Abstract Algebra

Jonathan Schroeder

January 19th, 2011

Exercise 2. The ring {0, 2, 4, 6, 8} under addition and multiplication modulo 10 has a unity.
Find it.
The unity is 6, which can be verified by simple computation:
2 6 = 12 = 2

mod 10

4 6 = 24 = 4

mod 10

6 6 = 36 = 6

mod 10

8 6 = 48 = 8

mod 10

As the multiplication operation is commutative in this ring, we know that 6 a = a 6 = a

in each case, and we then have that 6 is a unity for the given ring.
Exercise 4. Show, by example, that for fixed nonzero elements a and b in a ring, the
equation ax = b can have more than one solution. How does this compare with groups?
Consider the ring Z4 under addition and multiplication modulo 4 and the equation 2x = 2.
This has solutions x = 1 and x = 3, since 21 = 2 mod 4 and 23 = 6 = 2 mod 4. Existence
of inverses to group elements prohibits this situations in groups.
Exercise 6. Find an integer n that shows that the rings Zn need not have the following
properties that the ring of integers has.
a. a2 = a implies a = 0 or a = 1.
b. ab = 0 implies a = 0 or b = 0.
c. ab = ac and a 6= 0 imply b = c.
Is the n you found prime?
Consider n = 6. In the ring Z6 we have 32 = 9 = 3 mod 6, yet 3 6= 0 and 3 6= 1,
contradicting (a).
2 3 = 0 mod 6, yet 2 6= 0 and 3 6= 0, contradicting (b).
2 4 = 2 and 2 1 = 2, so 2 4 = 2 1, yet 4 6= 1, contradicting (c).
6 is not prime, so it admits zero divisors. In this case, I used the zero divisors 2 and 3 to
construct these counterexamples.

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Abstract Algebra

Jonathan Schroeder

January 19th, 2011

Exercise 18. Let a belong to a ring R. Let S = {x R : ax = 0}. Show that S is a subring
of R.
We must show that S is nonempty and for any x and y in S, we have x y S and
xy S. Let x, y S.
S is nonempty since a0 = 0 for any a R, so 0 S.
Next we have a(x y) = ax ay by the distributive property. But x and y are in S, so
ax ay = 0 0 = 0. Hence a(x y) = 0 and x y S.
Next, consider a(xy) = (ax)y = 0y = 0 by the associative property of ring multiplication.
This gives xy S.
Hence S is a subring of R.
Exercise 19. Let R be a ring. The center of R is the set {x R : ax = xa for all a R}.
Prove that the center of a ring is a subring.
The center is non-empty, since a0 = 0a = 0 for all a R. Hence 0 in the center.
Let x and y be in the center of R. Then a(x y) = ax ay = xa ya = (x y)a, so
x y is also in the center.
Next, a(xy) = (ax)y = (xa)y = x(ay) = x(ya) = (xy)a, so xy is in the center.
Hence the center of a ring is a subring.
Exercise 22. Let R be a commutative ring with unity and let U (R) denote the set of units
of R. Prove that U (R) is a group under the multiplication of R.
We must show that U (R) contains an identity element and is closed under multiplication
and inverses. U (R) inherits associativity from ring multiplication.
Since R is a ring with unity, we know 1 R and that 1 1 = 1. That is, 1 has an inverse
(itself) and is therefore a unit. So 1 U (R). Further, since 1 is the unity of R we know that
1 a = a 1 = a for all a R, including those in U (R), so 1 is the identity element we seek.
Next let a and b be in U (R). Since a and b are both units, we know that a1 and b1
exist, so U (R) is closed under inverses. We must show that ab is a unit, that is, (ab)1
exists, in order to show ab U (R). To this effect, we have b1 a1 ab = b1 1b = b1 b = 1,
and since the ring is commutative abb1 a1 = 1 as well. Hence (ab)1 exists and equals
b1 a1 . Therefore ab U (R).
Hence U (R) is a group under the ring multiplication.

