the brain participating in sensorimotor explorations fits

in perfectly with the Dalcroze approach to learning via rhythmic movement, an
approach that has already been shown in the previous chapter to be highly
relevant to the enhancement of expressive conducting.
Wilson also devoted an entire chapter of his book to the importance of the
Feldenkrais Method, and the use of the hands through healing:
The Healing Arts have always been connected with the hands; sometimes as Moshe
Feldenkrais learned and then demonstrated to Anat Baniel and others the skilled hand
guiding another persons relaxed movements can induce not only more comfortable and
graceful movement but memories attached to forgotten postures or physical responses to
severe stress or injury (Wilson 1999:258).
Wilsons point was that a skilled teachers hands can guide a students
movements in a far more effective manner using kinaesthetic feedback as
opposed to merely demonstrating. This has already been shown to be an
important aspect of both Alexander and Feldenkrais teaching, leading to more
comfortable and graceful movements in students.
149
An important aspect of conductors working on expressive body movement as a
special area in their training is the development of a potential synthesis between
gesture, the conductors feelings about the music, and a reduction in anxiety, as
noted by Argyle, which is readily communicable to musicians. Argyles book
Bodily Communication provides a section on Gestures and Emotions in which
he discusses the significance of the hands in non-verbal communication:
The hands are not adapted as areas of communicating emotion as the face is;
nevertheless emotions are to some extent displayed in the hands and other parts of the
body. The general level of arousal is reflected in all parts of the body, in the form of
diffuse, and generally meaningless movements. Probably one of the main messages
conveyed by hand movements is the level of excitement of a speaker (illustrators). It is
not known how far more specific emotional states are communicated. Anxiety, for
example, may be conveyed by tense, strained hands, clutching each other, or the arms of
a chair. In these cases the general emotional state results in gestures, which are not
intended to communicate, and which people often try to conceal (Argyle 1975:262-263).
As supported by Argyle, I believe that a relaxed, focused and expressive body

(and hands) leads to a relaxed, focused and expressive face. This is another
example of complimentary postural merging, which Lamb discussed earlier in
this chapter.
In 1932 William James published a study of the expression of bodily posture in
which he analysed 347 different postures assumed to be expressive, with five
variables, being the head, trunk, feet, knees, and arms. In his discussion of the
results of the study, James observed the conditional nature of postural
expression, being based on the attitude of the observer, the situation of the
posture, and the nature of the posture itself:
We may say at once that there are few postural expressions that are unequivocal to all
men. For, from the point of view of the observer, the expression is in essence a meaning
put upon a particular disposition of the various members of the body and, like other
meanings, has numerous conditions (James 1932:424).
Concerning the emotional expression of posture, James commented in favour of

interpreting a fluid movement from a static position:
Finally, something should be said concerning the relation of the posture as an expression
of an idea or emotion to the total movement of which the posture may be regarded as a
phase. The human organism, of course, attains its posture by way of movement, and it
might be argued that it is the movement as a whole that is expressive and, consequently,
the posture taken by itself is an abstraction. Such an argument, however, would confuse
the physiology of movement with the essential problem of expression. While it may be
true that in some cases the total movement would be less equivocal than any of its
phases, a single phase is sufficient for expression (James 1932:428).
150
James solution, recording positions of movement, and extrapolating expressive
intention from these positions, is not entirely satisfactory, in that it goes against
the ideas of Alexander, Laban, and Feldenkrais observed in the previous chapter,
who argue for the expressivity of active motion over frozen posture. Here, the
distinction needs to be made between the observation of expressive movement
and the learning of expressive movement. There is no doubt that the
enhancement of expressive conducting is greatly facilitated by active kinaesthetic
movement, rather than by copying still photographs from books on conducting55.
James position is possibly a reflection on the difficulty of recording
observations of expressive non-verbal behaviour, a problem that will be
discussed later in this chapter and which to this day has not been fully solved in
relation to observation of conducting.
James also observed that the head and the trunk taken together are basic to the
postural expression; arms, hands, distribution of weight, etc., are to make more
specific the more general expression of the head and the trunk (James
1932:435). This fits in with Lambs observations regarding the complimentary
nature of posture and gesture. Lamb makes the following comment on learning
gestures without postural awareness:
There seems to be a tendency for most people to fix their Posture while learning and
concentrating on Gesture. It is sufficient simply to exhort them to keep up some postural
movement to overcome a lot of potential tension. Once a task has been learned together
with a fixed Posture a habit is formed and it is then extremely difficult to feed in the
Posture adjustment other than by stopping the task and doing the Posture movement as a
diversion (Lamb 1965:38).
For conductors wishing to enhance their expressive conducting, Lamb and

James comments are significant, as I have observed many conductors,
particularly those of low entering behaviour, who, in attempting to work on
developing their gestures, completely ignore their posture.
55
This was an advantage of the McMurray DVD Conducting from the Inside Out, as noted in
Chapter Three.
151
A conductors bearing is important in that it communicates the conductors
confidence, enthusiasm, control, and knowledge of the music non-verbally to the
ensemble. As discussed in the previous chapter, body mapping can help student
conductors to maintain awareness of the realities of their body usage. According
to non-verbal communication researcher Mary Key, posture is also an important
communicator of status:
Status relationships and class stratification are signaled, among other things, by
nonverbal behaviour. Such things as tone of voice or the use of silence convey rank.
Posture was a marked feature of status among the Romans. A man of high rank was
depicted in statues as erect, calmly draped, and in a frontal position. Those without
dignity, derelicts, old women, drunkards, servants, and fools are shown as bent figures,
tight and tense (Key 1975:156).
Conductors also communicate their intentions by the motion and attitude of their
hands and arms, which can influence the response of the musicians above and
beyond the use of corrective mode conducting gestures, which include beat
patterns.
A thesis by Robert Grechesky examines the conducting behaviours of directors
of randomly selected high school bands in Central Indiana to determine their
relationship to expressive performance. Grechesky observed, categorised, and
analysed verbal and non-verbal behaviours to determine how they affected band
performance, the findings showing that conductors of the more musical groups
displayed significantly more body movement. Also, conductors who
demonstrated more use of the left hand and coordination of right and left hands
had better results according to a panel of four independent judges (Grechesky
1985:77), and that of the variables, the emblems and illustrators (iconic
behaviours) had the most powerful effect of all. Overall findings indicated that
conductors who had sharpened their non-verbal communication skills had a very
positive effect on their groups musical performance, Grechesky writing:
If the art of music is viewed as expressive form, and the power of music is holistic and
nonverbal in nature, then it makes sense to approach music in a holistic and nonverbal
context. The findings indicate that conductors who can communicate their conception of
the music through nonverbal techniques are more effective than conductors who must
talk about the music. The point is that if the essence of the music is nonverbal, the
essence of conducting should also be nonverbal (Grechesky 1985:153).
Another important aspect of conductors communicating through non-verbal

means is that it represents a significant time-saver, as opposed to stopping the
ensemble and making verbal comments.
152
For teachers of conducting, Grechesky makes the following recommendation:
For teachers of conducting, it means that additional skills need to be taught in
conducting classes. Simple time beating and cueing skills would seem to be no longer
adequate. Expressive and effective nonverbal communication skills would become part
of the curriculum. Conducting technique would include the ability to communicate
through gesture the expressive intent of the music. Perhaps skills from other disciplines
such as mime, acting, and dance could be incorporated into the conductors repertoire
(Grechesky 1985:155).
Grecheskys recommendation backs up my argument that the effective use of

non-verbal communication can enhance expressive conducting. As stated earlier
in the thesis, many conducting teachers have become too beat pattern focused.
This is supported by my survey of secondary school conductors in Melbourne
who reported, as stated in the previous chapter, that they found beat patterns easy
to learn, while left hand use and expressive gestures were difficult and in some
cases, still uncomfortable. As shown in the previous chapter, theories of
expressive movement can enhance expressive conducting.
Eye contact and facial expressions are among the most powerful non-verbal
kinesic signals available to conductors, as shown by researchers Steven Beebe
(1974), Ekman and Friesen (2003), Key, and Mehrabian.
This has been supported by my survey of eighty-eight university conducting
teachers, in which they were asked which non-verbal communication skills are
important for their conducting students to develop (Table 15):
153
Affirmation/Positive Reinforcement
All Conducting Should be Non-verbal
All Non-verbal Communication Techniques
Baton Technique
Body Language
Breathing
Clarity
Cueing
Dance
Dynamics
Expressive Gestures
Eye Contact
Facial Expression
Hands/Arms
Imagery
Influencing Skills
Laban
Listening
Mime
Motion Styles
Reflect Music Through Gesture
Sign Language
Stance
Starts and Stops
Table 15
2
1
5
5
12
1
2
3
1
1
7
22
37
12
1
1
1
1
2
2
11
1
1
6
3
2%
1%
6%
6%
14%
1%
2%
3%
1%
1%
8%
25%
42%
14%
1%
1%
1%
1%
2%
2%
13%
1%
1%
7%
3%
Important Non-Verbal Communication Skills for Conducting

Student Development
The most important non-verbal communication skills, as listed by respondents,

were facial expression (42%), eye contact (25%), body language and hands/arms
(each 14%).
In consideration of the facial channel, I have observed that many low entering
behaviour conductors display a lack of confidence through the avoidance of eye
contact with ensembles. Yet the eyes are among the most important
communication tools available to a conductor, as shown by Beebes 1974 paper,
which investigated eye contact as a non-verbal determinant of speaker
credibility. Beebe links the level of eye contact with the level of other non-verbal
communicative elements:
By a subjective observation of students public speaking, one notes that a lack of eye
contact is usually accompanied by other undesirable speech-delivery characteristics,
such as lack of enthusiasm, lack of confidence, lack of vocal inflection, or lack of
gestures (Beebe 1974:25).
It is also possible that conductors who develop their use of eye contact with their
ensembles can improve the areas listed by Beebe: enthusiasm, confidence,
inflection, and gestures.
154
Ekman and Friesen explain that: Emotions are shown primarily in the face, not
in the body. The body instead shows how people are coping with emotion
(Ekman and Friesen 2003:7). They describe in detail and show in pictures the
facial characteristics of the primary emotions: surprise, fear, disgust, anger,
happiness, and sadness, including various blends of the primary emotions. They
even instruct the reader on how to check their own facial expression style56.
The ability to recognise facial expression styles is important for conductors
wishing to enhance their expressive conducting, as conductors who practise the
facial characteristics may be able to increase their repertoire of facial signals,
therefore responding to the feelings within the music more empathically.
For Key, it is the eyes and the mouth that are particularly significant in facial
expression:
The eyes and the mouth, it is generally agreed, carry the heaviest load of communicative
and expressive manifestations. Disagreement comes, however, in deciding which is the
more important in signaling. When one begins to think of the infinite number of
potential situations and individuals that make up the variables, one could very well come
to the conclusion that the question of whether the upper or the lower part of the face is
more important is either unanswerable or irrelevant (Key 1975:85).
Key further states: If the eyes are the windows of the soul, certainly the mouth
is the very door (Key 1975:88).
56
They identify eight different styles of basic facial expression: the withholder, who has an
unexpressive basic face; the revealer, with an expressive basic face; the unwitting expressor,
who doesnt know they are showing how they feel when they are showing it; the blanked
expressor, who is convinced they are showing an emotion on their face when, in fact, their face
looks neutral or completely ambiguous to others; the substitute expressor, who substitutes the
appearance of one emotion for another without knowing what they are doing; the frozen-affect
expressor, who always shows a trace of one of the emotions in some part of their face when they
are actually not feeling any emotion; the ever-ready expressor, who characteristically shows one
of the emotions as the first response to almost any event in any situation; and the flooded-affect
expressor, who always shows one or two emotions, in a fairly definite way, almost all the time
(Ekman and Friesen 2003:155-157).
155
The eyes and the mouth are the most mobile parts of the face. For conductors, a
simple study of the various combinations of eye (eyebrow) and mouth use are
beneficial, in that it makes them aware of the possibilities for communication
using eye and mouth combinations, and suggests a body mapping exercise for
individual conductors to observe their own usage of eyes and mouth when
conducting. For my own conducting students, I have designed a basic sheet of
nine faces (see Fig. 24), showing the different combinations, and asking the
conductors to use one word to describe the expression being shown on the face57.
Although most of the responses were fairly similar, the middle face on the
middle line elicited the greatest variety of responses. Due to the blending of
emotions in this face, adolescent conductors in particular had difficulty
interpreting what I considered to be a mischievous or slightly devious face. Many
of the younger conductors who observed these faces stated that they considered
the middle face to be evil.
57
I wish to thank Professor Allan McMurray of the University of Colorado at Boulder for
inspiring me to prepare this sheet. McMurray drew similar faces during a conducting course I
observed in 2001, which have since been reproduced in Lead and Inspire (Garofalo and Battisti
2005:90).
156
Fig. 24
Non-Verbal Communication Sheet (mouth & eyebrows)
157
Non-verbal communication researcher Mehrabian also commented that the
communication of positive and negative attitudes is more effective using facial
communication:
It was found that the facial channel was generally more effective than the vocal one for
communicating attitudes and that negative attitudes were more readily conveyed than
positive ones. The latter finding supported the view that implicit channels are used to
express negative attitudes, because explicit (verbal) expression of negative attitudes is
socially discouraged. It was also found that an individuals ability to communicate
variations in negative attitude largely accounted for his overall attitude-communicating
ability. Low approval seekers were better at encoding variations in negative attitude than
were high approval seekers, although there was no corresponding difference between the
two groups abilities to decode positive or negative attitudes (Mehrabian 1972:146).
Mehrabians observation on the effective employment of the facial channel in

non-verbal communication has meaning for student conductors, who are
continually urged by their conducting teachers to get the score in their heads, not
their heads in the score! and to use eye contact with their ensembles.
As mentioned earlier in the chapter, an ongoing problem for conductors has been
to find an effective way to observe and record conducting non-verbal
communication behaviours. My survey of university conducting teachers showed
that weekly observation of students conducting was regarded by participants as
the most important way of assessing the success or quality of the conducting.
With regard to the problem of observing physical behaviour, Lamb writes:
Perhaps the weakest link in the study of physical behaviour is that observations are
taken by the human eye. Although a convincing correlation has been achieved from a
number of people observing the same subject, the recordings obtained will always be
suspect. There is no reason, however, why some recording device should not be
developed, and why some sort of computer should not carry out the analysis. There is
nothing in the observations which will prevent this all that is required is recognition
that this is a worthwhile measurement to make (Lamb 1965:185).
Supporting Lambs recognition of the value of observation, I believe that the

observation and recording of non-verbal conducting behaviours is critical to the
enhancement of expressive conducting, and this is also supported by my two
surveys. In the next section, I will introduce writers who have attempted to do
this, including Norman Leyden (1968), Jan Roshong (1978), Thring Brm and
Penny Boyes Braem (2001), Teresa Marrin (1996), Teresa Marrin Nakra (2000),
and Jessica Kun (2004).
158
The Observation and Recording of Non-Verbal Conducting Behaviours
As mentioned earlier in the chapter, the most important attribute of expressive
conductors, according to my survey of forty-two experienced Melbourne
secondary school conductors, is good communication. As verbal communication
is unavailable to conductors in performance, the use of non-verbal
communication by conductors wishing to enhance their expressive conducting is
paramount.
In my survey of university conducting teachers, they were asked to indicate how
they developed their conducting students non-verbal vocabulary (Table 16):
Acting
Chekhov Exercises
Class Forms Ensemble
Conduct Same Piece in a Variety of Styles
Conduct with Body Only
Conducting Experience
Create a Gestural Vocabulary
Develop Interpretation
Develop Natural Reactions
Discussion
Experimentation
Face Conveys Musical Mood
Green/Malko Exercises
Imagery
Imitation
Improvisation
Increase Score Knowledge
Laban
Mime
Movement Sessions
Observe Other Conductors
Peer Critique
Psychological Drill
Repertoire Driven
Self-Evaluation
Self-Observation
Silent Rehearsals
Specific Non-verbal Exercises
Table 16
4
1
2
4
2
9
5
3
2
4
1
12
1
2
4
2
2
2
3
2
11
3
2
3
2
14
6
5
5%
1%
2%
5%
2%
10%
6%
3%
2%
5%
1%
14%
1%
2%
5%
2%
2%
2%
3%
2%
13%
3%
2%
3%
2%
16%
7%
6%
Methods for Developing Conducting Students Non-Verbal

Vocabulary
The most important methods for developing conducting students non-verbal

vocabulary, as listed by respondents, were self-observation (16%), getting the
face to convey the musical mood (14%), and observation of other conductors
(13%).
159
As observation (of self and others) is acknowledged as an important method for
developing non-verbal communication techniques in student conductors, then an
effective means of observing and analysing conductor non-verbal behaviour is
needed. Since the late 1920s, observation and analysis of conducting behaviours
have taken the form of movement analysis, film, observational instruments, and
computer technology, as shown in theses by Benge, Gambetta, Leyden, Roshong,
Berz, Silkebakken, Marrin, Marrin Nakra, and Kun.
By 1928, Laban, along with his most eminent students, had developed the system
of dance notation initially known as kinetography, but later known as
Labanotation. Labans former assistant Eden Davies described the advantages
of the Labanotation notation system:
The main innovation was the use of a vertical staff to represent time, the immediate
advantage of which was that continuity of movement could be indicated. The two sides
of the staff represented the right and left sides of the body and the length of each symbol
showed the time taken by each part of the movement, so that timing could also be
accurately represented. The simplicity and adaptability meant it could be applied to all
types of movement (Davies 2006:6-7).
Despite the advantages of Labanotation in terms of movement description, its use

among conducting teachers appears to be non-existent, possibly due to its
perceived complexity and the learning curve associated with its use. For these
reasons, there is little incentive for other conducting teachers to learn
Labanotation.
The use of Laban Movement Analysis, however, has proved to be beneficial to
conductors and conducting teachers, as shown in theses by Timothy Benge, and
Charles Gambetta, which was referred to in the previous chapter. With regard to
the use of Laban Movement Analysis (LMA) in conductor training programs,
Benge writes: Since LMA is clearly applicable to the art of conducting,
conductor preparation programs can be strengthened through the infusion of
Laban movement training. This integration should be primarily kinaesthetic and
experiential, with enough theory provided to generate an awareness of movement
as a medium for communication (Benge 1996:60).
Also used by conductors to observe, record and analyse non-verbal
communication behaviours has been film and video. In his thesis of 1968,
Leyden used kinescope film of the conducting of Arturo Toscanini to determine
160
the configurations of Toscaninis conducting beat patterns as part of an analysis
of the consistency of his patterns and a comparison with the beat patterns
published in conducting textbooks (Leyden 1968:7-8). Leyden rephotographed
sections of the original kinescope film onto 8mm film, then projected these onto
a 14 x 17 pad of tracing paper, one frame at a time, marking the outlines of
Toscaninis right hand, right arm, baton, and silhouette. From these frames,
Leyden was able to mark out Toscaninis beat patterns, comparing them with
beat patterns shown in four conducting textbooks: The Modern Conductor by
Elizabeth Green, Elements of Conducting by Emil Kahn, Conducting Technique
by Brock McElheran, and The Grammar of Conducting by Max Rudolf58. The
results of Leydens examination of Toscaninis beat patterns showed some
fundamental differences with the beat patterns presented in the four textbooks,
Leyden writing: Not only are all but one of Toscaninis patterns unique in their
configuration (the one-beat pattern is consistent with the textbooks) but as
presented in this project the patterns were developed from motions actually made
during performances, while the textbook diagrams are abstracts whose relation to
actual movements is not established or defined (Leyden 1968:293).
Leydens approach, while crude compared with methods afforded by more
modern technologies including video, DVD, and computers, represented an early
attempt to analyse a conductors moving images on film. From my survey of
university conducting teachers, 30% of respondents undertake weekly
observations of their students, mainly using video, which they use to analyse
their students conducting, but also for student assessment purposes.
Another method used by conductors to observe and analyse conducting is
through the use of observational instruments. The use of observational
instruments allows for descriptive recording of non-verbal conducting behaviours
beyond the beat patterns. Roshong developed an observational instrument as part
of his thesis that inventoried the non-verbal communication of conductors to see
if relationships exist between the observed behaviour and the nature of the task
performed. The instrument observed the following six categories: facial
58
The textbooks by Green, McElheran and Rudolf were identified in my surveys of university
conducting teachers and experienced secondary school conductors in Melbourne. The fourth
book by Emil Kahn was not identified in either survey (Kahn 1975).
161
expression, conducting gesture, eye contact, body movement, vocal quality, and
silence. There was also space to record the sequence of events (Fig. 25).
Fig. 25
Conductor Non-Verbal Observation Form (Roshong 1978:87)
In discussing his conclusions, Roshong stated:

The experimental study revealed that there may be patterns of nonverbal behaviours that
are common to experienced conductors. This information implies that conductors,
teachers of conducting and students of conducting might gain better control and
understanding of their conducting task by the systematic study of both the general nature
of nonverbal communication and their own nonverbal behaviour (Roshong 1978:84).
Roshongs developed observational instrument was a viable means of recording

both the type and quality of the subjects non-verbal behaviour. According to
162
Dennis Silkebakken, the significance of Roshongs study lies in Roshongs
interest in measuring the intensity and sequence of non-verbal conducting
behaviours (Silkebakken 1988:35).
There were also some commonalities of non-verbal behaviours displayed by the
subjects of the study during specific rehearsal events. These commonalities
included facial approval and forward movement during starting, stopping and
sustaining events, facial disapproval, eye contact with the group, and movement
away during instruction. Roshongs study showed an example of which
conducting behaviours could be observed, recorded, and analysed using an
observational instrument.
Additional observational instruments were later developed by William Berz and
Silkebakken, among others59, who refer to Roshongs research but offer no
critical responses to the observational instrument.
Brm, a conductor, and Braem, a linguist and sign language expert, produced a
paper that focused in particular on the observation of left hand gestures
(discussed as the non-dominant hand), documenting and describing the types of
gestures typically used. In comparison to the large number of hand shapes
available in sign language, only thirteen are identified as being regularly used by
the left hand in conducting, which can be grouped into the following six
categories: manipulating objects; showing the path or form of an object;
indicating direction; portraying an object; indicating a body part; and
holophrastic interjections (regulators) (Brm and Braem 2001:18-24).
59
Berz developed an instrument designed to classify observed non-verbal communication

behaviours made by conductors, completing a detailed analysis of previous non-verbal
communication research and selecting seven non-verbal areas for study: kinesics, physical
appearance, vocalics, haptics, chronemics, proxemics, and artifact use. In conclusion, Berz found
that the developed instrument was practical for use in conductor non-verbal communication
classification59, although issues of observer training and observer fatigue arose (Berz 1983:142148).
Silkebakken developed an observer rating form to collect information on fifteen individual
conductor visual attribute categories, plus a rating for the overall visual effect of the conductor.
The fifteen categories were divided into four groups: conducting style, body movement, physical
appearance, and facial expressions. All of these groups were recorded on videotape from the front
and the back of the conductor, except facial expressions, which were recorded from the front
only. Silkebakken concluded that while inconsistencies were found across all observers,
Expressiveness proved to be the category most highly related to the score given to overall visual
effect (Silkebakken 1988:111). He also concluded that observers (or audiences) in general are
likely to respond positively to a conducted musical performance if the conductor exhibits
physical gestures which tend to relate to the expressive quality of the music being performed
(Silkebakken 1988:112).
163
Brm and Braem concluded:
The expressive hand gestures of orchestral conductors, like signs of deaf sign languages
and speech-accompanying gestures, seem to be composed of a limited set of subcomponents which can be associated with several different kinds of meanings. Unlike
sign language, the conducting gestures are polysemous (many meanings) entities whose
exact meaning is only clear when set in a specific context. At one level, the meanings of
these gestures are accessible through metaphoric/metonymic association with actions,
which the body can make, or with body parts, or like conventionalised gestures
(emblems) have more specifically encoded cultural meanings (Brm and Braem
2001:27).
Therefore, to relate these findings back to Ekman and Friesens categories, most
intentional conducting gestures are emblems, illustrators, regulators, and, in
some cases, affect displays. Brm and Braems paper is one of the few to analyse
left hand use, which was shown in Chapter Three to be one of the most neglected
areas in many conducting textbooks. Through observation and analysis of left
hand use, conductors can enhance their repertoire of expressive conducting
gestures.
Recent studies by Marrin, Marrin Nakra and Kun have applied computer
technological solutions to the observation and recording of conducting
behaviours. Marrins 1996 Masters thesis attempts to use technology to shed
light on the issue of expressive conducting gesture by focusing on the gestural
language of conducting and describing preliminary attempts to analyse and apply
such analyses to software mappings on a device called the Digital Baton, the
Digital Baton being described by Marrin:
The Digital Baton is a hand-held electronic device, initially designed to record and study
the gestural language of conducting. It measures its own motion and surface pressure in
eleven separate ways and transmits them continuously. These eleven channels of data
are then captured, analysed, and applied as control parameters in a software system
which plays back a musical result. The Digital Baton system has been designed to
seamlessly combine precise, small-motor actions with a broad range of continuous
expressive control. It was conceived and built from scratch at the M.I.T. Media Lab, as a
possible prototype for a new kind of digital instrument (Marrin 1996).
Marrin suggests that a possible application for the Digital Baton is as a training
system for student conductors. Despite yielding a large amount of data, Marrin
notes shortcomings of the Digital Baton, including limited software, and an
exaggeration of the motion of the baton. She observed that the Digital Baton did
not yet feel finished, adding that improvements needed should include wireless
capability, and an ability to measure left hand gesture (Marrin 1996).
164
Formulated to respond to the issues raised by the Digital Baton, Marrin Nakra
began the Conductors Jacket project in the spring of 1997. The basic premise of
the project was to build a device to sense as many potentially significant signals
from a working conductor as possible without changing their behaviour.
According to Marrin Nakra, the most important human factor in the design of the
Conductors Jacket system was the need to provide a device that would not
constrain, encumber, or cause discomfort to a conductor during standard
rehearsals and performances. The Conductors Jacket comprised of a spandex
sleeve, worn on the conductors arm, with two electromyography (EMG) signalconditioning electrodes, attached to the biceps and forearms that are activated by
a conductors gestures to initiate a MIDI recording and analyse muscle
movements. Marrin Nakra felt strongly that data should be gathered in a
professional context, as opposed to a laboratory situation, in order to generate
useful and significant results (Marrin Nakra 2000:3.3.1). Although the
Conductors Jacket was primarily intended as a performance instrument rather
than a sensor, the ability of the Conductors Jacket to record large amounts of
physiological data from conductors makes it potentially useful to conductors
wishing to monitor the level of tension in their arms, and the small muscle
movements required to perform a range of gestural styles, such as legato and
staccato.
Regarding the physiological data collected by the Conductors Jacket, Marrin
Nakra writes:
One way that the current findings of this project could be applied would be to use
similar methods and sensors as were used here to research the link between music and
the emotions. While many theorists and musicians have acknowledged that music is a
very powerful medium for emotional expression, very few have looked at physiological
correlates to the musical/emotional experience. Charles Darwin may have been the first
to describe the perception of music in behavioral terms (Marrin Nakra 2000:8.2.1).
Marrin Nakras findings emphasise the importance of conductors exploring the

