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Introduction To
Telecommunication
Evolution of the Mobile
Market
Introduction
The first radiotelephone service was introduced in the US at the end of the
1940s, and was meant to connect mobile users in cars to the public fixed
network. In the 1960s, a new system launched by Bell Systems, called
Improved Mobile Telephone Service (IMTS), brought many improvements
like direct dialing and higher bandwidth. The first analog cellular systems
were based on IMTS and developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s. The
systems were cellular because coverage areas were split into smaller areas
or cells, each of which is served by a low power transmitter and receiver.

What is 1G?
First generation refers to the analog brick phones and bag phones as
they were first introduced for mobile cellular technology. Cell phones began
with 1G and signify first generation wireless analog technology standards
that originated in the 1980s. 1G was replaced by 2G wireless digital
standards.

What is 2G?
2G signifies second generation wireless digital technology. Fully digital 2G
networks have replaced analog 1G, which originated in the 1980s. 2G
networks first commercially began on the Global System for Mobil
Communications, or GSM, standard. 2G on GSM standards was first used in
commercial practice in 1991 by Radiolinja, a Finnish GSM operator that was
founded on September 19, 1988. Radiolinja is now part of Elisa, which was
known in the 1990s as the Helsinki Telephone Company. In addition to the
GSM protocol, 2G also utilizes various other digital protocols, including
CDMA, TDMA, iDEN and PDC. GSM is based on TDMA.

What is 3G?
3G is the third generation of mobile phone standards and technology. 3G
supersedes 2G technology and precedes 4G technology. Current 3G systems

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have been established through ITUs project on International Mobile

Telecommunications 2000 (IMT-2000).
3G technologies have enabled faster data transmission speeds, greater
network capacity and more advanced network services. In May 2001, NTT
DoCoMo (Japan) launched the first pre-commercial 3G network branded as
FOMA. Following the first pre-commercial launch, NTT DoCoMo again made
history on October 1, 2001, with the first commercial launch of 3G in Japan.
UMTS-HSPA is the worlds leading 3G technology. By 2015, UMTS-HSPA and
LTE 3G technologies are expected to account for 3.9 billion global
subscriptions, compared to 569 million CDMA EV-DO subscriptions and 59
million WiMAX subscriptions.

What is 4G?
4G is the term used to refer to the fourth generation of mobile wireless
services that has been defined by the ITU and its Radiocommunication
Sector (ITU-R) and established as an agreed upon and globally accepted
definition in IMT-Advanced.
The ITU has developed requirements for a technology to be considered IMTAdvanced, which is the next-generation wireless technology. An IMTAdvanced cellular system must fulfill the following requirements.
Based on an all-IP packet switched network
Peak data rates of up to approximately 100 Mbit/s for high mobility
such as mobile access and up to approximately 1 Gbps for low mobility
such as nomadic/local wireless access, according to the ITU
requirements
Dynamically share and use the network resources to support more
simultaneous users per cell
Scalable channel bandwidth 520 MHz, optionally up to 40 MHz
Peak link spectral efficiency of 15 bit/s/Hz in the downlink, and 6.75
bit/s/Hz in the uplink (meaning that 1 Gbps in the downlink should be
possible over less than 67 MHz bandwidth)
System spectral efficiency of up to 3 bit/s/Hz/cell in the downlink and
2.25 bit/s/Hz/cell for indoor usage
Smooth handovers across heterogeneous networks

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Ability to offer high quality of service for next generation multimedia

support

What is 3G?
3G is the next generation of wireless network technology that provides high
speedbandwidth (high data transfer rates) to handheld devices. The high
data transfer rateswill allow 3G networks to offer multimedia services
combining voice and data. Specifically, 3G wireless networks support the
following maximum data transfer rates:
2.05 Mbits/second to stationary devices.
384 Kbits/second for slowly moving devices, such as a handset carried
by awalking user.
128 Kbits/second for fast moving devices, such as handsets in moving
vehicles.
These data rates are the absolute maximum numbers. For example, in
thestationary case, the 2.05 Mb/second rate is for one user hogging the
entire capacity of the base station. This data rate will be far lower if there is

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voice traffic (the actual datarate would depend upon the number of calls in
progress).The maximum data rate of 128Kbits/second for moving devices is
about ten times faster than that available with the current 2G wireless
networks. Unlike 3G networks, 2G networks were designed to carry voice but
not data. 3G wireless networks have the bandwidth to provide converged
voice and data services. 3G services will seamlessly combine superior voice
quality telephony, highspeed mobile IP services, information technology, rich
media, and offer diverse content.
Some characteristics of 3G services that have been proposed are:
Always-on connectivity. 3G networks use IP connectivity, which is
packetbased.
Multi-media services with streaming audio and video.
Email with full-fledged attachments such as PowerPoint files.
Instant messaging with video/audio clips.
Fast downloads of large files such as faxes and PowerPoint files.
Access to corporate applications.

