Pituitary Gland

Location
Situated at the base of the brain, sitting in a cup-shaped depression of the skull called the sella
turcica. It is closely connected to the hypothalamus. The pituitary gland has 2 hormone-secreting
lobes, the anterior and posterior.
Anterior Lobe Hormones
Hormone: Human growth hormone (HGH)
Function: It regulates height and growth. Along with genes it is the main controller of final height of
a person.
Malfunctions: Hypersecretion causes gigantism (in children) or acromegaly (in adults).
Hyposecretion causes dwarfism.
Hormone: Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)
Function: Stimulates production of the brown pigment melanin in the skin.
Hormone: Thyrotrophin (TSH)
Function: Controls the thyroid gland.
Malfunctions: Go to thyroid gland.
Hormone: Adrenocorticotrophin (ACTH)
Function: Controls the adrenal cortex.
Malfunction: Go to adrenal cortex.
Hormone: Prolactin or lactogenic hormone (LTH)
Function: Production of milk during lactation.
Hormone: Gonadotrophins (gonad/sex organ hormones)
Function: Controls sexual development and organs (ovaries and testes)
Hormone: Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
Function: Stimulates ovaries to produce estrogen and to ovulate (release an egg for fertilization).
Hormone: Luteinizing hormone (LH), also known as lutropin or lutrophin
Function: Stimulates ovaries to produce the corpus luteum (for ovulation) from ruptured follicle.
Hormone: Interstitial cell-stimulating hormone (ICSH)/luteinizing hormone in men
Function: Stimulates sperm production and secretion of testosterone.
Malfunctions (of gonadotrophin): Polycystic ovarian syndrome, endometriosis and uterine fibroids.
Posterior Lobe Hormones
Hormone: Antidiuretic hormone (ADH or vasopressin)
Function: Regulates amount of water absorbed in the kidneys.
Malfunctions: Hyposecretion causes diabetes insipidus and hypersecretion: edema (swelling).
Hormone: Oxytocin (the love hormone)
Function: Studies show that raised levels of oxytocin help human bonding and trust (hence the
termlove hormone). It simulates the secretion of breastmilk for feeding and tells the muscles of

uterus to contract for childbirth.

Thyroid Gland
Location: The thyroid gland is shaped like a bow-tie and is positioned at the front of the neck, just
below the larynx (voice box).
Hormones: Thyroxin, and triiodothyronine (produced in response to TSH from anterior lobe of
Pituitary Gland).
Functions: Stimulate tissue metabolism and maintains BMR (basic metabolic rate).
Malfunctions: Hypersecretion known as Graves disease or thyrotoxicosis; hyperthyroidism (increase
in metabolic rate, heart rate, anxiety, intolerance of heat plus raised temperature, frequent bowel
action). Hyposecretion: causes the body systems to slow below normal speed (hypothyroidism),
cretinism (at birth) or myxedema (disorder caused later in life by untreated cretinism), goiters
(enlarged thyroid).
Hormone: Calcitonin
Function: Maintains calcium and phosphorus balance in the body.
Malfunction: Hypersecretion causes lowering of blood calcium level by preventing loss of calcium
from bone. Is this good or bad? Scientists don't really know. To date they can find no adverse reaction
when levels are high or low.

Parathyroid Glands
Location: There are 4, two either side behind the thyroid gland.
Hormone: Parathormone
Functions: Maintains calcium level in blood plasma. Stimulates calcium reabsorption by the kidneys
and activates Vitamin D.
Malfunctions: Hypersecretion causes hyperparathyroidism (symptoms include depression, bone pain,
feeling tired and kidney stones). It also softens the bones leading to spontaneous bone fractures.
Hyposecretion causes hypoparathyroidism: abnormally low blood calcium levels; tetany (spasms in
hands and feet caused by over-contraction in muscles) and convulsions (from over-stimulated
nerves).