medium of emotional expression, a hitherto under-researched area in conducting.
I will discuss the enhancement of emotional expression in conducting in the next
section.
165
Among the suggestions for future applications of The Conductors Jacket,
Marrin Nakra states:
It has been suggested by many people that the Conductors Jacket is potentially very
promising as a tool for teaching and practising conducting skills. For example, Ive been
approached by a professor of conducting at the University of Arizona, who has asked me
to develop a version of the jacket for his class. This could be a great help to certain
conductors, who otherwise have to cajole or pay an ensemble of musicians when they
want to get experience (Marrin Nakra 2000:8.2.2).
The limitations of the Conductors Jacket in terms of its use by conductors

wishing to improve their expressive conducting is that the physiological data
provided is limited to the arm only. For a more total body approach, the
potential exists to use the motion capture technology used in film making to
observe and analyse whole body movements.
The purpose of Kuns 2004 thesis was to design and implement a
responsive/interactive system for conducting and conducting pedagogy using
motion capture technology. Kun describes motion capture as: the process of
capturing movement in three-dimensional space and mapping it onto a computergenerated object by tracking and recording information (Kun 2004:11).
According to Kun, single or dual camera systems are suitable for facial capture,
while three to sixteen (or more) camera systems are necessary for full-body
capture. Special hardware samples the position and/or orientation of the markers
in time, generating a set of motion data, also known as motion curves. Threedimensional motion analysis systems give an accurate and convenient method
toward quantitative assessment of function by providing comparative or absolute
measurement of motion. Feedback can be in either real-time or post-run, the
process allowing accurate joint angles to be quickly and conveniently reported
(Kun 2004:12).
The physical environment and the system can provide opportunities for
conducting students to practise baton technique in a setting that simulates a live
performance. As Kun states: the potential for conducting students to be able to
review performances from any angle enables them to make more informed
critical judgements to improve their technique, by carefully addressing
conducting elements and isolating problem areas that can be reviewed from any
perspective (Kun 2004:44).
166
Kun felt that the disadvantage of the previous interactive digital baton by Marrin
was that it was cumbersome and did not represent the true feeling of real
conducting (Kun 2004:7). The benefits of motion capture are that it offers not
only the ability to track movements by the conducting baton free of wires, but
with the marriage to interactive midi software, can provide aural feedback of the
nuances of sound the conductor would communicate to live performers (Kun
2004:1-2).
Kuns system was only set up to detect beat points, tempo and dynamics, Kun
finding that the system was reliable in terms of beat detection, but liable to error
if there were sudden changes in tempo or dynamics. There were no problems if
these were maintained consistently (Kun 2004:36). Reflective markers were only
placed at the tip of the baton, the index finger/thumb hinge, and the wrist, Kun
stating that the addition of markers is crucial in the development of a more
complex system (Kun 2004:37). Obviously at this stage, the ability of Kuns
system to observe and record more expressive elements of conducting is limited.
Among her suggestions for the future development of the motion capture system
for use by conducting teachers, Kun suggests that it could be used to aid the
development of proprioception:
Motion capture offers visual feedback and the responsive/interactive system the auditory
feedback necessary to assist with the analysis of the amount of effort required by a
muscle to produce an accurate movement. Through repetition and adjustment of motion,
the conductor can improve the accuracy of the actions in relation to the visual and
auditory feedback. Such repetitive actions will assist the conductor to get a sense of the
feeling of the correct movement in order to achieve the correct musical response.
Furthermore, habituating correct gestures helps ensure that the brain consistently
provides the correct messages to the body through more highly sensitised proprioception
(Kun 2004:38).
Although Kun correctly identifies the benefits of developing proprioception in

conducting students, one of the main drawbacks of the use of motion capture
technology by conducting teachers is that to this point, facial gestures and
therefore affect displays, are not recordable using this technology. According to
Kun, real-time optical trackers relying on optical or video technology exist, and
their use would be an asset to conducting pedagogy for the analysis of facial
expressions of conductors (Kun 2004:42).
In my experience teaching conducting, I have noticed that the most favoured
form of generalised observation by conducting teachers and students continues to
be video recording and playback, and increasingly, DVD. As can be seen from
statements by Marrin Nakra and Kun, the ability of technology to observe and
167
record conductor emotional expression is still limited. Yet conductors, through
the use of affect displays, have the ability to powerfully communicate their
feelings about the music to the musicians, which, as shown earlier in this chapter
(Table 10), is one of the most important non-verbal communication techniques
for conducting students to develop, as noted by university conducting teachers
from my survey. As Ekman and Friesen noted earlier in the chapter, there are
eight different styles of facial expression, but can emotional expression actually
be enhanced as part of conducting training?
The Development of Emotional Expression in Conducting
Two opposing perspectives on emotional expression exist within the field of nonverbal communication, Charles Darwins view being that the expression of
emotions is innate and universal throughout human-kind, while alternatively, it
was the view of the anthropologist Birdwhistell (1970) that emotional expression
is learned and culturally based. Ekman (1998) takes a third position, arguing that
emotions are universal, but the context for their expression is cultural.
The English physician Sir Charles Bell recognised early in the nineteenth century
the ability of the body, and particularly the face, to express emotions more
clearly than words, being particularly interested in the forms of facial expression
which separated Man from brutes (Bell 1883:95), as well as the physiological
effects which various emotions had on the body, and including the function of
respiration.
Bells advice to artists to experiment with the representation of human
expression also has relevance for student conductors learning emotional
portrayal:
In studying expression the artist should attempt all, even that which is disagreeable, so
that in higher composition he may avoid deformity and every debasing expression, and
this not by chance, but by knowing them and avoiding them; by this means and it was
followed by the ancients his power of representation will be improved, and what is
dignified and beautiful in form and expression more certainly attained (Bell 1883:173).
Student conductors could therefore develop expression through the medium of

their own bodies via bodily-kinaesthetic experimentation to find the most
efficient means of communication, based on self-awareness, as discussed in
previous chapters.
168
Less well known than his influential books On the Origin of the Species by
Means of Natural Selection, and The Descent of Man, Darwins 1872 book The
Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals owes much to Bell, although
Darwin differed in that he believed that many of the expressions of emotion
observed in human-kind could also be observed in animals. Darwin also argued
for the universality of emotional expression, a position that put him at odds with
twentieth-century anthropologists Birdwhistell and Walburga Von Raffler-Engel
(1981). Darwin stated:
That the chief expressive actions, exhibited by man and by the lower animals, are now
innate or inherited, - that is, have not been learnt by the individual, - is admitted by
everyone. So little has learning or imitation to do with several of them that they are from
the earliest days and throughout life quite beyond our control; for instance, the
relaxation of the arteries of the skin in blushing, and the increased action of the heart in
anger (Darwin 1998:348).
Darwin formulated three general principles of expression: firstly, that expressive

movements occur through habit and association; secondly, that when an opposite
state of mind to the habitual state is induced, there is a strong tendency for the
body to perform movements which are the antithesis of the habitual movements;
and thirdly, that emotional expression (reaction) can result from the direct
action of the nervous system, as in the startle reflex (Darwin 1998:34).
Darwin emphasised a point relevant to conductors when he discussed the role of
empathy in non-verbal communication, as my survey of experienced Melbourne
secondary school conductors revealed that 10% of respondents believe that
ensemble empathy is an important skill that should be developed by student
conductors:
The movements of expression in the face and body, whatever their origin may have
been, are in themselves of much importance for our welfare. They serve as the first
means of communication between the mother and her infant; she smiles approval, and
thus encourages her child on the right path, or frowns disapproval. We readily perceive
sympathy in others by their expression; our sufferings are thus mitigated and our
pleasures increased; and mutual good feeling is thus strengthened. The movements of
expression give vividness and energy to our spoken words. They reveal the thoughts and
intentions of others more truly than do words, which may be falsified (Darwin
1998:359).
Facial and body expression in conductors are therefore the areas of utmost
empathic communication.
169
Birdwhistells views on non-verbal communication, stated earlier in the chapter,
were opposed to those of Darwin, who regarded expressive movement as innate.
Birdwhistell regarded body motion as learned, systematic, and analysable:
All kinesic research rests upon the assumption that, without the participants being
necessarily aware of it, human beings are constantly engaged in adjustments to the
presence and activities of other human beings.
Further, it is the working assumption of the kinesicist that, until otherwise demonstrated,
all body motion systems contain dominant learned aspects which are of special interest
to the behavioral scientist concerned with problems of communication theory. Five
years of intensive preliminary recording and analysis have led me to the conviction that
kinesic behaviour is learned, systematic, and analysable (Birdwhistell 1970:48-49).
Birdwhistells position backs up my contention (and that of Laban, Dalcroze,

Delsarte, Alexander, and Feldenkrais) that all levels of entering behaviour can
learn expressive movement. Birdwhistells research also emphasises the
enhancement of expressive movement through observation and analysis.
Birdwhistells stance on the ability of members of a culture to learn body motion
provides an incentive for conducting teachers to closely study expressive
movement:
Kinesics is not concerned, as such, with the movement potential of the human species,
but rather with those portions of the movement spectrum which are selected by the
particular culture for patterned performance and perception. At the same time, as is true
with other cultural behaviour, much of what happens and which is necessary to the
proper performance of a social act cannot be recalled by the actor or the untrained
spectator. I have long had the belief that as the child is taught to move, to view and
meaningfully to reproduce movement, an integral part of this education is concerned
with enhancing or preventing recall of much of this activity (Birdwhistell 1970:191).
In support of Birdwhistells position, Von Raffler-Engel also believed that body

movement is learned rather than innate. In a chapter on the acquisition of nonverbal behaviour, she argued that the development of non-verbal communication
skills depends on a number of simultaneous factors:
Purposeful movements of the body also require physical coordination and therefore
cannot be produced by children before they have acquired the coordination necessary for
each movement. In this respect, the development of kinesics is similar to the
development of sound articulation, which requires muscle control and a full set of teeth.
The development of kinesics requires readiness in motor coordination, psychological
intent, and knowledge of the proper form of nonverbal behaviour (Von Raffler-Engel
1981:11-12).
The concept of a number of simultaneous factors working together to produce

expressive movement was developed in Chapter Four, where Dynamic Systems
Theory was proposed as a theory of motor skill development compatible with the
enhancement of expressive movement at all levels of entering behaviour.
170
My survey of university conducting teachers appears to support expressive
conducting being learnable. Teachers were asked to lst the prerequisites they
required of potential conducting students (Table 17).
No Response
No Prerequisites
No Conducting Experience
Resume
Interview
Audition
Audio Recording of Conducting
Video Recording of Conducting
Recommendation or Referral
Piano Proficiency
Instrument/Voice Proficiency
Theory Proficiency
Aural Training Diagnostic
Music History Diagnostic
Repertoire Knowledge
Previous Conducting Class
Teaching Experience
Table 17
3
4
37
15
22
23
6
15
0
24
48
63
30
3
5
4
2
3%
5%
42%
17%
25%
26%
7%
17%
27%
55%
72%
34%
3%
6%
5%
2%
Prerequisites Required of Potential Conducting Students
The two most popular prerequisites among respondents were theory and
instrument/voice proficiency. These were required prerequisites in over half of
the respondents. 42% of respondents required no prior conducting experience
and 5% had no prerequisites at all. As actual conducting experience was not a
requirement in many of the conducting programs, then the teachers must have
been confident in their ability to teach conducting to those in their classes.
In the 1998 third edition of Darwins The Expression of the Emotions in Man and
Animals, Ekman contributed a detailed afterword in which he comments on the
debate between Darwins position on the human expression of emotions as being
innate and universal, and Birdwhistells position as being learned and culturally
based (Ekman 1998:363-393). This debate is significant for the learning of
expressive conducting, as, if the expression of emotions is solely innate, then the
implication is that emotional expression is achieved solely by heredity alone and
is unlearnable. Alternatively, if the expression of emotions is solely culturally
based, then the implication is that emotional expression lacks uniformity and is
dependent solely on environmental rules and conditions.
171
Ekman takes a middle ground in the debate between the universality and the
cultural dependence of emotional expression, finding that only in the expression
of strong emotion are expressions the same:
To have shown that there are universals in facial expressions of emotion does not mean
that expressions are universal in every regard. Our evidence, and that of others, shows
only that when people are experiencing certain strong emotions, and are not making any
attempt to mask their expressions (display rules), the expression will be the same
regardless of age, race, culture, sex, or education. That is a powerful finding (Ekman
1998:391).
Cultures broadly differ in their expression of emotions as regards their respective

display rules, which specify who can show which emotion to whom and when;
the specific events which are likely to call forth an emotion; and the presence or
absence of words in a given language to describe an emotional state (Ekman
1998:392). Ekman concludes by writing:
Even though the expressions are universal, culture determines whether the person even
knows that the feelings are related to the event Our evolution gives us these universal
expressions, which tell others some important information about us, but exactly what an
expression tells us is not the same in every culture (Ekman 1998:393).
Ekmans findings mean that for conducting teachers, a limited set of universal
emotional expressions are teachable under the cultural display rules set down for
a conductor, which permit verbal and non-verbal communication in rehearsal, but
only non-verbal communication through facial expression, including eye contact,
and the motion and attitude of a conductors hands, arms and body, in
performance.
172
Emphasising the Non-Verbal in Non-Verbal Communication in Expressive
Conducting
How can conductors effectively communicate their musical intentions to a group
of musicians? One way is through words, however words are an imprecise way
of describing a feeling or mood and are time-consuming in a rehearsal.
Moreover, many musicians dislike being lectured, and words are normally
inappropriate in an actual performance.
From time to time, conductors do need to speak in rehearsal. While words should
be kept to a minimum, it is important that the verbal instructions being given are
consistent with the non-verbal signals being sent. Taken particularly from a
choral conductors perspective, Kevin Fords article Implications for NonVerbal Communication and Conducting Gesture pointed out that gestures
actually impact on thought and constitute a more complete thought when
combined with language. While the link made between gesture and speech lies
outside the current investigation, Ford reinforced the link between gesture and
intention:
The conductor who uses gestures that are at odds (non-verbally) with his or her musical
desire must spend a great deal of time talking to the choir and convincing them to ignore
the nonverbal cues they are seeing while performing the conductors musical intent.
Efficiency will increase as the group learns to ignore more and more of the confusing
gestures, but the conductor will likely need to use more verbal communication to obtain
the musical intent (Ford 2001:20-21).
Fords important point for teachers of conducting is that if there is an incongruity

between verbal and non-verbal communication, conductors ask ensembles to
ignore or discount their gestures. Apart from the wasted time and confusion with
this request, it may not be possible for the ensemble to ignore the gestures. Nonverbal communication is too powerful for words!
Even though Mehrabian titled his book Nonverbal Communication, he found it
necessary in the early stages of the book to disown this term, stating: In this
volume, then, the concept of implicit communication is used in preference to the
misnomer, nonverbal communication (Mehrabian 1972:2).
173
Mehrabian commented on the inability of Western culture to express feelings via
words, and the lack of instruction in implicit communication:
There are two pervasive traditions of western society that bear on the understanding of
implicit communication. Although either one may be found in any culture, the
occurrence of both within the same culture produces a unique significance for implicit
behaviours. The first, and probably more important, of these traditions is restraint in the
expression of feelings, particularly negative ones, outside the sphere of intimate
relationships. The second is the absence of explicit instruction on the subject of implicit
messages within the framework of formal education. The continued emphasis on
language skills both at home and in school is a sharp contrast to the neglect of implicit
communication (Mehrabian 1972:178).
Both of the issues raised by Mehrabian have implications for the enhancement of
expressive conducting, as if words are generally deemed inappropriate or
inadequate for the expression of feelings, and conductors are restricted in their
employment of words in performance, then it makes sense for conductors to
learn skills in non-verbal (implicit) communication in order effectively to
communicate their feelings about the music.
Argyle, like Mehrabian, noticed the importance of non-verbal communication as
part of social skills training and therapy:
At present education places a great deal of emphasis on words, books, and verbal
communication. Training in social skills is now being given in various quarters for
interviewers, teachers, and other performers of professional social skills, and also in
some schools. Much of this training emphasises the use of bodily communication
(Argyle 1975:16).
Argyles comments back up the observations of conductors Tilson Thomas

(1994), Rachleff and Hainlen (see Harris 2001) at the end of Chapter Three that
developing a bodily connection is the key to learning.
According to researchers and conductors Kimberly Van Weelden (2002), Rodney
Eichenberger (see McClung 1996), and Alan McClung (2005), non-verbal
communication enhances expressive conducting by moving beyond the standard
beat patterns.
In discussing the implications for beginning conductors training in non-verbal
communication, Van Weelden states:
For many conductors the art and skill of effectively and efficiently conveying messages
through nonverbal means, such as gestures and facial and body expressions, is a lifelong
pursuit. Teachers of beginning conducting classes start this process by spending a great
deal of time instructing students how to use their arms, hands, fingers, faces, and bodies
to accurately display beat patterns and cues. However, the whole of a conductors nonverbal communication skills includes subtler aspects beyond those gestures (Van
Weelden 2002:67).
174
Van Weelden here acknowledges that the development of a broader range of
non-verbal communication skills beyond the beat patterns is required for the
enhancement of expressive conducting.
Eichenberger, one of the leading authorities on the teaching of choral conductors,
explained how he developed his approach to teaching choral conducting by
moving beyond beat patterns:
In those early years I taught undergraduate conducting the old tried-and-tested way, in
which you start with a pattern and then fit the music into it. At times, my students
became frustrated with my instruction. It worried me, so I readjusted my method. We
came to the conclusion that the conducting pattern was a useful and important tool, but
that it was effective only if it worked within the context of each piece of music. This
discovery completely changed my outlook on conducting. Instead of superimposing
music on a conducting pattern, I focused first on the music and found ways to make it
come alive (see McClung 1996:21).
Eichenberger encouraged his conducting students to isolate each movement and

then to discover its effect on the musical performance. He maintained that it is
these movements that then become effective elements in the development of a
non-verbal vocabulary (see McClung 1996:24).
In a later article, McClung added:
If the essence of conducting is in the gesture and if the essence of the gesture is in the
value of the information communicated nonverbally, it is only by freeing the body with
an enhanced perception of the power of nonverbal behaviours that musical intentions
can be effectively communicated to members of musical ensembles. To enhance
perception, the conductor must become cognitively, aurally, and visually aware of the
potential power of gesture, and set about to master the psychomotor skills that produce
desirable musical results (McClung 2005:27).
McClung here argues that for the gestural communication to be effective, it

should be combined with a body free to communicate non-verbally, backing up
Lambs contention that gesture and posture must be merged for effective nonverbal communication to occur.
As indicated earlier, many conductors, particularly those of low entering
behaviour, struggle to get beyond the learning of beat patterns into more
expressive conducting, due to the high emphasis placed on developing the right
hand beat patterns as conducting technique. Despite the acknowledged
importance of body presence among conducting teachers in the early stages of
instruction, there remains a lack of consensus as to how expressive conducting
should best be taught. A recent approach by Koch (2003) is to classify the types
of gestures required of a conductor into three gestural modes, which allows for a
175
more varied approach to body use, gesture and non-verbal communication
beyond the delivery of beat patterns.
The Use of Gestural Modes to Enhance Expressive Conducting
According to Koch, an expressive conductor uses different types of gestures as
part of the process of conducting, depending on the skill level of the ensemble,
the level of experience the ensemble has of the work at hand, and the
requirements of the music. Koch describes three gestural modes, declamatory,
corrective, and narrative. He describes declamatory mode as gesture referring to
sound in which a conductor strives to demonstrate their musical conception as
clearly as possible through symbolic gesture60. In corrective mode the
conducting gesture primarily refers to performance accuracy in terms of
precision, tempo, dynamics and articulation, the main focus being on error
prevention. In corrective mode, little or no effort is made by a conductor to
portray the sound through gesture. In narrative mode, a conductor is less
concerned with demonstrating or correcting the sound than in using gesture to
illuminate aspects of the music and its overall architecture. In narrative mode, a
conductor grants greater autonomy to the ensemble with the expectation that the
ensemble will perform with accuracy and sensitivity. The role of a conductor in
narrative mode is to highlight features of the interpretation which they would like
the ensemble to bring out in their performance (Koch 2003:136-140). An
expressive conductor uses all three modes, although the greater the skill level of
the ensemble, the less the corrective mode needs to be used. As the corrective
mode is mainly concerned with performance accuracy and error prevention, there
is less scope in this mode for expressivity in conducting, while the declamatory
and narrative modes are the natural domain for expressive conducting.
When learning conducting, as indicated in my survey of secondary school
conductors, most conductors were only comfortable conducting in the corrective
mode, initially through beat patterns, as shown earlier, with little emphasis
placed on the declamatory and narrative modes until later stages of their
conducting experience, the declamatory and narrative modes being regarded by
them as advanced conducting. As a result of this, many conductors have
60
Examples of symbolic type gestures are Laban effort actions: float, glide, dab, flick, press,
wring, punch, and slash, which were discussed in Chapter Five.
176
difficulty leaving the comfort zone of the corrective mode, regardless of the skill
level of their ensembles. On the other hand, high entering behaviour conductors
appear to have a greater natural affinity for the declamatory and narrative modes,
being more willing to depart from the corrective mode. As the declamatory and
narrative modes are the modes in which high-level ensembles work in as a matter
of course, it is the conductors who can depart from the corrective mode who will
have the greatest success with ensembles at this level.
Walter and Furtwngler believe that there are misconceptions over the primary
task on the conductor, which keeps too many conductors in the corrective mode.
Walter states:
There remains the fundamental error of assuming that the foremost task of a conductor
is to keep the players together.
This error is fostered by appearances: one sees a single person in front of all the fiddling,
blowing, beating, singing musicians, and to the superficial observer, his task seems to be
to bring unity and order into these masses; the eyes of all participants are directed at that
one man, he raises his hand and stick and moves them, thereby keeping the many
together and leading them. No wonder the spectator believes such a function to be
mechanical. What he does not see is the transmission of spiritual impulses from the
conductor to the executants (Walter 1961:82).
The task of keeping an ensemble together is in the corrective mode, requiring

conducting gestures focusing on performance accuracy in terms of precision,
tempo, dynamics and articulation. Conductors who stay within this mode will
find their spur-of-the moment influence on the ensemble to be limited, the
ensembles unable to recognise the role of the conductor to influence the sound or
interpretation through gesture while the performance is in progress. What Walter
describes as spiritual impulses is instead communication through the
declamatory and narrative modes.
177
Furtwngler believes that most conductors place far too much emphasis on the
downbeat gesture, rather than its preparation. A perfect example of a narrative
mode conductor, Furtwngler argues that:
What makes a group of musicians all start to play at the same time needs visual
preparation. It is not the instant of the downbeat itself that produces the precision with
which the orchestra enters, nor is it the precision of the conductors gesture but the way
he prepares for it. Its clarity may affect the subsequent downbeats through its
characterisation of the pulse as a whole but as far as the opening note of the piece is
concerned the note at which the beat is aimed this is irrelevant. All those who
conduct solely in terms of fixed points and ninety percent of conductors do are
completely unaware of this.
A strong downbeat has considerable disadvantages. It binds the movement of the piece
to specific points, thereby restricting the natural flow of the music and reducing its
effectiveness.
The power to affect a note and this cannot be emphasised too often lies in the
preparation of the beat, not in the beat itself (see Taylor 1991:19-20).
Furtwnglers endorsement of the preparatory gesture makes sense in that an