3G Data Rates
The ITU-developed data rate requirements were defined according to the
degree of mobility involved when a 3G call is made. As such, the data rate
available over 3G will depend on the environment the call is being made in:

High Mobility
144 kbps for rural outdoor mobile use. This data rate is available for
environments in which the 3G user is traveling more than 120 kilometers
per hour (km/h) in outdoor environments such as in a train or car
(vehicular traffic).

FullMobility
384 kbps for pedestrian users traveling less than 120 km/h in urban
outdoor environments.

LimitedMobility
At least 2 Mbps with low mobility (less than 10 km/h) in stationary indoor
and short-range outdoor environments. These maximum data rates

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illustrated the potential for 3G technology and are available only in

stationary indoor environments.

Is there a 3G Standard?
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) is responsible for
standardizing 3G. After trying to establish a single 3G standard, ITU finally
approved a family of five 3G standards, which are part of the 3G framework
known as IMT-2000:
o Three standards based on CDMA, namely CDMA2000, WCDMA, and
TDSCDMA.
o Two standards based on based on TDMA, namely, FDMA/TDMA and TDMASC (EDGE).
The CDMA standards are the leading 3G standards.
Europe, Japan, and Asia have agreed upon a 3G standard called the Universal
Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS), which is WCDMA operating at
2.1GHz. Note that UMTS and WCDMA are often used as synonyms. In the USA
and other parts of Americas, WCDMA will have to use another part of the
radio spectrum. Incidentally,
most of the worlds wireless operators have chosen to use UMTS.

What are the Advantages of 3G?

3G networks offer users advantages such as:

New radio spectrum to relieve overcrowding in existing systems.
More bandwidth, security, and reliability.
Interoperability between service providers.

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Fixed and variable data rates.

Asymmetric data rates.
Backward compatibility of devices with existing networks.
Always-online devices. 3G will use IP connectivity, IP is packet based
(notcircuit based).
Rich multimedia services.

What are Some Disadvantages of

3G?

There are some issues in deploying 3G:

The cost of upgrading base stations and cellular infrastructure to 3G is
very high.
Requires different handsets and there is the issue of handset
availability. 3G handsets will be a complex product. Roaming and
making both data/voice work has not yet been demonstrated. Also the
higher power requirements (more bits with the same energy/bit)
demand a larger handset, shorter talk time, and larger batteries)
Base stations need to be closer to each other (more cost).
Tremendous spectrum-license costs, network deployment costs,
handset subsidies to subscribers, etc.
Wireless service providers in Germany and Britain who won spectrum
licenses in auctions, paid astronomical prices for them. As a result,
they have little

What Applications will 3G enable?

3G represents a paradigm shift from the voice centric world of the previous
generations of wireless networks to the multi-media centric world of 3G.
Reflecting the high 3G bandwidth and the fact that it is packet based, 3G
devices will offer capabilities that are a combination of a phone, PC, and a
TV. Examples of services that will be 3G networks can offer are:
Always-on connection with users paying only when sending or receiving
packets.
Web surfing.
Instant messaging and email with multimedia attachments.
Location based services.
Personalized services, where content can be pushed to users.
Broadband multimedia data services like video conferencing and
streaming video.
Receiving faxes.

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Global roaming capability.

Getting maps and directions with a multi-modal user interface.
Customized entertainment.
Simultaneous access to multiple services, each service offering some
combination of voice, video, data, etc.

HOW DOES 3G WORK?

