PRIME NUMBER

A prime number (or a prime) is a natural number greater than 1 that has no
positive divisors other than 1 and itself. A natural number greater than 1 that is not a
prime number is called a composite number. For example, 5 is prime because only 1
and 5 evenly divide it, whereas 6 is composite because it has the divisors 2 and 3 in
addition to 1 and 6. The fundamental theorem of arithmetic establishes the central
role of primes in number theory: any integer greater than 1 can be expressed as a
product of primes that is unique up to ordering. The uniqueness in this theorem
requires excluding 1 as a prime because one can include arbitrarily-many instances of
1 in any factorization.
The property of being prime (or not) is called primality. A simple but slow
method of verifying the primality of a given number n is known as trial division. It
consists of testing whether n is a multiple of any integer between 2 and

Algorithms much more efficient than trial division have been devised to test the
primality of large numbers. Particularly fast methods are available for numbers of
special forms, such as Mersenne numbers. As of February 2013, the largest known
prime number has 17,425,170 decimal digits.
There are infinitely many primes, as demonstrated by Euclid around 300 BC.
There is no known useful formula that sets apart all of the prime numbers from
composites. However, the distribution of primes, that is to say, the statistical
behaviour of primes in the large, can be modelled. The first result in that direction is
the prime number theorem, proven at the end of the 19th century, which says that the
probability that a given, randomly chosen number n is prime is inversely proportional
to its number of digits, or to the logarithm of n.
Many questions around prime numbers remain open, such as Goldbach's
conjecture (that every even integer greater than 2 can be expressed as the sum of two

primes), and the twin prime conjecture (that there are infinitely many pairs of primes
whose difference is 2). Such questions spurred the development of various branches
of number theory, focusing on analytic or algebraic aspects of numbers. Primes are
used in several routines in information technology, such as public-key cryptography,
which makes use of properties such as the difficulty of factoring large numbers into
their prime factors. Prime numbers give rise to various generalizations in other
mathematical domains, mainly algebra, such as prime elements and prime ideals

LINEAR PROGRAMMING
Linear programming (LP) is a mathematical method for determining a way to
achieve the best outcome (such as maximum profit or lowest cost) in a given
mathematical model for some list of requirements represented as linear relationships.
More formally, linear programming is a technique for the optimization of a linear
objective function, subject to linear equality and linear inequality constraints. Given a
polytope and a real-valued affine function defined on this polytope, a linear
programming method will find a point on the polytope where this function has the
smallest (or largest) value if such point exists, by searching through the polytope
vertices.
Linear programs are problems that can be expressed in canonical form:
where x represents the vector of variables (to be determined), c and b are vectors of
(known) coefficients and A is a (known) matrix of coefficients. The expression to be
maximized or minimized is called the objective function (cTx in this case). The
equations Ax b are the constraints which specify a convex polytope over which the
objective function is to be optimized. (In this context, two vectors are comparable

when every entry in one is less-than or equal-to the corresponding entry in the other.
Otherwise, they are incomparable.)
Linear programming can be applied to various fields of study. It is used most
extensively in business and economics, but can also be utilized for some engineering
problems. Industries that use linear programming models include transportation,
energy, telecommunications, and manufacturing. It has proved useful in modeling
diverse types of problems in planning, routing, scheduling, assignment, and design.

STATISTICS
Any single information gathered from a research called datum. Data is a set of
datum. Data could be typed as quantitative and qualitative. The way we typically
define them, we call quantitative if it is in numerical form and qualitative if it is
not in numerical form. The quantitative data consist of two types, there are discrete
and continuous data. A type of data is discrete if if there are only a finite number of
values possible, or if there is a space on the number line between each 2 possible
values. Discrete data usually occurs in a case where there are only a certain number
of values, or when we are counting something (using whole number). Continuous
data is a type of data that is usually associated with some sort of physical
measurement.
The term statistic is used to describe a set of data arranged in a list or
diagram. Statistics is the science related to statistic that addressing the method in
collecting, processing, interpreting, and generating a conclusion from the research
data. Part of statistics that addresses the method in collecting, processing, interpreting
data is descriptive statistics, while other part that addresses in the methods in
generating conclusion from data is inferential statistics. In conducting a research, the
following term that need to be cleared in the first place are population and sample.

