3 3

134
TIME GENERATED COMPOSITIONS YIELD
April
r e c u r s i o n r e l a t i o n (6) yields the other set of a l t e r n a t e Fibonacci n u m b e r s a s the sequence of cumulative suras, the total p a r t i c l e count.
5.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
One is d i r e c t e d to advanced p r o b l e m H-5Q D e c e m b e r 1964, F i b onacci Q u a r t e r l y , for the partitioning i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the i n t e g e r

the model for
n of
<p(t) - kt.
Suppose one defines two s e t s of Morgan-Voyce polynomials

b Q (x) = 1, b } (x) = 1 + x; B Q (x) = 1, B ^ x ) = 2 + x
both sets satisfying

(7)
n+2
( x ) = (X + 2 ) P
n+l(x) " Pn(x)j
It is e a s y to e s t a b l i s h that
P (k) = A = k B , (k)
n
n
n-1
T (k) = An + A, + . . . + A = b (k)
n
0
1
n
n
Thus for k = 1, we again find B ,(1) = F n

and b (1) = F~ ( 1 . See
n-1
2n
n
2n+l
c o r r e c t e d p r o b l e m B-26 with solution by Douglas L i n d i n t h e E l e m e n t a r y
P r o b l e m Section of this i s s u e , w h e r e the binomial coefficient r e l a t i o n
mentioned in the note of Section 3 is shown.
A future p a p e r by Prof.
M. N. S. Swamy dealing extensively with M o r g a n - Voyce polynomials will

a p p e a r in an e a r l y i s s u e of the Fibonacci Q u a r t e r l y .
Acknowledgment:
The author is completely indebted to Dr. V. E.
Hoggatt, J r . , for bringing to his attention the t h e o r e m and its proof.

Additional r e f e r e n c e s to work along the lines of g e n e r a t e d c o m p o s i tions - some of which yield n u m b e r s with Fibonacci p r o p e r t i e s w i l l
be found in the r e f e r e n c e s at the end of this p a p e r . (See note, page 94)
REFERENCES
H. Winthrop "A T h e o r y of B e h a v i o r a l Diffusion" A contribution to the
M a t h e m a t i c a l Biology of Social P h e n o m e n a .
Unpublished t h e s i s s u b -
m i t t e d to the Faculty of The New School for Social R e s e a r c h , 1953.

H. Winthrop,
"Open P r o b l e m s of I n t e r e s t in Applied M a t h e m a t i c s , "
M a t h e m a t i c s Magazine, 1964, Vol. 37, pp. 112-118.

H. Winthrop,
"The Analysis of T i m e - F l o w Equivalents in Finite Dif-
f e r e n c e Equations Governing Growth" (In p r e p a r a t i o n ) .

xxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
MYSTERY PUZZLER AND PH!

MARVIN H. HOLT
Wayzata, Minnesota
A p r o b l e m p r o p o s e d by P r o f e s s o r Hoggatt is as follows:
Does
t h e r e exist a p a i r of t r i a n g l e s which have five of t h e i r six p a r t s equal

but which a r e not c o n g r u e n t ?
(Here the six p a r t s a r e the t h r e e sides
and the t h r e e a n g l e s . ) The initial impulsive a n s w e r is no J The p r o b lem a l s o a p p e a r s in | 1 | as well as in the MATH LOG.
I have taken some time to work on the problem you suggested.
I think you will a g r e e that the solution I have is i n t e r e s t i n g .
lem,
One p r o b -
as you have stated it, is posed in a high school g e o m e t r y text
entitled, " G e o m e t r y " b y M o i s e and Downs, published by Addison Wesley

Company, (page 369)*
In t h e i r solution key, they gave one possible p a i r of t r i a n g l e s
that work:
I d i s c o v e r e d this after I solved the p r o b l e m myself.
But the above
solution does not do j u s t i c e to the p r o b l e m at all, since m y old friend

r is r e a l l y the key to the solution.
Note: Golden Mean = 96 = r in what
follows.
I attacked the p r o b l e m as follows: F i r s t , the five congruent p a r t s
cannot contain all t h r e e s i d e s ,
gruent,
since the t r i a n g l e s would then be con-
T h e r e f o r e , the five p a r t s m u s t be t h r e e angles and two sides
which m e a n s that the two t r i a n g l e s a r e s i m i l a r .
But, the two sides
cannot be in c o r r e s p o n d i n g o r d e r , or the t r i a n g l e s would be congruent

e i t h e r by ASA or SAS. So, the situation m u s t be one of two p o s s i b i l i t i e s
as I have sketched below:
(My s k e t c h e s a r e not to s c a l e . )
135
136
MYSTERY P U Z Z L E R AND PHI
April
triangle 2
triangle 1
possibility 1
possibility 2
In both c a s e s , by using r e l a t i o n s h i p s from s i m i l a r t r i a n g l e s , it follows
that |:=
or b = ka and c = kb = k a from p o s s i b i l i t y 2 and ~ = 3 or
2
b d
b = ka and d = kb = k a from p o s s i b i l i t y 1.
So, the t h r e e sides of the t r i a n g l e m u s t be t h r e e consecutive
2
m e m b e r s of a g e o m e t r i c s e r i e s : a, ak, ak , w h e r e k is a p r o p o r t i o n ality constant and k > 0 and k ^ 1. If k = 1, the t r i a n g l e s would both
be e q u i l a t e r a l and thus congruent. T h e r e f o r e , k / 1.
F r o m m y p r e v i o u s a r t i c l e on the Golden Section (Pentagon, Spring
1964) I worked out two p r o b l e m s on right t r i a n g l e s w h e r e the sides
f o r m e d a g e o m e t r i c p r o g r e s s i o n and the c o n s t a n t s t u r n e d out to b e / ^ "
and y , So, I knew of two m o r e situations w h e r e the o r i g i n a l p r o b l e m
could be solved.
Then I began to c o n s i d e r v a r i o u s other values of k
and I began to wonder what values of "kM will work. In other w o r d s , for
what values of k will the n u m b e r s
a, ak, and ak
be sides of a t r i -
a n g l e . Once we know t h i s , then another t r i a n g l e with s i d e s ^ , a, ak

k
2
3
or ak, ak , ak w i l l h a v e five p a r t s congruent but the t r i a n g l e s would
not be congruent.
I n o r d e r f o r a, ak and ak to be sides of a t r i a n g l e , t h r e e s t a t e m e n t s m u s t be t r u e :
1965
137
These a r e i n s t a n c e s of the s t r i c t . t r i a n g l e inequality.

1.
a + ak > a k 2
(a + b > c)
2.
a + ak > ak
3.
ak + ak
[a > 0,
(a + c > b)
(b + c > a)
> a
k^l]
k > 0,
For Case 1, consider k > 1

k > 1>k
(a)
t h e r e f o r e , a + ak
(b)
if
> k
> ak (condition 2 above)

k > l>k + 1 > 1>k
t h e r e f o r e , ak
(c)
> k ->1 + k
+ k >1
+ ak > a (condition 3 above)
k >1
show
(condition 1 above)
a + ak > ak
This p a r t r e v o l v e s around the p r o b l e m of finding out when 1 + k > k ,

2
or, graphically: F o r what x > 1 will 1 + x = y be above y = x ?
p_^-
Jf Y =
2
1 +x
y = x
2
Solving this p r o b l e m p r o d u c e s the r e s u l t that

k <
or_
k < r .
2
So, if 1 < k < r then the n u m b e r s a, ak, ak a r e the sides of the
a
2
3
t r i a n g l e that can be m a t c h e d with -- , a, ak or ak, ak , ak to solve
the o r i g i n a l p r o b l e m . (Incidentally: 1 < v ^ < r . So this fits i n h e r e . )
F o r Case 2, c o n s i d e r k < 1
138
(b)

z
z
if k < 1->k < k ~ > k < k + 1 T h e r e f o r e ak < ak + a
(condition 1)
if k < 1 > 1 + k > 1 >a + ak > ak (condition Z)
(c)
Now, if k < 1 show ak + ak
(a)
April
> a.
This i s ,
essentially,finding
what values of k m a k e k + k > 1.