expressive conductors gesture must always occur in advance of the music.
Conductors who place importance on the preparatory gesture give their
ensembles more time to assimilate the meaning of the gesture and react
accordingly. As Furtwngler noted, downbeat conducting has a tendency to fix
music to beat-points rather than allow the music to flow through beats.
Former Cleveland Orchestra trombonist James DeSano, a long-time observer of
conductors, agrees with this assessment, stating: Students should learn that a
clean entrance depends on the upbeat yet too many conductors use a stab and
grab technique on the prep beat. This results in sloppy playing even at the
professional level (see Knight 2004b:30-32).
Otto Klemperer agrees about the importance of the preparatory beat (upbeat):
Very important is the upbeat; its the upbeat and not the downbeat that makes an
orchestra attentive. One of the most important points is, I believe, that the conductors
hand should give the musicians the opportunity to play as though they were quite free.
The players are hindered when the conductor beats too emphatically (see Heyworth
1985:111-112).
As can be seen from these statements, both Klemperer and Furtwngler regarded
beat-point conducting as too restrictive of the flow of the music. Furtwngler in
particular was never known for the clarity of his beat according to Schonberg,
who writes:
Furtwnglers beat was a phenomenon unduplicated before or since: a horror, a
nightmare, to musicians. On the podium he lost himself. He would gesticulate, shout,
sing, make faces, spit, stamp. Or he would close his eyes and make vague motions. Until
orchestras worked with him and got used to that curious, quivering, trembling baton they
could be in a complete mess (Schonberg 1967:272).
178
Conducting in the corrective mode was largely unnecessary for the standard of
ensembles with which Furtwngler worked. As he and Klemperer communicated
mainly using the narrative mode and sometimes in the declamatory mode, they
were more interested in gestures indicating their desired interpretation or musical
features than in technical clarity. Furtwngler was known to say: Standardised
technique creates in turn standardised art (see Schonberg 1967:272).
A conductors technique, in its purest form, functions in the corrective mode. I
have found many conductors to be trapped in this mode, failing to extend their
technique to reach the declamatory or narrative modes. The beat patterns, once
switched on by a conductor, can function automatically, flailing away regardless
of the musical moment. As I have experienced and observed on many occasions,
it is very hard to break free from the comfort of the beat patterns, once learned.
As Furtwngler (see Taylor 1991) earlier noted, the emphasis on downbeats as
part of technique leads to mere time beating, and the destruction of musical
phrasing. However, an effective, expressive musical performance will require
more than the use of corrective mode conducting, requiring gestures which Koch
described as being in the declamatory and narrative modes.
Of the nineteen emblematic gestures (gestures that can be universally
understood) identified by the total population of instrumental performers in
Sousas study (Sousa 1989:84-86), referred to earlier in the chapter, fifteen
consisted of gestures in the corrective mode, such as beat patterns, dynamics,
articulation and tempo. Of the remaining four emblematic gestures, two were
phrasing gestures, one was a left hand illustrative gesture (all three doubling as
illustrators, which I consider to be in the declamatory mode, as in this mode, the
gestures refer to the sound), and the fourth was a left hand regulatory gesture
(Sousa 1989:86), which I consider to be in the narrative mode.
Although corrective mode gestures and universally understood emblems are
important for conductors, as they emphasise clarity and precision, I believe that
more use could be made of illustrators and affect displays by expressive
conductors in order to access the declamatory mode. As described by Koch, in
the declamatory mode, gestures refer to sound in which a conductor strives to
demonstrate their musical conception as clearly as possible through symbolic
gesture, symbols which are perfectly communicated by illustrators and affect
displays. Using illustrators (typically performed by the hands and arms) from the
179
earliest stages of conducting instruction allows both left and right hands to be
involved in the conducting process much earlier than traditional methods of
conducting instruction, which tend to be focused on the development of right
hand technique through beat patterns. Furthermore, more use could be made of
regulators and affect displays by conducting teachers in order to access the
narrative mode, in which a conductor uses gesture to illuminate aspects of the
music and its overall architecture. Through the use of regulators, a conductor
enhances the expressive partnership with the musicians, granting them greater
musical autonomy, yet shaping the musical narrative to fit the conductors
interpretation. Affect displays communicate the conductors emotional reaction
to the narrative. In terms of affect displays, the eyes and the mouth are the most
mobile parts of the face. For conductors, a simple study of the various
combinations of eye (eyebrow) and mouth use are beneficial, in that it makes
them aware of the declamatory possibilities for communication using eye and
mouth combinations, and suggests a body mapping exercise for individual
conductors to observe their own usage of eyes and mouth when conducting. The
use of illustrators, regulators and affect displays represent what I consider to be
an effective way to allow conductors to access gestures beyond the corrective
mode, using non-verbal communication to reach the declamatory and narrative
modes.
In this chapter, I have argued that the categorisation of non-verbal behaviour is
relevant to the enhancement of expressive conducting, as conductors rely on
universally understood emblems for clarity and the basis of technique, while
illustrative movements are widely used to portray the desired character and style
of the music. Conductors use affect displays to communicate their feelings and
reaction to the performance, while adaptors, such as facial mannerisms and
habits, are unconsciously used by conductors. These can all be effectively
communicated through the non-verbal coding of kinesics, involving expressive
movements of the hands, arms and body, posture, bearing, facial expression, and
eye contact.
180
An ongoing problem for conductors has been to find an effective way to observe
and record conducting non-verbal communication behaviours, which is critical to
the enhancement of expressive conducting, supported by my two surveys. As
verbal communication is unavailable to conductors in performance, the use of
non-verbal communication by conductors wishing to enhance their expressive
conducting is paramount. As observation (of self and others) is acknowledged as
an important method for developing non-verbal communication techniques in
student conductors, then an effective means of observing and analysing
conductor non-verbal behaviour is needed. The majority of contemporary
conducting teachers and students appear to make use of video and DVD formats
as observation tools.
The arguments for and against the universality and the cultural context of
emotional expression in non-verbal communication are significant for the
learning of expressive conducting, as if the expression of emotions is solely
innate, then the implication is that emotional expression is achieved solely by
heredity alone and is unlearnable. Alternatively, if the expression of emotions is
solely culturally based, then the implication is that emotional expression lacks
uniformity and is dependent solely on environmental rules and conditions.
Ekman takes a third position, arguing that emotions are universal, but the context
for their expression is cultural. Ekmans findings mean that for conducting
teachers, a limited set of universal emotional expressions are teachable under the
cultural display rules set down for a conductor, which permit verbal and nonverbal communication in rehearsal, but only non-verbal communication through
facial expression, including eye contact, and the motion and attitude of a
conductors hands, arms and body.
All of the seemingly diverse forms of non-verbal communication available to
conductors can be made into a workable form through the use of gestural modes.
important for conductors to be taught, as they emphasise clarity and precision, I
believe that more use could be made of illustrators and affect displays by
conducting teachers in order to access the declamatory mode. Furthermore, more
use could be made of regulators and affect displays by conducting teachers in
order to access the narrative mode. Through the use of regulators, a conductor
181
enhances the expressive partnership with the musicians, granting them greater
musical autonomy, yet shaping the musical narrative to fit the conductors
interpretation, while affect displays communicate the conductors emotional
reaction to the narrative.
182
CHAPTER SEVEN SURVEY RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The previous four chapters have constituted a comprehensive discussion of the
published literature on conducting, expressive movements theories, non-verbal
communication, and bodily-kinaesthetic learning. The surveys were deemed
necessary for this thesis in order to collect information on the current level of use
of expressive movement activities by the survey respondents, and the types and
methods of non-verbal communication being taught by university conducting
teachers.
As stated in the introduction, all participants in both surveys were invited to
respond to internet-based surveys, making completion and collection of the
surveys relatively straightforward, and responses completely anonymous. The
first survey, which is shown in full in Appendix A, is of eighty-eight universitylevel conducting teachers. The second survey, which is shown in full in
Appendix B, is of forty-two secondary school level conductors based around the
Melbourne (Australia) area. The two surveys were administered as exploratory
studies, serving as snapshots of the two groups at the time of the surveys (2005).
Due to the broad exploratory nature of some of these questions, not all proved
relevant to expressive conducting and, as indicated in the review of each survey
question, were ultimately rejected.
The first survey indicated the value of conducting teachers exploring approaches
beyond the teaching of beat patterns to enhance expressive conducting. The
second survey provided useful perspectives from practising secondary school
conductors on the difficulties they had acquiring expressive conducting skills.
Each survey is discussed in turn, each concluding with a discussion section
interpreting the survey findings.
Survey 1 University Level Conducting Teachers
This survey was intended to gather information about the training of conductors,
particularly from the standpoint of conducting teacher priorities and the teaching
of expressive conducting. Additional aims of this survey were to identify the
skills that beginner conductors should already possess or immediately seek to
183
develop, and to identify the non-verbal communication skills required of a
conductor and how best to develop them.
Conductors were contacted in Australia and the UK through direct email via the
universities. Other international conductors were contacted via an invitation
posted on the College Band Directors National Association (CBDNA) website
bulletin board. All were invited to participate in an online survey, asking
questions about the musical background of their students, their teaching priorities
and methodology. Eighty-eight conductors responded to the survey.
Base Location
Responses were received from five countries. 80% of responses were from the
USA across thirty-two states (8 respondents did not identify their state 9%). 9%
of responses were from Australia across two states. Other countries from which
responses were received were the UK, Canada, and Spain. Five respondents (6%)
did not identify their base location. It is likely that the high proportion of
respondents from the USA reflects the high number of university-level conductor
training programs in that country compared to other countries, and the high
proportion of CBDNA members, the largest source of respondents, in the USA.
Even allowing for the large number of respondents from the USA, the base
location of conducting teachers is not seen as a determining factor in the ability
to teach expressive conducting.
A1 A3
Number and Gender of Conducting Students
These questions were asked to determine the size of the conducting programs
under investigation, and to see if there was any notable gender imbalance within
the student population. The most popular response when asked How Many
Conducting Students? was fifteen or more by thirty-two respondents (36%),
more than double any other category. While some respondents had more male
students than female students, for other respondents this was reversed. 78% of
respondents had between one and eight male conducting students. 60% of
respondents had between one and eight female conducting students. Eleven
respondents had no female conducting students. Overall, there appeared to be a
fairly even number of male and female conducting students. The gender balance
184
was deemed to be of a satisfactory level, and the gender of the conducting
students is no longer a factor in this thesis.
A4 A5
Prior Ensemble and Instrument Type Performing Background of
Conducting Students
A large majority of the respondents had students with a wind band background.
As the majority of students had a wind band ensemble background, the most
common instrument types were woodwind, brass and percussion. This reflects
the fact that a majority of respondents were teachers of wind band conducting
programs. This was due to the large number of respondents who were members
of the CBDNA, and reflects the large number of wind band conducting programs
in the USA aimed at training music educator/conductors.
A6
Student Age Group at Commencement of Conducting Lessons
The majority of respondents had students commence conducting lessons at the

undergraduate level (ages 17 23). The age of the students in itself is not seen as
a significant factor in the ability to conduct expressively, and will therefore no
longer be a consideration in this thesis.
A7
Prerequisities Required of Potential Conducting Students
and 5% had no prerequisites at all. 76% of respondents listed between one and
four prerequisites. 13% of respondents listed five or more prerequisites (two
respondents listed ten prerequisites). Only 26% of respondents required an
audition from their potential conducting students, indicating that conducting
teachers were more interested in potential students musical background than in
prior conducting experience.
185
A8
What Skills Should a Beginner Conductor Already Possess?
Thirty-three responses were received in answer to the question What skills

should a beginner conductor already possess? The most popular responses to
this question were music theory knowledge (34%), musicianship (30%), aural
skills (27%) and instrumental skills (23%). These appear to confirm the finding
of A7. The fact that skills such as basic left hand, charisma, coordination,
expressive gestures, facial expressivity, and kinaesthetic ability all rated fairly
low indicate that conducting teachers regard these as elements that can be taught
later on.
A9
What Skills Should a Beginner Conductor Immediately Seek to Develop?
reading skills (30%), aural skills (28%), musicianship (25%) and non-verbal
communication (22%). Some skills were listed by some respondents as skills
desirable for a beginner conductor to already possess and by others as skills to
immediately seek to develop. More respondents felt that score reading skills
should be developed by the beginner conductor than already possessed (eleven
more), and likewise for expressive gestures, left hand independence, and
rehearsal techniques (each ten more), beat patterns (four more), aural skills,
knowledge of instruments, research skills, and self confidence (each one more).
Fewer respondents felt that music theory knowledge should be developed by the
beginner conductor than already possessed (twenty-eight less); likewise for
instrumental skills (eighteen less), historical knowledge (eleven less), piano skills
(six less), musicianship (four less), and harmonic knowledge (one less). New
skills to be developed by the beginner conductor included baton technique
(32%), non-verbal communication skills (22%), control of movements (15%) and
interpretation (9%).
A10
Gender of Respondents
Male respondents outnumbered female respondents by a ratio of over seven to

one. This is most likely a true reflection of the universal gender imbalance within
university conducting teachers. Although a wealth of data was collected through
186
the survey on male/female conductors teaching priorities, gender issues and
commentary were not part of this thesis.
B1
Setting for Conducting Students First Lessons
Eighty-two percent of respondents gave first lessons in mainly the undergraduate

conducting class only. 9% of respondents gave first lessons in two settings
mainly an undergraduate class and a graduate class or private lesson, but
occasionally two graduate settings. Due to the low number of graduate
conducting settings among respondents, the setting for the first lessons was not a
factor in this thesis.
B2
Conducting Textbooks Used

their own exercises used other textbooks. A significant part of this survey finding
was that 81% of university conducting teachers surveyed were regularly using
conducting textbooks.
B3
Rank Order of Importance of Aspects of Conducting Which May Be
Covered in the Initial Few Lessons

The overall rank order for aspects of conducting which may be covered in the
initial few lessons differed from the number of first preferences among
respondents, due to some methods ranking higher on second and third
preferences than others. For example, twenty-four respondents (27%) found beat
patterns to be the most important aspect of conducting which may be covered in
the initial few lessons. However, beat patterns ranked second overall, behind
187
body presence, due to a higher number of second and third preferences for body
presence. Use of the baton/right hand ranked third overall, yet only received ten
first preferences (11%), half the number received by score study (23%) which
ranked as low as fifth. Repertoire development and interpretation were generally
agreed to be the least important aspects of conducting to be covered in the initial
few lessons.
A significant part of this survey finding was the high rank order given to body
presence by the university conducting teachers surveyed.
B4 B5
Conducting Students using a Baton and Left Hand
The majority of respondents (over 87%) had their students use a baton. Forty-one
respondents (just under 47%) insisted on their conducting students beating with
their right hand. Neither of these questions were regarded as significant to the
ability to conduct expressively.
B6
Rank Order of Impotance of Aspects of Conducting Which May Be
Covered As Students Develop More Experience

Score study was ranked first in order of importance and received thirty-three first
preferences (38%). Second in order of importance were expressive gestures, and
this category received thirteen first preferences (15%). Third in order of
importance were rehearsal techniques, and this category received twelve first
preferences (14%).
Although both beat patterns and the psychology of conducting were ranked quite
low (twelfth and seventh respectively), they received a high number of first
preferences (eleven for the psychology of conducting, nine for beat patterns.
Repertoire development remained the least favoured aspect of conducting by
respondents at this stage of learning.
The greatest jump in rank order of importance of aspects of conducting which
may be covered as students develop more experience, compared with what
should be covered in the initial few lessons, were in rehearsal techniques and
interpretation (up eight places), and expressive gestures and score study (up four
places). The greatest drop in rank order occurred in beat patterns (down eleven
places) and starting and stopping the ensemble (down seven places).
188
A significant part of this survey finding was the high rank order given to
expressive gestures by the university conducting teachers surveyed. Although not
regarded as a major aspect in the initial few lessons, the survey regarded it as a
major aspect to be developed as students develop more experience.
B7
Rank Order of Importance of Methods to Assist the Development of
Conducting Expressivity
order and number of first preferences (32%). Observation of other conductors
was ranked second, although conducting classes, courses, and workshops
received more first preferences (26%). Expressive movement activities were
ranked as low as sixth, although seven respondents gave it their first preference.
Few respondents believed that conducting textbooks would assist the
development of conducting expressivity. Even less believed conducting
expressivity would just improve over time.
The survey results clearly indicated that an active method was required to
develop conducting expressivity it will not just improve over time. Observation
of self and other conductors was regarded as the main methods to improve
expressivity. Significantly, expressive activities were not ranked highly by the
majority of respondents. It is possible that many were not aware of the
possibilities of such activities.
B8
How Frequently Have You Used the Following Movement Training or
Activities with Your Conducting Students? (Acting, Alexander Technique,

Calisthenics, Dalcroze, Dance, Delsarte, Feldenkrais, Laban, Pilates, Tai Chi,
Yoga)
Ninety percent of respondents used one or more of the eleven listed movement
activities. The most popular responses were between one and four different
movement activities used (63%). 5% of respondents used eight or more
movement activities with their conducting students (one respondent used all
eleven).
189
a)
Acting
Over 70% of respondents had used acting with their conducting students. 36% of
respondents, the largest group, stated that they had used acting occasionally. As
acting is a very broad area with a wide range of contrasting philosophical
viewpoints, it was deemed unsuitable for this thesis, however, it deserves to be
investigated in future studies.
b)
Alexander Technique
Over 50% of respondents had never used the Alexander Technique with their
conducting students. 24% of respondents had used the Alexander Technique
occasionally. Although a majority of participants had never used the Alexander
Technique, I still deemed the method suitable for this thesis due to its educational
background.
c)
Calisthenics
One of the problems with the term calisthenics is that it has a different meaning
in different parts of the world. In the United States, the term means a type of
exercise consisting of a variety of simple movements usually performed without
weights or other equipment that are intended to increase body strength and
flexibility using the weight of one's own body for resistance. In Australia, the
term is generally taken to mean a competitive women's performing sport,
involving the use of freearm, aesthetics, rods, clubs, and march routines.
The overall results for calisthenics were similar to the results for the Alexander
Technique. Just over half the respondents had never used calisthenics (in any
form) with their conducting students. 27% of respondents had used calisthenics
occasionally. Due to the lack of a consistent interpretation of the term
calisthenics, it was deemed unsuitable for this thesis.
d)
Dalcroze
Almost 70% of respondents had never used Dalcroze with their conducting
students. Almost 20% of respondents had used Dalcroze occasionally. Although
a majority of participants had never used Dalcroze, I still deemed the method
suitable for this thesis due to its educational background, and for the way it
developed kinaesthetic responses using music and movement.
e)
Dance
Fifty-three percent of respondents had never used dance before with their
conducting students. Just over 20% of respondents used dance occasionally, and
17% used dance frequently. Similarly to acting, as dance is a very broad area
190
with a wide range of contrasting philosophical viewpoints, I deemed it unsuitable
for this thesis. Dance, however, deserves to be investigated in future studies.
f)
Delsarte
Less than 5% of respondents had used Delsarte with their conducting students.
Nevertheless, I still deemed Delsarte suitable for this thesis due to its educational
background, and its strong theoretical underpinning in the meaning and
interpretation of gesture.
g)
Feldenkrais
Less than 10% of respondents had used Feldenkrais with their conducting
students. Possibly, this was an unknown movement activity to many of the
respondents. Nevertheless, I still deemed Feldenkrais suitable for this thesis due
to its educational background, and the importance it places on kinaesthetic
awareness.
h)
Laban
Almost 70% of respondents had never used Laban with their conducting
students. 10% of respondents had used Laban frequently, 8% had used it
occasionally, and 6% had used it once or twice. 6% of respondents used Laban
all the time. From other theses, Laban had been the most researched movement
activity applied to conducting. I deemed it suitable for this thesis due to its
educational background, as well as the conducting teaching possibilities of using
the Laban elements of weight, space, and time.
i)
Pilates
As less than 5% of respondents had used Pilates with their conducting students, I
deemed it to be unsuitable for this thesis.
j)
Tai Chi
Almost three-quarters of respondents had never used Tai Chi with their
conducting students. Although Tai Chi was supported by some conductors from
the survey and may well be a worthwhile movement activity for a future study, it
was left out of this thesis.
k)
Yoga
Over 80% of respondents had never used yoga with their conducting students.
11% of respondents had used yoga occasionally. Although yoga was supported
by some conductors from the survey and may well be a worthwhile movement
activity for a future study, it was left out of this thesis.
191
B9
Other Movement Training Methods or Activities Used with Conducting
Students
Sixty percent of respondents indicated no additional movement training methods
or activities other than those listed in B8. Of the respondents who had not used
any of the eleven movement training methods or activities in B8, 56% still did
not use other movement activities.
The most popular movement training methods or activities used by respondents,
apart from those listed in B8, were mime (10%), Elizabeth Green conducting
movement exercises (from The Modern Conductor 9%) and respondents own
movement exercises (9%). Although mime is an activity potentially rich in
expressive movement potential, it is a very broad area with a wide range of
contrasting philosophical viewpoints. I therefore deemed mime unsuitable for
this thesis, however, it deserves to be investigated in future studies. Other
activities were similarly deemed unsuitable for this thesis.
B10
How Effective Have You Found the Following Movement Training or
Activities with Your Conducting Students?

Occasional discrepancies were received in response to this section when
compared to responses received to B8. This was due to incomplete surveys
some respondents failed to complete B10 after answering B8, possibly due to
respondent fatigue, causing slight inconsistencies in responses.
a)
Acting
Twenty-seven percent of respondents had never used acting with their

conducting students. Of those remaining, 82% found acting effective with their
conducting students. 15% of remaining respondents were undecided and 3%
found acting to be not effective with their conducting students.
b)
Alexander Technique
Fifty percent of respondents had never used the Alexander Technique with their
conducting students. Of those remaining, 76% found the Alexander Technique
effective with their conducting students. 22% of remaining respondents were
undecided and 2% found the Alexander Technique to be not effective with their
conducting students.
192
c)
Calisthenics
Fifty-one percent of respondents had never used calisthenics with their

conducting students. Of those remaining, 65% found calisthenics effective with
their conducting students. 30% of remaining respondents were undecided and 5%
found calisthenics to be not effective with their conducting students.
d)
Dalcroze
Sixty-five percent of respondents had never used Dalcroze with their conducting
students. Of those remaining, 70% found Dalcroze effective with their
conducting students, while 30% were undecided.
e)
Dance
Fifty-one percent of respondents had never used dance with their conducting
students. Of those remaining, 85% found dance effective with their conducting
students. 13% of remaining respondents were undecided and 2% found dance to
be not effective with their conducting students.
f)
Delsarte
Ninety percent of respondents had never used Delsarte with their conducting
students. Of those remaining, 60% found Delsarte slightly effective with their
conducting students, while 40% were undecided.
g)
Feldenkrais
Eighty-six percent of respondents had never used Feldenkrais with their