Population is a set of entire object that addresses in our research, while sample is a
part of population from which the data are collected.

ELLIPS
In mathematics, an ellipse is a curve on a plane surrounding two focal points
such that a straight line drawn from one of the focal points to any point on the curve
and then back to the other focal point has the same length for every point on the
curve. As such, it is a generalization of a circle which is a special type of an ellipse
that has both focal points at the same location. The shape of an ellipse (how
'elongated' it is) is represented by its eccentricity which for an ellipse can be any
number from 0 (the limiting case of a circle) to arbitrarily close to but less than 1.
Ellipses are the closed type of conic section: a plane curve that results from the
intersection of a cone by a plane. (See figure to the right.) Ellipses have many
similarities with the other two forms of conic sections: the parabolas and the
hyperbolas, both of which are open and unbounded.
Analytically, an ellipse can also be defined as the set of points such that the
ratio of the distance of each point on the curve from a given point (called a focus or

focal point) to the distance from that same point on the curve to a given line (called
the directrix) is a constant, called the eccentricity of the ellipse.
Ellipses are common in physics, astronomy and engineering. For example, the
orbits of planets are ellipses with the Sun at one of the focal points. The same is true
for moons orbiting planets and all other systems having two astronomical bodies. The
shape of planets and stars are often well described by ellipsoids. Ellipses also arise as
images of a circle under parallel projection and the bounded cases of perspective
projection, which are simply intersections of the projective cone with the plane of
projection. It is also the simplest Lissajous figure, formed when the horizontal and
vertical motions are sinusoids with the same frequency. A similar effect leads to
elliptical polarization of light in optics.

A CIRCLE
A circle is a simple shape of Euclidean geometry that is the set of all points in
a plane that are at a given distance from a given point, the centre. The distance
between any of the points and the centre is called the radius. It can also be defined as
the locus of a point equidistant from a fixed point.
A circle is a simple closed curve which divides the plane into two regions: an
interior and an exterior. In everyday use, the term "circle" may be used
interchangeably to refer to either the boundary of the figure, or to the whole figure

including its interior; in strict technical usage, the circle is the former and the latter is
called a disk.
A circle can be defined as the curve traced out by a point that moves so that its
distance from a given point is constant.
A circle may also be defined as a special ellipse in which the two foci are coincident
and the eccentricity is 0.

TRIGONOMETRY
In mathematics, the trigonometric functions (also called the circular
functions) are functions of an angle. They relate the angles of a triangle to the lengths

of its sides. Trigonometric functions are important in the study of triangles and
modeling periodic phenomena, among many other applications.
The most familiar trigonometric functions are the sine, cosine, and tangent. In
the context of the standard unit circle with radius 1 unit, where a triangle is formed by
a ray originating at the origin and making some angle with the x-axis, the sine of the
angle gives the length of the y-component (rise) of the triangle, the cosine gives the
length of the x-component (run), and the tangent function gives the slope (ycomponent divided by the x-component). More precise definitions are detailed below.
Trigonometric functions are commonly defined as ratios of two sides of a right
triangle containing the angle, and can equivalently be defined as the lengths of
various line segments from a unit circle. More modern definitions express them as
infinite series or as solutions of certain differential equations, allowing their extension
to arbitrary positive and negative values and even to complex numbers.
Trigonometric functions have a wide range of uses including computing
unknown lengths and angles in triangles (often right triangles). In this use,
trigonometric functions are used, for instance, in navigation, engineering, and
physics. A common use in elementary physics is resolving a vector into Cartesian
coordinates. The sine and cosine functions are also commonly used to model periodic
function phenomena such as sound and light waves, the position and velocity of
harmonic oscillators, sunlight intensity and day length, and average temperature
variations through the year.
In modern usage, there are six basic trigonometric functions, tabulated here with
equations that relate them to one another. Especially with the last four, these relations
are often taken as the definitions of those functions, but one can define them equally
well geometrically, or by other means, and then derive these relations.