Again, graphically, for what x < 1 will the p a r a b o l a
be above the line y = 1 ?
y =x +x
pX7p
m
y=l
X=1
-1 + /5~
Solving this p r o b l e m p r o d u c e s the r e s u l t that k >
~
. If you
will follow this closely, -1 +^ / 5 is the additive i n v e r s e of the conjugate
of ^ .
(i. e, j r =
Therefore,
and its additive i n v e r s e is
the conjugate of
I
/"cT
14-
-=
. ) So, if
_L
r is
/C,
< k < 1 the p r o b -
-1 + v/5
/l
lem is again solved. (Again,
< 1, so m y second p r o b l e m
fits h e r e . )
T h e r e f o r e , the complete solution can_be s u m m e d up as follows,
1 + \/5
- I + /5
if k is a n u m b e r such that 1 < k <
^
= r or
^
< k < 1.
Then the t h r e e s e t s of t r i a n g l e s with sides -r- , a, ak or a, ak, ak
or ak, a k 2 , or a k 3 can be used to produce two t r i a n g l e s with five
p a r t s equal and the t r i a n g l e s t h e m s e l v e s not congruent.
So, t h e r e a r e an infinite n u m b e r of p a i r s of t r i a n g l e s that solve
this p r o b l e m and once again, r p r o v e s to be an i n t e r e s t i n g n u m b e r
and a key to the solution of i n t e r e s t i n g problems,,
1.
REFERENCES
Moise and Downs, G e o m e t r y , Addison-Wesley, p. 369.
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
LADDER NETWORK ANALYSIS USING POLYNOMIALS

JOSEPH ARKIN
Spring Valley, New York
In this p a p e r we develop some ideas with the r e c u r r i n g s e r i e s

(1)
= k, B , + k^B OJ
B n = 1, (k. and k 0 / 0) ,
n
1 n-1
2 n-2
0
1
2 ' '
and show a r e l a t i o n s h i p between this sequence and the simple network
of r e s i s t o r s known as a Ladder-network.
The l a d d e r - n e t w o r k in F i g u r e 1 is an i m p o r t a n t network in c o m munication s y s t e m s .
The m - L
sections in c a s c a d e that m a k e up this
network can be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by defining:

(2)
a) the attenuation (input voltage/output voltage)

b) the output impedance
= z ,
c) the input impedance
e1
R,
= A,
R,
R,
"1
-O-t*
R~
>
R_
R.
* - .
Figure 1
A r e s u l t obtained by applying Kirchhoff's and Ohm's Laws to

l a d d e r - n e t w o r k s with m = 1, 2, 3, . . . , R, = 'R~k-, was tabulated with
the r e s u l t s in Table 1, w h e r e setting k, = 1, R- = 1 ohm, the network
in F i g u r e 1 was analyzed by inspection [1] .
139
140
ApriL
LADDER NETWORK ANALYSIS

m
0
Rn
(k^l)
VMR2
(k^+3^+1)
(kx+l)R2
k x + 3 k +1 \ R
~k+Z~
k^+3k1+l\R2
'^+5^+6^+1 \ R
(^+5^+6^+1)
k^+4kx+3y
k^+4k1+3
Table 1
We o b s e r v e t h a t t h e
z
m
n
(C
nth
r o w i n T a b l e 1, m a y be w r i t t e n
A
C9
2n
2n-2/y2n-l)R2
(C
2iA2n-l)R2
where,
(3)
x
'
a)
b)
yr
= k
1/2
;
C , + C 9,
1
n-1
n-2
k, '
n - 1 + yn - 2 '
It t h e n r e m a i n s t o s o l v e f o r
Cn
0
y
1/2
= IA;
and C
i n (3), t o be a b l e t o a n a l y z e
n
n
( F i g u r e 1) by i n s p e c t i o n f o r a n y v a l u e of k (k ^ 0), w h e r e R = 1 o h m .
So t h a t , i n (1), w e l e t
(4)
y
J
a)
w =
(k L + (k* + 4 k 2 ) l / 2 ) / 2
b)
(k x - ( k 2
+4k2)l/2)/2
w h e r e it i s e v i d e n t ,
c)
k,
d)
k~
W + V
and
= - wv
T h e n , c o m b i n i n g (c) a n d (d) w i t h (1), l e a d s t o

(5)
((w
B
B
, - wv(w-v)B
)/(w-v)
n-l
n - L9
o o
2 2
= ((w ~v )B 0 - w v (vw - v )B
o)/(w-v)
n-2
' n-3"
- v )B
= ((w
- v )(w+v) - w v ( w "
- v
,
i
)B0)/(w-v)
1965
USING P O L Y N O M I A L S
and we have
,_
n+1
(6)
141
n+1
= --a
w - v
1/2
W h e r e , i n (1) w e r e p l a c e k, w i t h k, '
and
i n g t h i s r e s u l t w i t h (3) a n d (6), l e a d s t o
(k;/2
(7)
a)
and
with
1, a n d c o m b i n -
k1+4)i/2)n+1-(k!/2-(k1+4)1/2)n+1
'
1/2 n + l
((k +4) ' ) 2 n
. /,,
= ^(k^/k}^
b) y n
(8)
k9
=0(k1),
l
Theorem.
T h e a t t e n u a t i o n ( i n p u t v o l t a g e / o u t p u t v o l t a g e = A) of
m-L
tions in c a s c a d e in a l a d d e r - n e t w o r k is given by
2m-2
A2
c ((-c7
)/c9
7)
^
r
2m-l"
2m-2 '
r=0
T h e p r o o f of t h e t h e o r e m r e s t s on t h e f o l l o w i n g
(9)
Lemma,
The power
series
n
(-l)
is always a square, where
Brxr
r =0
is defined i n . ( l ) .
P r o o f of l e m m a ,
Let
n
1 = (1-kjX - k2x2)( 1
(10)
Brxr)
r=0
t h e n , b y c o m p a r i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s a n d b y (1), w e h a v e
- ( B k. + B , k 9 )
n 1
n-.l 2 '
X =
_
n 2
,, . .
(11)
and r e p l a c i n g
(12)
x
'
x with
l-klX-k0x2
1 2
(-B
>i)/(B
?)
in
-B
,.
n+1
= - _ n 2
2
^-kj^-k?*1 ^
l e a d s
= x( B 2 k + B B ^ . k , - B 2 x 1 ) ,// (v B 2 k 9 )
n 2
n n+1 1
n+l
n 2'
B y (4, d) a n d (6) it i s e a s i l y v e r i f i e d
to
sec-
142
LADDER NETWORK ANALYSIS
(13)
B2 - B ,.B . = (-k-)n
n
n+1 n-1
2
so that
(14)
x
'
April
B 2 k + B B . . k . - B 2
= x( - l ) n k ^ + 1
n 2
n n+1 1
n+1
'
2
Then, r e p l a c i n g the n u m e r a t o r in (12) by the r e s u l t in (14) leads to