3G-enabled devices including phones and laptops work by sending and
receiving radio signals to and from base stations (sometimes known as
masts). Base stations link individual phones into the rest of the mobile and
landline networks.
Base stations are low power radio transmitters and need to be located in the
areas they are intended to serve. They provide coverage to a geographical
area known as a cell. These cells need to overlap to enable seamless
coverage and to ensure a user does not lose connection to the network when
on the move. Radio waves used in mobile telecommunications form part of
the electromagnetic spectrum. Radio waves used to deliver 3G services are
transmitted at a slightly higher frequency than for 2G and travel a shorter
distance. As a result the coverage area or cell size for a 3G base station is
smaller than for a 2G site. Furthermore, as user demand increases in a
particular cell, the size of that cell shrinks making overlap even more
essential.
3G chops each call or transmission into little packets of data, marking each
one with an individual code to show which connection it belongs to. This is a
much more efficient way of transmitting data, allowing 3G networks to
deliver larger files like pictures and even video at much faster speeds.

WHAT ARE THE FEATURES OF 3G?

Enhanced multimedia (voice, data, video, and remote control) Usability on all
popular modes (cellular telephone, e-mail, paging, fax, videoconferencing,
and Web browsing Broad bandwidth and high speed (upwards of 2 Mbps)
Routing flexibility (repeater, satellite, LAN) Operation at approximately 2 GHz
transmit and receive frequencies Global roaming capabilities.
Some other features of 3G are given below:
Bluetooth wireless connectivity
ability to browse web
ability to play and store multimedia files

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onboard digital cameras and video recorders

multimedia messaging
ability to play music files, such as MP3s

Mobile Interview
3G technology will enable organizations and qualified candidates to have a
telephonic interview in a modern way through video conferencing. Traditional
telephonic interview and personal interviews may be replaced by 3G voice
and
video conferencing. This will reduce the cost and save the time of both the
organizations and the candidates.
Conferences
3G technology provides for video conferencing which can help the Human
Resource Department interact with their seniors at the time of urgency
without wasting other resources. This can be very much helpful when the
concerned person is out of state or country.
File Transfer
With the advent of video and audio multimedia and a faster rate of
downloading e mail attachments, employees in an organization can request
any urgent file or report they need to present to the clients. This will again
reduce the burden on organization's resources and increase employee
effectiveness.

E-learning & M-learning

3G technology provides for internet browsing that will help the employees to
surf and learn using their 3G cell phones while traveling (m-learning) or from
home. The organizations can schedule training modules for the employees of
other branches through video conferences.

WHAT IS 3G SPECTRUM?
Spectrum refers to a range of radio frequencies. The bandwidth of a radio
signal is the difference between the upper and lower frequencies of the
signal. For example, in the case of a voice signal having a minimum
frequency of 200 hertz (Hz) and a maximum frequency of 3,000 Hz, the
bandwidth is 2,800 Hz (3 KHz). The amount of bandwidth needed for 3G
services could be as much as 15-20 Mhz, whereas for 2G services a
bandwidth of 30-200 KHz is used. Hence, for 3G huge bandwidth is required.

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DO ALL MOBILE PHONES SUPPORT

3G?
No. All of mobiles do not support 3G Some mobile phones which support 3G
are:
Apple IPhone 3G
Nokia E71
Samsung i900 Omnia
Nokia N96
Blackberry Bold 9000
Palm Treo 750
Nokia N85
Motorola Q9h
Nokia N73
Nokia N70

IS 3G AVAILABLE IN BOTH PRE- PAID AND

POST PAID PLANS?

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Yes, 3G is available in both pre paid and post paid plans.

WHAT ARE THE TARIFFS FOR 3G?

Tariffs vary from plan to plan. Data charges are calculated on basis of
transfer of data in mega bytes.

THE VARIOUS TYPES OF 3G

There is currently no single global 3G standard, but the principal

technologies of 3G include:

WCDMA which has been chosen for 3G mobile phone systems in

Europe, Asia and the US. It first converts raw data into a narrowband
digital radio signal and then attaches a marker or spreading code to each
data packet to identify it as belonging to a particular communication.

CDMA

EDGE

was first introduced in 1995, and works in similar fashion. Many

of the leading operators are currently creating CDMA networks. CDMA
phones have longer standby times than current models, and in-built
reverse compatibility means that over 100 million customers worldwide
who already use CDMA can easily upgrade to newer models. CDMA2000
1xEVDO provides always-on packet data connection, like landlinebased
broadband, for more convenient mobile internet use.
is the technology that allows existing GSM networks to provide
3G services and allows GSM to transmit data at transmission speeds of up
to 384K.