conducting students. Of those remaining, 44% found Feldenkrais to be effective,
h)
Laban
Sixty-six percent of respondents had never used Laban with their conducting
students. Of those remaining, 81% found Laban effective with their conducting
students, while 19% were undecided.
i)
Pilates
Ninety percent of respondents had never used Pilates with their conducting
students. Of those remaining, two-thirds found Pilates to be effective with their
conducting students, while one-third was undecided.
j)
Tai Chi
Seventy-four percent had never used Tai Chi with their conducting students. Of
those remaining, 70% found Tai Chi effective with their conducting students,
193
k)
Yoga
Seventy-eight percent of respondents had never used yoga with their conducting
students. Of those remaining, 56% found yoga effective with their conducting
B11
How Have These Movement Activities Helped Your Students Improve
Their Conducting?
Only those respondents who had used movement activities and found them
beneficial provided responses. Nevertheless, there was a wide range of responses
to the question of how these movement activities had helped students improve
their conducting. More than single responses were received to eight general
statements: develops body awareness (5 responses), develops self-awareness and
confidence (5 responses), helps to contemplate expressive movement before it is
confined to beat patterns (3 responses), adds to movement vocabulary (2
responses), develops connection between physical motion and music response (2
responses), overcomes inhibitions (2 responses), allows experimentation with
movement techniques (2 responses), and improves relaxation, movement control
and expressivity (2 responses). Only one multiple response was received for a
specific movement activity (Laban allows for the application of everyday
movements 2 responses).
In light of the importance assigned to the development of body presence in B3,
participants who have used movement activities appear to suggest that the
movement activities may have some role in assisting with the development of
body presence.
B12
Which Non-verbal Communication Techniques are Important for Your
Students to Develop?
The most important non-verbal communication techniques, as listed by
respondents, were facial expression (42%), eye contact (25%), body language
and hands/arms (each 14%). This provided a guide to important areas requiring
research from the literature.
194
B13
How Do You Go About Developing Your Conducting Students Non-
verbal Vocabulary?
(13%). Self-observation and observation of other conductors were also listed as
the most popular methods for developing conducting expressivity.
B14
How Do You Assess the Success or Quality of Your Students
Conducting?
The most important ways of assessing the success or quality of students
conducting, as listed by respondents, were by weekly observation (30%), by
assessing the end product of the conducting (26%), and testing specific skills
(18%). The importance of weekly observation from the survey highlighted the
importance of conducting teachers developing their observation skills.
Survey 1 Discussion
From the survey, the following inferences can be made about the mainly wind
band conducting programs of the participants:
The students are likely to be proficient in theory and an instrument or voice type.
There is a chance that the students would have had no prior conducting
experience.
In the initial few lessons, teachers focused on body presence, beat patterns, use of
the baton, and starting and stopping an ensemble. As their students developed
more experience, teachers focused more on score study, expressive gestures,
rehearsal techniques, and interpretation.
Teachers primarily relied on their students to self-observe via video and mirror
feedback to develop greater conducting expressivity. Many also suggested that
students observe other conductors and practise their conducting away from the
ensemble to develop expressivity. Some suggested more conducting classes,
courses, or workshops. Most teachers used conducting textbooks, many using
The Modern Conductor by Elizabeth Green. Few teachers believed that
195
conducting textbooks would assist their students to develop expressivity,
however. Even less believed their students would just improve over time.
Although expressive movement activities were not seen as a particularly
important method of developing conducting expressivity within students, most
teachers had used at least one expressive movement activity with their students.
Most teachers had used acting, the most popular of the expressive movement
activities. Of those teachers who had used expressive movement activities, most
found dance, acting, Laban, and the Alexander Technique to be the most
effective with their students. Some teachers felt that movement activities had
given their students increased body awareness and confidence.
Respondents believed that beginner conductors should already have good music
theory knowledge and musicianship, plus decent aural and instrumental skills
prior to starting conducting. They should immediately work to develop baton
technique, score reading skills, aural skills, musicianship, and non-verbal
communication. Some skills were listed by some respondents as skills desirable
for beginner conductors to already possess and by others as skills to immediately
seek to develop. More respondents felt that score reading skills should be
developed by beginner conductors than already possessed, likewise for
expressive gestures, left hand independence, rehearsal techniques, beat patterns,
aural skills, knowledge of instruments, research skills, and self confidence.
Fewer respondents felt that beginner conductors should develop music theory
knowledge than already possess it, likewise for instrumental skills, historical
knowledge, piano skills, musicianship, and harmonic knowledge. Important new
skills to be developed by beginner conductors included baton technique, nonverbal communication skills, control of movements and interpretation.
The most important non-verbal communication techniques for students to
develop were facial expression, eye contact, body language and expressivity of
hands/arms. There was lack of consensus among teachers about the best ways to
teach these techniques, the most popular methods being self-observation by
video or mirror, activation of the face to convey the musical mood, and
observing other conductors.
The implications from this survey are that conducting teachers were clear about
the skills required of intending conductors, including music theory knowledge,
196
instrumental/vocal skills, a good ear and musicianship. They were clear about the
delivery of good initial training in beat patterns and baton technique. Although
body presence was ranked as the most important aspect of conducting which
should be covered in the initial stages, there was a lack of consensus as to how
this should be taught. While few teachers believed that body presence and
expressivity would just improve over time, most teachers advocated a path of
discovery for their students involving observation (of themselves and other
conductors) and practice. Practical solutions such as classes, courses, workshops
and expressive movement activities appeared well down the list of helpful
methods.
As conducting students developed in experience, the majority of teachers
believed that important skills to add were score study, expressive gestures,
rehearsal techniques, and interpretation, followed by left hand independence and
non-verbal communication (particularly facial expression and eye contact).
While conducting textbooks assisted with aspects of score study and rehearsal
techniques, their use, while widespread, had not greatly assisted the development
of body presence, expressivity, left hand independence, or non-verbal
communication. Few teachers believed that these areas would just improve over
time.
Although acting had been used by a majority of conducting teachers, other
movement activities had failed to achieve general support. The fact is that most
teachers who had used movement activities found them to be effective with their
conducting students in the very areas that the teachers themselves had assigned
most importance (body awareness, confidence, independence of hands, and nonverbal communication).
Survey 2 Secondary School Level Conductors Based Around the Melbourne
Area
As indicated in the introduction to this chapter, the second survey provided
useful perspectives from practising secondary school conductors on the
difficulties they had acquiring expressive conducting skills, therefore making a
point of difference from the first survey. This survey was intended to gather
information about the broader background and training experiences of
Melbourne secondary school conductors. Additional aims of this survey were to
197
identify the skills that beginner conductors should already possess or
immediately seek to develop, and to identify the attributes of an expressive and
an effective conductor.
contacted and invited to participate in an online survey, asking questions about
their musical background, and the conductor training they had received. The
majority of these conductors were regularly conducting school groups. Of these
ninety-two, forty-two (46%) responded to the survey.
A1 & A3
Musical Instrument and Performance Background (other than
conducting)
Amateur Ensembles (90%), Secondary School Ensembles (76%) and Amateur
Theatre (76%) were the most popular ensemble performance backgrounds of
respondents. All respondents had participated in at least two different types of
music performance settings, apart from their conducting experience. Nineteen
respondents (45%) had performed at a professional level. The most popular
musical instrument background of respondents were woodwind (50%) and brass
(48%) instruments. Other listed families were percussion (10%), strings (5%),
voice (26%), and keyboard (36%). Nineteen respondents (45%) had a
background on instruments from two or more of these families. From the
statements of the respondents, it would appear that their instrumental
performance experience had no effect on their ability to conduct expressively.
A2 & A5
Musical and Conducting Background of Family Members
Twenty-three respondents (55%) had two or more family members with a

musical performing background. The spouse/partner (43% of respondents) was
clearly the most common family member to have a musical background. Twentyfive respondents (60%) had no family members with a conducting background. A
comparison between results of A2 and A5 showed that half (50%) of the
spouses/partners with a musical performing background also had some
conducting experience. A similar comparison showed that two thirds (66%) of
fathers with a musical performance background had some conducting experience.
Only three respondents (7%) had two family members with some conducting
198
experience. Although the benefits or otherwise of coming from a musical
background could be argued, they do not appear to have an impact on the ability
to conduct expressively, and are outside the bounds of this thesis.
A4
Years of Performing Experience Prior to First Conducting Experience
The majority of respondents (almost 93%) had up to fifteen years of performance

experience prior to their first conducting experience. Half of the respondents had
between six and ten years of performance experience prior to their first
conducting experience. This would appear to corroborate with the findings of
Survey 1 (A7) that the most important prerequisites of potential conducting
students are instrumental/voice proficiency and theory.
A6
Highest Level Musical Education Achieved
Two respondents (5%) were directing ensembles without any formal

qualification (performance or teaching). The majority of respondents (83%) had
achieved a Bachelors degree in music or education or higher. 22% of respondents
had gone further than a Bachelors degree. The level of musical education
achieved did not seem to have any impact on the ability to conduct expressively.
A8
Male respondents outnumbered female respondents at a ratio of just over 2:1.

This ratio most likely represents the true ratio of experienced secondary school
conductors in Melbourne conducting the better ensembles. As with Survey 1,
gender issues and commentary were not part of this thesis.
A7
Participation in Sporting Activities Prior to First Conducting Experience
The most popular sports played by respondents prior to their first conducting
experience were racquet sports (36%), athletics (26%), swimming (24%),
football and cricket (21% each). 14% of respondents played no sports prior to
their first conducting experience. These questions were asked to determine if
199
sporting participation was a determining factor in expressive movement. No
correlation was recognised by the participants themselves.
A9
Participation in Movement Training or Specific Movement Activities
Prior to First Conducting Experience

Sixty-two percent of respondents had not participated in any movement training
or activities prior to their first conducting experience. Of those sixteen who had
participated, the most popular forms of movement activities were Acting (50% of
those who participated), Dance (44% of those who participated), and Dalcroze
(31% of those who participated). 63% of those who participated had attempted
one type of movement activity only. 31% had attempted two. One respondent
had attempted five types of movement activity.
A10 A11
Setting and Age at First Conducting Experience
The most popular setting for the first conducting experience of our respondents
was the secondary school rehearsal as a student (31%). The age bracket between
16 and 25 accounted for almost three out of four first conducting experiences. If
conductors did not have their first conducting experience as a student, they were
then next most likely to have it as part of their teacher training. Some conductors,
however, had their first conducting experience after their undergraduate training.
Neither the setting or the age appeared to have any influence on the ability to
conduct expressively.
B1
Type of Conductor Training Undertaken
90% of respondents had undertaken some form of practical conductor training.

48% of respondents had undertaken at least two of a conducting class, a music
degree with conducting as a component, or a specific conducting course. One
respondent had undertaken all three. 64% of respondents had observed a
colleague or a mentor as part of their training. Four respondents (10%) had only
observed a colleague or mentor or consulted a conducting textbook as their
conducting training. The significance of observation as a method for developing
conducting expressivity has already been noted in Survey 1.
200
B2
Effectiveness of Areas of Conductor Training
a)
Beat Patterns
Respondents were satisfied with training received in the area of beat patterns.
Only two respondents (5%) felt that the beat pattern training they had received
had been in any way inadequate, with one undecided.
b)
Use of the Left Hand
Although a majority of respondents (59%) felt that their training in the use of the
left hand was adequate, there was a much higher rate of dissatisfaction (24%)
than for the training received in beat patterns. 14% of respondents were
undecided.
c)
The overall ratio of satisfaction to dissatisfaction was the same as for the use of
the left hand. The category of Completely Adequate for this question was
inadvertently left off the online response page. Although this section of the
survey yielded useful data on Rehearsal Techniques, it was outside the
boundaries of this thesis.
d)
Score Study
The majority of respondents (62%) were satisfied with the training they received
in score study. A higher number of undecided respondents (17%) were observed
for this category than for the other areas. Again, this section of the survey was
outside the boundaries of this thesis.
e)
Expressive Gestures
The overall responses to this question were similar to those received for left hand
use. A majority (57%) expressed satisfaction with the training they received in
the use of expressive gestures. 34% of respondents felt the training they received
was inadequate. There were less undecided respondents (7%) than for any
category except beat patterns.
201
B3
Years of Regular Conducting Experience
The majority of respondents (64%) had between 6 and 20 years of regular

conducting experience. The most popular category for respondents was between
11 and 15 years (26%). Years of conducting experience alone was no guarantee
of being able to conduct expressively.
B4 B5
Styles and Types of Ensembles Directed
The majority of respondents were conducting secondary school and/or amateur

ensembles. As with Survey 1, predominantly wind band directors responded to
the survey. 83% of respondents conducted either one or two types of ensembles,
the most popular combination for two ensembles being wind band and jazz
ensemble.
B6
Level of Difficulty Developing Skill Areas
a)
Beat Patterns
No respondents were undecided, and none found the beat patterns very difficult,
or were still uncomfortable with them. These findings are possibly a reflection on
the importance of the beat patterns in the priorities of the conductors themselves.
b)
Use of the Left Hand
Sixty-four percent of respondents found the use of the left hand in conducting
difficult. Indeed, just fewer than 10% of respondents stated that they were still
not comfortable with using their left hands. Just fewer than 10% of respondents
were undecided. Nineteen respondents (45%) found the left hand slightly
difficult to use. Only 26% of respondents found the left hand in any way easy to
use.
c)
Sixteen respondents (38%) found rehearsal techniques slightly easy to learn.

Thirteen respondents (31%) found rehearsal techniques slightly difficult. There
were a high number of undecided respondents (24%).
202
d)
Score Study
Overall responses to score study were similar to responses for rehearsal

techniques. 7% of respondents found score study very easy, the same number
who found it very difficult. None stated that they were still not comfortable.
e)
Expressive Gestures
Over half of the respondents (57%) found the development of expressive

gestures difficult. Nineteen respondents (45%), the largest group, found
expressive gestures slightly difficult, Three respondents (7%) found expressive
gestures very difficult, and two respondents (5%) were still not comfortable with
expressive gestures. 29% of respondents found expressive gestures easy (eleven
slightly easy, one very easy). There were six undecided respondents (14%).
B7
Rank Order of Importance of Methods to Assist the Development of Skill
Areas
a)
Beat Patterns
The overall rank order for methods to assist the development of beat patterns was
a different result than the number of first preferences among respondents. Some
methods ranked higher on second and third preferences than others. For example,
fifteen respondents (36%) found conducting classes, courses, or workshops to be
the most important method to assist the development of their beat patterns.
However, conducting classes, courses, or workshops ranked second overall,
behind observation of other conductors, due to a higher number of second and
third preferences for observation of other conductors. On the other hand,
discussion with a mentor or a teacher, while ranking fourth overall in importance,
received only two first preferences from respondents. Conducting textbooks were
generally agreed to be the least important assistance to the development of beat
patterns.
b)
Use of Left Hand
As for beat patterns, the overall rank order to assist the development of the left
hand was a different result than the number of first preferences among
respondents. Although observation of other conductors received a higher rank
order than conducting classes, courses or workshops, more respondents gave
conducting classes, courses and workshops their first preference (thirteen
compared to ten for observation of other conductors). Other discrepancies
203
between the overall rank order and the number of first preferences occurred in
self-observation (ranked third, but six first preferences) and practice away from
the ensemble (ranked fourth, but eight first preferences). As with B7a,
conducting textbooks were down in the list of assistants important to the
development of the left hand (ranked seventh, only one first preference).
c)
Forty-three percent of respondents listed observation of other conductors as their

first preference, and this was a clear first choice in rank order. Discussion with a
mentor or teacher was ranked second, and also received 24% of first preferences.
Conducting classes, courses, and workshops were seen as being of lesser
importance regarding rehearsal techniques than any other area.
d)
Score Study
Conducting classes, courses and workshops were the most popular method for
developing score study techniques among respondents, both according to rank
order and number of first preferences (33%). Discussion with a mentor or teacher
was the second most favoured method. Practising away from the ensemble
received a higher rank order (third) for score study than for any other area.
Compared with all other areas, observation of other conductors received a much
lower ranking in importance for score study. Only one respondent (2%) gave
observation a first preference for score study.
e)
Expressive Gestures
Observation of other conductors was clearly the most popular method for
preference. Discussion with a mentor or teacher was marginally ranked higher
first preference. Confirming B7a and B7b, conducting textbooks received even
less support, ranking seventh in order, and receiving no first preferences from
respondents. The highest preference conducting textbooks received for
expressive gestures was third preference from two respondents.
204
The results from this section of the survey back up the findings of Survey 1, in
that self observation and observation of other conductors were found to be the
two methods most favoured to assist the development of conducting expressivity.
B8
Twenty-two respondents (52%) indicated that they used no conducting

textbooks. This finding, together with the findings from B7, indicated that
secondary school conductors in Melbourne do not find conducting textbooks
particularly helpful. The most common conducting textbook used was The
Modern Conductor by Elizabeth Green, used by ten respondents (24%). No other
textbooks came close to this result.
B9 B10
Participation in and Impact of Sporting Activities to Assist
Conducting
Overall results indicate that respondents had indulged in slightly more sporting
activity since their first conducting experience. Fewer respondents indicated no
sports, compared to A7 (four respondents, compared to six). However, most
respondents failed to acknowledge any link between their participation in
sporting activities and their conducting. As no link could be established between
sporting participation and expressive movement, this area of inquiry was
discontinued from this thesis.
B11 B12
Participation in and Impact of Movement Training or Specific
Movement Activities Since the First Conducting Experience

There was very little change in the number of respondents who had not
participated in any movement training or activities since their first conducting
experience, compared with prior to their first conducting experience. The most
popular movement activities since the first conducting experience were now
Alexander Technique (four more respondents than A9) and Pilates (three more
respondents than A9). On the surface it would appear that the majority of
respondents failed to acknowledge any link between their participation in
movement activities and their conducting. However, the majority of those who
205
indicated No Impact had not participated in any movement activities (86%). Of
those who had participated in movement activities, over 73% found some benefit
toward their conducting. The survey results clearly showed that many secondary
school conductors in Melbourne were ignorant of the benefits of expressive
movement activities.
B13
The most popular responses to this question were clear beat patterns (36%), score
reading ability (29%), aural skills (24%) and verbal communication skills (19%).
This finding reflected the high value placed on the beat patterns by the
respondents.
B14
The most popular responses to this question were expressive gestures (31%), and
beat patterns, rehearsal techniques, and score reading skills (each 24%). Survey 1
also supported the importance of the development of expressive gestures.
B15

movements and no excessive gestures (each 14%). No distinction was made
among the respondents between verbal and non-verbal communication.
B16

Again, no distinction was made between verbal and non-verbal communication.
206
Survey 2 Discussion
From the survey, the following inferences can be made about the training and
experiences of the mainly wind band conductors who participated:
Our typical conductor is likely to have first experienced conducting first-hand
aged between 16 and 20, possibly while still a secondary school student. A low
number of respondents stated that their first conducting experience had occurred
as part of a conducting class or course, or in a university rehearsal. Even a
combination of all of these activities only accounted for 40% of the first
conducting experiences of the respondents. This could indicate that either the
respondents had already conducted before undertaking a class, course, or
university ensemble, or that these activities were not available to a number of the
respondents.
Our typical conductor in most cases is likely to have a Bachelors degree in music
or education, in many cases has undertaken further study, and is most likely to
have undertaken some form of practical conductor training. There is a chance
that he has not used conducting textbooks, and even if he had, has discounted
their influence on his conducting. He will be basically satisfied with the
conducting training he received. He will have found beat patterns to be very easy
to learn, but will have found using the left hand and expressive gestures difficult.
In some cases he still may be uncomfortable with gesture.
Our typical conductor is likely to have accumulated between 6 and 20 years of
regular conducting experience. He will generally be conducting a secondary
school band and/or an amateur ensemble. It is unlikely that he will have
participated in any movement training or activities, but if he had, he will most
likely acknowledge some benefit toward his conducting. The Alexander
Technique was now the most common movement activity among those who had
participated.
Respondents believed that beginner conductors should already have clear beat
patterns, be able to read a score, have decent aural skills and good verbal
communication skills prior to starting conducting. They should immediately
work to develop their expressive gestures, beat patterns, rehearsal techniques,
and score reading skills. Some skills were listed by some respondents as skills
207
immediately seek to develop. More respondents felt that the beginner conductor
should develop left hand independence than already possess it. The same goes
for ensemble empathy. Fewer respondents felt that the beginner conductor should
develop beat patterns than already possess them. The same goes for aural skills,
knowledge of instruments, understanding of style, score reading skills and
charisma. Important new skills to be developed by the beginner conductor were
expressive gestures, rehearsal techniques, and non-verbal communication skills.
The most important attributes of an expressive conductor were communication,
musicianship, expressive movements, and economy of gesture.
The most important attributes of an effective conductor were the ability to
communicate, an understanding of musicians, clarity, and good rehearsal
techniques.
The implications from this survey are that conductors were being well trained in
the area of beat patterns. There were some problems with the training conductors
were receiving in the use of the left hand and expressive gestures, most
respondents finding skill acquisition in these two areas difficult, and some still
uncomfortable, possibly a reflection on the training methods that were being used
to teach these areas.
Observation of other conductors and conducting classes, courses and workshops
generally seemed to be the methods that most respondents felt had assisted with
the development of skill areas, particularly with regard to beat patterns, use of
the left hand and rehearsal techniques. For expressive gestures, self-observation
by way of video or mirror replaced classes, courses, and workshops.
Conducting textbooks and improvement over time were methods which were
generally not supported by respondents, except in the less manual areas of
rehearsal techniques and score study. The highest ranking either of these methods
received in any area was fourth. It was clear that respondents do not feel that
conducting skills will just improve over time. It was also clear that many
respondents had not found conducting textbooks particularly helpful.
The low ranking of classes, courses, and workshops for the expressive gestures
area can perhaps be attributed to unimaginative instruction in many of these
settings. The fact that this method had been lowly ranked merely illustrates that
many of the respondents had failed to be assisted, and perhaps would benefit
from different types of classes. The fact that of the small number who had
208
participated in movement training or activities, most had found them of benefit is
surely a signal of the types of classes that must be needed.
The fact that expressive gestures and non-verbal communication figured so
highly in desirable conducting skills and attributes is another pointer that perhaps
more needs to be done to address these areas in conducting training.
Survey Findings Related to Main Research Questions
1.
Are the movement theories of Laban, Dalcroze, Delsarte, Alexander, and
Feldenkrais relevant to the enhancement of expressive conducting?

Survey 1 found that of those who used Laban, 81% found it effective with their
conducting students. Of those who had used Dalcroze, 70% found it effective. Of
those who had used Delsarte, 60% found it to be effective. Of those who had
used Alexander, 76% found it effective. Of those who had used Feldenkrais, 44%
found it effective, while 56% were undecided. A large proportion of respondents
had not used any of the five movement theories, indicating that there is still a
high degree of ignorance as to their value and how they can be used. Survey
results indicate that Laban, Dalcroze, and Alexander have been found to be very
effective by those who have used them.
2.
Can the use of non-verbal communication skills and concepts enhance
expressive conducting?
Indications from both surveys are that communication skills are enormously
valuable for conductors to develop. Survey 1 in particular emphasises the
importance of the development of non-verbal communication through selfobservation and observation of other conductors. What is not clear from the
surveys is how conductors, beyond observation, are supposed to use non-verbal
communication skills to enhance their expressive conducting. As this is a
subjective area, many conductors may lack strategies to assist.
209
3.
Does the mind-body connection, motor skill development, and
proprioception play a part in the development of bodily-kinaesthetic learning?

This question was not answered in the surveys. Indeed, the acknowledged
importance of body presence and body awareness prompted the asking of this
question from the literature.
210
CHAPTER EIGHT SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
In this thesis, I have argued that bodily-kinaesthetic skills, the expressive
movement theories of Laban, Dalcroze, Delsarte, Alexander, and Feldenkrais,
and non-verbal communication skills and concepts can enhance expressive
conducting at all levels of entering behaviour. As part of the discussion, I have
examined the aspects of bodily-kinaesthetic learning that are being used in
conducting textbooks, and how these can be reinforced through the mind-body
connection, motor skill development, and proprioception.
I have found through my conducting experience that an effective way to enhance
expressive conducting is through the use of the five theories. Although
applications of Laban to conducting have attracted the attention of researchers,
the other expressive movement theories have been comparatively neglected.
Nevertheless, I have found through an examination of the five theories that they
are highly relevant to the enhancement of expressive conducting, particularly the
theories of Laban, Dalcroze, and Alexander.
I observed four commonalities of relevance to conducting among the theories.
Firstly, the five expressive movement theories strongly suggest that a
conductors development of the connections between mind and body will
enhance the ability to move expressively and communicate non-verbally to the
ensemble.
Secondly, all five are educational theories highly relevant to the teaching of
expressive conducting. The five theorists were all gifted teachers, who not only
taught their techniques to others, but also trained others to teach their techniques.
Thirdly, all five are teachable to anyone, not just those with high entering
behaviour. As they are pedagogically useful, teachers of conducting may wish to
employ them selectively in the earliest stages of conductor training. The theories
infer that high entering behaviour conductors would benefit from increased
movement awareness, while those with low or moderate entering behaviour can
still achieve their maximum potential through expressive movement training.
211
Finally, all five acknowledge the importance of the proprioceptive sense. Its
development is arguably essential for conductors, as they all need to be aware of
the position of their bodies in space.
Ekman and Friesens (1969) categorisation of non-verbal behaviour is relevant to
the enhancement of expressive conducting, as each of the five categories serve as
bodily-kinaesthetic gestural tools for conductors. Conductors rely on emblems
that are understood by all musicians to get clear messages across. Illustrative
movements, such as gliding gestures to indicate legato and dabbing gestures to
indicate staccato, are widely used to portray the desired character and style of the
music. Conductors use affect displays to communicate their feelings and reaction
to the performance, while adaptors, such as facial mannerisms and habits, are
communicated unconsciously.
As Burgoon, Buller and Woodall (1996) have shown, the coding of non-verbal
communication can be differentiated according to the transmission medium and
channel used, including the media of vocalics, proxemics, chronemics, artifacts,
physical appearance and haptics. However, my findings suggest that the seventh
medium, kinesics, is the best at enhancing expressive conducting. Kinesics
moves beyond the standard beat pattern conducting gestures of the corrective
mode described by Koch (2003), to include the declamatory and narrative modes
that utilise expressive movements of the hands, arms, and body, posture, facial
expression, and eye contact.
important in that they emphasise clarity and precision, conductors need to make
more of illustrators and affect displays to access the declamatory mode, as well
as regulators and affect displays to access the narrative mode. Through
regulators, a conductor emphasises the expressive partnership with the
musicians, at the same time shaping the musical narrative to fit the conductors
interpretation. Affect displays communicate the conductors emotional reaction
to this.
As conductors are built in a variety of shapes and sizes it seems illogical to teach
all conductors the same way without taking into account the variety of body
212
types, as smaller conductors will use gestures differently from larger conductors.
Knowledge of and instruction in expressive movement appears to allow
conductors at all levels of entering behaviour to learn in different ways. My
examination of the literature suggests that the mind-body connection, motor skill
development, and proprioception play a significant part in the development of
bodily-kinaesthetic learning.
My survey showed that 81% of university conducting teachers use conducting
textbooks, indicating that they value them, if not for the development of
conducting expressivity, then possibly for the way the textbooks model a
complete method of conducting instruction than can easily be implemented by
teachers, as in textbooks by Labuta (2004), Hunsberger and Ernst (1992), and
Phillips (1997), which begin with beat pattern instruction. However, the
textbooks by Jordan (1996), Garofalo and Battisti (2005), Maiello (1996a),
Kohut and Grant (1990), and the McMurray (2003) DVD, which include
expressive movement exercises, give conductors of all entering behaviour a
chance to develop kinaesthetic feel for the gestures. Therefore these textbooks
are recommended as effective resources and models for best practice.
Suggestions for Future Research
While this thesis has regularly discussed skills and concepts intended to enhance
expressive conducting, it was not intended to serve as a how to conducting
manual. Although a number of materials were evaluated in Chapter Three, there
is a need for more that employ a bodily-kinaesthetic approach, particularly using
the DVD medium.
Reinforcing the importance of the bodily-kinaesthetic domain as a form of
intelligence, potential applications of experiential somaesthetics to conducting
deserve to be further investigated, somaesthetics focusing on bodily
consciousness and agency, and embodied spirit (Shusterman 2000:161).
The application of Dynamic Systems Theory to conducting is an area in need of
investigation, combining the areas of motor skill development, bio-mechanics,
physiology, and psychology.
213
In this thesis, I have focused exclusively on the expressive movement theories of