Adrenal Glands
Location: There is one sitting on top of each kidney. Each gland is split into 2 parts: the adrenal
cortex and the adrenal medulla.
Adrenal Cortex
Hormones: Mineralocorticoids - aldosterone (steroids)
Function: Regulates salts in body, especially sodium chloride and potassium.
Malfunctions: Hypersecretion causes kidney failure, high blood pressure, too much potassium in
blood causing abnormal heart beat (heart arrhythmia). Hyposecretion can cause Addison's disease,
muscular atrophy and weakness; and body systems slow down.
Hormones: Glucocorticoids (steroids) (cortisol and cortisone)
Functions: Produced in response to ACTH (from pituitary gland). It metabolizes carbohydrates, fats
and proteins.
Malfunctions: Stunted growth. Hypersecretion causes Cushing's syndrome, hypertension, moon-

shaped face, muscular atrophy and diabetes.

Hormones: Female sex hormones (steroids): estrogen and progesterone (men have small levels).
Male sex hormones: testosterone (small amounts also secreted in the ovaries in women).
Functions: Help the body sexually develop and mature; ovulation; hair growth in pubic and under
arm areas.
Malfunctions: Lots of problems! Including hirsutism, amenorrhea (hypersecretion of testosterone in
women); muscle atrophy and breast growth (hypersecretion of estrogen in men). Hyposecretion can
cause Addison's disease.
Adrenal Medulla
The adrenal medulla functions to support the sympathetic nervous system.
Hormones: Adrenaline and noradrenaline
Function: Usually called the stress hormones, they prepare the body for 'fight or flight' by speeding
up heart rate, slowing digestive system and urinary system, increasing blood pressure and blood
sugar level. Adrenaline is a powerful vasoconstrictor - that means it constricts blood vessels in order
to increase blood pressure.

Pancreas
Specifically in the islets of Langerhans, specialized cells that form part of the pancreas.
Location: Slightly below and behind the stomach.
Hormones: Insulin and glucagon
Function: Tells the cells to open and accept glucose in, thus regulating blood sugar levels.
Malfunctions: Hyposecretion: diabetes (high blood sugar level and high urine
production); symptoms of diabetes include fatigue; weight loss; coma. Hypersecretion can lead
to hypoglycemia (low blood sugar level) including symptoms of hunger and sweating; in serious cases
may lead to coma.

Ovaries
Location: There are 2 ovaries, one on each side of the womb (uterus).
Hormones: Estrogen and progesterone (female sex hormones, although male testes also produce
small amounts)
Functions: Responsible for female sexual characteristics - breast growth, widening of hips, pubic and
underarm hair.
Malfunctions: Cause unknown. In women can lead to polycystic ovarian syndrome (also known as
Stein-Leventhal syndrome). In men it can lead to muscle atrophy and breast growth.

Testes
Location: Inside the scrotum behind the penis.
Hormone: Testosterone (male sex hormone, although ovaries produce small amounts in women).
Functions: Responsible for male sexual characteristics thus sperm production, changes at puberty
voice breaking, pubic, facial and underarm hair growth, increased muscle mass.
Malfunctions: Low levels of testosterone is normal in women. Hypersecretion on the other hand can
lead to virilism, hirsutism and missed periods.

Pineal Gland
Location: Also called the pineal body. It is located at the center of the brain.

Hormone: Melatonin (derived from serotonin)

Function: Controls body rhythms (our internal clock, tells us when to sleep and wake up). It
responds to sunlight.
Malfunctions: Jet-lagged feeling; depression and seasonal affective disorder (SAD).

Thymus Gland
Location: In the upper part of the chest (thorax).
Hormone: Thymic Factor (TF), thymic humoral factor (THF), thymosine, thymopoietin
Functions: Part of immune system, appears to promote development of T Lymphocytes in the
thymus gland. These fight infections in the body.
Malfunction: Lowered resistance to infections and/or stress.

What Can Go Wrong With The Endocrine System?

