I.

Global Navigation Satellite System

The Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) is a satellite system used to identify the
geographic location of a users receiver anywhere around the globe. It has been first extensively
used for military applications due the better accuracy that it produces for precise positioning and
navigation as compared to the previous system that they use (e.g. TRANSIT). Over the years,
GPS has also been used by civilian users, including surveyors, for the same purpose. It is
efficient and can produce reliable results with relatively high accuracies.
Three segments are considered in the said satellite positioning system: the space segment,
the control segment, and the user segment. The space segment comprises of the network of
orbiting satellites; the control segment, on the other hand, is responsible for the ground facilities
that track and monitor the satellites and their performance. Lastly, the user segment consists of
the receiver equipment which receives the signals from the satellites and uses the information to
calculate the users three-dimensional position and time.
The satellite system makes use of three different kinds of receivers. The navigation or
mapping grade receivers are handheld units available from commercial retailers and are designed
for recreation purposes. Additionally, the single frequency receivers are capable of receiving
information from a greater number of satellites, in several frequencies, and different satellite
systems. Moreover, dual frequency receivers are the survey grade antennas that that record the
full-wavelength carrier phase and signal strength of the L1 and L2 frequencies and they track at
least eight satellites simultaneously on parallel channels. These dual-frequency receivers limit
the effects of ionospheric delay and, increase the reliability of processed results over long
baselines.
Satellite errors, atmospheric effects, and receiver errors are the sources of errors
considered in satellite positioning systems. Satellite based error is the difference between the
actual and predicted position of a satellite. Clock errors are also a contributing factor to the
parameters of the satellites. For the atmospheric effects, there are the ionospheric and
tropospheric delays. The ionospheric delay is the largest source of error in GPS, which can vary
from 1m to 100m depending on the time of day, season, receiver location, viewing direction,
solar activity and state of the Earths magnetic field. There are also phase center offset and
variation for receiver errors, which is the non-coincidence between an antenna's geometric center
and its phase center and the multipath error which occurs when a satellite signal arrives at a
receiver via more than one path.
Satellite-based augmentation systems are the regional contributions to improve the
performance of GNSS systems. The performance of a satellite navigation system is assessed
according to accuracy, integrity, continuity, and availability. Accuracy refers to the difference
between the measured and the real position, speed or time of the receiver. Integrity refers to a
systems capacity to provide confidence thresholds as well as alarms in the event that anomalies

occur in the positioning data. Continuity refers to a navigation systems ability to function
without interruption. Availability refers to the percentage of time during which the signal fulfils
the accuracy, integrity and continuity criteria.
II.

GPS Surveying

Originally developed for defense and military use, the GPS is now widely used and is
considered part of everyday life. With its convenience and wide offer of benefits, the said
positioning system was rapidly adapted for surveying, as it can give geographic locations easily.
It is most commonly used in surveying coasts and waterways, making nautical charts, and
building bridges and offshore oil rigs. It is also said to be efficient and can produce reliable
results.

Figure 1. The GPS Network Process (Photo obtained from Trimble)

A GPS Survey makes use of a GPS baseline, which uses two GPS receivers located at the end of
each line to be measured. Both receivers collect data from the satellites at the same time, with the
observation duration being highly dependent on the accuracy needed and the distance between
the established stations. Survey data may then be post-processed and analyzed using various
surveying softwares, and uncertainties are minimized using survey adjustments and calculations
such as the Least Squares Adjustment Method.
The main method used in processing GPS data is the least squares adjustment. It is used at two
different stages in processing. First, in adjustment that yields baseline components between
stations from the redundant carrier-phase observations. This procedure employs different
techniques to eliminate errors present in the system and to fix the uncertainties in the cycle. In
this stage, the solution includes observation equation with the difference in coordinates between
stations as parameters. The reference coordinate system for this adjustment is the Xe, Ye, Ze
geocentric system.
Software provided by the manufacturers in the GNSS receivers prepares the observed phase
changes to form the differencing observation equations. Then, Least squares adjustment is
performed and will adjust the baseline vector components.

What is GNSS? Retrieved from http://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/definition/GNSS on 17

May 2015.
USGS
Global
Positioning
Application
http://water.usgs.gov/osw/gps/ on 17 May 2015.

and

Practice.

Retrieved

from

GPS Receivers. Retrieved from http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/gpsrec.html#c2 on 17

May 2015.
Surveying and Mapping. Retrieved from http://www.gps.gov/applications/survey/ on 17 May
2015.
Surveying for Mapping - Surveying Using GPS and Conclusion. Retrieved from
http://www.icsm.gov.au/mapping/surveying4.html on 17 May 2015.
The
GPS
Network.
Photo
retrieved
from
http://mapsupport.seilerinst.com/wpcontent/uploads/sites/4/2012/05/vrs-by-trimble.jpg on 17 May 2015.
Ghilani, C. D. and Wolf, P. R.: Adjustment Computations: Spatial Data Analysis, Fourth Edition,
Adjustment of GPS Networks, 17, 310-327, 2006.