1-k x - k ? x 2
(15)
= ((-l)nk*)/B2
so that (10) m a y be w r i t t e n a s
n
n
(16)
(-l) B
B xr
r
r=0
which c o m p l e t e s the proof of the l e m m a .
(17) The proof of the t h e o r e m is i m m e d i a t e , when in (11) and (16), we
. _ .
__
__
r e p l a c e n with 21X1-23, k, with k , ' , k ? with 1, and combine the
r e s u l t with (7, a) and the values of the attenuation in Table 1.
REFERENCES
1.
a) S. L. Basin, "The A p p e a r a n c e of Fibonacci N u m b e r s and the

Q M a t r i x in E l e c t r i c a l Network Theory, " Math Mag. , 36(1963)
pp. 84-97 0
b) S. L. Basin,
"The Fibonacci Sequence as it A p p e a r s in Na-
t u r e , " Fibonacci Q u a r t e r l y , 1(1963) pp. 5 4 - 5 5 .

The author e x p r e s s e s his gratitude and thanks to P r o f e s s o r L.
Carlitz,
Duke University;
Professor
V. E. Hoggatt, J r . ,
San J o s e
State College; and the r e f e r e e .

XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
REQUEST
The F i b o n a c c i Bibliographical R e s e a r c h Center d e s i r e s that any
r e a d e r finding a Fibonacci r e f e r e n c e , send a c a r d giving the r e f e r e n c e
and a brief d e s c r i p t i o n of the c o n t e n t s . P l e a s e f o r w a r d all such inf o r m a t i o n to:
Fibonacci Bibliographical R e s e a r c h C e n t e r ,
Mathematics Department,
San J o s e State College,
San J o s e , California
CONCERNING LATTICE PATHS AND FIBONACCI NUMBERS

DOUGLAS R. STOCKS, JR.
Arlington State College, Arlington, Texas
R s E. Greenwood [1] h a s investigated plane Lattice paths from

(0, 0) to (n, n) and has found a r e l a t i o n s h i p between the n u m b e r of paths
in a c e r t a i n r e s t r i c t e d s u b c l a s s of such paths and the Fibonacci s e quence.
Considering such paths and using a method of e n u m e r a t i o n
different from that used by Greenwood, an unusual r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of

F i b o n a c c i ' s sequence is suggested.
The paths c o n s i d e r e d h e r e a r e c o m p r i s e d of steps of t h r e e types:
(i) h o r i z o n t a l from (x, y) to (x + 1, y); (ii) v e r t i c a l from (x, y) to (x, y + 1);
and (iii) diagonal from (x, y) to (x + 1, y + 1).
H5
H4
H3
H2
HL
Figure 1
In the i n t e r e s t of s i m p l i c i t y of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , we will h e r e cons i d e r the paths from
H. to V., for each positive i n t e g e r i.
that the n u m b e r of paths from

(0, 0) to (i, i).
paths from
However,
i n s t e a d of c o n s i d e r i n g the total n u m b e r of
H. to V. as was done by Greenwood,
the n u m b e r of paths from

any of the paths from
n u m b e r of paths from
H. to V..
Note
H. to V. is the n u m b e r of paths from
H. to V. which do not contain as subpaths
H. to V., for
H. . ,
we will count only
to V. ,
j < i.
This n u m b e r plus the
is the total n u m b e r of paths from
The u s e of this counting device suggest the

143
144
CONCERNING LATTICE PATHS
ApriL
Theorem:
Let
iD
= i
= 3
D
L where
+2
D-l
=
denotes the g r e a t e s t i n t e g e r functioi
V2
D-l
+ 3
D-2
(2n) D = ( 2 n ) D - 2 + ( 2 n - l ) D - 2
(2n+l)D = ( 2 n + l ) D ^ + ( 2 n ) D - 1
with the r e s t r i c t i o n that k n = 0 if k > D.
D, let
F o r each positive i n t e g e r
f(D) =
S kD
k=l
The sequence {f(D) ] D = 1, 2, 3, . . . } is the Fibonacci s e q u e n c e .

The proof is d i r e c t and is t h e r e f o r e omitted.
The g e o m e t r i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the n u m b e r s
and f(D) m e n -
tioned in the t h e o r e m is i n t e r e s t i n g . However, before c o n s i d e r i n g this

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n it is n e c e s s a r y to define a s e c t i o n of a path.
p u r p o s e we will now c o n s i d e r a path a s the point set to which p
F o r this
belongs
if and only if for s o m e step ((x, y), (u, v)) of the path, p belongs to the
line i n t e r v a l whose end points a r e (x, y) and (u, v). A section of a path
is a line i n t e r v a l which is a s u b s e t of the path and which is not a subset
of any other line i n t e r v a l each of whose points is a point of the path.
The above mentioned g e o m e t r i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n follows:
nition f(l) = 1.
F o r each positive i n t e g e r
set of paths from

thepathsfrom
Ln.
L~ denote the
to V n which do not contain a s subpaths any of
H. to V., for
longing to the set

Ln
Hn
D > 2, let
By defi-
j < D. f(D) is the n u m b e r of paths b e -
is the n u m b e r of paths in the subset
X of
such that x belongs to X if and only if x contains a s s u b s e t s
exactly k diagonal s e c t i o n s .
1965
AND FIBONACCI NUMBERS

F i g u r e 2 p o r t r a y s the five paths which belong to
145
L-.
In F i g u r e
2a a p p e a r s the one path of L- which contains only one diagonal s e c tion ( 1 - = 1). The two paths of L- which contain exactly two diagonal
sections a p p e a r in F i g u r e 2b (2- = 2)*
In F i g u r e 2c the two paths of
L c which contain exactly t h r e e diagonal sections a r e shown ( 3 r = 2).

o
5
It is noted that 4_ '= 5 r = 0.
F i g . 2a
f(5)
Fig. 2b
Fig. 2c
25=2
35=2
1 +2+2+0+0 = 5
Figure 2
REFERENCES
1.
R. E. Greenwood,
"Lattice
Paths
and Fibonacci
Numbers,
The Fibonacci Q u a r t e r l y , Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 13-14.

XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
NOTICE TO A L L SUBSCRIBERS] I I
P l e a s e notify the Managing Editor AT ONCE of any a d d r e s s change.
The P o s t Office D e p a r t m e n t , r a t h e r than forwarding m a g a z i n e s m a i l e d
t h i r d c l a s s , sends them d i r e c t l y to the d e a d - l e t t e r office.
Unless the
a d d r e s s e e specifically r e q u e s t s the Fibonacci Q u a r t e r l y be forwarded

at f i r s t c l a s s r a t e s to the new a d d r e s s , he will not r e c e i v e it.
will usually cost about 30 cents for f i r s t - c l a s s p o s t a g e . )
(This
If p o s s i b l e ,
p l e a s e notify us AT LEAST THREE WEEKS PRIOR to publication d a t e s ;

F e b r u a r y 15, A p r i l 15, October 15, and D e c e m b e r 15.
REPLY TO EXPLORING FIBONACCI MAGIC SQUARES*