A SET
A set is a well defined collection of distinct objects. The objects that make up
a set (also known as the elements or members of a set) can be anything: numbers,
people, letters of the alphabet, other sets, and so on. Georg Cantor, the founder of set
theory, gave the following definition of a set at the beginning of his Beitrge zur
Begrndung der transfiniten Mengenlehre:
A set is a gathering together into a whole of definite, distinct objects of our
perception [Anschauung] or of our thought which are called elements of the set.
Sets are conventionally denoted with capital letters. Sets A and B are equal if and only
if they have precisely the same elements.
As discussed below, the definition given above turned out to be inadequate for
formal mathematics; instead, the notion of a "set" is taken as an undefined primitive
in axiomatic set theory, and its properties are defined by the ZermeloFraenkel
axioms. The most basic properties are that a set "has" elements, and that two sets are
equal (one and the same) if and only if every element of one is an element of the
other.

TRIANGLE
A triangle is a set of three line segment, joined pairwise at their end points,
and including those end points. The three points must not be collinear ; that is, they
must not all lie on the same straight line. Mathematician whom life in 300 before
Messiah found that sum of the all three of angle of triangle is 1800. The invention
allow us to calculate one of the angle if two other angles are known.
Special lines in triangle:
1. Perpendicular is the line which divide each side of triangle to be two parts
2.

that same large and perpendicular on the side.

Altitude of triangle is the line which is pulled from a point of angle and
perpendicular with the side in front of the angle. Based on figure below, AD,

BE, and CF are altitude of ABC triangle.

3. Bissenctrice of a triangle is the line which is pulled from point of angle and
divide the angle in two part that have same magnitude. Based on the figure

below, CF is divide line that divide C be two parts that have same
magnitude.
4. Median is the line which is pulled from any angle and divide the side in front
of the angle to be two parts that have same length. Based on the figure below,
AD is median of ABC triangle and divide BC be two parts that have same
length.

TRAPEZOID
Trapezoid is a quadrilateral having two and only two parallel sides. Trapezoid
differentiated to be three kinds, such us:
a.
Isosceles trapezoid
Isosceles trapezoid is trapezoid which both of the foot are equal length. On
the picture in below PQ = SR and QR PS. Then
P S and Q R

b. Right Trapezoid
Right trapezoid is trapezoid which has two right angles or one of the foot
is perpendicular with both of the parallel sides. On the picture below,

Q P 90 0 , PQ QR RS PS, QRPQ and PSPQ.

R
QR

Right trapezoid not has folded symmetry

c. Scalent trapezoid
Scalent trapezoid is trapezoid which all four of sides are not equal length
and right angle. On the picture in below PQ QR RS PS and P

Q R S .

Isosceles trapezoid has folded symmetry.

INTEGRAL
Integration is an important concept in mathematics and, together with its
inverse, differentiation, is one of the two main operations in calculus. Given a
function f(x), where x is a real variable, and an interval [a, b] of the real line, the
definite integral

is defined informally to be the signed area of the region in the xy-plane bounded by
the graph of f, the x-axis, and the vertical lines x = a and x = b, such that area above
the x-axis adds to the total, and that below the x-axis subtracts from the total.
The term integral may also refer to the related notion of the antiderivative, a function
F whose derivative is the given function f. In this case, it is called an indefinite
integral and is written:

The principles of integration were formulated independently by Isaac Newton

and Gottfried Leibniz in the late 17th century. Through the fundamental theorem of
calculus, which they independently developed, integration is connected with
differentiation: if f is a continuous real-valued function defined on a closed interval
[a, b], then, once an antiderivative F of f is known, the definite integral of f over that
interval is given by

Integrals and derivatives became the basic tools of calculus, with numerous
applications in science and engineering. The founders of the calculus thought of the
integral as an infinite sum of rectangles of infinitesimal width. A rigorous
mathematical definition of the integral was given by Bernhard Riemann. It is based
on a limiting procedure which approximates the area of a curvilinear region by
breaking the region into thin vertical slabs. Beginning in the nineteenth century, more
sophisticated notions of integrals began to appear, where the type of the function as
well as the domain over which the integration is performed has been generalised. A

line integral is defined for functions of two or three variables, and the interval of
integration [a, b] is replaced by a certain curve connecting two points on the plane or
in the space. In a surface integral, the curve is replaced by a piece of a surface in the
three-dimensional space. Integrals of differential forms play a fundamental role in
modern differential geometry. These generalizations of integrals first arose from the
needs of physics, and they play an important role in the formulation of many physical
laws, notably those of electrodynamics. There are many modern concepts of
integration, among these, the most common is based on the abstract mathematical
theory known as Lebesgue integration, developed by Henri Lebesgue.