Data Throughput

Peak Upload Rate

Switching
Technique

Up to 3.1Mbps with an average

speed range between 0.5 to 1.5
Mbps
5 Mbps
packet switching

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Network
Architecture

Wide Area Cell Based

Services And
Applications

CDMA 2000, UMTS, EDGE etc

Forward error
correction (FEC)

3G uses Turbo codes for error

correction.

Peak Download
Rate

100 Mbps

Frequency Band

1.8 2.5 GHz

Long Term Evolution

Definition: LTE (Long Term Evolution) is a wireless broadband technology
designed to support roaming Internet access via cell phones and handheld
devices. Because LTE offers significant improvements over older cellular
communication standards, some refer to it as a 4G (fourth generation)
technology along with WiMax.
With its architecture based on Internet Protocol (IP) unlike many other
cellular Internet protocols, Long Term Evolution supports browsing Web sites,
VoIP and other IP-based services well. LTE can theoretically support
downloads at 300 Megabits per second (Mbps) or more based on
experimental trials. However, the actual network bandwidth available to an
individual LTE subscriber sharing the service provider's network with other
customers is significantly less.
LTE is the global standard for the fourth generation of mobile broadband
(4G), supported by all major players in the industry. It is the fastest
developing system in the history of mobile communication.
Long Term Evolution (LTE) is a 4G wireless broadband technology developed
by the Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), an industry trade group.
Long Term Evolution (LTE) is a radio platform technology that will allow
operators to achieve even higher peak throughputs than HSPA+ in higher
spectrum bandwidth. Work on LTE began at 3GPP in 2004, with an official LTE
work item started in 2006 and a completed 3GPP Release 8 specification in
March 2009. Initial deployments of LTE began in late 2009.

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3GPP engineers named the technology "Long Term Evolution" because it

represents the next step (4G) in a progression from GSM, a 2G standard, to
UMTS, the 3G technologies based upon GSM. LTE provides significantly
increased peak data rates, with the potential for 100 Mbps downstream and
30 Mbps upstream, reduced latency, scalable bandwidth capacity, and
backwards compatibility with existing GSM and UMTS technology. Future
developments to could yield peak throughput on the order of 300 Mbps.
The upper layers of LTE are based upon TCP/IP, which will likely result in an
all-IP network similar to the current state of wired communications. LTE will
support mixed data, voice, video and messaging traffic. LTE uses OFDM
(Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) and, in later releases, MIMO
(Multiple Input Multiple Output) antenna technology similar to that used in
the IEEE 802.11n wireless local area network (WLAN) standard. The higher
signal to noise ratio (SNR) at the receiver enabled by MIMO, along with
OFDM, provides improved coverage and throughput, especially in dense
urban areas.
LTE is scheduled to be launched commercially in 2010 by Verizon Wireless
and AT&T Wireless. T-Mobile and Alltel have also announced plans to roll out
4G capabilities based on LTE. These networks will compete with Clearwire's

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WiMAX for both enterprise and consumer broadband wireless customers.

Outside of the US telecommunications market, GSM is the dominant mobile
standard, with more than 80% of the world's cellular phone users. As a
result, HSDPA and then LTE are the likely wireless broadband technologies of
choice for most users. Nortel and other infrastructure vendors are focusing
significant research and development efforts on the creation of LTE base
stations to meet the expected demand. When implemented, LTE has the
potential to bring pervasive computing to a global audience, with a wire-like
experience for mobile users everywhere.

LTE capabilities include:

Downlink peak data rates up to 326 Mbps with 20 MHz bandwidth

Uplink peak data rates up to 86.4 Mbps with 20 MHz bandwidth

Operation in both TDD and FDD modes

Scalable bandwidth up to 20 MHz, covering 1.4 MHz, 3 MHz, 5 MHz, 10

MHz, 15 MHz, and 20 MHz in the study phase

Increased spectral efficiency over Release 6 HSPA by two to four times

Reduced latency, up to 10 milliseconds (ms) round-trip times between

user equipment and the base station, and to less than 100 ms
transition times from inactive to active

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LTE-Advanced (Long Term

Evolution-Advanced)
Long Term Evolution-Advanced (LTE-Advanced) is a cellular networking
standard that offers higher throughput than its predecessor, the Long Term
Evolution (LTE) standard.
Long Term Evolution-Advanced networks can deliver up to 1 GB per second
of data, compared to a maximum of 300 MB per second over LTE networks.
Increasing demand for cellular bandwidth, however, means that carriers may
use LTE-Advanced to increase their capacity, not necessarily to deliver
significantly higher speeds. LTE-Advanced networks use multiple-input,
multiple-output (MIMO) technology to deliver data faster via more than one
signal. MIMO requires multiple antennas to receive those signals, which can
limit its use in compact mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets
Work on developing the LTE-Advanced standard began after the launch of the
first LTE technologies, which did not meet the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) requirements for 4G. (The ITU subsequently
lowered the bar for what qualifies as a 4G network.) The 3rd Generation
Partnership Project finalized the LTE-Advanced standard in 2011, and it
gained ITU approval in January 2012.