JOHN L . BROWN, JR.
Pennsylvania State University, State College, Pennsylvania
Problem.
F o r n > 2, s h o w t h a t t h e r e do n o t e x i s t a n y n x n m a g i c
s q u a r e s w i t h d i s t i n c t e n t r i e s c h o s e n f r o m t h e s e t of F i b o n a c c i n u m b e r s , u , = 1, u , = 2, u , n = u . , + u f o r n > I .
1
2
n + 2 n+1 n
Proof.
T r i v i a l for
If a n n x n
n = 2.
magic
Fibonacci entries,
s q u a r e e x i s t e d for
some
n > 3 with distinct
then the r e q u i r e m e n t that the f i r s t t h r e e c o l u m n s
a d d to t h e s a m e n u m b e r w o u l d y i e l d t h e e q u a l i t i e s :
(*) F . + F .
1 2
+. . . + F.
n
= F . + F . +. . . + F . = F 1
+ F . +. . . + F .
.
J
J
J
l
2
n
1
2
n
S i n c e t h e e n t r i e s a r e d i s t i n c t , w e m a y a s s u m e w i t h o u t l o s s of g e n e r ality that F . > F . > . . . > F . , F . > F . > . . . > F . a n d

X
F
k, >
1
k >
2
2
F
' >
k
n
Noting t h a t the c o l u m n s c o n t a i n no c o m m o n e l e m e n t s , and by r e a r r a n g e m e n t if n e c e s s a r y , w e a s s u m e
F. > F. > F
generality; thus,
Now
, again without losing
F. > F
+ 2.
1
k
l
l
F.
+ F.
i,
i9
+ . . . + F.
> F . > F,
i ^ i , -
,-
k, +2
while
k
F
k,
1
+F
k +--2 ?
+F
2 1
T h i s c o n t r a d i c t s t h e e q u a l i t y p o s t u l a t e d i n (*), a n d w e c o n c l u d e no m a g i c
s q u a r e s in distinct F i b o n a c c i n u m b e r s a r e p o s s i b l e .
The Fibonacci Q u a r t e r l y ,
O c t o b e r 1964, P a g e 216.
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
146
THE FIBONACCI NUMBER F u WHERE u IS NOT AN INTEGER

ERICHALSEY
Redlands, California
INTRODUCTION
Fibonacci n u m b e r s , like f a c t o r i a l s , a r e not n a t u r a l l y defined for
any values except integer v a l u e s . However the gamma, function extends
the concept of f a c t o r i a l to n u m b e r s that a r e not i n t e g e r s .
that (l/Z)I = ^/JT/2.
F
for any i n t e g e r
rational number
Let
n but which will f u r t h e r m o r e
give
f(x, y) = x ^
= 1 (Definitions (1) hold for all n c N)
Let
rdjL
(read "n c a r d i n a l " )
= 2
k^
= 2
k=l
This gives the c a r d i n a l n u m b e r s 1, 2, 3,
Let
2
n$
1 = n
k=l
1
(read "n t r i a n g u l a r " )
2 k$
k=l
= 2 k
k=l
This gives the t r i a n g u l a r n u m b e r s 1, 3, 6, 10,

Let
...
n
n$3
(read "n t e t r a h e d r a l " )
k^2
k=l
This gives the t e t r a h e d r a l n u m b e r s 1, 4, 10, 20, . .
In g e n e r a l , let
n
n$
give
for any
and d e -
w h e r e x and y need not be i n t e g e r s 0
DEFINITIONS
n$
u. The a r t i c l e also defines a quantity n $
velops a function
(1)
Thus we find
This a r t i c l e develops a function which will
(read "n d e l t a - s l a s h m") = 2

k$
k=l
147
148
April
WHERE u
u
This gives a figurate n u m b e r s e r i e s which can be a s s i g n e d to the
THE FIBONACCI NUMBER F
m - d i m e n s i o n a l analog of the t e t r a h e d r o n (which is the 3 - d i m e n s i o n a l

analog of the t r i a n g l e , etc. ).
Let us c o n s t r u c t an a r r a y
( a. .), w h e r e we a s s i g n to each
a. .
an a p p r o p r i a t e coefficient of P a s c a l ' s t r i a n g l e .
(a.
.)
i,3
10
15
10
20
35
15
35
70
It is c l e a r that in this a r r a n g e m e n t the usual rule for forming P a s c a l ' s

t r i a n g l e is just
a. . = a. . - + a. . .
(2)
But a c o m p a r i s o n of this rule with the definitions (1) shows that P a s c a l ' s
t r i a n g l e can be w r i t t e n :
where
a1
i^2
2#
2jLl
2 /
3^
3JL1
3fi2
n(L
n$
i<
...
2 ^
3Ar
a. . = iA
a. . = a. 1..
iJ
J*
(3)
1/
F r o m the s y m m e t r y of P a s c a l ' s t r i a n g l e ,
Therefore
i^"1
= j^1"1;
nfi = (m+l)^ 1 1 " 1
P a s c a l ' s t r i a n g l e is a well-known g e n e r a t o r of Fibonacci n u m b e r s in

the way shown in the following d i a g r a m .
1965
IS NOT AN INTEGER
149
/ / / / /
1 / 1 / 1
1 = 1 = F,
1 = 1 = F_
10
15
1+1
10
20
35
1+2
15
35
70
1+3+1 = 5 = F r
We can apply the s a m e c o u r s e to our a b s t r a c t e d P a s c a l ' s t r i a n g l e .

/ / /
^0
3^ /3tLl
3^
F 3 = 3<X + l ^ 1
F 4 = 4^ + Zfk1
It is c l e a r that, if we keep forming Fibonacci n u m b e r s from P a s c a l ' s

t r i a n g l e in this way, F = n ^ + (n-2)$ + (n-4)$ + . . . + ( n - 2 m ) $ , or
(4)
(n-2k) K
k=0
w h e r e we r e q u i r e that m b e a n i n t e g e r and that 0 < n - 2 m . < 2, or in

other w o r d s that n / 2 - 1 <_ m < n / 2 .
(5) T h e o r e m 1
Proof:
E(n).
Now let us prove
^m _ ( n + m - 1 ]
It is sufficient to p e r f o r m induction on n.
Then if n = 1, E(l) s t a t e s
/ n + m - l \ _ / l + m - l \ _ mj_
\
m /
\ m /
ml
_ .
Let the t h e o r e m be
150
B u t b y d e f i n i t i o n (1), ( m + l ) $
t i o n (3)
1^
= 1
for
= 1 for any
WHERE u
(m+1) t N .
m = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
let us a s s u m e that, for a r b i t r a r y