Laban, Dalcroze, Delsarte, Alexander, and Feldenkrais and their potential use in
the enhancement of expressive conducting. Other movement activities need
similar investigation, including mime, Pilates, tai chi, and yoga. The broad areas
of acting and dance, which according to my surveys are popular among
university conducting teachers, require categorisation and thorough research.
Of the seven non-verbal communication codes, a considerable amount of
research has been undertaken into kinesics. Although less relevant to expressive
conducting, the other six codes vocalics, proxemics, chronemics, haptics, artifact
use, and physical appearance, have some applications and deserve investigation.
In Chapter Six, Barry Green suggests the phenomenon of entrainment as an
important aspect of expressive communication (Green 2003:23-27). The effect of
entrainment on the communication between conductor and ensemble has yet to
be researched.
As this has been a qualitative study, future studies incorporating quantitative
research designs on some or all elements of this thesis would be welcome.
Although this is not intended to be a how to thesis, as a coda, I offer a very
general and basic outline of a conducting course as a demonstration of how the
theories discussed in this thesis could be incorporated into a thirteen-week
conducting course. Elements of the five expressive movement theories and nonverbal communication are included.
General Curriculum for Teaching Conducting Incorporating Theories of
Expressive Movement and Non-Verbal Communication
The following general course outline contains a possible curriculum for including
elements of expressive movement theories and non-verbal communication. The
outline is structured into a thirteen-week course, with the assumption that the
class meets once a week for two hours a session. I have avoided assigning
musical examples as I regard this as a matter for the individual teacher.
214
Week 1:
Course introduction, elements of a beat. Breathing/awareness
exercises. The breathing exercises incorporate Feldenkrais elements of

awareness. Conductors should count to five as they inhale, then count to five as
they exhale while gently raising and lowering parts of their bodies such as a
finger, a hand, an elbow, an arm, a shoulder, a foot, a knee, a leg, an eyebrow, a
head. What feels more natural raising a part of the body on an inhalation or an
exhalation? Variations on this exercise could include inhaling/exhaling over
different numbers of beats.
Moving to the beat. This exercises incorporates Dalcroze elements. Conductors
should practise moving different parts of their bodies to reflect the beat. They can
step the beats to music, changing between forward and backward movements on
an instructors command. Changes should be smooth and instantaneous, with
almost no time to think between the instruction and the reaction. Conductors can
then practise internalising the beat through sound and silence. When the music
stops, they should continue to feel the pulse of the music. As a variation,
conductors can silently feel the beat while the music plays, and show the beat in
some way when the music stops, changing the speed of their movements as
determined by the pulse of the music heard.
Discovery of the kinesphere. This exercise explores Labans element of space.
Conductors should imagine they are standing inside a large, transparent cube.
Firstly, they should explore all of the edges of each surface, starting with the
front wall, the right side wall, the roof, the floor, the left side wall, and finally the
back. Conductors should try not to move their feet, as this transports the
kinesphere. The exploration should be done firstly with the right arm, then with
the left, then with arms together, moving together, then in opposite directions.
Does the movement feel the same or different with the different arms? Then
conductors should shrink the cube to shoulder width, waist to shoulder height,
and placed immediately in front. All of the previous movements should be
performed again, using wrists instead of arms. Then shrink the cube still further,
until it is about 10cm square. Perform the movements again, using fingers,
instead of wrists.
Discovery of weight. This exercise explores Labans element of weight.
While remaining within the space, conductors should allow their movements to
feel really heavy. Where is this weight best communicated? Allow some of this
215
weight to dissipate so that medium resistance is felt. Where is this weight best
communicated? Finally, allow all of the weight and tension to dissipate so that
only the lightest resistance is felt. Where is this weight best communicated?
Discovery of speed. This exercise explores Labans element of time.
Conductors have the choice of making quick or slow movements. Where is it
easiest to generate fast or slow movements?
Week 2:
Holding a baton, basic beat patterns. Hinge movement awareness.
This is a Feldenkrais awareness exercise, reinforcing the Laban kinesphere

exercise from the previous week. Conductors should contrast the feel of large
and small movements through the shoulder, then the elbow, then the wrist, then
finally the fingers, to discover which hinges feel most comfortable at delivering
loud or soft dynamics.
Law of Altitude. This is a Delsarte exercise, also reinforcing dynamic control.
Conductors should experiment with upward, forward, and outward movements,
using right hand, then left hand, then both hands to deliver a crescendo. They
could then experiment with downward, inward, and backward movements to
deliver a diminuendo.
Doctrine of special organs. This exercise is a Delsarte exercise, reinforcing the
Laban discovery of weight from the previous week. Conductors should establish
at what location in the body varieties of textures are most convincingly
communicated, such as a heavy, dark texture incorporating low, purposeful,
centred gestures, or a light texture incorporating quick, frivolous gestures.
Discovery of shape factors (Laban). Conductors can explore shape elements by
moving through three planes: vertical, horizontal, and sagittal. The vertical plane
can be explored by moving as if standing inside the frame of a door. The
horizontal frame can be explored by moving as if standing surrounded by a large
table. The sagittal plane can be explored by moving as if standing inside a large
wheel. Movement pathways can be explored by moving through a combination
of the three planes.
Week 3:
Awareness of stance (Feldenkrais). Conductors should first lock
their knees and place their weight back on their heels while moving their arms.
They should then try the same arm movements with their knees unlocked and
216
their weight forward on the balls of their feet. Is there a difference in the quality
of the arm movements in each position?
Construction of Body Map (Alexander). Conductors should first draw using
simple stick figures the position of the legs, arms, and head that they believe they
assume when they take up the conductor ready position. Conductors should
then compare this drawing with how they are actually standing when shown on a
video. They should make notes of discrepancies for future reference.
Exploration of effort actions (Laban). The eight effort actions are combinations
of weight, space, and time. The effort actions are press, wring, glide, float,
punch, slash, dab, and flick. Conductors should practise each, making particular
use of the imagery of the actions. They should then discover and match short
musical examples to each effort action.
Law of Form (Delsarte). Delsartes Law of Form reinforces the effort actions,
being an excellent communicator of style and articulation. Conductors should
practise making straight, angular forms, indicating staccato, while circular,
smooth forms indicate legato phrasing.
Week 4:
The left hand, cueing. Cube exercises (Delsarte). Conductors can
develop variety in their left hands by using Delsartes cube chart. By practicing a
palm up left hand gesture, conductors can indicate that they want musicians to
support the sound. Conductors can also use an including, or protective left hand
gesture in combination with a starting raise of the right hand as an effective
conductor ready position.
Law of Sequence (Delsarte). In order to develop effective cueing gestures,
conductors should consider Delsartes Law of Sequence. Cues are most effective
when set up by eye contact between conductor and musicians, followed by an
alteration in the conductors body attitude to face the musicians, followed lastly
by the gesture.
Cueing exercise avoidance of end-gaining (Alexander). As an extension of the
previous cueing exercise, conductors must inhibit the desire to deliver the cue.
Conductors should allow the head to lead and the body to follow, maintaining
vigilance to make sure the neck remains free. Only after the body has been
allowed to orient itself in the direction of the intended recipient of the cue will
the arm find the means whereby to deliver the final cueing gesture.
217
Eye movement organising exercise (Feldenkrais). As a further extension of
cueing, this exercise develops the Feldenkrais concept that the eyes play an
important role in coordination. Beginning with an arm swinging movement first
to the right, then to the left, conductors should first try this movement with eyes
closed, just observing the smoothness of the movements and noticing which part
of the body turns first: the eyes, the head, or the pelvis. Conductors should then
try the movements with eyes open, noticing if the eyes now move in a different
way than before. They should compare the quality of the movements with eyes
open and eyes closed to see if there is a difference in the smoothness and fluidity
of the movements one way or the other. Conductors should also sit on the floor
and move the left hand across the body as far to the right as possible, following
the movement with the eyes. Through the use of the eyes, the turning angle is
widened.
Week 5:
Fermatas, gestures of syncopation. Canonic exercises (Dalcroze).
In this listening and moving exercise, conductors should respond by moving to

the music in canonic form, beginning with interrupted canons, in which the
instructor plays each rhythmic figure, waiting for a response on each occasion. In
continuous canons, the instructor does not wait, playing the next example as the
conductor is performing the previous one. Continuous canons are particularly
challenging, as they require the conductor to perform one rhythmic figure, while
at the same time listening carefully as the instructor performs the next example.
Eye and mouth combinations. As an introduction to non-verbal communication,
conductors should look at a basic sheet of nine faces (see Fig. 24) showing the
different possible combinations of eyebrow and mouth use, using one word to
describe the expression being shown on the face.
Week 6:
Starts on beats other than 1, subdivisions, irregular metres.
Subdivision exercise (Dalcroze). Conductors should start by walking to quarter

note beats fitting in with music played by the instructor. On a signal, conductors
should also clap eighth note beats, and on another signal, they should sing half
note beats. On another signal from the instructor, the quarter note beats may
change from the feet to the hands, the eighth note beats from the hands to the
voice, and the half note beats from the voice to the feet.
218
Self-observation techniques. As conductors will be required to keep a journal of
their own conducting observations, it is important that they become proficient at
objectively observing non-verbal behaviours. In this session, conductors observe
footage of other conductors with the sound turned down to see what they can
observe and record about the non-verbal communication between conductor and
performers.
Week 7:
Rehearsal techniques. Non-verbal communication mapping
exercise.
Conductors will be video recorded, firstly in conversation with a friend, then
conducting a short section of an ensemble rehearsal. In each instance, the
conductors should view the footage and note down the categories of non-verbal
communication (emblems, illustrators, affect displays, regulators, and adaptors)
used and the number of times used. Is there a difference in relaxed conversation
from a rehearsal situation? Why?
Week 8:
Score study techniques, application to set works. Body mapping
review (Alexander). Conductors should now re-visit their body maps drawn in
Week 3, and re-draw them. Then they should watch another video of their
conducting. Is the perceived body map closer to the realities of their conducting?
What aspects are still kinaesthetically faulty?
Week 9:
Verbal presentations on set works. Illustrators game. Conductors
should take turns playing charades with the rest of the class. Who can make the
best use of non-verbal illustrators to allow the class to determine what the
conductor is aiming to portray. Conductors could also get into groups of three or
four and play Pictionary, with the same aim.
Week 10:
Verbal presentations on set works. Facial expression mapping
exercise. Conductors should watch a video of their conducting, focused on their

faces. How many emotions can they observe during the sessions? Are the
expressions appropriate for the music/occasion at the time? Conductors should
next practise portraying the six primary emotions: surprise, fear, disgust, anger,
happiness, and sadness. Are some emotions more difficult to portray than others?
How would an actor go about it?
219
Week 11:
Review of all concepts. Regulators mapping exercise. Conductors
should watch a video of their conducting, showing their whole bodies as well as
facial expression. What is the level of eye contact with the ensemble? Are cues
prepared effectively with eye contact and body orientation?
Week 12:
Conducting of set works. Disassociation exercise. As an exercise
in manual independence, conductors could try conducting a three pattern with

the right hand at the same time as conducting a four pattern with the left, then
swapping on a signal from the instructor.
Week 13:
Conducting of set works. Non-verbal rehearsal. As a final
exercise, conductors should be able to run a portion of the rehearsal completely

non-verbally, using non verbal communication alone to indicate what they want
from the performers. Conductors should then reflect on what they were able to
achieve from the rehearsal. What were they unable to communicate?
220
WORKS CITED
Alexander, F. Matthias
1985 Constructive Conscious Control of the Individual Downey CA.
Centerline Press. [Original edition, 1923.]
2001 The Use of the Self London. Orion Books. [Original edition, 1932.]
2005 Man's Supreme Inheritance Whitefish MT. Kessinger Publishing.
[Original edition, 1910.]
Argyle, Michael
1975 Bodily Communication New York. International Universities Press.
Australian Feldenkrais Guild, Inc.
n.d. Frequently asked questions about the Feldenkrais Method Australian
Feldenkrais Guild Inc. Unpublished Paper.
Azar, Beth
2005 Why can't this man feel whether or not he's standing up? 1998 [cited 24
November 2005]. Available from
http://www.apa.org/monitor/jun98/touch.html.
Barr, Sherrie and Lewin, Philip
1994 'Learning movement: integrating kinaesthetic sense with cognitive skills'
in Journal of Aesthetic Education vol. 28 no. 1 pp. 83-94.
Bartee, Neale
1977 The Development of a Theoretical Position on Conducting using
Principles of Body Movement as Explicated by Rudolf Laban PhD thesis.
University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.
Battisti, Frank and Garofalo, Robert
1990 Guide to Score Study for the Wind Band Conductor Fort Lauderdale FL.
Meredith Music Publications.
Beebe, Steven
1974 'Eye contact: a nonverbal determinant of speaker credibility' in Speech
Teacher vol. 23 pp. 21-25.
Beethoven, Ludwig van
1985 'Egmont Overture' in Six Great Overtures in Full Score New York.
Dover Publications, Inc.
Bell, Sir Charles
1883 Expression: Its Anatomy and Philosophy New York. Fowler and Wells.
Benge, Timothy
1996 Movements Utilised by Conductors in the Stimulation of Expression and
Musicianship DMA thesis. University of Southern California, Los
Angeles.
221
Bernstein, Nicholas
1967 The Coordination and Regulation of Movements Oxford. Pergamon
Press.
Berz, William
1983 The Development of an Observation Instrument Designed to Classify
Specific Nonverbal Communication Techniques Employed by Conductors
of Musical Ensembles PhD thesis. Michigan State University, Lansing
MI.
Billingham, Lisa
2001 The Development of a Gestural Vocabulary for Choral Conductors Based
on the Movement Theory of Rudolf Laban DMA thesis. University of
Arizona, Tucson AZ.
Birdwhistell, Ray
1952 Introduction to Kinesics Louisville KY. University of Louisville.
1970
Kinesics and Context: Essays on Body Motion Communication

Philadelphia. University of Philadelphia Press.
Botstein, Leon
1997 'On conducting' in The Musical Quarterly vol. 81 no. 1 pp. 1-12.
Bradle, Sue
1982 'The versatile Jorge Mester' in The Instrumentalist vol. 36 no. 11 pp. 1619.
Brm, Thring and Braem, Penny Boyes
2001 'A pilot study of the expressive gestures used by classical orchestra
conductors' in Journal of the Conductors Guild vol. 22 no. 1-2 pp. 14-29.
Buchanan, Patricia and Ulrich, Beverly
2001 'The Feldenkrais Method: a dynamic approach to changing motor
behavior' in Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport vol. 72 no. 4 pp.
315-323.
Bulwer, John
2003 Chirologia: or the Natural Language of the Hand and Chironomia: or
the Art of Manual Rhetoric Whitefish MT. Kessinger Pub. [Original
edition, 1644.]
Burgoon, Judee, Buller, David and Woodall, W. Gill
1996 Nonverbal Communication - The Unspoken Dialogue 2nd ed. New York.
McGraw-Hill. [Original edition, 1989.]
Calais-Germain, Blandine
1993 Anatomy of Movement Translated by S. Anderson. Seattle. Eastland
Press. [Original edition, 1985.]
Clayton, Martin, Sager, Rebecca and Will, Udo
2006 In time with music: the concept of entrainment and its significance for
ethnomusicology 2004 [cited 14 September 2006]. Available from
http://www.open.ac.uk/Arts/experience/entrainment.htm.
222
Conable, Barbara and Conable, Benjamin
2000 What Every Musician Needs to Know About the Body 2nd ed. Portland
OR. Andover Press. [Original edition, 1998.]
Curtis, Larry and Kuehn, David
1992 A Guide to Successful Instrumental Conducting Dubuque IA. Brown and
Benchmark.
Damasio, Antonio
1994 Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason and the Human Brain London.
Penguin Books Ltd.
Dan, Kayoko
2005 Facial Expression and Eye Contact Used by Instrumental Conductors:
Practical Applications and Exercises DMA thesis. Arizona State
University, Tempe AZ.
Darwin, Charles
1998 The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals 3rd ed. New York.
Oxford University Press. [Original edition, 1872.]
Davies, Eden
2006 Beyond Dance: Laban's Legacy of Movement Analysis New York.
Routledge. [Original edition, 2001.]
De Alcantara, Pedro
1997 Indirect Procedures - A Musician's Guide to the Alexander Technique
Oxford. Clarendon Press.
De Cecco, John
1968 The Psychology of Learning and Instruction: Educational Psychology
Englewood Cliffs NJ. Prentice-Hall.
Delaumosne, L'Abbe
1887 'Delaumosne on Delsarte' in Delsarte System of Oratory New York.
Edgar S. Werner.
Demaree, Robert Jr. and Moses, Don
1995 The Complete Conductor: A Comprehensive Resource for the
Professional Conductor of the Twenty-First Century Englewood Cliffs
NJ. Prentice-Hall.
Descartes, Ren
1979 Discourse on Method and the Meditations Translated by F. E. Sutcliffe.
Harmondsworth, Middlesex UK. Penguin Books Ltd. [Original edition,
1968.]
Dewey, John
1896 'The reflex arc concept in psychology' in Psychological Review vol. 3 no.
4 pp. 357-370.
1958
Experience and Nature 2nd ed. New York. Dover Publications Inc.
223
2005
Preoccupation with the Disconnected 1928 [cited 13 October 2005].

Available from
http://www.alexandercenter.com/jd/johndeweydisconnect.html.
Dickson, John
1992 'The training of conductors through the methodology of kinesthetics' in
Choral Journal vol. 32 no. 8 pp. 14-17.
Durrant, Colin
1994 'Towards a model of effective communication: a case for structured
teaching of conducting' in British Journal of Music Education vol. 11 no.
1 pp. 57-76.
2003
Choral Conducting: Philosophy and Practice New York. Routledge.
Ekman, Paul
1998 'Afterword: Universality of Emotional Expression? A Personal History of
the Dispute' in P. Ekman (ed.) The Expression of the Emotions in Man
and Animals New York. Oxford University Press.
Ekman, Paul and Friesen, Wallace
1969 'The repertoire of nonverbal behavior: categories, origins, usage, and
coding' in Semiotica vol. 1 pp. 49-98.
2003
Unmasking the Face Cambridge MA. Malor Books. [Original edition,

1975.]
Elliott, David
1995 Music Matters: A New Philosophy of Music Education New York.
Oxford University Press.
Ellis, Barry
2004 'Conducting wisdom from Harry Begian' in The Instrumentalist vol. 59
no. 1 pp. 22-30.
Farber, Anne and Parker, Lisa
1987 'Discovering music through Dalcroze Eurhythmics' in Music Educators
Journal vol. 74 no. 3 pp. 43-45.
Farberman, Harold
1997a The Art of Conducting Technique - a New Perspective Miami FL.
Warner Bros Publications.
1997b Art of Conducting Technique - a New Perspective Miami FL. Warner
Bros Publications. Videocassette.
2001
'Beating time - how not to make music' in Music Educators Journal vol.
88 pp. 39-45.
Feldenkrais, Moshe
1981 The Elusive Obvious Cupertino CA. Meta Pub.
1985
The Potent Self - A Guide to Spontaneity San Francisco. Harper & Row.
224
1990
Awareness Through Movement: Health Exercises for Personal Growth

London. Arkana Penguin. [Original edition, 1972.]
Fennell, Frederick
1978 'The calisthenics of conducting' in The Instrumentalist vol. 33 no. 4 pp.
16-17.
Ford, J. Kevin
2001 'Implications for non-verbal communication and conducting gesture' in
Fuchs, Peter Paul
1969 The Psychology of Conducting New York. MCA Music.
Gallwey, W. Timothy
1974 The Inner Game of Tennis New York. Bantam Books.
Gambetta, Charles
2005 Conducting Outside the Box: Creating a Fresh Approach to Conducting
Gesture through the Principles of Laban Movement Analysis DMA
thesis. University of North Carolina, Greensboro NC.
Gardner, Howard
1993a Creating Minds: An Anatomy of Creativity Seen through the Lives of
Freud, Einstein, Picasso, Stravinsky, Eliot, Graham, and Ghandi New
York. Basic Books.
1993b Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences 2nd ed. London.
Fontana Press. [Original edition, 1983.]
Garofalo, Robert and Battisti, Frank
2005 Lead and Inspire: A Guide to Expressive Conducting Silver Spring MD.
Whirlwind Music Publications.
Gelb, Michael
1994 Body Learning New York. Henry Holt and Co.
Grechesky, Robert
1985 An Analysis of Nonverbal and Verbal Conducting Behaviors and their
Relationship to Expressive Musical Performance PhD thesis. University
of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison WI.
Green, Barry
1987 The Inner Game of Music London. Pan Books Ltd.
2003
The Mastery of Music New York. Broadway Books.
Green, Elizabeth
1961 'On the teaching of conducting' in Music Educators Journal vol. 47 pp.
50-56.
Green, Elizabeth and Gibson, Mark
2004 The Modern Conductor 7th ed. Upper Saddle River NJ. Pearson Prentice
Hall. [Original edition, 1961.]
225
Groff, Ed
1995 'Laban Movement Analysis: charting the ineffable domain of human
movement' in Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance vol.
66 no. 2 pp. 27-31.
Hanna, Thomas
2005a What is Somatics? 1986 [cited 24 November 2005]. Available from
http://somatics.org/library/htl-wis1.html.
2005b Clinical somatic education: a new discipline in the field of health care
1990 [cited 24 November 2005]. Available from
http://www.somatics.com/hannart.htm.
Harris, Frederick Jr.
2001 Conducting With Feeling Galesville MD. Meredith Music.
Hart, Philip
1983 Conductors: A New Generation 2nd ed. New York. Charles Scribner's
Sons. [Original edition, 1979.]
Hayslett, Dennis
1996 'The effect of movement-based training on the aural acuity of conductors'
in Contributions to Music Education vol. 23 pp. 7-18.
Hecht, Patsy
1971 Kinetic Techniques for the Actor: An Analysis and Comparison of the
Movement Training Systems of Franois Delsarte, Emile JaquesDalcroze, and Rudolf Laban PhD thesis. Wayne State University, Detroit
MI.
Herman, P.J.
1983 'Applause for movement! The breakfast of learning' in Academic
Therapy vol. 19 no. 2 pp. 167-174.
Heyworth, Peter (ed.)
1985 Conversations with Klemperer. London. Faber and Faber. [Original
edition, 1973.]
Hodgson, John
2001 Mastering Movement: the Life and Work of Rudolf Laban London.
Methuen.
Holt, Michelle
1992 Application to Conducting and Choral Rehearsal Pedagogy of Laban
Effort/Shape and its Comparative Effect upon Style in Choral
Performance DMA thesis. University of Hartford.
Hunsberger, Donald and Ernst, Roy
1992 The Art of Conducting 2nd ed. New York. McGraw-Hill. [Original
edition, 1983.]
226
Huxley, Aldous
1941 Ends and Means: An Enquiry into the Nature of Ideals and into the
Methods Employed for their Realization London. Chatto and Windus.
Hylton, John
1991 'Review of 'Learning to Conduct and Rehearse'' in Bulletin of the Council
for Research in Music Education vol. 112 pp. 89-90.
James, William
1932 'A study of the expression of bodily posture' in Journal of General
Psychology vol. 7 pp. 405-437.
Jaques-Dalcroze, Emile
1920 Rhythmic Movement: Development of the Rhythmic and Metric Sense of
the Instinct for Harmonious and Balanced Movements, and of Good
Motor Habits Vol. 1 London. Novello and Co. Ltd.
2002
Rhythm, Music and Education North Stratford NH. Ayer Company

Publishers Inc. [Original edition, 1921.]
2003
Eurhythmics, Art and Education North Stratford NH. Ayer Company