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Abstract Algebra

Jonathan Schroeder

January 19th, 2011

Exercise 29. Suppose that a and b belong to a commutative ring R with unity. If a is a
unit of R and b2 = 0, show that a + b is a unit of R.
Since a is a unit of R, we know that a1 exists, and so a2 = (a1 )2 exists.
Then consider the following computation.
(a1 a2 b)(a + b) = 1 + a1 b a2 ba a2 b2
= 1 + a1 b a2 ab a2 0
= 1 + a1 b a1 b 0
= 1 + 0 = 1;
By commutativity, we also have (a + b)(a1 a2 b) = 1. Hence (a + b)1 exists and is
a1 a2 b.
Exercise 30. Suppose that there is an interger n > 1 such that xn = x for all elements x of
some ring. If m is a positive integer and am = 0 for some a, show that a = 0.
Suppose that am = 0 for some m > 0 and some a.
Let m0 = m.
If m0 < n, then we have a = an = am0 anm0 = 0anm0 = 0, so a = 0 as desired.
If m0 n, divide to obtain m0 = nq0 + r0 for appropriate q0 > 0 and 0 r0 < n.
Then we have am0 = anq0 +r0 = (an )q0 ar0 = (a)q0 ar0 = aq0 +r0 . Set m1 = q0 + r0 .
Since n > 1, we know that m1 = q0 + r0 < nq0 + r0 = m0 , so we have made progress
towards simplifying am0 . Note that am0 = am1 = 0.
Proceeding inductively, we know that am0 = am1 = = amk = 0.
If mk < r, then we have a = an = amk anmk = 0anmk = 0, so a = 0 as desired.
If mk n, divide to obtain mk = nqk + rk for appropriate qk > 0 and 0 rk < n.
Then we have amk = anqk +rk = (an )qk ark = (a)qk ark = aqk +rk . Set mk+1 = qk + rk .
Since n > 1, we know that mk+1 = qk + rk < nqk + rk = mk , so we have again made
progress towards simplifying am0 . Note that am0 = am1 = = amk = amk+1 = 0.
As the sequence {mk } is a decreasing sequence of positive integers, this process will
eventually terminate when mk < n for some k. At which point, we deduce that a = 0.
Exercise 31. Give an example of ring elements a and b with the properties that ab = 0 but
ba 6= 0.




1 1
1 -1
Consider a =
and b =
.
2 2
-1
1



0 0
-1 -1
Then we have ab =
, but ba =
0 0
1 1
Exercise 33. Suppose that R is a ring such that x3 = x for all x R. Prove that 6x = 0
for all x R.
For all x, we have that (2x)3 = 2x by hypothesis, but also (2x)3 = 8x3 = 8x. So 2x = 8x.
Subtracting 2x from each side of this identity yields 6x = 0 for all x.
3 of 4

Abstract Algebra

Jonathan Schroeder

January 19th, 2011

Exercise
40. Let

  M2 (Z)be the ring of all 2 2 matrices over the integers and let R =
a
a+b 
 a, b Z . Prove or disprove that R is a subring of M2 (Z).
a+b
b
R is not a subring
 of M2 (Z); it is not
 closedunder multiplication.

 
1
1+1
1 2
0
0+1
0
Consider A =
=
and B =
=
1
2 1
0+1
1
1
 1 + 1
2 3
Then AB =
which does not match the definition of R.
1 3

1
1


.

Exercise 44. Suppose that there is a positive even integer n such that an = a for all elements
a of some ring R. Show that a = a for all a in the ring.
Let a R. We know from property 2 of Theorem 12.1 that (a)2 = (a)(a) = a2 . By
extension, we know that (a)n = an if n is even. But by hypothesis we know a = (a)n
and an = a. Hence a = (a)n = an = a.
Exercise 50. Suppose that R is a ring and that a2 = a for all a in R. Show that R is
commutative.
Let a and b be in R. We wish to show ab = ba.
From the hypothesis we know that (a + b)2 = a + b, and by the distributive property we
know that (a + b)2 = a2 + ab + ba + b2 . Applying the hypothesis again gives a + b = (a + b)2 =
a + ab + ba + b.
Subtracting a and b gives 0 = ab + ba, and then ab = ba. But by exercise 44, we know
that ba = ba, and so ab = ba as desired.

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