n
Mm
and
m i N, E(n)
April
Then by e q u a -
E(l)
is t r u e .
is t r u e .
Then
Now
/n+m-l\
= (
m
)
F r o m t h e d e f i n i t i o n s (1) it c a n be s e e n t h a t
. vm - 1
. *m - 1
Mm - 1 .
1$
+ 2^
+ . . . + nfi
^m
= n^k
T h e r e f o r e t h e i n d u c t i o n h y p o t h e s i s c a n be r e s t a t e d
if1
(6)
Add
+ Z ^ ' 1 + . . . + ( ^ m I 2 ) = (n+-1)
) t o b o t h s i d e s of e q u a t i o n (6) t o o b t a i n
lA""1 iZfi"-1 + . . . +("l m i 2 ) + (i"i')
(7)
The right-hand
s i d e of e q u a t i o n (7) i s
for c o m b i n a t i o n s ,
) by t h e s t a n d a r d i d e n t i t y
so we have
or
m 1
m 2
I^ 111 - 1 + z^ - + ... +( ^ i )+(
(n+
^!!r" 2 )
((n+l)+m-l\
which is
E(n+1).
Therefore
E(n)
implies
E(n+1)
and T h e o r e m 1 is
t r u e by m a t h e m a t i c a l i n d u c t i o n .
Now l e t u s p r o v e
1
(8)
Theorem 2
n^
= [(n+m) f
xn'l(l
-x)mdx J"1
0
Proof:
r(n) = (n-l)I
B ( m , n)
( g a m m a function)
= B(n, m )
= -1 . ' ~}--
(beta function)
1965
IS NOT AN INTEGER
151
Therefore
1
_
r(m-fn)
B(m, n) " r(m)r(n)
'
and
1
, n-m+1)
(n
r(n+2)
r(m+l) r(n-m+l)
4 ^ v , = (n+l) C)
(n+l)!
ml (n-m)!
ml (n-m):
Then
(9)
w /
(n)
\m/
= 7-xrvoT-4i
m = [(n+l)B(m+l,n-m+l)] "l
(n+l )B(m + l, n-m+1)
Lx
'J
We can now substitute the right-hand side of equation (5) into equation
(9) to obtain
n m
= (n+_1) = [(n+m^m+^n)]-1
where
-,
B(m+l,n)
= B(n 5 m + 1) = J
x111 (1-x) m dx
0
Therefore
1
n
x11"l (1 - x ^ d x ] " 1
= [(n+m) J
0
Both equations (5) and (8) a s s e r t that n $
= (m+l) " . Some inter-
esting special cases of equation (5) are
JD
^
vl
=
=
/n-l\
(o)
/ n\
(n-l)I
k^nr
n!
( l ) = (n-l)ill
=l
=
'
and
_/
n + 1
( n + 1 )i
_ (n)(n+l)
k=l.
Now we can put equation (8) into equation (4) to obtain
152
WHERE u
April
u
1
(10)
Fn -
[(n-k) J
k=0
2k-F
x n -
^l-x^dx]"1
w h e r e m is an i n t e g e r , n / 2 - 1 < m < n / 2 .
But w h e r e a s equations
(4) and (5) have m e a n i n g only for i n t e g e r a r g u m e n t s , equations (8) and

(10) can be used to find
x$/
and F
w h e r e x, y, and u a r e any
rational numbers.
In p a r t i c u l a r
m
(11)
F,
1 [<u-k) J
k=0
x^^^d-x^dx]"
w h e r e m is an i n t e g e r , u / 2 - 1 < m < u / 2 e The equation (11), and

the definite i n t e g r a l in it, a r e e a s i l y p r o g r a m m e d for solution on a
digital c o m p u t e r . A few values of F
follow.
4. 1000000
4. 2000000
4. 3000000
4. 4000000
4. 5000000
4. 6000000
4. 7000000
4. 8000000
4. 9000000
5. 0000000
5..1000000
5* 2000000
5. 3000000
5. 4000000
5. 5000000
5,.6000000
5. 7000000
5, 8000000
58.9000000
6. 0000000
3. 1550000
3. 3200000
3.4950000
3. 6800000
3. 8750000
4. 0800000
4. 2950000
4. 5200000
4. 7550000
5. 0000000
5. 2550000
5. 5200000
5. 7950000
6. 0800000
6. 3750000
6. 6800000
6.,9950000
7. 3200000
7, 6550000
8. 0000000
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
0. 1
0.2
1.0
1.0
1.0
1. 1
1.2
2.0
2. 1
4.0
3.0
ELEMENTARY PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS

Edited by A.P. HILLMAN
University of Santa Clara, Santa Clara, California
Send all c o m m u n i c a t i o n s r e g a r d i n g E l e m e n t a r y P r o b l e m s and

Solutions to P r o f e s s o r A. P . Hillman, M a t h e m a t i c s D e p a r t m e n t ,
v e r s i t y of Santa C l a r a , Santa C l a r a , California.
Uni-
Any p r o b l e m believed
to be new in the a r e a of r e c u r r e n t sequences and any new a p p r o a c h e s

to existing p r o b l e m s will be w e l c o m e d .
The p r o p o s e r should submit
each p r o b l e m with solution in legible form, p r e f e r a b l y typed in double

spacing with n a m e and a d d r e s s of the p r o p o s e r as a headinge
Solutions to p r o b l e m s should be submitted on s e p a r a t e s h e e t s in
the f o r m a t used below within two months of publication.
B-64
Proposed by Verner E. Hoggatt, Jr., San Jose State College, San Jose,
California
Show that
L L ,, = L~ , , + ( - 1 ) . w h e r e L is the n-th
n n+1
2n+l
n
n u m b e r defined byy L, = 1, L 0 = 3, and L l 0 = L M + L .
1
2
n+^
n+1 n
B-65
Let u
and v be s e q u e n c e s satisfying
n
n
v . T+CV ,, +dv =0 w h e r e a, b, c, and d
n+Z
n+1
n
A
% 7
(E 2 +aE+b)(E 2 +cE+d) = E 4 + p E +qE + r E + s . Show
y
7
B-66
j / i p y j-2+qy
n+4
r/
n+3
n/
.o
n+2
+r
y
7
.i
n+l
+ s
Lucas
California
u , J a u ,,+bu =0 and
n+2
n+1
n
a r e constants and let
that y =u +v
satisfies
Proposed by D.G. Mead, University of Santa Clara, Santa Clara,
California
Find constants p, q, r, and s such that

yn+4+pyn+3+qyn+2+ryn+1+syn = o
is a 4th o r d e r r e c u r s i o n r e l a t i o n f o r the t e r m - b y - t e r m p r o d u c t s y =u v
3
r
J
n n n
of solutions of u l 0 - u M - u = 0 and v , 0 - 2 v ,, -v = 0.
n+2 n+1 n
n+2
n+1 n
B-67
Proposed by D.G. Mead, Uni versity of Santa Clara, Santa Clara,

B
and
California
Find the sum 1' 1 +1 * 2+2 5+3' 12+. . . +F G , w h e r e F ^ = F ,. +F

n n
n+Z n+1 n
Gn+2=2Gn+1+Gn.
153
154
B-68
April
Proposed by Walter W. Horner, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Find e x p r e s s i o n s in t e r m s of Fibonacci n u m b e r s which will gene r a t e i n t e g e r s for the d i m e n s i o n s and diagonal of a r e c t a n g u l a r p a r a l l e l opiped, i. e. , solutions of
2,, 2 , 2
,2
a +b +c = d
B-69
Proposed by Werner E. Hoggatt, Jr., San Jose State College, San Jose,
California
Solve the s y s t e m of simultaneous equations:

xF
xF
where
is the n - t h
,, +yF = x +y
J
n+1 J n
n+2+yFn+l
x2+2xy
Fibonacci n u m b e r .
SOLUTIONS
CHEBYSHEV POLYNOMIALS
B-27
Proposed by D.C. Cross, Exeter,
Corrected
Polynomials
England
and r e s t a t e d from
Vol. 1, No. 4:
The Chebyshev
P (x) a r e defined by P (x) = c o s ( n A r c c o s x).
Letting
(>
f = A r c c o s x, we have
:os <f> - x = P (x),
cos (2$) = 2cos 0
- 1 = 2x
- 1 = P?(x),
cos (3<f>) = 4cos 0 - 3cos <j> = 4x
- 3x = P~(x),
cos (40) = 8 c o s 4 0 - 8 c o s 2 0 + 1 = 8 x 4 - 8x 2 + 1 = P 4 ( x ) ,
It is well known that
P
n + 2< x > =
2xP
n+l<X> " Pn(x>
Show that
P x(x) =
n
m
I
j=0
B. x n ' 2 j
jn
'
etc.
155
155
where
m = [n/2 J ,
the g r e a t e s t i n t e g e r not exceeding n / 2 , and
(1) B
= 2n_1
'
on
(2) B . , , x l = 2 B . . .
- B.
.
j+l,n+l
j+l,n
j,n-l
(3) I f S = | B I + | B . | + . . . + | B
I,
n
' on'
'In1
' mn'
then S
10
n+2
Solution by Douglas Lind, University of Virginia, Charlottesville,
= 2S ,. + S
n+1
n
Va.
By De M o i v r e ' s T h e o r e m ,
(cos <f> + i sin </>) -
cos n 0 + i sin rub
Letting x = cos <fi, and expanding the left side,