Publishers Inc. [Original edition, 1930.]
Jones, Frank Pierce

1997 Freedom to Change: The Development and Science of The Alexander
Technique 3rd ed. London. Mouritz. [Original edition, 1976.]
Jordan, James
1996 Evoking Sound: Fundamentals of Choral Conducting and Rehearsing
Chicago. GIA Publications Inc.
Jordan, James and Buchanan, Heather
2002 Evoking Sound: Body Mapping Principles and Basic Conducting
Techniques Chicago. GIA Publications Inc. Videocassette.
Julian, Faye
1989 'Nonverbal communication: its application to conducting' in Journal of
Band Research vol. 24 no. 2 pp. 49-54.
Kahn, Emil
1975 Elements of Conducting 2nd ed. New York. Schirmer Books. [Original
edition, 1965.]
Key, Mary
1975 Paralanguage and Kinesics Metuchen NJ. The Scarecrow Press Inc.
Knaub, Maribeth
1999 Body Mapping: An Instructional Strategy for Teaching the Alexander
Technique to Music Students EdD thesis. University of Pittsburgh,
Pittsburgh PA.
227
Knight, John
2004a 'Tom Dvorak leads groups from college ensembles to middle school
winds' in The Instrumentalist vol. 59 no. 2 pp. 12-17.
2004b 'Evaluating conductors from the trombone section' in The Instrumentalist
vol. 59 no. 5 pp. 28-34.
Koch, Christopher
2003 Toward a Theory of Conducting Motion DMA thesis. University of
Washington, Seattle.
Kohut, Daniel and Grant, Joe
1990 Learning to Conduct and Rehearse Upper Saddle River NJ. PrenticeHall.
Krschlov, Jarmila
2000 Movement Theory and Practice Translated by O. Malandris and Z.
Seremberov. Sydney. Currency Press.
Kun, Jessica
2004 A Real-Time Responsive/Interactive System for Musical Conducting using
Motion Capture Technology DMA thesis. Arizona State University,
Tempe AZ.
Laban, Rudolf
1966 Choreutics London. Macdonald and Evans.
1980a The Mastery of Movement 4th ed. Plymouth UK. Macdonald and Evans.
1980b Modern Educational Dance 3rd ed. Boston. Plays Inc. [Original edition,
1948.]
Laban, Rudolf and Lawrence, F.C.
1974 Effort - Economy of Human Movement London. Macdonald and Evans.
Labuta, Joseph
2004 Basic Conducting Techniques 5th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ. PrenticeHall. [Original edition, 1982.]
Lamb, Warren
1965 Posture and Gesture: An Introduction to the Study of Physical Behaviour
London. Gerald Duckworth and Co. Ltd.
Leach, Brenda
2004 'Ilya Musin: a life in music' in Journal of the Conductors Guild vol. 25
no. 1 pp. 21-27.
Lephart, Scott and Borsa, Paul
2005 The sensations of joint motion and position 2005 [cited 2 February
2005]. Available from
http://www.sportsci.org/encyc/drafts/Proprioception.doc.
228
Leyden, Norman
1968 A Study and Analysis of the Conducting Patterns of Arturo Toscanini as
Demonstrated in Kinescope Films PhD thesis. Columbia University, New
York.
Ling, Stuart
1998 'The spiritual side of conducting' in The Instrumentalist vol. 52 no. 8 pp.
12-15.
Long, Gerry
1977 The Conductor's Workshop - A Workbook on Instrumental Conducting
2nd ed. Dubuque IA. William C. Brown Co. [Original edition, 1971.]
Lonis, Dale
1993 Development and application of a model for the teaching of conducting
gestures EdD thesis. University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.
Lyne, Gregory
1979 'Effective bodily communication, a key to expressive conducting' in
Maiello, Anthony
1996a Conducting - A Hands-On Approach Miami FL. Belwin-Mills
Publishing Corp.
1996b Conducting - A Hands-On Approach Miami FL. Belwin-Mills Publishing
Corp. Videocassette.
Malko, Nicolai
1950 The Conductor and his Baton Copenhagen. Wilhelm Hansen.
Marrin Nakra, Teresa
2006 Inside the Conductors Jacket: Analysis, Interpretation and Musical
Synthesis of Expressive Gesture 2000 [cited 14 December 2006].
Available from
http://immersionmusic.org/HTMLThesis/Dissertation.htm.
Marrin, Teresa
2006 Toward an Understanding of Musical Gesture: Mapping Expressive
Intention with the Digital Baton 1996 [cited 14 December 2006].
Available from http://brainop.media.mit.edu/Archive/Thesis.html.
Marvin, Jameson
1988 'The Conductor's Process' in G. Paine (ed.) Five Centuries of Choral
Music: Essays in Honor of Howard Swan Stuyvesant NY. Pendragon
Press.
Matheopoulos, Helena
1982 Maestro: Encounters with Conductors of Today London. Hutchinson.
Mayers, Hillary and Babits, Linda
1987 'A balanced approach: The Alexander Technique' in Music Educators
229
McClung, Alan
1996 'The relationship between non-verbal communication and conducting: an
interview with Rodney Eichenberger' in Choral Journal vol. 36 no. 10
pp. 17-24.
2005
'Using video self-assessment to enhance nonverbal conducting gesture' in

McCormack, Eric David

2007 Human Nature and Conduct and Alexander 1959 [cited 20 April 2007].
Available from
http://www.alexandercenter.com/jd/deweyhumannature.html.
McCoy, Claire
1994 'Eurhythmics - enhancing the mind-body-mind connection in conductor
training' in Choral Journal vol. 35 no. 5 pp. 21-28.
McElheran, Brock
1989 Conducting Technique for Beginners and Professionals 2nd ed. Oxford.
Oxford University Press. [Original edition, 1964.]
McMurray, Allan
2003 Conducting from the Inside Out - Disc One: Gesture and Movement
Boulder, CO. TellStarr Studios. DVD.
Mead, Virginia
1996 'More than mere movement - Dalcroze Eurhythmics' in Music Educators
Journal vol. 82 pp. 38-41.
Mehrabian, Albert
1972 Nonverbal Communication Chicago. Aldine Publishing Co.
Merleau-Ponty, Maurice
1978 Phenomenology of Perception Translated by C. Smith. London.
Routledge and Kegan Paul. [Original edition, 1962.]
Miller, Stephen
1988 The Effect of Laban Movement Theory on the Ability of Student
Conductors to Communicate Musical Interpretation through Gesture
PhD thesis. University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison WI.
Morris, Desmond, et al.
1979 Gestures: Their Origins and Distribution London. Jonathan Cape Ltd.
Munch, Charles
1955 I Am a Conductor New York. Oxford University Press.
Neidlinger, Erica
2003 The Effect of Laban Effort/Shape Instruction on Young Conductors'
Perception of Expressiveness across Arts Disciplines PhD thesis.
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis MN.
Newlove, Jean and Dalby, John
2004 Laban for All London. Nick Hern Books.
230
Nowak, Jerry and Nowak, Henry
2002 Conducting the Music, Not the Musicians New York. Carl Fischer.
Ostling, Acton Jr.
1977 'Research on non-verbal communication with implications for
conductors' in Journal of Band Research vol. 12 no. 2 pp. 29-43.
Pfrimmer, Albert
1926 L'utilit de la mthode Jaques-Dalcroze pour le chef d'orchestre et les
musiciens d'orchestre. Paper read at The First Congress of Rhythm, at
Geneva, Switzerland.
Phillips, Kenneth
1997 Basic Techniques of Conducting New York. Oxford University Press.
Poch, Gail
1982 'Conducting: movement analogues through effort shape' in Choral
Prausnitz, Frederik
1983 Score and Podium New York. W.W. Norton & Co.
Requin, N., Semjen, A. and Bonnet, M.
1984 'Bernstein's purposeful brain' in H. T. A. Whiting (ed.) Human Motor
Actions - Bernstein Reassessed Amsterdam. Elsevier Science Publishers.
Roshong, Jan
1978 An Exploratory Study of Nonverbal Communication Behaviors of
Instrumental Music Conductors PhD thesis. Ohio State University,
Columbus OH.
Rudolf, Max
1995 The Grammar of Conducting 3rd ed. Belmont CA. Thomson Learning.
Sacks, Oliver
1986 The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat London. Picador. [Original
edition, 1970.]
Saito, Hideo
1988 The Saito Conducting Method Translated by F. Torigai. Edited by W.
Toews. Tokyo. Ongaku No Tomu Sha Corp. and Min-On Concert Assoc.
Salkind, Neil
1981 Theories of Human Development New York. D. Van Nostrand Company.
Scherchen, Hermann
1933 Handbook of Conducting Translated by M. D. Calvocoressi. London.
Oxford University Press.
Schnebly-Black, Julia and Moore, Stephen
1997 The Rhythm Inside: Connecting Body, Mind and Spirit Through Music
Portland OR. Rudra Press.
231
Schonberg, Harold
1967 The Great Conductors New York. Simon and Schuster.
Schreiber, Lesley
1980 Movement Training for the Actor: Laying the Foundation in Movement
Principles PhD thesis. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis MN.
Schuller, Gunther
1997 The Compleat Conductor New York. Oxford University Press.
Shafarman, Steven
1997 Awareness Heals - The Feldenkrais Method for Dynamic Healing
Reading MA. Perseus Books.
Shawn, Ted
1974 Every Little Movement - A Book About Delsarte 2nd ed. Brooklyn NY.
Dance Horizons, Inc. [Original edition, 1954.]
Sherrington, Charles
1906 'On the proprio-ceptive system, especially in its reflex aspect' in Brain
vol. 29 pp. 467-482.
2000
The Integrative Action of the Nervous System Edited by N. J. Wade. 8

vols. Vol. 8, The Emergence of Neuroscience in the Nineteenth Century.
London. Routledge/Thoemmes Press. [Original edition, 1906.]
Shusterman, Richard
1999 'Somaesthetics: a disciplinary approach' in Journal of Aesthetics and Art
Criticism vol. 57 no. 3 pp. 299-313.
2000
Performing Live: Aesthetic Alternatives for the Ends of Art Ithaca NY.
Cornell University Press.
Silkebakken, Dennis
1988 The Effect of Conductor Visual Attributes on the Observer's Evaluation of
Conducting Performance PhD thesis. University of Oklahoma, Norman
OK.
Silow, Theresa
2002 The Kinesthetic Sense: Exploring Sensation, Self-Emergence, Awareness
and Stress Negotiation through Somatic Practice PhD thesis. Ohio State
University, Columbus OH.
Sousa, Gary
1989 Musical Conducting Emblems: An Investigation of the Use of Specific
Conducting Gestures by Instrumental Conductors and their
Interpretation by Instrumental Performers PhD thesis. Ohio State
University, Columbus OH.
Spector, Irwin
1990 Rhythm and Life: The Work of Emile Jaques-Dalcroze Stuyvesant NY.
Pendragon Press.
232
Stauch, Thomas
1986 An Examination of Nonverbal Communication Behaviors of Selected
Collegiate Choral Directors DMA thesis. Arizona State University,
Tempe AZ.
Taylor, Ronald (ed.)
1991 Furtwngler on Music. Aldershot UK. Scolar Press.
Tchaikovsky, Peter
1979 'Symphony No.4' in Fourth, Fifth and Sixth Symphonies in Full Score
New York. Dover Publications, Inc.
Thomson, John
1994 'Beyond mechanical conducting: an interview with Craig Kirchhoff' in
The Instrumentalist vol. 48 no. 11 pp. 10-61.
Tilson Thomas, Michael
1994 Viva Voce: Conversations with Edward Seckerson London. Faber and
Faber.
Turvey, M.T. and Kugler, P.N.
1984 'An ecological approach to perception and action' in H. T. A. Whiting
(ed.) Human Motor Actions - Bernstein Reassessed Amsterdam. Elsevier
Science Publishers.
Ulrich, Beverly
1997 'Dynamic systems theory and skill development in infants and children' in
K. J. Connolly and H. Forssberg (ed.) Neurophysiology and
Neuropsychology of Motor Development London. MacKeith Press.
Van Weelden, Kimberly
2002 'Perceptions of nonverbal communication: implications for beginning
conductor training' in Choral Journal vol. 42 no. 9 pp. 67-69.
Von Raffler-Engel, Walburga
1981 'Developmental Kinesics: the acquisition and maturation of
conversational nonverbal behavior' in B. L. Hoffer and R. N. St. Clair
(ed.) Developmental Kinesics - The Emerging Paradigm Baltimore.
University Park Press.
Walter, Bruno
1961 Of Music and Music-Making Translated by P. Hamburger. London. Faber
and Faber.
Weinberger, Rozanna
1999 'No pain, big gain' in Strings vol. 14 no. 2 pp. 72-77.
Wilson, Frank
1999 The Hand New York. Vintage Books.
233
Yontz, Timothy
2001 The Effectiveness of Laban-Based Principles of Movement and Previous
Musical Training on Undergraduate Beginning Conducting Students'
Ability to Convey Intended Musical Content PhD thesis. University of
Nebraska, Lincoln.
234
APPENDIX A SURVEY OF UNIVERSITY LEVEL CONDUCTING
TEACHERS
Introduction
This survey is intended as a case study/snapshot of the students and methodology
of university conducting teachers in 2005, with respondents from Australia,
Canada, Spain, the UK and the USA. As a result this survey, inferences are made
about the training of conductors, particularly from the standpoint of conducting
teacher priorities and the teaching of expressive conducting. Additional aims of
this survey are to identify the skills that beginner conductors should already
possess or immediately seek to develop, and to identify the non-verbal
communication skills required of a conductor and how best to develop them.
Conductors were contacted in Australia and the UK through direct email via the
universities. Other international conductors were contacted via an invitation
posted on the College Band Directors National Association website bulletin
board. All were invited to participate in an online survey, asking questions about
the musical background of their students, their teaching priorities and
methodology. Eighty-eight conductors responded to the survey.
235
Base Location
Frequency
Valid
USA (no state)

UK
Alberta, Canada
Victoria, AUS
Queensland, AUS
Spain
Arkansas
Arizona
California
Colorado
Florida
Georgia
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Nebraska
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Pennsylvania
South Carolina
Tennessee
Texas
Washington
Wisconsin
West Virginia
No Country Given
Total
8
3
1
7
1
1
1
2
6
1
3
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
1
4
3
2
1
1
1
4
1
1
1
1
3
3
2
4
3
1
1
5
88
Percent
9.1
3.4
1.1
8.0
1.1
1.1
1.1
2.3
6.8
1.1
3.4
1.1
1.1
1.1
2.3
2.3
1.1
1.1
2.3
1.1
4.5
3.4
2.3
1.1
1.1
1.1
4.5
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
3.4
3.4
2.3
4.5
3.4
1.1
1.1
5.7
100.0
Valid
Percent
9.1
3.4
1.1
8.0
1.1
1.1
1.1
2.3
6.8
1.1
3.4
1.1
1.1
1.1
2.3
2.3
1.1
1.1
2.3
1.1
4.5
3.4
2.3
1.1
1.1
1.1
4.5
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
3.4
3.4
2.3
4.5
3.4
1.1
1.1
5.7
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
9.1
12.5
13.6
21.6
22.7
23.9
25.0
27.3
34.1
35.2
38.6
39.8
40.9
42.0
44.3
46.6
47.7
48.9
51.1
52.3
56.8
60.2
62.5
63.6
64.8
65.9
70.5
71.6
72.7
73.9
75.0
78.4
81.8
84.1
88.6
92.0
93.2
94.3
100.0
236
Responses were received from five countries. 80% of responses were from the
USA across thirty-two states (8 respondents did not identify their state 9%). 9%
of responses were from Australia across two states. Other countries from which
responses were received were the UK, Canada, and Spain. Five respondents (6%)
did not identify their base location.
237
A1
Number of Conducting Students
Frequency
Valid
No Response
Less than 3
3-4
5-6
7-8
9-10
11-12
13-14
15 or More
Total
2
9
11
8
6
7
9
4
32
88
Percent
2.3
10.2
12.5
9.1
6.8
8.0
10.2
4.5
36.4
100.0
Valid Percent
2.3
10.2
12.5
9.1
6.8
8.0
10.2
4.5
36.4
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
2.3
12.5
25.0
34.1
40.9
48.9
59.1
63.6
100.0
The most popular response when asked How Many Conducting Students? was
fifteen or more by thirty-two respondents (36%), more than double any other
category.
Overall, there appeared to be a fairly even number of male and female
conducting students. While some respondents had more male students than
female students, for other respondents this was reversed.
238
A2
Number of Male Conducting Students
Frequency
Valid
No Response
None
1-2
3-4
5-6
7-8
9-10
11-12
13 or More
Total
3
8
12
17
17
14
7
3
7
88
Percent
3.4
9.1
13.6
19.3
19.3
15.9
8.0
3.4
8.0
100.0
Valid Percent
3.4
9.1
13.6
19.3
19.3
15.9
8.0
3.4
8.0
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
3.4
12.5
26.1
45.5
64.8
80.7
88.6
92.0
100.0
78% of respondents had between one and eight male conducting students.
239
A3
Number of Female Conducting Students
Frequency
Valid
No Response
None
1-2
3-4
5-6
7-8
9-10
11-12
13 or More
Total
2
11
16
10
12
15
8
5
9
88
Percent
2.3
12.5
18.2
11.4
13.6
17.0
9.1
5.7
10.2
100.0
Valid Percent
2.3
12.5
18.2
11.4
13.6
17.0
9.1
5.7
10.2
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
2.3
14.8
33.0
44.3
58.0
75.0
84.1
89.8
100.0
60% of respondents had between one and eight female conducting students.
Eleven respondents had no female conducting students.
240
A4
Prior Ensemble Performing Background of Conducting Students
No Response
None
Mainly Orchestral
Mainly Choral
Mainly Wind Band
Mainly Chamber Music
Big Band
Various
Folk Music
2
4
30
31
75
7
1
4
1
2%
5%
34%
35%
85%
8%
1%
5%
1%
A large majority of the respondents had students with a wind band background.
Thirty-six respondents (41%) had students participate in one of the above
categories and the same number had students participate in two categories.
Almost 15% of respondents had students participate in three or more categories.
A5
Prior Instrument Type Performing Background of Conducting Students
No Response
No Background
Woodwind
Brass
Percussion
Strings
Voice
Keyboard
1
2
76
79
66
51
38
50
1%
2%
86%
90%
75%
58%
43%
57%
Only one respondent had no students with any performing background. 86% of
respondents had students with backgrounds in three or more instrument types. As
the majority of students had a wind band ensemble background, the most
common instrument types were woodwind, brass and percussion.
A6
Student Age Group at Commencement of Conducting Lessons
No Response
Under 17
17 23
24 30
31 40
Over 40
1
2
78
27
16
9
1%
2%
89%
31%
18%
10%
The majority of respondents had students commence conducting lessons at the

undergraduate level. 67% of respondents had students from one age group only
(mainly 17 23) commence conducting lessons, although 20% had students from
two age brackets.
241
A7
Prerequisites Required of Potential Conducting Students
No Response
No Prerequisites
No Conducting Experience
Resume
Interview
Audition
Audio Recording of Conducting
Video Recording of Conducting
Recommendation or Referral
Piano Proficiency
Instrument/Voice Proficiency
Theory Proficiency
Aural Training Diagnostic
Music History Diagnostic
Repertoire Knowledge
Previous Conducting Class
Teaching Experience
3
4
37
15
22
23
6
15
0
24
48
63
30
3
5
4
2
3%
5%
42%
17%
25%
26%
7%
17%
27%
55%
72%
34%
3%
6%
5%
2%
and 5% had no prerequisites at all. 76% of respondents listed between one and
four prerequisites. 13% of respondents listed five or more prerequisites (two
respondents listed ten prerequisites).
242
A8
Analytical Skills
Aural Skills
Charisma
Clear Beat Patterns
Coordination
Desire to Learn
Ensemble Skills
Enthusiasm
Expressive Gestures
Facial Expressivity
Fundamental Baton Technique
General Knowledge
Harmonic Knowledge
Instrumental Skills
Intellect
Kinaesthetic Ability
Leadership
Musicianship
Personal Presentation
Piano Skills
Research Skills
Secure Pulse
Self Confidence
Self Discipline
Sight Singing Ability
Teaching Ability
4
24
3
2
8
2
3
3
1
3
1
6
2
2
13
20
1
2
3
3
26
30
1
8
1
2
15
7
3
2
2
3
5
5%
27%
3%
2%
9%
2%
3%
3%
1%
3%
1%
7%
2%
2%
15%
23%
1%
2%
3%
3%
30%
34%
1%
9%
1%
2%
17%
8%
3%
2%
2%
3%
6%
Thirty-three responses were received in answer to the question What skills

should a beginner conductor already possess? The most popular responses to
this question were music theory knowledge (34%), musicianship (30%), aural
skills (27%) and instrumental skills (23%).
243
A9
Skill
Arranging Skills
Aural Skills
Awareness
Baton Technique
Beat Patterns
Clarity
Debating Skills
Dynamic Control
Ensemble Balance
Ensemble Empathy
Expressive Gestures
Harmonic Knowledge
Imagery
Instrumental Skills
Interpretation
Leadership
Musicianship
Piano Skills
Podium Presence
Research Skills
Self Confidence
No. of Responses
1
25
4
28
12
5
13
1
1
1
1
13
5
1
2
2
2
8
4
5
4
13
22
2
19
2
3
12
2
26
4
4
Percentage
1%
28%
5%
32%
14%
6%
15%
1%
1%
1%
1%
15%
6%
1%
2%
2%
2%
9%
5%
6%
5%
15%
25%
2%
22%
2%
3%
14%
2%
30%
5%
5%
+/- from A8
+1
+1
+4
+28
+4
+5
+13
+1
+1
+1
+1
+10
+5
-1
-11
+2
-18
+8
+1
+5
+1
+10
-4
-28
+19
-6
+3
+10
+1
+11
+1
+4
reading skills (30%), aural skills (28%), musicianship (25%) and non-verbal
communication (22%). Some skills were listed by some respondents as skills
immediately seek to develop. More respondents felt that score reading skills
should be developed by the beginner conductor than already possessed (eleven
more), and likewise for expressive gestures, left hand independence, and
rehearsal techniques (each ten more), beat patterns (four more), aural skills,
knowledge of instruments, research skills, and self confidence (each one more).
Fewer respondents felt that music theory knowledge should be developed by the
beginner conductor than already possessed (twenty-eight less); likewise for
instrumental skills (eighteen less), historical knowledge (eleven less), piano skills
(six less), musicianship (four less), and harmonic knowledge (one less). New
244
skills to be developed by the beginner conductor included baton technique
(32%), non-verbal communication skills (22%), control of movements (15%) and
interpretation (9%).
A10
Frequency
Valid
No Response
Male
Female
Total
3
75
10
88
Percent
3.4
85.2
11.4
100.0
Valid Percent
3.4
85.2
11.4
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
3.4
88.6
100.0
Male respondents outnumbered female respondents by a ratio of over seven to

one.
245
B1
Setting for Conducting Students First Lessons
No Response
High School Class
Undergraduate Class
Undergraduate Private Lesson
Graduate Class
Graduate Private Lesson
3
1
71
3
10
15
3%
1%
81%
3%
11%
17%
82% of respondents gave first lessons in one setting only mainly the
undergraduate conducting class. 9% of respondents gave first lessons in two
settings mainly an undergraduate class and a graduate class or private lesson,
but occasionally two graduate settings. 3% of respondents gave first lessons in
three or more settings (one respondent gave first lessons in all five settings).
B2
Green The Modern Conductor

Prausnitz Score and Podium
Hunsberger/Ernst The Art of Conducting
Maiello Conducting, A Hands-On Approach
Labuta Basic Conducting Techniques
Leinsdorf The Composers Advocate
Nowak/Nowak Conducting the Music, Not the Musicians
Rudolf The Grammar of Conducting
Kuijpers The Art of Conducting
McElheran Conducting Technique
Battisti/Garofalo Guide to Score Study
Battisti/Garofalo Lead and Inspire
Kohut/Grant Learning to Conduct and Rehearse
Long The Conductors Workshop
Schuller The Compleat Conductor
Curtis/Kuehn Guide to Successful Instrumental Conducting
McBeth Effective Performance of Band Music
Phillips Basic Techniques of Conducting
Scherchen Handbook of Conducting
Demaree/Moses The Complete Conductor
Jordan Evoking Sound
McMurray Conducting from the Inside Out (DVD)
Saito The Saito Conducting Method
Instrumentalist Conductors Anthology
Own Textbooks
Own Exercises
Various
None Indicated
37
3
21
7
13
1
5
4
1
2
7
1
1
1
4
1
1
3
1
2
2
1
1
1
2
8
2
17
42%
3%
24%
8%
15%
1%
6%
5%
1%
2%
8%
1%
1%
1%
5%
1%
1%
3%
1%
2%
2%
1%
1%
1%
2%
9%
2%
19%

246
their own exercises used other textbooks.
B3
Covered in the Initial Few Lessons
Beat Patterns
Use of Baton/RH
Starting and Stopping Ensemble
Use of Left Hand
Facial Communication
Expressive Gestures
Cueing
Score Study
Body Presence
Psychology of Conducting
Interpretation
Repertoire Development
Rank Order
2
3
4
7
8
6
9
11
5
1
10
12
13
Number of 1st Pref

24
10
12
2
2
7
1
5
20
20
9
1
1
Percentage
27%
11%
14%
2%
2%
8%
1%
6%
23%
23%
10%
1%
1%
The overall rank order for aspects of conducting which may be covered in the
initial few lessons differed from the number of first preferences among
respondents, due to some methods ranking higher on second and third
preferences than others. For example, twenty-four respondents (27%) found beat
patterns to be the most important aspect of conducting which may be covered in
the initial few lessons. However, beat patterns ranked second overall, behind
body presence, due to a higher number of second and third preferences for body
presence. Use of the baton/right hand ranked third overall, yet only received ten
first preferences (11%), half the number received by score study (23%) which
ranked as low as fifth. Repertoire development and interpretation were generally
agreed to be the least important aspects of conducting to be covered in the initial
few lessons.
247
B4
Conducting Students using a Baton?
Frequency
Valid
No Response
Yes
No
Don't Mind
Total
1
77
3
7
88
Percent
1.1
87.5
3.4
8.0
100.0
Valid Percent
1.1
87.5
3.4
8.0
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
1.1
88.6
92.0
100.0
The majority of respondents (over 87%) had their students use a baton.
248
B5
Left Handed Conducting Students Beating with Right Hand?
3
41
Percent
3.4
46.6
Valid
Percent
3.4
46.6
Cumulative
Percent
3.4
50.0
22
25.0
25.0
75.0
13
9
88
14.8
10.2
100.0
14.8
10.2
100.0
89.8
100.0
Frequency
Valid
No Response
Yes, Always
Usually, But Consider Each
Individual Case
No, Don't Mind
Has Not Been an Issue
Total
Forty-one respondents (just under 47%) insisted on their conducting students

beating with their right hand.
249
B6
Covered As Students Develop More Experience
Beat Patterns
Use of Baton/RH
Starting & Stopping Ensemble
Use of Left Hand
Facial Communication
Expressive Gestures
Cueing
Score Study
Body Presence
Psychology of Conducting
Interpretation
Repertoire Development
Rank Order
12
8
11
9
6
2
10
3
1
5
7
4
13
+/- from B3
-11
-5
-7
-2
+2
+4
-1
+8
+4
-4
+3
+8
0
Number of 1st Pref

9
4
5
3
4
13
2
12
33
7
11
6
3
Percentage
10%
5%
6%
3%
5%
15%
2%
14%
38%
8%
13%
7%
3%
Results indicated an agreement between the three most important aspects of

conducting which may be covered as students develop more experience, as rated
by respondents, and the number of first preferences. Score study was ranked first
in order of importance and received thirty-three first preferences (38%). Second
in order of importance were expressive gestures, and this category received
thirteen first preferences (15%). Third in order of importance were rehearsal
techniques, and this category received twelve first preferences (14%).
Although both beat patterns and the psychology of conducting were ranked quite
low (twelfth and seventh respectively), they received a high number of first
preferences (eleven for the psychology of conducting, nine for beat patterns.
Repertoire development remained the least favoured aspect of conducting by
respondents at this stage of learning.
The greatest jump in rank order of importance of aspects of conducting which
may be covered as students develop more experience, compared with what
should be covered in the initial few lessons, were in rehearsal techniques and
interpretation (up eight places), and expressive gestures and score study (up four
places). The greatest drop in rank order occurred in beat patterns (down eleven
places) and starting and stopping the ensemble (down seven places).
250
B7
Rank Order of Importance of Methods to Assist the Development of
Conducting Expressivity