Addison's Syndrome
Cause: Hyposecretion (too little) of adrenocortical hormones (sex, growth and salt regulation hormones).
Effects: Muscle waste (atrophy) and weakness; high blood pressure; gastric problems like vomiting, changes
in skin pigmentation, irregular menstrual cycle and dehydration.
Amenorrhea
Cause: Linked to high levels of testosterone (in women), stress; radical weight loss and anemia.
Effect: Missed periods.
Cushing's Syndrome
Cause: Excess levels of adrenocortical hormones (sex, growth and salt regulation hormones). It is the
opposite of Addison's syndrome.
Effects: Muscular atrophy and weakness, high blood pressure, moon-shaped face, redistribution of body fat,
sometimes mental illness and osteoporosis (brittle bones).
Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS)
Cause: The start of menstruation - usually starts about one week before.
Effects: PMS can cause depression, bloating, irritability, swollen and tender breasts, restlessness.
Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS)
Cause: Still not known.
Effects: The symptoms of PCOS include irregular periods, follicular ovarian cysts and sometimes infertility,
enlarged ovaries and often high levels of estrogen. 50 percent of PCOS patients are obese and and
sufferhirsutism (excess body or facial hair).
Endometriosis
Cause: Endometriosis is a condition where fragments of the womb end up in other parts of the body instead

of being shed during a monthly menstrual bleed. The doctors are not sure what causes endometriosis, but it
may be linked to excessive estrogen levels.
Effects: Symptoms include painful periods, female infertility, frequent yeast infections and exhaustion.
Ovarian Cysts
Cause: An ovarian cyst is an abnormal sac filled with fluid, rather like a blister, that forms on or inside the
ovary. The cause is not yet known.
Effects: Irregular or missed periods, cramps on one side of the body, spotting between periods and tender
breasts. See, signs of ovarian cysts.
Stress
Stress is a threat to the body and the body responds to it like any other danger - the adrenal medulla
releases adrenaline and noradrenaline to help us with the fight or flight response. The physical manifestations
of the arrival of adrenaline in the body are faster heart rate and breathing, sweating (hence sweaty palms
when we are frightened or nervous), a glucose rush from the liver and heightened senses (like hearing and
sight). Prolonged stress may cause amenorrhea in women and low production of sperm in men. Read more
about the dangers of stress.
Type 1 Diabetes
Cause: Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease where the pancreas cannot produce insulin.
Effects: Symptoms include high levels of blood glucose, excessive thirst, peeing frequently, tiredness and
weight loss. There is no cure but it can be controlled by regular (2 to 4 per day) insulin injections.
Type 2 Diabetes
Cause: With type 2 diabetes the body cells do not respond properly to insulin and the pancreas may not
produce enough. Closely linked to obesity.
Effects: Symptoms are as Type 1, but may not be as obvious and take longer to develop. Prediabetes is an
early warning. Type 2 diabetes can be controlled by a healthy diet and physical activity. Tablets or insulin
injections may also be required.
Goiters
A goiter (also spelled goitre) is an abnormally enlarged thyroid gland; can result from underproduction or
overproduction of hormone or from a deficiency of iodine in the diet.
Grave's Disease
Graves disease is an auto-immune disease. It most commonly affects the thyroid, causing it to grow to twice
its size or more, be overactive, with related hyperthyroid symptoms such as increased heartbeat, muscle
weakness, disturbed sleep and irritability.
Hyperthyroidism
Hyperthyroidism (also called (thyrotoxicosis) is an overactive thyroid gland. It is a glandular disorder
resulting from an overproduction of thyroid hormones.
Hypothyroidism
Hypothyroidism is an underactive thyroid gland; a glandular disorder resulting from insufficient production of
thyroid hormones.
Insomnia
The inability to sleep - also referred to as chronic sleeplessness.

Acromegaly
The bones of the hands, face and feet are enlarged. It is often accompanied by muscle pain, headaches and
emotional problems. It is caused by the overproduction of growth hormones in the pituitary gland due to a
tumor (in adults).
Gigantism
Abnormally large growth in a young person, usually caused by excessive secretion of growth hormone from
the pituitary gland.
Hyperparathyroidism
High levels of parathyroid hormone are secreted which results in abnormally high levels of calcium in the
blood. It can affect many systems of the body (especially causing bone resorption and osteoporosis).
Hypoparathyroidism
Not enough parathyroid hormone being secreted resulting in abnormally low levels of calcium in the blood.
Summary Of The Endocrine System
It consists of ductless glands.
It produces hormones which affect behavior and function.
It plays a major role in growth, puberty, the reproductive cycle (menstruation, production of sperm,
pregnancy, menopause), responses to stress, kidney and digestive functions.