/2
= (x + i vl - x )
cosn0+isinn0
.
= 2 (-l) j / 2 (Jx n - j (l - x V / 2
j=o
We equate r e a l p a r t s , noting that only the even t e r m s of the sum a r e
real,
[n/2]
cos n< = P j x ) =
( - l ) k ( 2 ^) x n " 2 k ( l - x 2 )
k=0
We m a y p r o v e from this (cf. F o r m u l a (22), p. 185, Higher T r a n s c e n d tal F u n c t i o n s ,
Numbers,
Vol. 2 by E r d e l y i et al; R. G. Buschman,
Chebyshev P o l y n o m i a l s ,
G e n e r a l i z a t i o n s and
Equations, " Fibonacci Q u a r t e r l y , Vol. 1, No. 4, p. 2) that

(*)
B.
J, n
11 \ - l /
\1L-J-Xf.
H (n-Zj):
F r o m t h i s , we have
(1)
o, n
= 2n~l
"Fibonacci
Difference
156
April
It is a l s o e a s y to show from (*) that

(2)
B. ,,
,,
j+l,n+l
= 2 B. ,,
- B.
.
J+l,n
J, n-1
Now (*) i m p l i e s
B.
= (-1) J | B .
J,n
' j,n'
so that (2) b e c o m e s
( " D j + 1 |1 B .j ++1l , n ++ Jl J = 2 ( - l ) j + 1 |'B .j++Tl , n JI + ( - D J + 1 |'B .j , n -,l
B.,,
,,
= 2
B.,T
B.
..
j + 1 , n+1 '
' j+1, n 1
j , n-1
Summing both sides for j to I =J, we have
(3)
v
'
S ,. = 2 S + S .
n+1
n
n-1
Also solved by the proposer.
A SPECIAL
B-52
CASE
Proposed by Venter E. Hoggatt, Jr., San Jose State College, San Jose,
California
F ^ - F 2 = (x - l ) n + 1 , w h e r e F is the n - t h F i b n-20 n+2

n
n
onacci n u m b e r , defined by F , = F~ = 1 and F 0 = F , + F .
3
1
2
n+2
n+1
n
Showthat
Solution by John L. Broivn, Jr., Pennsylvania
State University,
Identity XXII (Fibonacci Q u a r t e r l y ,
State College,
Pa.
Vol. 1, No. 2, A p r i l 1963,
p . 68) s t a t e s :
F n F m - F n - k. F m+k
,. = ( - l ) n ~ k F,k F m +,.k - n
The p r o p o s e d identity is i m m e d i a t e on taking m = n and k = 2.
More g e n e r a l l y , we have
FZ - F _ F
n
n - k n+k
= (-l)n"kF,2
k
for
0 < k < n
Also solved by Marjorie Bicknell, Herta T. Freitag, John E. Homer, Jr., J.A.H. Hunter,
Douglas Lind, Gary C. MacDonald, Robert McGee, C.B.A. Peck, Howard Walton, John
Wessner, Charles Ziegenfus, and the proposer.
1965
E L E M E N T A R Y P R O B L E M S AND SOLUTIONS
157
SUMMING M U L T I P L E S O F SQUARES
B-53
California
Show t h a t
(2n - 1 ) F ? + ( 2 n - Z)Y* + . . . 4- F ^
_ = F!T
1
2
Zn-1
2n
Solution by James D. Mooney, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana
R e m e m b e r i n g that
I
F, 2 = F F , ,
^
k
n n+1
k=0
we m a y p r o c e e d by i n d u c t i o n .
+ [ > ( n - l ) - 2 ] T\
(2n-3)F2
2
2
n = 1, F , = 1 = F - .
Clearlyfor
[2(n-l) - l] ? \
(2n-4)F2
+ . . . + F ^ ^ ^
. . . + F2n_3 = F
Assume
Then
(2n-l)Fj + . . . + F 2 n _ x = [(2n-3)Fj + . . . + F 2 n _ 3 ]
2n-2
2
2 (v F ? + . . . + F
. = F
9) + F
? +
1
2n-2
2n-l
2n-2
2n-l
F
k=0
F
2n-2
F
2n-2F2n-l
2n-l(F2n-2
<F2n-2
2n-l)2
+ F
2n-1>
2n
2n-lF2n =
=
"
2n-2
'
+ 2F
"
2n-2
F?>
k
k=0
2n-2F2n-l
2n-2F2n-l
+ F
2n-1 =
'
Also solved by Marforie Bicknell, J.L. Brown, Jr., Douglas Lind, John E. Homer, Jr.,
Robert McGee, C.B.A. Peck, Howard Walton, David Zeitlin, Charles Ziegenfus, and
the proposer.
158
April

RECURRENCE RELATION FOR DETERMINANTS
B-54
Proposed by C.A. Church, Jr., Duke University, Durham, N. Carolina
Show that the n - t h
order determinant
ax
-1
a2
-1
a.
~3
-1
(n)
n-1
-1
satisfies the r e c u r r e n c e
f(n) - a f(n-l) + f(n-Z)
Solution by John E. Homer, Jr., La Crosse.
for
n > 2.
Wisconsin
Expanding by e l e m e n t s of the n-th column yields the d e s i r e d r e lation i m m e d i a t e l y .

Also solved by Marjorie Bicknell, Douglas Lind, Robert McGee, C.B.A.
Charles Ziegenfus, and the proposer.
Peck,
AN EQUATION FOR THE GOLDEN M E A N

B-55
From a proposal by Charles R. Wall, Texas Christian University,
Show that x
where
- xF
a = (1 + >/fT)/2, F
Solution by G.L. Alexanderson,
For
Ft. Worth, Texas
- F
, = 0 has no solution tog r e a t e r than a,

n-1
is the n-th Fibonacci n u m b e r , and n > 1.
University of Santa Clara,
n > 1 let p(x, n) = x
- xF
- F
California
, , g(x) = x
- x - 1, and
i ,
n-2
n-3 , - n-4 .
, n-k-1 .
. _
, _
x
h(x, n) = x
+x
+2x
+...+F,x
+...+F
..
0x + F
k
n-2
n-1
It is e a s i l y s e e n that p(x, n) = g(x)h(x, n), g(x) < 0 for - l / a < x < a,
g(a) = 0, g(x) > 0 for
x > a, and h(x, n) > 0 for
is the unique positive root of p(x, n) = 0.
x > 0. Hence x = a
Also solved by J.L. Broum, Jr., Douglas Lind, C.B.A. Peck, and the proposer.
1965
159
GOLDEN MEAN AS A LIMIT