Discussion with Teachers/Other Students
Conducting Textbook
Expressive Movement Activity
None of These
Rank Order
3
2
1
5
4
7
6
8
9
Number of 1st Pref

11
13
28
4
23
2
7
1
0
Percentage
13%
15%
32%
5%
26%
2%
8%
1%
order and number of first preferences (32%). Observation of other conductors
was ranked second, although conducting classes, courses, and workshops
received more first preferences (26%). Expressive movement activities were
ranked as low as sixth, although seven respondents gave it their first preference.
Few respondents believed that conducting textbooks would assist the
development of conducting expressivity. Even less believed conducting
expressivity would just improve over time.
B8
How Frequently Have You Used the Following Movement Training or
Activities with Your Conducting Students? (Acting, Alexander Technique,

Calisthenics, Dalcroze, Dance, Delsarte, Feldenkrais, Laban, Pilates, Tai Chi,
Yoga)
Used No Activities
Used One Activity
Used Two Activities
Used Three Activities
Used Four Activities
Used Five Activities
Used Six Activities
Used Seven Activities
Used Eight or More Activities
9
12
17
12
14
6
6
7
4
10%
14%
19%
14%
16%
7%
7%
8%
5%
90% of respondents used one or more of the eleven listed movement activities.
The most popular responses were between one and four different movement
activities used (63%). 5% of respondents used eight or more movement activities
with their conducting students (one respondent used all eleven).
251
a)
Acting
Frequency
Valid
No Response
Never Used
Used Once or Twice
Used Occasionally
Used Frequently
Used All the Time
Total
1
24
11
32
17
3
88
Percent
1.1
27.3
12.5
36.4
19.3
3.4
100.0
Valid
Percent
1.1
27.3
12.5
36.4
19.3
3.4
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
1.1
28.4
40.9
77.3
96.6
100.0
Over 70% of respondents had used acting with their conducting students. 36% of
respondents, the largest group, stated that they had used acting occasionally.
252
b)
Alexander Technique
Frequency
Valid
No Response
Never Used
Used Once or Twice
Used Occasionally
Used Frequently
Used All the Time
Total
2
45
10
21
9
1
88
Percent
2.3
51.1
11.4
23.9
10.2
1.1
100.0
Valid
Percent
2.3
51.1
11.4
23.9
10.2
1.1
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
2.3
53.4
64.8
88.6
98.9
100.0
Over 50% of respondents had never used the Alexander Technique with their
conducting students. 24% of respondents had used the Alexander Technique
occasionally.
253
c)
Calisthenics
Frequency
Valid
No Response
Never Used
Used Once or Twice
Used Occasionally
Used Frequently
Used All the Time
Total
1
46
8
24
5
4
88
Percent
1.1
52.3
9.1
27.3
5.7
4.5
100.0
Valid
Percent
1.1
52.3
9.1
27.3
5.7
4.5
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
1.1
53.4
62.5
89.8
95.5
100.0
One of the problems with the term calisthenics is that it has a different meaning
in different parts of the world. In the United States, the term means a type of
exercise consisting of a variety of simple movements usually performed without
weights or other equipment that are intended to increase body strength and
flexibility using the weight of one's own body for resistance. In Australia, the
term is generally taken to mean a competitive women's performing sport.
The overall results for calisthenics were similar to the results for the Alexander
Technique. Just over half the respondents had never used calisthenics (in any
form) with their conducting students. 27% of respondents had used calisthenics
occasionally.
254
d)
Dalcroze
Frequency
Valid
No Response
Never Used
Used Once or Twice
Used Occasionally
Used Frequently
Used All the Time
Total
Percent
1
60
2
17
7
1
88
1.1
68.2
2.3
19.3
8.0
1.1
100.0
Valid
Percent
1.1
68.2
2.3
19.3
8.0
1.1
100.0
Almost 70% of respondents had never used Dalcroze with their conducting
students. Almost 20% of respondents had used Dalcroze occasionally.
Cumulative
Percent
1.1
69.3
71.6
90.9
98.9
100.0
255
e)
Dance
Frequency
Valid
No Response
Never Used
Used Once or Twice
Used Occasionally
Used Frequently
Used All the Time
Total
2
47
5
18
15
1
88
Percent
2.3
53.4
5.7
20.5
17.0
1.1
100.0
Valid
Percent
2.3
53.4
5.7
20.5
17.0
1.1
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
2.3
55.7
61.4
81.8
98.9
100.0
53% of respondents had never used dance before with their conducting students.
Just over 20% of respondents used dance occasionally, and 17% used dance
frequently.
256
f)
Delsarte
Frequency
Valid
No Response
Never Used
Used Once or Twice
Used Occasionally
Used Frequently
Total
1
83
1
2
1
88
Percent
1.1
94.3
1.1
2.3
1.1
100.0
Valid
Percent
1.1
94.3
1.1
2.3
1.1
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
1.1
95.5
96.6
98.9
100.0
Less than 5% of respondents had used Delsarte with their conducting students.
257
g)
Feldenkrais
Frequency
Valid
No Response
Never Used
Used Once or Twice
Used Occasionally
Used Frequently
Total
1
80
2
2
3
88
Percent
1.1
90.9
2.3
2.3
3.4
100.0
Valid
Percent
1.1
90.9
2.3
2.3
3.4
100.0
Less than 10% of respondents had used Feldenkrais with their conducting
students.
Cumulative
Percent
1.1
92.0
94.3
96.6
100.0
258
h)
Laban
Frequency
Valid
No Response
Never Used
Used Once or Twice
Used Occasionally
Used Frequently
Used All the Time
Total
Percent
1
61
5
7
9
5
88
1.1
69.3
5.7
8.0
10.2
5.7
100.0
Valid
Percent
1.1
69.3
5.7
8.0
10.2
5.7
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
1.1
70.5
76.1
84.1
94.3
100.0
Almost 70% of respondents had never used Laban with their conducting
students. 10% of respondents had used Laban frequently, 8% had used it
occasionally, and 6% had used it once or twice. 6% of respondents used Laban
all the time.
259
i)
Pilates
Frequency
Valid
No Response
Never Used
Used Once or Twice
Used Occasionally
Used Frequently
Used All the Time
Total
1
83
1
1
1
1
88
Percent
1.1
94.3
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
100.0
Valid Percent
1.1
94.3
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
1.1
95.5
96.6
97.7
98.9
100.0
Less than 5% of respondents had used Pilates with their conducting students.
260
j)
Tai Chi
Frequency
Valid
No Response
Never Used
Used Once or Twice
Used Occasionally
Used Frequently
Used All the Time
Total
2
65
5
9
6
1
88
Percent
2.3
73.9
5.7
10.2
6.8
1.1
100.0
Valid
Percent
2.3
73.9
5.7
10.2
6.8
1.1
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
2.3
76.1
81.8
92.0
98.9
100.0
Almost three-quarters of respondents had never used Tai Chi with their
conducting students. 10% of respondents had used Tai Chi occasionally, 7%
frequently, and 6% once or twice.
261
k)
Yoga
Frequency
Valid
No Response
Never Used
Used Once or Twice
Used Occasionally
Used Frequently
Used All the Time
Total
1
71
3
10
2
1
88
Percent
1.1
80.7
3.4
11.4
2.3
1.1
100.0
Valid Percent
1.1
80.7
3.4
11.4
2.3
1.1
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
1.1
81.8
85.2
96.6
98.9
100.0
Over 80% of respondents had never used yoga with their conducting students.
11% of respondents had used yoga occasionally.
262
B9
Other Movement Training Methods or Activities Used with Conducting
Students
None Indicated
Mime
Elizabeth Green Exercises
Relaxation & Movement Exercises
Balls and Sports
Aerobics, Stretching, Gym
Water Exercises
Swimming
Own Movement Exercises
Movement Imagery
Aikido
Sign Language
Walking
Ballet
Chekhov Acting Exercises
53
9
8
2
1
1
2
3
8
2
1
1
2
1
1
60%
10%
9%
2%
1%
1%
2%
3%
9%
2%
1%
1%
2%
1%
1%
60% of respondents indicated no additional movement training methods or

activities other than those listed in B8. Of the respondents who had not used any
of the eleven movement training methods or activities in B8, 56% still did not
use other movement activities.
The most popular movement training methods or activities used by respondents,
apart from those listed in B8, were mime (10%), Elizabeth Green conducting
movement exercises (from The Modern Conductor 9%) and respondents own
movement exercises (9%).
Of the 40% who had used additional movement training methods or activities
with their conducting students, 83% had only used one activity. One respondent
had used three additional movement activities.
B10
How Effective Have You Found the Following Movement Training or
Activities with Your Conducting Students?

Occasional discrepancies were received in response to this section when
compared to responses received to B8. This was due to incomplete surveys
some respondents failed to complete B10 after answering B8, possibly due to
respondent fatigue, causing slight inconsistencies in responses.
263
a)
Acting
Frequency
Valid
No Response
Never Used
Not Effective
Undecided
Slightly Effective
Very Effective
Total
3
24
2
9
28
22
88
Percent
3.4
27.3
2.3
10.2
31.8
25.0
100.0
Valid
Percent
3.4
27.3
2.3
10.2
31.8
25.0
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
3.4
30.7
33.0
43.2
75.0
100.0
27% of respondents had never used acting with their conducting students. Of
those remaining, 82% found acting effective with their conducting students. 15%
of remaining respondents were undecided and 3% found acting to be not
effective with their conducting students.
264
b)
Alexander Technique
Frequency
Valid
No Response
Never Used
Not Effective
Undecided
Slightly Effective
Very Effective
Total
3
44
1
9
22
9
88
Percent
3.4
50.0
1.1
10.2
25.0
10.2
100.0
Valid
Percent
3.4
50.0
1.1
10.2
25.0
10.2
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
3.4
53.4
54.5
64.8
89.8
100.0
50% of respondents had never used the Alexander Technique with their
conducting students. Of those remaining, 76% found the Alexander Technique
effective with their conducting students. 22% of remaining respondents were
undecided and 2% found the Alexander Technique to be not effective with their
conducting students.
265
c)
Calisthenics
Frequency
Valid
No Response
Never Used
Not Effective
Undecided
Slightly Effective
Very Effective
Total
3
45
2
12
20
6
88
Percent
3.4
51.1
2.3
13.6
22.7
6.8
100.0
Valid
Percent
3.4
51.1
2.3
13.6
22.7
6.8
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
3.4
54.5
56.8
70.5
93.2
100.0
51% of respondents had never used calisthenics with their conducting students.
Of those remaining, 65% found calisthenics effective with their conducting
students. 30% of remaining respondents were undecided and 5% found
calisthenics to be not effective with their conducting students.
266
d)
Dalcroze
Frequency
Valid
No Response
Never Used
Undecided
Slightly Effective
Very Effective
Total
4
57
8
11
8
88
Percent
4.5
64.8
9.1
12.5
9.1
100.0
Valid
Percent
4.5
64.8
9.1
12.5
9.1
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
4.5
69.3
78.4
90.9
100.0
65% of respondents had never used Dalcroze with their conducting students. Of
those remaining, 70% found Dalcroze effective with their conducting students,
267
e)
Dance
Frequency
Valid
No Response
Never Used
Not Effective
Undecided
Slightly Effective
Very Effective
Total
4
45
1
5
16
17
88
Percent
4.5
51.1
1.1
5.7
18.2
19.3
100.0
Valid
Percent
4.5
51.1
1.1
5.7
18.2
19.3
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
4.5
55.7
56.8
62.5
80.7
100.0
51% of respondents had never used dance with their conducting students. Of
those remaining, 85% found dance effective with their conducting students. 13%
of remaining respondents were undecided and 2% found dance to be not effective
with their conducting students.
268
f)
Delsarte
Frequency
Valid
No Response
Never Used
Undecided
Slightly Effective
Total
4
79
2
3
88
Percent
4.5
89.8
2.3
3.4
100.0
Valid
Percent
4.5
89.8
2.3
3.4
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
4.5
94.3
96.6
100.0
90% of respondents had never used Delsarte with their conducting students. Of
those remaining, 60% found Delsarte slightly effective with their conducting
269
g)
Feldenkrais
Frequency
Valid
No Response
Never Used
Undecided
Slightly Effective
Very Effective
Total
3
76
5
3
1
88
Percent
3.4
86.4
5.7
3.4
1.1
100.0
Valid
Percent
3.4
86.4
5.7
3.4
1.1
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
3.4
89.8
95.5
98.9
100.0
86% of respondents had never used Feldenkrais with their conducting students.
Of those remaining, 44% found Feldenkrais to be effective, while 56% were
undecided.
270
h)
Laban
Frequency
Valid
No Response
Never Used
Undecided
Slightly Effective
Very Effective
Total
3
58
5
9
13
88
Percent
3.4
65.9
5.7
10.2
14.8
100.0
Valid
Percent
3.4
65.9
5.7
10.2
14.8
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
3.4
69.3
75.0
85.2
100.0
66% of respondents had never used Laban with their conducting students. Of
those remaining, 81% found Laban effective with their conducting students,
271
i)
Pilates
Frequency
Valid
No Response
Never Used
Undecided
Slightly Effective
Very Effective
Total
3
79
2
1
3
88
Percent
3.4
89.8
2.3
1.1
3.4
100.0
Valid
Percent
3.4
89.8
2.3
1.1
3.4
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
3.4
93.2
95.5
96.6
100.0
90% of respondents had never used Pilates with their conducting students. Of
those remaining, two-thirds found Pilates to be effective with their conducting
students, while one-third was undecided.
272
j)
Tai Chi
Frequency
Valid
No Response
Never Used
Undecided
Slightly Effective
Very Effective
Total
3
65
6
8
6
88
Percent
3.4
73.9
6.8
9.1
6.8
100.0
Valid
Percent
3.4
73.9
6.8
9.1
6.8
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
3.4
77.3
84.1
93.2
100.0
74% had never used Tai Chi with their conducting students. Of those remaining,
70% found Tai Chi effective with their conducting students, while 30% were
undecided.
273
k)
Yoga
Valid No Response
Never Used
Undecided
Slightly Effective
Very Effective
Total
Frequency
3
69
7
6
3
88
Percent
3.4
78.4
8.0
6.8
3.4
100.0
Valid
Percent
3.4
78.4
8.0
6.8
3.4
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
3.4
81.8
89.8
96.6
100.0
78% of respondents had never used yoga with their conducting students. Of those
remaining, 56% found yoga effective with their conducting students, while 44%
were undecided.
274
B11
How Have These Movement Activities Helped Your Students Improve
Their Conducting?
Acting
Response
Develops Character Portrayal
Engages Mood
Increases Movement Choices
Facilitates Direct Physical Response
Promotes an Understanding of Movement and Letting Go
Eliminates Shyness
Alexander Technique
Calisthenics
Dalcroze
Dance
Feldenkrais
Response
Removes Tension
Promotes Relaxation
Response
Increases Wrist/Arm Motion and Fluidity
Response
Develops Independence of Hands
Response
Loosens Up Students, Develops Pulse and Style
Facilitates Expressive Shapes
Increases Physical Feel for Music
Helps Students to Learn to Move Artistically
Response
Develops Body Centering
No.
1
1
1
1
1
1
No.
1
1
No.
1
No.
1
No.
1
1
1
1
No.
1
Laban
Response
Allows for the Application of Everyday Movements
Increases Imagery
Integrates Movement with Sound
Forces Students to Think about Style of Individual Musical/Physical Gesture
Reinforces Physical Control and Interpretation
No.
2
1
1
1
1
Pilates
Response
Develops Balance and Improved Posture
No.
1
Tai Chi
Response
Promotes Calm and Elegant Movement
Develops Intensity
No.
1
1
Other
Response
Green Exercises Promote Independence of Hands
Chekhov Concepts Provide a Rich Psychology of Images
No.
1
1
General
Response
Adds to Movement Vocabulary
Puts the Focus on Creating Music
Improves Expressive Conducting
Breaks Down Conventional Barriers
Develops the Kinaesthetic Element
Develops Body Awareness
Develops Independent Style
No.
2
1
1
1
1
5
1
275
Enhances Fluid Communication of Expression & Interpretation
Helps Students Live the Music
Promotes Role Play and Physically Mirroring the Music
Creates Understanding of How Music Can Move Ones Self
Develops Connection Between Physical Motion & Music Response
Helps to Contemplate Expressive Movement Before it is Confined to Beat
Patterns
Increases Focus on Particular Motion and Emotion
Develops Self-Awareness and Confidence
Overcomes Inhibitions
Personalises Communication
Allows Experimentation with Movement Techniques
Instills Stronger Sense of Rhythm
Improves Relaxation, Movement Control and Expressivity
1
1
1
1
2
3
1
5
2
1
2
1
2
Only those respondents who had used movement activities and found them
beneficial provided responses. Nevertheless, there was a wide range of responses
to the question of how these movement activities had helped students improve
their conducting. More than single responses were received to eight general
statements: develops body awareness (5 responses), develops self-awareness and
confidence (5 responses), helps to contemplate expressive movement before it is
confined to beat patterns (3 responses), adds to movement vocabulary (2
responses), develops connection between physical motion and music response (2
responses), overcomes inhibitions (2 responses), allows experimentation with
movement techniques (2 responses), and improves relaxation, movement control
and expressivity (2 responses). Only one multiple response was received for a
specific movement activity (Laban allows for the application of everyday
movements 2 responses).
276
B12
Which Non-verbal Communication Techniques are Important for Your
Students to Develop?
Affirmation/Positive Reinforcement
All Conducting Should be Non-verbal
All Non-verbal Communication Techniques
Baton Technique
Body Language
Breathing
Clarity
Cueing
Dance
Dynamics
Expressive Gestures
Eye Contact
Facial Expression
Hands/Arms
Imagery
Influencing Skills
Laban
Listening
Mime
Motion Styles
Reflect Music Through Gesture
Sign Language
Stance
Starts and Stops
2
1
5
5
12
1
2
3
1
1
7
22
37
12
1
1
1
1
2
2
11
1
1
6
3
2%
1%
6%
6%
14%
1%
2%
3%
1%
1%
8%
25%
42%
14%
1%
1%
1%
1%
2%
2%
13%
1%
1%
7%
3%
The most important non-verbal communication techniques, as listed by

respondents, were facial expression (42%), eye contact (25%), body language
and hands/arms (each 14%).
277
B13
How Do You Go About Developing Your Conducting Students Non-
verbal Vocabulary?
Acting
Chekhov Exercises
Class Forms Ensemble
Conduct Same Piece in a Variety of Styles
Conduct with Body Only
Conducting Experience
Create a Gestural Vocabulary
Develop Interpretation
Develop Natural Reactions
Discussion
Experimentation
Face Conveys Musical Mood
Green/Malko Exercises
Imagery
Imitation
Improvisation
Increase Score Knowledge
Laban
Mime
Movement Sessions
Observe Other Conductors
Peer Critique
Psychological Drill
Repertoire Driven
Self-Evaluation
Self-Observation
Silent Rehearsals
Specific Non-verbal Exercises
4
1
2
4
2
9
5
3
2
4
1
12
1
2
4
2
2
2
3
2
11
3
2
3
2
14
6
5
5%
1%
2%
5%
2%
10%
6%
3%
2%
5%
1%
14%
1%
2%
5%
2%
2%
2%
3%
2%
13%
3%
2%
3%
2%
16%
7%
6%

(13%).
278
B14
How Do You Assess the Success or Quality of Your Students
Conducting?
By the Product
Clarity of Conducting
Class Discussion
Conducting an Ensemble
Ensemble Feedback
Expressive Content of Gestures
Faculty Jury
Formal Score Analysis
Measure Influence of Conductor
Peer Critique
Private Sessions with Teacher
Self Assessment
Subjective Improvement
Test Specific Skills
Weekly Observation
Written Tests and Assignments
23
5
3
5
8
2
1
1
5
7
1
10
7
16
26
4
26%
6%
3%
6%
9%
2%
1%
1%
6%
8%
1%
11%
8%
18%
30%
5%
The most important ways of assessing the success or quality of students

conducting, as listed by respondents, were by weekly observation (30%), by
assessing the end product of the conducting (26%), and testing specific skills
(18%).
279
APPENDIX B SURVEY OF SECONDARY SCHOOL LEVEL
CONDUCTORS BASED AROUND THE MELBOURNE AREA
Introduction
No data exists on the background and training received by secondary school
conductors around the Melbourne area. This survey serves as a case
study/snapshot of these conductors in 2005. From this survey, inferences are
made about the broader background and training of Australian secondary school
conductors. Additional aims of this survey were to identify the skills that
beginner conductors should already possess or immediately seek to develop, and
to identify the attributes of an expressive and an effective conductor.
contacted and invited to participate in an online survey, asking questions about
their musical background, and the conductor training they had received. The
majority of these conductors were regularly conducting school groups. Of these
ninety-two, forty-two (46%) responded to the survey.
Results
A1
Musical Instrument Background
Woodwind
Brass
Percussion
Strings
Voice
Keyboard
21
20
4
2
11
15
50%
48%
10%
5%
26%
36%
Nineteen respondents (45%) had a background on instruments from two or more

of the above families.
280
A2
Musical Background of Family Members
None
Father
Mother
Sister(s)
Brother(s)
Grandfather
Grandmother
Spouse/Partner
Children
Niece(s)
Nephew(s)
Cousin(s)
Uncle(s)
Aunt(s)
8
9
10
10
9
3
3
18
8
6
4
2
3
7
19%
21%
24%
24%
21%
7%
7%
43%
19%
14%
10%
5%
7%
17%
Twenty-three respondents (55%) had two or more family members with a

musical performing background. The spouse/partner (43% of respondents) was
clearly the most common family member to have a musical background. Eight
respondents (19%) had no family background of musical performance.
A3
Musical Performance Background (other than conducting)
Amateur Ensembles
Amateur Theatre
Armed Services
High School Ensembles
Jazz Ensemble Residency
Professional Chamber
Professional Soloist
Professional Orchestra
Professional Theatre
38
32
2
32
11
8
5
9
8
90%
76%
5%
76%
26%
19%
12%
21%
19%
Amateur Ensembles (90%), Secondary School Ensembles (76%) and Amateur

Theatre (76%) were the most popular ensemble performance backgrounds of
respondents. All respondents had participated in at least two different types of
music performance settings, apart from their conducting experience. Nineteen
respondents (45%) had performed at a professional level.
281
A4
Years of Performing Experience Prior to First Conducting Experience
Valid 0-5 Years

6-10 Years
11-15 Years
16-20 Years
More than 20 Years
Total

9
21.4
21.4
21
50.0
50.0
9
21.4
21.4
2
4.8
4.8
1
2.4
2.4
42
100.0
100.0
Cumulative Percent
21.4
71.4
92.9
97.6
100.0
The majority of respondents (almost 93%) had up to fifteen years of performance

experience prior to their first conducting experience. Half of the respondents had
between six and ten years of performance experience prior to their first
conducting experience.
282
A5
Conducting Background of Family Members
None
Father
Mother
Sister
Brother
Grandfather
Grandmother
Spouse/Partner
Children
Nephew
Niece
Cousin
Uncle
Aunt
25
6
0
3
1
1
0
9
1
0
1
0
0
1
60%
14%
7%
2%
2%
21%
2%
2%
2%
Twenty-five respondents (60%) had no family members with a conducting

background. A comparison with results of Table A2 showed that half (50%) of
the spouses/partners with a musical performing background also had some
conducting experience. A similar comparison showed that two thirds (66%) of
fathers with a musical performance background had some conducting experience.
Only three respondents (7%) had two family members with some conducting
experience.
A6
Highest Level Musical Education Achieved
High/Technical School
TAFE Music Course
Performance/Teaching Diploma
Bachelors Degree
Armed Services Training
Postgraduate Diploma
Masters Degree
Doctoral Degree
2
0
5
26
0
5
4
0
5%
12%
62%
12%
10%
Two respondents (5%) were directing ensembles without any formal

qualification (performance or teaching). The majority of respondents (83%) had
achieved a Bachelors degree in music or education or higher. 22% of respondents
had gone further than a Bachelors degree.
283
A7
Participation in Sporting Activities Prior to First Conducting Experience
None
Aerobics
Archery
Athletics
Baseball/Softball
Basketball/Netball
Bowling (Lawn/Ten Pin)
Cricket
Cycling
Diving
Fencing
Football (All codes)
Golf
Gymnastics
Hockey
Martial Arts
Motor Sports
Racquet Sports
Rowing
Shooting
Skating (Ice, Roller)
Skiing
Swimming
Umpiring
Volleyball
Weights
6
3
0
11
6
6
2
9
1
0
0
9
8
1
1
2
1
15
1
0
1
1
10
1
1
1
14%
7%
26%
14%
14%
5%
21%
2%
21%
19%
2%
2%
5%
2%
36%
2%
2%
2%
24%
2%
2%
2%
The most popular sports played by respondents prior to their first conducting
experience were racquet sports (36%), athletics (26%), swimming (24%),
football and cricket (21% each). 14% of respondents played no sports prior to
their first conducting experience. 64% of respondents had participated in
between one and three different sports. 14% of respondents had participated in
four or five different sports.
A8
Male
Female
No Response
28
13
1
67%
31%
2%
Male respondents outnumbered female respondents at a ratio of just over 2:1.
284
A9
Prior to First Conducting Experience

No Participation
Acting
Alexander Technique
Calisthenics
Dalcroze
Dance
Feldenkrais
Pilates
Tai Chi
Yoga
26
8
2
1
5
7
0
0
2
1
62%
19%
5%
2%
12%
17%
5%
2%
62% of respondents had not participated in any movement training or activities

prior to their first conducting experience. Of those sixteen who had participated,
the most popular forms of movement activities were Acting (50% of those who
participated), Dance (44% of those who participated), and Dalcroze (31% of
those who participated). 63% of those who participated had attempted one type
of movement activity only. 31% had attempted two. One respondent had
attempted five types of movement activity.
A10
Setting for First Conducting Experience
Conducting Class
Conducting Course
Music Education Class
High School Rehearsal
Community Ensemble Rehearsal
University Ensemble Rehearsal
Music Theatre Rehearsal
Chamber Music Rehearsal
Stand-in at Rehearsal
Stand-in at Concert
5
2
8
13
8
4
2
0
3
1
12%
5%
19%
31%
19%
10%
5%
7%
2%
The majority of respondents (90%) indicated only one setting for their first
conducting experience. The most popular setting for the first conducting
experience of our respondents was the secondary school rehearsal as a student
(31%).
A low number of respondents stated that their first conducting experience had
occurred as part of a conducting class or course, or in a university rehearsal.
Even a combination of all of these activities only accounted for 40% of the first
conducting experiences of the respondents.
285
A11
Age Bracket at First Conducting Experience
Valid 15 or under
16-20
21-25
25-30
31-35
36-40
46-50
Over 50
Total

2
4.8
4.8
21
50.0
50.0
10
23.8
23.8
2
4.8
4.8
3
7.1
7.1
2
4.8
4.8
1
2.4
2.4
1
2.4
2.4
42
100.0
100.0
Cumulative Percent
4.8
54.8
78.6
83.3
90.5
95.2
97.6
100.0
Taking into account the responses to A10, it seems reasonable to conclude that a
majority of respondents had their first conducting experiences while still
secondary school students themselves, or else as very young teachers. The age
bracket between 16 and 25 accounted for almost three out of four first
conducting experiences.
286
B1
Type of Conductor Training Undertaken
No Practical Training
Observation of Colleague/Mentor
Conducting Class as part of other Course
Music Degree with Conducting as Component
Specific Conducting Course
Conducting Textbooks
4
27
19
15
23
19
10%
64%
45%
36%
55%
45%
90% of respondents had undertaken some form of practical conductor training.