The technology components of LTEAdvanced are:

Carrier aggregation

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MIMO extension (up to DL: 8x8; up to UL: 4x4)

Uplink access enhancements (clustered SC-FDMA and simultaneous data
and control information (PUSCH and PUCCH) transmission
Improving cell edge performance (enhanced inter-cell interference
coordination (eICIC), relaying)

Frequency & Bandwidth

LTE operates in some of the existing cellular bands as well as newer bands.
Specific bands have been designated for LTE (see the table). Different
carriers use different bands depending upon the country of operation and the
nature of their spectrum holdings. Most LTE phones use two of these bands,
and they arent the same from carrier to carrier. For instance, Verizons
iPhone 5 uses different bands than AT&Ts iPhone 5. Most of the bands are
set up for frequency division duplexing (FDD), which uses two separate
bands for uplink and downlink. The spacing between FDD channels in bands
1 through 28 varies considerably depending on carrier spectrum holdings.
Bands 33 through 44 are used for time division duplexing (TDD), so the same
frequencies are used for both uplink and downlink. LTE is a broadband
wireless technology that uses wide channels to achieve high data rates and
accommodate lots of users. The standard is set up to permit bandwidths of
1.4, 3, 5, 10, 15, and 20 MHz. The carrier selects the bandwidth depending
on spectrum holdings as well as the type of service to be offered. The 5- and
10-MHz widths are the most common. Some bandwidths cannot be used in
different bands.

Modulation
LTE uses the popular orthogonal frequency division multiplex (OFDM)
modulation scheme. It provides the essential spectral efficiency to achieve
high data rates but also permits multiple users to share a common channel.
OFDM divides a given channel into many narrower subcarriers. The spacing
is such that the subcarriers are orthogonal, so they wont interfere with one
another despite the lack of guard bands between them. This comes about by
having the subcarrier spacing equal to the reciprocal of symbol time. All
subcarriers have a complete number of sine wave cycles that upon

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demodulation will sum to zero. In LTE, the channel spacing is 15 kHz. The
symbol period therefore is 1/15 kHz = 66.7 s. The high-speed serial data to
be transmitted is divided up into multiple slower streams, and each is used
to modulate one of the subcarriers. For example, in a 5-MHz channel, up to
333 subcarriers could be used but the actual number is more like 300. A 20MHz channel might use 1024 carriers. The modulation on each can be
quadrature phase-shift keying (QPSK), 16-phase quadrature amplitude
modulation (16QAM), or 64-state quadrature amplitude modulation (64QAM)
depending on the speed needs. OFDM uses frequency and time to spread
the data, providing high speeds and greater signal reliability (Fig. 1). For
each subcarrier, the data is sent in sequential symbols where each symbol
represents multiple bits (e.g., QPSK 2 bits, 16QAM 4 bits, and 64QAM 6 bits.)
The basic data rate through a 15-kHz subcarrier channel is 15 kbits/s. With
higher-level modulation, higher data rates are possible

LTE transmits data by dividing it into slower parallel paths that modulate
multiple subcarriers in the assigned channel. The data is transmitted in
segments of one symbol per segment over each subcarrier.
Data to be
transmitted is allocated to one or more resource blocks (RBs). An RB is a
segment of the OFDM spectrum that is 12 subcarriers wide for a total of 180
kHz. There are seven time segments per subcarrier for a duration of 0.5 ms.
Data is then transmitted in packets or frames, and a standard frame contains
20 time slots of 0.5 ms each. An RB is the minimum basic building block of a

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transmission, and most transmissions require many RBs.