B-56
Proposed by Charles R. Wall, Texas Christian University,
Let
x, , x, . 0 .
1
Z
be the n - t h Fibonacci n u m b e r .
n
byJ x. .. = f(x, ) w h e r e
k+1
k
f(x) =
For
Ft. Worth, Texas
Let x^ > 0 and define

0
. + xF
.
n-1
n
n > 1, prove that the limit of x, as k goes to infinity e x i s t s and
find the limit.
(See B-43 and B - 5 5 . )
Solution by G.L. Alexanderson,
For
\/F
University of Santa Clara, Santa Clara,
California
n > 1 let p(x)

= Xn - xF
rv
in the proof of B - 5 5 ,
p(x) < 0 for
0 < x < ae
- F . . Let a = (1 + \[5)/2.
As
n
n-1
one s e e s that p(x) > 0 for x > a and that
If x, > a, we then have
(x ) > x F + F
= (x
)
k
k n
n-1
k+1
and so x, > x. , , . It is a l s o c l e a r that x, > a i m p l i e s
k
k+1
k
(x. ^ ) n = x, F + F , > a F + F . = a11
k+1
k n
n-1
n
n-1
and hence x, , , > a. Thus x > a i m pr l i e s x > x, > x^ > . . . > a.
k+1
o
o
1
Z
S i m i l a r l y , 0 < x < a i m p l i e s 0 < x < x. < x_ < . . . < a. In both
'
c a s e s the sequence
x , x, , . . . is monotonic and bounded. Hence x,
n
o
1
k
h a s a limit L > 0 as k goes to infinity. Since L s a t i s f i e s
L = n^Y+rr ,
n-1
n
L m u s t be the unique positive solution of p(x) = 0.
Also solved by Douglas Lind and the proposer.
A FIBONACCI-LUCAS INEQUALITY
B-57
Proposed by G.L. Alexanderson,
University of Santa Clara, Santa Clara,
Let F
and L be the n - t h
n
n
b e r r e s p e c t i v e l y . P r o v e that
Fibonacci and n - t h
(F4n/n)n> L2L6L10...
for all i n t e g e r s
n > 2.
L4n_2
California
Lucas n u m -
160
Solution by David Zeitlin,
Minneapolis,
April
Minnesota
Using m a t h e m a t i c a l induction, one m a y show that

n
F
4n
4k-2'
n = 1, 2f
...
k=l
If we apply the well-known a r i t h m e t i c - g e o m e t r i c inequality to the unequal positive n u m b e r s
L OJ
2
L, , L. AJ . . . ,
o
10
L . ,
4n-Z
we obtain for
n = 2, 3,
n
2
4n
__
k=l
4k-2
N/L2L6L10 ...
L ^ ^
which is the d e s i r e d inequality.

Also solved by Douglas hind and the proposer.
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
It is a p l e a s u r e to acknowledge the a s s i s t a n c e furnished by Prof. V e r n e r
E. Hoggatt, J r . concerning the e s s e n t i a l idea of "Maximal S e t s " and
the line of proof suggested in the l a t t e r p a r t of m y a r t i c l e "On the
R e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of I n t e g e r s as Distinct Sums of Fibonacci N u m b e r s . "
The a r t i c l e
appeared
In Feb*,1965s
H. H. F e r n s
CORRECTION
Volume 3 , Number 1
Page 26, line 10 from bottom of page
V ~+V- / ) +V 7 _ = F Q - F _ = F A = 8
7 , 3 7 , 4 7 , 5
8 7
6
Page 27, lines 4 and 5
F ^ + F . + F , * . . . +F = F ,, -1 (n even)
2 4 6
n
n+1
F Q + F C + F ^ + . . . + F = F ,. -1 (n odd)
3 5 7
n
n+1
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Both the p a p e r s "Fibonacci R e s i d u e s " and "On a G e n e r a l Fibonacci
Identity, " by John H. Halton, w e r e supported in p a r t by NSF g r a n t
GP2163.
CORRECTION
Volume 3 , Number 1
P a g e 40, Equation (81), the R. H. S. should have an additional t e r m
-
V 2 F
V+2
BASIC PROPERTIES OF A CERTAIN GENERALIZED SEQUENCE

OF NUMBERS
A. F. HORADAM
The University of North Carolina, Chapel H i l l , N. C.
1.
INTRODUCTION
Let a, (3 be the roots of

x 2 - px + q = 0
(1.1)
where
p, q are a r b i t r a r y integers.
Usually,
we think
of a, p as
being real, though this need not be so.

Write
d = (p
( 1 . 2)
- 4q) '
Then
a = (p + d ) / 2 , P= (p - d)/2
(1. 3)
s o that
(1.
a + P = p, aP = q, a - P = d.
4)
Recently [6] , a certain generalized sequence | w j was defined:

(1.5)
j w l = jw n (a, b;p, q)| : wQ = a, w ^ b , w n = p w n 4 - q w n _ 2 ( n
in which
(1.6)
= Acin + Bp n ,
where
(I 1)
11 7
A -
" aP
" a- p
R-
ii5
a a
"
" a -P
whence
(1.8)
A + B = a, A - B = (2b - pa)d - 1 , A B = e d" 2
in which we have written

2
(1.9)
e = pab - qa
161
2
- b .
^ Z)
162
BASIC P R O P E R T I E S OF A CERTAIN
Sequences like j w
example,
Oct.
[ have been p r e v i o u s l y introduced by,
for
B e s s e l - H a g e n [ l ] and T a g i u r i [l l] , though in the available
l i t e r a t u r e I cannot find evidence of much p r o g r e s s from the definition

[11] to have d i s c o v e r e d a few of the r e s u l t s listed h e r e u n d e r .
The p u r p o s e of [6 J was to d e t e r m i n e a r e c u r r e n c e r e l a t i o n for
the k
p o w e r s of w
(k an i n t e g e r ) , that i s , to obtain an explicit
form for
w k (x)
w_k x n
2
n=0
H e r e , we p r o p o s e to e x a m i n e some of the fundamental a r i t h m e t i c a l

p r o p e r t i e s of jw 1 .
No a t t e m p t at all is m a d e to analyze congruence
or p r i m e n u m b e r f e a t u r e s of 5w t . In selecting p r o p e r t i e s to g e n e r alize we have been guided by those p r o p e r t i e s of the r e l a t e d s e q u e n c e s