PARABOLA
In mathematics, a parabola (plural parabolae or parabolas), from the Greek
is a conic section, created from the intersection of a right circular conical surface and
a planeparallel to a generating straight line of that surface.
A parabola is the set of all co-planar points those are equidistant from a given
point (focus) and a given line (directrix). The line perpendicular to the directrix and
passing through the focus (that is, the line that splits the parabola through the middle)
is called the axis of symmetry. The point on the axis of symmetry that intersects the
parabola is called the vertex (plural vertices), and it is the point where
the curvature is greatest. Parabolas can open up, down, left, right, or in some other
arbitrary direction.
The line segment through the focus perpendicular to the axis of symmetry
with endpoints on the parabola is called the Latus Rectum (LR).

PROBABILITY
Probability is the branch of mathematics that studies the possible outcomes of
given events together with the outcomes' relative likelihoods and distributions. In
common usage, the word "probability" is used to mean the chance that a particular
event (or set of events) will occur expressed on a linear scale from 0 (impossibility) to
1 (certainty), also expressed as a percentage between 0 and 100%. The analysis of
events governed by probability is called statistics.
There are several competing interpretations of the actual "meaning" of
probabilities. Frequentists view probability simply as a measure of the frequency of
outcomes (the more conventional interpretation), while Bayesians treat probability
more subjectively as a statistical procedure that endeavors to estimate parameters of
an underlying distribution based on the observed distribution.
A properly normalized function that assigns a probability "density" to each
possible outcome within some interval is called a probability density function (or
probability distribution function), and its cumulative value (integral for a continuous
distribution or sum for a discrete distribution) is called a distribution function (or
cumulative distribution function).
A variate is defined as the set of all random variables that obey a given
probabilistic law. It is common practice to denote a variate with a capital letter (most
commonly X ). The set of all values that X can take is then called the range, denoted
R X . Specific elements in the range of X are called quantiles and denoted x , and the

probability that a variate X assumes the element is x denoted

POLYNOMIAL
Polynomial is an algebraic expression which is formed of variable with integer power
which is multiplied by a number and combined with the sum or difference signs. The
part of polynomial which is separated by (+) sign or (-) sign is called segment. The
number which appears in a segment is called segment coefficient. The highest power
of variable in a segment is called the degree of polynomial.
In general, polynomial in variable of x with n degree, is in the form of:
an x n+ an1 x n1 ++ a1 x +a 0
n

an x , a n1 x

n1

, , a1 x , a 0 are term of polynomial. a0

contain a variable and is called constant term. an

the coefficient of

n1

is a term which does not

is the coefficient of

n
x , a n1 is

, and so on.

A polynomial can be expressed in the function f ( x) , namely:

f ( x )=a n x n +a n1 x n1+ +a1 x+ a0
If polynomial is expressed as function f ( x) , so the value of polynomial f ( x)
can be determined by substitution method and synthetic division method .
1. Substitutio Method
If polynomial an x n+ an1 x n1 ++ a1 x +a 0 is expressed in f (x) , then
the value of polynomial for
n

x=h

can be acquired by substituting

n1

f ( x )=a n h + an1 h
for f ( x) , namely:
2. Synthetic Division Method

+ +a 1 h+ a0

x=h

The value of polynomial can also be computed by synthetic division of

Horner algorithm. For example
x=h

f ( x )=a x 3 +b x 2+ cx +d

will be computed. By substituting

and its value for

x=h , so we acquire the value

of polynomial, that is f ( h )=a h3 +b h 2+ ch+d .

Polynomial a h3 +b h 2+ ch+d can be expressed in the following form.
a h3 +b h 2+ ch+d
( a h2 +bh+c ) h+ d
ah+ b
[ ( h+ c ) ]h+d
By reversing the above process, we can form a h3 +b h 2+ ch+d by the
following steps.
a. Multiply a by h and add b so that ah+b is obtained.
b. Multiply ah+b by h and add c so that a h2 +bh+ c is obtained.
c. Multiply a h2 +bh+ c by h and add d so that a h3 +b h 2+ ch+d is
obtained.
The following scheme describes the step above.

means multiply by h
On the scheme above,
a. The first series on the right of the upright line contains coefficient of
each exponentiation of x in the downward order. If one of the
exponentiation does not exist, then the coefficient is zero, so zero
should be put in the coefficient of the term.
b. Each arrow shows the multiplication by the x value which is written
on the left and then followed by totalization.