The only
practical way to implement OFDM, though, is to do it in software. The fast
Fourier transform (FFT) handles the basic process. The transmitter uses the
inverse FFT, while the receiver uses the FFT. The algorithms are implemented
in a digital signal processor (DSP), an FPGA, or an ASIC designed for the
process. The usual techniques of scrambling and adding error-correcting
codes are implemented as well.
OFDM was chosen for LTE primarily due to its reduced sensitivity to multipath
effects. At the higher microwave frequencies, transmitted signals can take
multiple paths to the receiver. The direct path is the best and preferred but
multiple objects may reflect signals, creating new signals that reach the
receiver somewhat later. Depending on the number of reflected signals, their
strengths, their ranges, and other factors, the signals at the receiver may
add in a destructive way, creating fading or signal dropout.
The multipath effects occur when the signals reach
the receiver all within the time for one symbol period. A symbol is a
modulation state that is either an amplitude, a phase, or an amplitude-phase
combination representing two or more bits. When the multipath effects lead
the signals to arrive at the receiver spread over several symbol periods,
inter-symbol interference (ISI) occurs, producing bit errors. These issues can
be overcome with error detecting and correcting codes, but these codes add
to the complexity of the system. An equalizer at the receiver that collects all
the received signals and delays them so they all add can also correct for this
problem but only further complicates the process. Spreading the signals in
the form of multiple subcarriers over a wide bandwidth reduces these effects,
especially if the symbol rate on each subcarrier is longer as it is in OFDM. If
the multipath effects occur in less than one symbol period, no equalizer is
needed. Time or frequency shifts such as those produced by the Doppler
effect in a moving vehicle cause frequency variation of the subcarriers at the
receiver. This shift in frequency results in the loss of orthogonality and
subsequently bit errors. LTE mitigates this problem by adding a cyclical
prefix (CP) to each transmitted bit sequence. The CP is a portion of an OFDM
symbol created during the DSP process that is copied and added back to the
front of the symbol. This bit of redundancy allows the receiver to recover the
symbol if the time dispersion is shorter than the cyclical prefix. OFDM then
can be implemented without the complex equalization that can also correct
for this problem. While LTEs downlink uses OFDM, the uplink uses a different
modulation scheme known as single-carrier frequency-division multiplexing

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(SC-FDMA). OFDM signals have a high peak to average power ratio (PAPR),
requiring a linear power amplifier with overall low efficiency. This is a poor
quality for battery-operated handsets. While complex, SC-FDMA has a lower
PAPR and is better suited to portable implementation.2, 3

Multiple-Input Multiple-Output(
MIMO)
LTE incorporates multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO), which uses two or
more antennas and related receive and transmit circuitry to achieve higher
speeds within a given channel. One common arrangement is 2x2 MIMO,
where the first number indicates the number of transmit antennas and the
second number is the number of receive antennas. Standard LTE can
accommodate up to a 4x4 arrangement.
MIMO divides the serial data to be transmitted into separate data streams
that are then transmitted simultaneously over the same channel. Since each
signal path is different, with special processing they can be recognized and
separated at the receiver. The result is an increase in the overall data rate by
a factor related to the number of antennas. This technique also mitigates the
multipath problem and adds to the signal reliability because of the diversity
of reception.
The difficultly in implementing MIMO arises because of the small size of the
handset and its limited space for antennas. Already, most smart phones
include five antennas including those for all the different cellular bands plus
Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, GPS, and perhaps near-field communications (NFC). Most
phones probably wont feature more than two LTE MIMO antennas, and their
inclusion will depend on whether or not they can be spaced far enough apart
to preserve spatial diversity with sufficient isolation between them. Of
course, its easier to use more basestation antennas. A typical LTE
arrangement appears to be 4x2 to provide optimal coverage with the space
available.

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Data Rate
The data rate actually used or achieved with LTE depends on several
features: channel bandwidth, modulation type, MIMO configuration, and the
quality of the wireless path. In the worst-case situation, data rate could be
only a few megahertz. But under good conditions, data rate can rise to more
than 300 Mbits/s. On average, most practical LTE downlink rates range from
5 to 15 Mbits/s, which is faster than some fixed Internet access services
using cable or DSL.

Access
Access refers to using the same channel to accommodate more than one
user. This is effectively a multiplexing method. Standard methods include
frequency division multiple access (FDMA), time division multiple access
(TDMA), and code division multiple access (CDMA). GSM uses TDMA by
dividing a single channel into multiple time slots. In 2G and 3G CDMA
systems, code division uses unique coding for each user with a single
bandwidth. OFDM now offers OFDM Access (OFDMA), which uses some of the
available subcarriers and time slots within those subcarriers for each user.
The number of subcarriers and time slots used depends on multiple factors.
In any case, its usually possible to accommodate up to hundreds of users
per channel bandwidth.