48% of respondents had undertaken at least two of a conducting class, a music
degree with conducting as a component, or a specific conducting course. One
respondent had undertaken all three. 64% of respondents had observed a
colleague or a mentor as part of their training. Four respondents (10%) had only
observed a colleague or mentor or consulted a conducting textbook as their
conducting training.
B2
Effectiveness of Areas of Conductor Training
a)
Beat Patterns
No Response
Completely Inadequate
Slightly Inadequate
Undecided
Basically Adequate
Completely Adequate
1
0
2
1
16
22
2%
5%
2%
38%
52%
287
Clearly, respondents were satisfied with training received in the area of beat
patterns. Only two respondents (5%) felt that the beat pattern training they had
received had been in any way inadequate, with one undecided.
b)
Use of Left Hand
No Response
Slightly Inadequate
Undecided
Basically Adequate
Completely Adequate
1
4
6
6
16
9
2%
10%
14%
14%
38%
21%
288
Although a majority of respondents (59%) felt that their training in the use of the
left hand was adequate, there was a much higher rate of dissatisfaction (24%)
than for the training received in beat patterns. 14% of respondents were
undecided.
c)
No Response
Slightly Inadequate
Undecided
Basically Adequate
Completely Adequate
1
4
6
6
25
0
2%
10%
14%
14%
60%
289
The overall ratio of satisfaction to dissatisfaction was the same as for the use of
the left hand. The category of Completely Adequate for this question was
inadvertently left off the online response page.
d)
Score Study
No Response
Slightly Inadequate
Undecided
Basically Adequate
Completely Adequate
1
5
3
7
15
11
2%
12%
7%
17%
36%
26%
290
The majority of respondents (62%) were satisfied with the training they received
in score study. A higher number of undecided respondents (17%) were observed
for this category than for the other areas.
291
e)
Expressive Gestures
No Response
Slightly Inadequate
Undecided
Basically Adequate
Completely Adequate
0
7
7
3
14
10
2%
17%
17%
7%
33%
24%
The overall responses to this question were similar to those received for left hand
use. A majority (57%) expressed satisfaction with the training they received in
the use of expressive gestures. 34% of respondents felt the training they received
was inadequate. There were less undecided respondents (7%) than for any
category except beat patterns.
292
B3
Years of Regular Conducting Experience
Valid 0-5 Years

6-10 Years
11-15 Years
16-20 Years
21-25 Years
26-30 Years
More than 30 Years
Total

4
9.5
9.5
8
19.0
19.0
11
26.2
26.2
8
19.0
19.0
4
9.5
9.5
5
11.9
11.9
2
4.8
4.8
42
100.0
100.0
Cumulative Percent
9.5
28.6
54.8
73.8
83.3
95.2
100.0
The majority of respondents (64%) had between 6 and 20 years of regular

conducting experience. The most popular category for respondents was between
11 and 15 years (26%).
293
B4
Styles of Ensembles Directed
Amateur Ensembles
Amateur Theatre
Armed Services
High School Ensembles
Jazz Ensembles
Professional Chamber Music
Professional Soloist
Professional Orchestra
Professional Theatre
University Ensembles
35
19
0
37
5
3
2
3
3
10
83%
45%
88%
12%
7%
5%
7%
7%
24%
The majority of respondents were conducting secondary school and/or amateur

ensembles. Fifteen of the respondents (36%) conducted ensembles in two
categories (most popular response was Amateur Ensembles and Secondary
School Ensembles). 24% of respondents conducted ensembles in three
categories. 24% of respondents conducted ensembles in four or more categories
(one respondent conducted ensembles in seven of the ten listed categories).
B5
Types of Ensembles Directed
Orchestra
Choir
Wind Band
Jazz Ensemble
Chamber Music
Brass Band
9
9
39
15
4
2
21%
21%
93%
36%
10%
5%
Predominantly wind band directors responded to the survey. 83% of respondents

conducted either one or two types of ensembles, the most popular combination
for two ensembles being wind band and jazz ensemble (45% of respondents
conducted two ensembles, 42% of these conducting wind band and jazz
ensemble). One respondent conducted four types of ensembles and one
conducted five.
294
B6
Level of Difficulty Developing Skill Areas
a)
Beat Patterns
Valid No Response
Slightly Difficult
Slightly Easy
Very Easy
Total

1
2.4
2.4
4
9.5
9.5
18
42.9
42.9
19
45.2
45.2
42
100.0
100.0
Cumulative Percent
2.4
11.9
54.8
100.0
No respondents were undecided, and none found the beat patterns very difficult,
or were still uncomfortable with them.
295
b)
Use of Left Hand

Very Difficult
Slightly Difficult
Undecided
Slightly Easy
Very Easy
Total

4
9.5
9.5
4
9.5
9.5
19
45.2
45.2
4
9.5
9.5
9
21.4
21.4
2
4.8
4.8
42
100.0
100.0
Cumulative Percent
9.5
19.0
64.3
73.8
95.2
100.0
64% of respondents found the use of the left hand in conducting difficult. Indeed,
just fewer than 10% of respondents stated that they were still not comfortable
with using their left hands. Just fewer than 10% of respondents were undecided.
Nineteen respondents (45%) found the left hand slightly difficult to use. Only
26% of respondents found the left hand in any way easy to use.
296
c)
Valid Very Difficult

Slightly Difficult
Undecided
Slightly Easy
Very Easy
Total

1
2.4
2.4
13
31.0
31.0
10
23.8
23.8
16
38.1
38.1
2
4.8
4.8
42
100.0
100.0
Cumulative Percent
2.4
33.3
57.1
95.2
100.0
Sixteen respondents (38%) found rehearsal techniques slightly easy to learn.

Thirteen respondents (31%) found rehearsal techniques slightly difficult. There
were a high number of undecided respondents (24%). Only two respondents
found rehearsal techniques very easy. Only one found them very difficult. No
respondents stated that they were still not comfortable.
297
d)
Score Study
Valid Very Difficult

Slightly Difficult
Undecided
Slightly Easy
Very Easy
Total

3
7.1
7.1
13
31.0
31.0
7
16.7
16.7
16
38.1
38.1
3
7.1
7.1
42
100.0
100.0
Cumulative Percent
7.1
38.1
54.8
92.9
100.0
Overall responses to score study were similar to responses for rehearsal

techniques. 7% of respondents found score study very easy, the same number
who found it very difficult. None stated that they were still not comfortable.
298
e)
Expressive Gestures

Very Difficult
Slightly Difficult
Undecided
Slightly Easy
Very Easy
Total

2
4.8
4.8
3
7.1
7.1
19
45.2
45.2
6
14.3
14.3
11
26.2
26.2
1
2.4
2.4
42
100.0
100.0
Cumulative Percent
4.8
11.9
57.1
71.4
97.6
100.0
Over half of the respondents (57%) found the development of expressive

gestures difficult. Nineteen respondents (45%), the largest group, found
expressive gestures slightly difficult, Three respondents (7%) found expressive
gestures very difficult, and two respondents (5%) were still not comfortable with
expressive gestures. 29% of respondents found expressive gestures easy (eleven
slightly easy, one very easy). There were six undecided respondents (14%).
299
B7
Rank Order of Importance of Methods to Assist the Development of Skill
Areas
a)
Beat Patterns

Conducting Textbook
Rank Order
5
1
3
4
2
7
6
Number of 1st Pref

5
11
6
2
15
0
3
Percentage
12%
26%
14%
5%
36%
7%
The overall rank order for methods to assist the development of beat patterns was
a different result than the number of first preferences among respondents. Some
methods ranked higher on second and third preferences than others. For example,
fifteen respondents (36%) found conducting classes, courses, or workshops to be
the most important method to assist the development of their beat patterns.
However, conducting classes, courses, or workshops ranked second overall,
behind observation of other conductors, due to a higher number of second and
third preferences for observation of other conductors. On the other hand,
discussion with a mentor or a teacher, while ranking fourth overall in importance,
received only two first preferences from respondents. Conducting textbooks were
generally agreed to be the least important assistance to the development of beat
patterns.
b)
Use of Left Hand

Conducting Textbook
None of These
Rank Order
4
1
3
5
2
7
6
8
Number of 1st Pref.

8
10
6
2
13
0
1
1
Percentage
19%
24%
14%
5%
31%
2%
2%
As for beat patterns, the overall rank order to assist the development of the left
hand was a different result than the number of first preferences among
respondents. Although observation of other conductors received a higher rank
order than conducting classes, courses or workshops, more respondents gave
conducting classes, courses and workshops their first preference (thirteen
300
compared to ten for observation of other conductors). Other discrepancies
between the overall rank order and the number of first preferences occurred in
self-observation (ranked third, but six first preferences) and practice away from
the ensemble (ranked fourth, but eight first preferences). Conducting textbooks
were down in the list of assistants important to the development of the left hand
(ranked seventh, only one first preference).
c)

Conducting Textbook
Rank Order
6
1
7
2
3
5
4
Number of 1st Pref.

2
18
1
10
5
2
4
Percentage
5%
43%
2%
24%
12%
5%
10%
Overall results for methods to assist the development of rehearsal techniques

were quite clear among respondents. 43% of respondents listed observation of
other conductors as their first preference, and this was a clear first choice in rank
order. Discussion with a mentor or teacher was ranked second, and also received
24% of first preferences. Conducting classes, courses, and workshops were seen
as being of lesser importance regarding rehearsal techniques than any other area.
Only five respondents (12%) gave this method first preference, and it was third
in rank order, well below observation of other conductors and discussion with a
mentor or teacher. Rehearsal techniques were considered by 10% of respondents
to just improve over time as their first preference, which ranked fourth in order
of methods.
d)
Score Study

Conducting Textbook
None of These
Rank Order
3
6
2
1
4
5
7
Number of 1st Pref.

7
1
11
14
4
3
1
Percentage
17%
2%
26%
33%
10%
7%
2%
Conducting classes, courses and workshops were the most popular method for
developing score study techniques among respondents, both according to rank
301
order and number of first preferences (33%). Discussion with a mentor or teacher
was the second most favoured method. Practising away from the ensemble
received a higher rank order (third) for score study than for any other area.
Compared with all other areas, observation of other conductors received a much
lower ranking in importance for score study. Only one respondent (2%) gave
observation a first preference for score study.
e)
Expressive Gestures
Practise away from Ensemble

Conducting Textbook
None of These
Rank Order
5
1
2
3
4
7
6
8
Number of 1st Pref.

3
17
9
3
6
0
2
2
Percentage
7%
40%
21%
7%
14%
5%
5%
Observation of other conductors was clearly the most popular method for
preference. Discussion with a mentor or teacher was marginally ranked higher
first preference. Conducting textbooks received even less support, ranking
seventh in order, and receiving no first preferences from respondents. The
highest preference conducting textbooks received for expressive gestures was
third preference from two respondents.
302
B8
Teaching Music Through Performance Series

Green The Modern Conductor
Labuta Basic Conducting Techniques
Lisk Alternative Rehearsal Techniques
Curtis/Kuehn Guide to Successful Instrumental Conducting
Jordan Evoking Sound
Nowak/Nowak Conducting the Music, Not the Musicians
Maiello Conducting, A Hands-On Approach
Green The Conductor and His Score
Saito The Saito Conducting Method
Rudolf The Grammar of Conducting
Hunsberger/Ernst The Art of Conducting
Berlioz The Art of the Conductor
Battisti/Garofalo Guide to Score Study
ABODA Conducting Course Notes
McBeth Effective Performance of Band Music
None Indicated
1
10
1
4
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
22
2%
24%
2%
10%
2%
2%
5%
5%
2%
2%
2%
2%
2%
5%
5%
2%
52%
Twenty-two respondents indicated that they used no conducting textbooks. Of

those remaining, fifteen used one book only (36%), three used two books (7%),
and two (5%) used four or more books (one respondent used six conducting
textbooks). The most common conducting textbook used was The Modern
Conductor by Elizabeth Green, used by ten respondents (24%). No other
textbooks came close to this result. The second most popular textbook mentioned
(Alternative Rehearsal Techniques by Ed Lisk, used by 10% of respondents) is
not a true conducting textbook, only covering rehearsal techniques.
303
B9
Participation in Sporting Activities Since First Conducting Experience
Sport
No Response
None
Aerobics
Archery
Athletics
Baseball/Softball
Basketball/Netball
Bowling (Lawn/Ten Pin)
Cricket
Cycling
Diving
Fencing
Football (All codes)
Golf
Gymnastics
Hockey
Martial Arts
Racquet Sports
Shooting
Skating (Ice, Roller)
Skiing
Swimming
Volleyball
Walking
Weights
No. of Participants
1
4
5
0
5
1
6
2
9
6
0
0
7
9
1
2
1
11
1
2
1
17
1
1
2
Percentage
2%
10%
12%
12%
2%
14%
5%
21%
14%
17%
21%
2%
5%
2%
26%
2%
5%
2%
40%
2%
2%
5%
+/- from A7
+1
-2
+2
0
-6
-5
0
0
0
+5
0
0
-2
+1
0
+1
-1
-4
0
+1
0
+7
0
+1
+1
Overall results indicate that respondents had indulged in slightly more sporting
activity since their first conducting experience. Fewer respondents indicated no
sports, compared to A7 (four respondents, compared to six). Sports that saw the
largest increase in participation from the first conducting experience were
swimming (seven more), cycling (five more), and aerobics (two more). Sports
that saw the largest decrease in participation from the first conducting experience
were athletics (six less), baseball/softball (five less), racquet sports (four less),
and football (two less). 74% of respondents participated in between one and three
different sports (64% in A7). Only 10% participated in more than three different
sports (although two respondents had participated in six different sports).
304
B10
Impact of Sporting Activities on Conducting Improvement
No Impact
Improved Timing
Improved Self Awareness
Physical Preparation
Improved Fitness
Development of Natural Arm Motions
Develop Sporting Analogies
30
1
1
1
6
3
2
2
71%
2%
2%
2%
14%
7%
5%
5%
Most respondents failed to acknowledge any link between their participation in

sporting activities and their conducting.
B11
Since the First Conducting Experience

Movement Activity
No Participation
Acting
Alexander Technique
Calisthenics
Dalcroze
Dance
Feldenkrais
Pilates
Tai Chi
Yoga
Marching
No. of Participants
27
3
6
0
2
3
0
3
2
2
1
Percentage
64%
7%
14%
5%
7%
7%
5%
5%
2%
+/- from A9
+1
-5
+4
-1
-3
-4
0
+3
0
+1
+1
There was very little change in the number of respondents who had not
participated in any movement training or activities since their first conducting
experience, compared with prior to their first conducting experience. The most
popular movement activities since the first conducting experience were now
Alexander Technique (four more respondents than A9) and Pilates (three more
respondents than A9). The greatest drop in popularity from before the first
conducting experience to after the first conducting experience occurred in Acting
(five less), Dance (four less), and Dalcroze (three less). Of those who
participated, 80% took part in one type of activity only. One respondent took part
in five activities since their first conducting experience.
305
B12
Impact of Movement Activities on Conducting Improvement
No Impact
Relaxes Body & Mind
Improved Fitness
Focus on Specific Parts of Body
Improved Well-Being
Enhanced Control of Movements
Enhanced Freedom of Hands/Arms
Natural Flow of Energy
Understanding of Human Movement
Dalcroze and Alexander
29
3
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
69%
7%
2%
5%
2%
2%
2%
2%
2%
2%
7%
On the surface it would appear that the majority of respondents failed to

acknowledge any link between their participation in movement activities and
their conducting. However, the majority of those who indicated No Impact had
not participated in any movement activities (86%). Of those who had participated
in movement activities, over 73% found some benefit toward their conducting.
B13
Ability to Start & Stop

Aural Skills
Charisma
Clear Beat Patterns
Coordination
Desire to Learn
Empathy with People
Ensemble Skills
Feel for Music
Harmonic Knowledge
Instrumental Skills
Leadership
Musicianship
Passion for Music
Patience
Physical Endurance
Rhythm
Secure Pulse
Stylistic Knowledge
3
10
1
2
15
2
5
2
2
6
3
3
5
2
1
4
1
1
6
12
2
4
8
7%
24%
2%
5%
36%
5%
12%
5%
5%
14%
7%
7%
12%
5%
2%
10%
2%
2%
14%
29%
5%
10%
19%
Twenty-three unprompted responses were received in answer to the question

What skills should a beginner conductor already possess? The most popular
responses to this question were clear beat patterns (36%), score reading ability
(29%), aural skills (24%) and verbal communication skills (19%).
306
B14
Skill
Aural Skills
Beat Patterns
Charisma
Dynamic Control
Ensemble Balance
Ensemble Empathy
Expressive Gestures
Sense of Pitch
Timing
No. of Responses
7
10
1
2
1
1
4
13
1
2
2
5
8
10
10
3
3
1
Percentage
17%
24%
2%
5%
2%
2%
10%
31%
2%
5%
5%
12%
19%
24%
24%
7%
7%
2%
+/- from B13

-3
-5
-1
+2
+1
+1
+2
+13
+1
-3
+2
+4
+8
+10
-2
+3
+3
-3
The most popular unprompted responses to this question were expressive

gestures (31%), and beat patterns, rehearsal techniques, and score reading skills
(each 24%). Some skills were listed by some respondents as skills desirable for a
beginner conductor to already possess and by others as skills to immediately seek
to develop. More respondents felt that left hand independence should be
developed by the beginner conductor than already possessed (four more), and
likewise for ensemble empathy (two more). Fewer respondents felt that beat
patterns should be developed by the beginner conductor than already possessed
(five less); likewise for aural skills (three less), knowledge of instruments (three
less), understanding of style (three less), score reading skills (two less) and
charisma (one less). New skills to be developed by the beginner conductor were
expressive gestures (31%), rehearsal techniques (24%), non-verbal
communication skills (19%), sense of pitch, timing (both 7%), control of
movements, knowledge of repertoire (both 5%), dynamic control, ensemble
balance, and good posture (each 2%).
307
B15
Baton Control
Clarity
Communication
Encouraging Attitude
Ensemble Empathy
Expressive Movements
Inspirational
Interpretation
Joy in Music Making
Keeping Time
Knowledge of Score
Listening Skills
Manual Independence
Musicianship
No Excessive Gestures
Phrasing
Physical Embodiment of Music
Range of Gestures
Sense of Humour
Suspend Time Keeping
3
3
14
1
3
6
4
2
3
2
2
2
2
7
6
1
3
2
1
3
2
7%
7%
33%
2%
7%
14%
10%
5%
7%
5%
5%
5%
5%
17%
14%
2%
7%
5%
2%
7%
5%

movements and no excessive gestures (each 14%).
308
B16
Ability to Communicate
Balance between Functional & Artistic
Clarity
Decisive
Efficient Technique
Expressive
Humour
Interpretation
Leadership
Listening Skills
Motivator
Musicianship
Patience
Preparation
Rhythm
Score Study
Strength of Personality
Teaching Ability
Timing
Understands Musicians
12
2
9
1
2
1
4
5
2
3
2
2
5
1
2
6
8
1
1
1
3
2
2
12
29%
5%
21%
2%
5%
2%
10%
12%
5%
7%
5%
5%
12%
2%
5%
14%
19%
2%
2%
2%
7%
5%
5%
29%

The next most important attributes were clarity (21%) and rehearsal techniques
(19%).

Thesis Conducting

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Thesis Conducting

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

HOW THEORIES OF EXPRESSIVE MOVEMENT AND NON-VERBAL

COMMUNICATION CAN ENHANCE EXPRESSIVE CONDUCTING AT

SUBMITTED ON 16 JUNE 2008

Conducting Textbooks Used by Experienced Melbourne Secondary

Table 3 Rank Order of Importance of Methods to Assist the Development of

Four Planes of Conducting ...............................................................24

Baton Use and Grip (Garofalo and Battisti 2005:4)...........................25

Dynamic Cone, Showing Possible Alterations in Size of Beat and

Diagram of the Left Hand Rest Position ...........................................30

Altering Size of the Conducting to Teach Dynamics.........................33

Conductors Basic Arm Position.......................................................36

Rudolfs Neutral-Legato 4-Beat Patterns (Rudolf 1995:3) ................42

Rudolfs Expressive-Legato 4-Beat Patterns (Rudolf 1995:22) .........42

Farbermans Pitch Registration Levels (Farberman 1997a:81) ..........46

Farbermans Pattern Cube (Farberman 1997a:101)...........................47

The Central and Peripheral Nervous System (Krschlov 2000:8) ....71

Two Nerve Cells (Krschlov 2000:10)............................................72

Labans Concept of the Dynamosphere with Effort Actions (see

Delsartes Ninefold Accord (Shawn 1974:30)...................................94

Example of an Including Left Hand Pre-Conducting Behaviour .....95

Dalcrozes Beat Pattern for 3/4 Time (Jaques-Dalcroze 1920:31) ...105

Dalcrozes Beat Pattern for 4/4 Time (Jaques-Dalcroze 1920:43) ...105

Delsartes Chart for the Head (see Shawn 1974:37) ........................106

Low, Purposeful Centred Gesture ...................................................115

Opening bars of Egmont Overture (Beethoven 1985:239)...............115

Quick Frivolous Gestures ...............................................................116

Opening bars of the third movement of Symphony No.4 (Tchaikovsky

Interpretations of the Ring Gesture Throughout Europe (Morris et al.

Non-Verbal Communication Sheet (mouth & eyebrows) ................156

Conductor Non-Verbal Observation Form (Roshong 1978:87) .......161

Responses to the questions on the expressive movement activities, however,

Are the movement theories of Laban, Dalcroze, Delsarte, Alexander, and

Feldenkrais relevant to the enhancement of expressive conducting?

Can the use of non-verbal communication skills and concepts enhance

Does the mind-body connection, motor skill development, and

proprioception play a part in the development of bodily-kinaesthetic learning?

These terms will be explained further in Chapter Five.

The full survey can be found in Appendix A.

Conducting Textbooks Used by University Conducting Teachers

Seventeen respondents (19%) indicated that they used no conducting textbooks.

Conducting Textbooks Used by Experienced Melbourne

Twenty-two respondents indicated that they used no conducting textbooks. Of

Practice away from Ensemble

Number of 1st Pref

Rank Order of Importance of Methods to Assist the Development

Number of 1st Pref.

Rank Order of Importance of Methods to Assist the Development

Number of 1st Pref.

Rank Order of Importance of Methods to Assist the Development

Jordan therefore uses the Alexander Technique as a way to increase body

Jordans correct insistence on the importance of breathing for conductors is

Four Planes of Conducting

Baton Use and Grip (Garofalo and Battisti 2005:4)

Dynamic expression, which was initially introduced in the opening exercises, is

Forward and backward

Unlike books on conducting by Hunsberger and Ernst, Phillips, and Labuta,

These range of motion exercises are extremely worthwhile for conductors to

Diagram of the Left Hand Rest Position

Throughout the textbook, the method of describing the delivery of the

Structure of the Upper Arm, Showing the Alignment of the

The use of conducting frames to teach different dynamics is well introduced,

Altering Size of the Conducting to Teach Dynamics

A far more effective kinaesthetic teaching approach to left hand instruction is