SEQUENCE
1. Arithmetic Sequence
Definition:
th
A sequence where the n term is expressed in term of U n that is :

U 1 , U 2 , U 3 ...U n is called arithmetic sequence if it holds the following condition:

U 2 U 1 U 3 U 2 ... U n U n 1 a

constant.

The value of this constant is called difference of the sequence, and represented
by letter b.
th
a. Formula for the n term of Arithmetic Sequence
Let the first term of an arithmetic sequence be represented by a and the

th
difference be represented by b. then, n term can state in the form of:
a, a b, a 2b,...a (n 1)b
th
Based on the orderliness of the expression, then the n term of arithmetic

sequence can be formulated as

U n a (n 1)b
b. Formula for the Middle Term of an Arithmetic Sequence
Given that an arithmetic sequence where the number of terms is odd. Then we
can determine a term located in the middle term or U t . The middle term or

Ut

can be determine by the following formula:

U Un
Ut 1
2
c. Suppose we insert k numbers between two numbers of x and y so that the
original and the inserted numbers form an arithmetic sequence. The difference
of the structured sequence (b) can be obtained by the following formula.

yk
k 1

2. Geometric Sequence
Definition:
th
U
U , U , U ...U n
A sequence where the n term is n that is 1 2 3
is called

geometric sequence if it holds the following condition:

U
U2 U3 U4

... n a
U1 U 2 U 3
U n 1
constant. The value of the constant is called
ratio.
th
a. Formula for the n Terms of Geometric Sequence
Let a be the first term of the geometric sequence and let r be the ratio. Then

the geometric sequence can be written as follows

U 1 , U 2 , U 3 ...U n or a, ar , ar 2 , ar 3 ,..., ar n 1
th
Based on the pattern of the sequence above, the n term of a geometric
n 1
sequence can be formulated U n ar
b. Formula of the Middle Term of Geometric Sequence
Given that, a geometric sequence with odd number of the terms. Then we can

determine a term located in the middle of the sequence. Suppose

U 1 ,U 2 , U 3 ...U n
middle term is

is a geometric sequence where n is an odd number and the

Ut

. To determine the middle term of the geometric sequence

U U 1 .U n
is as follows. t
c. Suppose we insert k numbers between two numbers x and y such that the
original numbers and the inserted numbers create a geometric sequence. Let r
be the ratio of the geometric sequence. The we can write a new geometric
2
k
sequence as shown as follows. x, xr, xr ,..., xk , y

The ratio of geometric sequence after being inserted by k numbers between x

and y can be formulated as follows.

r k 1

y
k
SERIES

1. Arithmetic Series
Definition:
U 1 , U 2 ,U 3 ...U n
If

U n a (n 1)b

are the term of an arithmetic series where

then

U 1 U 2 U 3 ... U n

the

addition

of

the

terms

written

is called an arithmetic series represented as

Sn

as

The sum of the first n terms of the arithmetic sequence is formulated by

n
S n (2a (n 1)b)
2
Based on the formula, the sum of the first n terms of the arithmetic sequence can be
derived other formulas, such as:
th
U
1) If a is the first term and n is the n term, then
Sn

2) If

Un

n
(a U n )
2

th
S
is the n term and n is the sum of the first n terms of the arithmetic

sequence, then

U n S n S n 1
U
U
3) If a is the first term of n and t is the middle term, then
S n n.U t

2. Geometric Series
Definition:
n 1
If U 1 , U 2 , U 3 ...U n are the terms of a geometric sequence with U n ar ..,

where a is the first term and r is the ratio, the additions of each term written in
the form of U 1 U 2 U 3 ... U n is called geometric series.

th
The formula for the n term of a geometric sequence where the first term is a and

the ratio is r is as follows:

Sn

a(1 r n )
1 r

3. Infinite Geometric Series

If the number of the terms is not limited to certain number, then the geometric
series called infinite geometric series. Based on its ratio, infinite geometric series
can be categorized into two types, that is:
1) An infinite geometric series will converge, if the ratio of the infinite geometric
1 r 1 or r 1
series is
.
2) An infinite geometric series will diverge, if r, the ratio of the infinite
geometric series satisfies r 1 or r 1 .
To calculate the limit of the infinity sum of a convergent geometric series,
consider the sum of the first n terms of the series that previously formulated. The
th
sum of the first n terms of a convergent infinite geometric series where a is the

first term of the series and r the ratio

Sn

a(1 r n )
1 r

Sn

a ar n
1 r

Sn

a
ar n

1 r 1 r

is

For

r 1

, then the value of

Sn

where n approaches infinity is

Sn

a
ar n

1 r 1 r ,

can written as follows:

ar n
ar n
a
ar n
a
a
a
a
lim

lim
lim
0
n 1 r
1 r n 1 r n 1 r 1 r n 1 r 1 r
1 r

lim S n lim
n

Therefore, the infinity sum of a convergent geometric series can be formulated as

follows.
S

a
1 r

VECTORS
Geometrically, a vectors can be expressed by a directed segment. Look at the
picture below.

Segment of AB represented vector AB . The length of the segments express

the magnitude of vector AB and the arrow express the direction of vector AB . Point
A is called the starting point or catch point. Point B is called an end point or terminal
point. A vector can be also expressed by a lower case letter such as a, b, c,......u , v, w
2
Vectors in R (read: vector in two-dimensional space) are vectors located in a
2
plane. Geometrically, a vector in R represented by a directed segment can be drawn
2
on a plane coordinates Cartesian plane. Algebraically, a vector in R can be

x

(
x
,
y
)
expressed by a row,
or column of matrix y , where x is a horizontal
component, and y is a vertical component.

Let

b be a vector in R 2 . The magnitude of vector u is symbolized by

determined by formula

u a2 b2

Unit vector is a vector with the magnitude of one unit. Each non-zero vector

of

b has unit vector symbolized by eu and can be determine by the following

equation

eu

a

a2 b2 b
1

Zero vector is a vector with the magnitude of 0 and arbitrary direction. A zero

vector is symbolized by

0 .

Position vector of a point is a vector with the starting point is on point O (the
origin) and the end point is on the point.
Two vectors are equal if their magnitude and direction are equal. Two vectors
or more are called opposite to each other if they have equal magnitude but opposite
directions.

THE GEOMETRY TRANSFORMATION

Geometry transformation or transformation , for short is the changing of
coordinates point (point on a plane) to be another coordinates on the plane using a
certain rule. For instance, transformation of T toward point of P(x,y) result in the
image of P(x,y), the operation can be expressed as:
T

P ( x, y ) P ' ( x ' , y ' )

A plane of transformation consists of four types, translation, reflection, rotation, and
dilations.

1. Translations are transformation that moves every point on the plane with a
certain distance and direction. The distance and direction of translation can be

a

represented by a direction line such as AB or a vector of b .
a

A( x, y ) A' ( x ' , y ' ) A' ( x a, y b)

2. Reflection
Reflection is a transformation that moves every point on the plane using the
mirror image characteristic or axis of symmetry from the point that will be
moved. In the system of plane coordinates, a reflection consists of several
types. Reflection are represented by f several types. Reflection are represented
by M i where I is the type of reflection.
3. Rotation
Rotation is transformation that maps every point on the plane to another point
by turning a plane to certain center point. Rotation on a plane is determine by
the following matters; center of rotation; direction of rotation; and angle of
rotation.
There are two center of rotation: the point of O(0,0) and A(x,y). While, the
direction of rotations can be either clockwise (negative rotation) or
counterclockwise (positive rotation).
4. Dilation
Dilation is transformation to change the size or scale of a plane without
changing the shape of the plane. Dilation on a plane are determined by
following factors.
a. Center of dilation
b. Factor of dilation
There are two kinds of center of dilation, that are origin on point O(0,0)
and A(x,y). While, factor of dilation is the ratio of a dilated image to its
original figure. A figure is enlarged if the scale factor is greater than 1
(negative). Factor of dilation is also called the scale factor.