TD-LTE
Most LTE will be of the FDD variety at least in the U.S., Europe, and parts of
Asia. However, TD-LTE is being widely implemented in China and India
because of the nature of their spectrum availability. TD-LTE conserves
spectrum and provides for more users per megahertz. The LTE standards
include a definition for TD-LTE. Some U.S. carriers will use TD-LTE including
Clearwire and Sprint.

LTE-Advanced
LTE-A builds on the LTE OFDM/MIMO architecture to further increase data
rate. It is defined in 3GPP releases 10 and 11. There are five major features:

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carrier aggregation, increased MIMO, coordinated multipoint transmission,

heterogeneous network (HetNet) support, and relays. Carrier aggregation
combines up to five 20-MHz channels into one to increase data speed. These
channels can be contiguous or non-contiguous as defined by the carriers
spectrum assignments. With maximum MIMO assignments, 64QAM, and 100MHz bandwidth, a peak downlink data rate of 1 Gbit/s is possible.
LTE defines MIMO configurations up to 4x4. LTE-A extends that to 8x8 with
support for two transmit antennas in the handset. Most LTE handsets use two
receive antennas and one transmit antenna. These MIMO additions provide
future data speed increases if adopted. HetNet support refers to support for
small cells in a larger overall heterogeneous network. The HetNet is an
amalgamation of standard macrocell basestations plus microcells,
metrocells, picocells, femtocells, and even Wi-Fi hotspots. This network
increases coverage in a given area to improve connection reliability and
increased data rates. Coordinated multipoint transmission, also known as
cooperative MIMO, is a set of techniques using different forms of MIMO and
beamforming to improve the performance at cell edges. It uses coordinated
scheduling and transmitters and antennas that arent collocated to provide
greater spatial diversity that can improve link reliability and data rate. Relays
use repeater stations to help coverage in selected areas, especially indoors
where most calls are initiated. LTE-A defines another basestation type called
a relay station. It is not a complete basestation but a type of small cell that
will fit in the HetNet infrastructure and provide a way to boost data rates and
improve the dependability of a wireless link. Some deployment of LTE-A is
expected in late 2013 with increasing adoption in 2014 and beyond. LTE-A is
forward and backward compatible with basic LTE, meaning LTE handsets will
work on LTE-A networks and LTE-A handsets will work on standard LTE
networks.

LTE-A Design Challenges

LTE solves many problems in providing high-speed wireless service. There is
no better method, at least for now, but it does pose multiple serious design
issues. The greatest problem is the necessity of having to use multiple bands
that often are widely spaced from one another. As a result, multiple
antennas, multiple power amplifiers, multiple filters, switching circuits, and,
sometimes, complex impedance matching solutions are required. Each
cellular operator specifies cell phones for its spectrum.

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In addition, the power amplifiers (PAs) must be very linear if error vector
magnitude (EVM) is to be within specifications for the various multi-level
modulation methods used. Linear amplifiers are inefficient and consume the
most power in the phone except for the touchscreen. The need to cover
multiple bands necessitates the use of multiple PAs. Battery life in an LTE
phone is typically shorter as a result. The need to include MIMO also means
additional antennas and PAs.
Solutions to these problems lie in fewer yet more efficient PAs. Also, widerbandwidth antennas solve the multiband problem. Companies like
Ethertronics and SkyCross are designing tunable antennas as well to cover
multiple bands with a single structure.
Another challenge is test. Several test companies have created systems to
test LTE systems with MIMO, which can be a particularly complex process.
One of the greatest challenges is testing the higher-level MIMO
configurations. LTE-A permits up to 8x8 MIMO. Agilents N7109A multichannel MIMO analyzer is designed to work with the companys 89600 vector
signal analyzer (VSA) and related Signal Studio software to test LTE-A in all
its various configurations (Fig. 2).

The Agilent Technologies N7109A multi-channel LTE signal analyzer handles

up to 8x8 MIMO channels.

Voice Over LTE

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LTE is a packet-based IP data network. It doesnt include a voice service yet,

though one is planned. Today, if youre using an LTE smart phone, youre still
using the existing 2G or 3G network for what is called circuit-switched voice
service. Voice over LTE (VoLTE) eventually will be implemented. VoLTE is just
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) over LTE, and it will operate simply as a
data application on the IP network. While a VoLTE protocol has been defined,
implementation requires major engineering decisions and network changes,
mostly concerning maintaining voice connections for older non-LTE phones
for some extended period. Particularly tricky are the changes that will allow
LTE phone users to get voice service if they move into an area with no LTE.
When VoLTE is available, subscribers could initiate a call using the LTE
system but drive out of the LTE coverage area. Systems must be able to
hand that call off to a traditional voice network. The mechanism for this,
network software called circuit-switched fallback (CSFB), is now available on
most networks. Another issue is getting VoLTE into the handsets. VoLTE
requires a separate chip in the phone, and few phones have such a capability
today. VoIP also requires a vocoder, a circuit that is essentially an analog-todigital converter (ADC) to digitize the voice signal and a digital-to-analog
converter (DAC) to convert the digital voice back into analog voice for the
user. A vocoder also incorporates voice compression, a technique that
effectively minimizes the number of bits used to represent voice. Voice then
can be transmitted faster but at lower data rates so it doesnt occupy much
bandwidth. LTE uses the Adaptive Multi-Rate (AMR) vocoder, which also is
used in GSM systems and other 3GPP standards. It has a variable bit-rate
capability from 1.8 to 12.2 kbits/s. Digitized voice is then assembled into
AMR packets and then into IP packets that are scheduled into a transmission
sequence. A call is allocated to some of the OFDMA subcarriers and to some
of the time slots within the bit streams of each subcarrier. All of the needed
phone and network changes will take time to implement. Therefore, VoLTE
isnt widespread. Carrier Metro PCS has it now on its LTE network and Verizon
has VoLTE in trials, as do most other major carriers. However, there will be
very little VoLTE activity until 2014 and beyond.

FDD and TDD LTE frequency bands

FDD spectrum requires pair bands, one of the uplink and one for the
downlink, and TDD requires a single band as uplink and downlink are on the
same frequency but time separated. As a result, there are different LTE band
allocations for TDD and FDD. In some cases these bands may overlap, and it
is therefore feasible, although unlikely that both TDD and FDD transmissions
could be present on a particular LTE frequency band. The greater likelihood is
that a single UE or mobile will need to detect whether a TDD or FDD
transmission should be made on a given band. UEs that roam may encounter

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both types on the same band. They will therefore need to detect what type
of transmission is being made on that particular LTE band in its current
location. The different LTE frequency allocations or LTE frequency bands are
allocated numbers. Currently the LTE bands between 1 & 22 are for paired
spectrum, i.e. FDD, and LTE bands between 33 & 41 are for unpaired
spectrum, i.e. TDD.

FDD LTE frequency band allocations

There are a large number of allocations or radio spectrum that has been
reserved for FDD, frequency division duplex, LTE use. The FDD LTE frequency
bands are paired to allow simultaneous transmission on two frequencies. The
bands also have a sufficient separation to enable the transmitted signals not
to unduly impair the receiver performance. If the signals are too close then
the receiver may be "blocked" and the sensitivity impaired. The separation
must be sufficient to enable the roll-off of the antenna filtering to give
sufficient attenuation of the transmitted signal within the receive band.

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TDD LTE frequency band allocations

With the interest in TDD LTE, there are several unpaired frequency
allocations that are being prepared for LTR TDD use. The TDD LTE bands are
unpaired because the uplink and downlink share the same frequency, being
time multiplexed.

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Comparision of 3G Wireless Networks

and 4G Wireless Networks:

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References:
http://electronicdesign.com/4g/introduction-lte-advanced-real-4g
https://ytd2525.wordpress.com/tag/td-lte/
https://ytd2525.wordpress.com/2013/01/16/an-introduction-to-lte-advanced-thereal-4g/
http://www.silicon-press.com/briefs/brief.3g/index.html
http://www.radio-electronics.com/info/cellulartelecomms/lte-long-term-evolution/ltefrequency-spectrum.php
http://searchmobilecomputing.techtarget.com/definition/Long-Term-Evolution-LTE
http://searchconsumerization.techtarget.com/definition/LTE-Advanced-Long-TermEvolution-Advanced
http://www.itu.int/osg/spu/ni/3G/technology/index.html
https://www.rohde-schwarz.com/en/technologies/cellular/lte/ltetechnology/lte_information_52292.html
http://www.uwayoutdoors.com/kbase/2G_3G_and_4G_LTE.html