(see 2. below) which in the l i t e r a t u r e and from e x p e r i e n c e s e e m m o s t
b a s i c . Naturally, the list could be extended as far a s the r e a d e r ' s enthusiasm persists.
It is intended that this p a p e r should be the f i r s t of a s e r i e s investigating a s p e c t s of jw I .
Organization of the m a t e r i a l is a s fol-
lows: in 2 , v a r i o u s s p e c i a l (known) s e q u e n c e s r e l a t e d to Iw [ a r e
introduced,
while in 3. s o m e l i n e a r f o r m u l a s involving
jw I a r e e s -
tablished, and in 4. some n o n - l i n e a r e x p r e s s i o n s a r e obtained. F i n a l 2

iy, in 5 . , some c o m m e n t s on the d e g e n e r a t e c a s e p = 4q a r e offered,,
2.
R E L A T E D SEQUENCES
P a r t i c u l a r c a s e s of 5w I a r e the s e q u e n c e s
jfnj,
j l n [ given by:
(2.1)
w n (1,
p; p,
q) = u n (p, q)
(2.2)
w n (2,
p; p,
q) = V n (p, q)
(2.3)
(r, r + s ; 1, -1) = h
n
(r, s)
n
û I , 5v t , jh I ,
1965
GENERALISED SEQUENCE OF NUMBERS
(2.4)
wn(1;
1; 1, -1)= f n ( = u n ( l , - l )
(2.5)
wn(2,
1; 1, -1)= l n ( = v n ( l , - l ) = h n ( Z , - l ) ) .
163
= hn(l,0))
Historical information about these second order recurrence sequences may be found in Dickson [3] .
Fibonacci sequence,
il
Of course, Jf I is the famous
I is the Lucas sequence, and Ju [ and Jv I
are generalizations of these, while Jh 1 discussed in [4] is a different

generalization of them.
Chief properties of ju I , Jv [ , Jf [ and il
may be found in, for instance, Jarden [7] , Lucas [81 and Tagiuri [10]
and [l l] , those of Jf I especially being featured in Subba Rao [9j and
Vorob'ev [l 2] .
Two rather interesting specializations of (2. 1) and (2. 2) are the
Fermat sequences
Ju
and the Pell sequences
(3, 2)1 =J2

Ju
-ll
(2, -1)[
and
and Jv
(3, 2)1 = j2
From (1.6), (1.7) and (2.1) - (2.5) it follows that

n+1
(2.6)
'
^
d
v n = an + p n
(2. 7)
(2.8)
fln+l
_ (r + s - r P ^ a " - (r + 8 - r a ^ p "
n+1
(2-9)
_ al
n
(2.10)
v
'
-n+1
"h
^5
= a? + p!1
n i l
wherein
/9 n\
(2.11)
that is, a, , (3
(2.12)
ax = -,
+ N /
+ l[
Jv (2, - 1 ) 1 . (See [l] or [8])..
, opx = 1
a r e the roots of
x 2 - x - 1 = 0.
-^5
164
Oct.
Consequently, by (1.4)
(2. 13)
a x + Px = 1, a 1 P 1 = - 1 , c^ - ^
5.
To a s s i s t the r e a d e r , and as a s o u r c e of r e a d y r e f e r e n c e , the full set

of r e s u l t s for the five s p e c i a l i z a t i o n s of Jw { will often be w r i t t e n
down, a s in (Z. 6) - (Z. 10).
Obviously from (1 . 9),
F
e c h a r a c t e r i z e s the v a r i o u s
j U n j >2 j V n( ' j h n | ' j f n [ '

- r s - s , 1, 5 r e s p e c t i v e l y .
\* n\
We d e r i v e
= ^
sequences.
^
"
^'
By ( 1 . 6), ( 1 . 7) and (Z. 6) we have

(Z0 14)
w = au + (b - pa) u , = bu , - q a u 0 ,
v
r
'
n
n v
' n-1
n-1
^
n-Z
with, in p a r t i c u l a r , the known [8] e x p r e s s i o n s
(Z. 15)
v = Zu - pu , = pu , - 2q u - .
x
'
n
n c n-1 r n-1
^ n-Z
(Ultimately,
of c o u r s e , t h e s e yield
1 = Zf - f . + Zf ~. )
7
7
n
n
n-1
n-Z
Putting n = 0 in(Z. 14) r e q u i r e s the e x i s t e n c e of values for negative s u b s c r i p t s ,
as yet not defined.
Allowing u n r e s t r i c t e d values of
n t h e r e f o r e in ( 1 . 6) we obtain
C
w'
= A a " n + B (3~n
(2.16)
= q
Ki^V-l*
after simplification using

(Z. 17)
x
'
u
-n
=q
^
^ ,
n-Z
which follows from (Z. 6).

Combining (Z. 14) and (Z. 16) we have
(au - bu -,)
' n
n-1'
w
= q
r,
-n H
au + (b - pa u T
r
n
n-1
whence it follows from (Z. Z) - (Z. 5) that
/o i o\
(Z.18)
v
'
(2; 19)
'
-n
= qn v
-n
^
n
w
n
1965
(2.20)
=(-l)n
\r (u
- u
-n
<2-21>
, ) - su
A
2ll
2li?
r u -f s u
,
n
n-1
165
^ n ^ "
In p a r t i c u l a r ,
w , = A a " 1 + (3" 1 = P a "
-1
q
(2.23)
so that
(2. 24)
(2. 25)
= p
(2..26)
- 0
-1
-l
(2.27)
= 0
(2. 28)
= -1
M a n y of t h e s i m p l e s t
Iw \ a r e
e x p r e s s i b l e in t e r m s
B e s i d e s (2.4) we have
(2.29)
(2.30)
wn(
(2.31)
w n ( 1,
( _ 1
'
1;
-1'
1, - 1 ;
_1)
1, - 1 ) =
<"1)n"1
-f n _ 3
1; - 1 , - 1 ) = ( - l ) n _ 1 f n 3
More generally,
(2.32)
w n (a, b;
(y 2 . 3 3 )
1, - 1 ) = a f n _ 2 +
bf^
(a, b; - 1 , - 1 ) = ( - l ) n k f
- bf
A
I n - Z9
n-1)
Notice that
w n (alf
bi; p
qx) = - w n (a2, b 2 ; p2>
(2. 34)<[provided
a
'ar
2 = "bi'
P2
= p
q2)
of jf 1
166
Some sequences a r e c y c l i c .
(2.35)
Oct.
Examples are
w n (a, b; - 1 , 1)
2
for which a, (3 (= a ) a r e the complex cube r o o t s of 1 and
(2.36)
w n (a, b; 1, 1)
2
for which a, (3 (= a ) a r e the complex cube r o o t s of - 1 .
(2. 35) is cyclic of o r d e r 3 (with t e r m s a, b, - a - b) since
Sequence
= p
=1,
while sequence (2.36) is cyclic of o r d e r 6 (with t e r m s a, b, - a + b,

,
u\
3n 0 3 n
,
6n Q 6n , ,
,, . ^ .
-a, - b , a - b) since a
= p
= - 1 , so a
= p
= l ( n odd m this
c a s e ) . (Refer (1.6)).
G e o m e t r i c - t y p e s e q u e n c e s a r i s e when p .= 0 (so that by (1.5)
w n + 1 = - q w n 4 ) and q = 0 (so that w n + 1 = p w j .
3.
LINEAR P R O P E R T I E S
F r o m (1.5) and (1.6) it follows that

(3.1)
w
wn ,
n-1
(3. 2)
CL
P.. wn - k.
w n + 2 - (p
>
(a
/P
(
if -1 < p < 1 ,
if -1 < a < 1 ,
- q) w n + pq w n ^ x = 0 ,
and
( 3 . 3)
- (p 2 - q) w n + 1 + q 2 w n _ x = 0 .
PWn+2
Repeated use
the sum of the f i r s t
of qw,
n
, = -w, ,, + pw
(k = 1, . . . , n) leads to
terms
n-1
(3. 4) q
2 ] w^ = (p -1) (w 2 + w 3 +
j=0
+ wn) - w n + 1
+ p W]L
whence
(3.5)
(p - q - 1)
n-1
^
j=0
= w n + 1 - w x -(p - 1) (w n - w Q )
1965
167
while the c o r r e s p o n d i n g r e s u l t s for differences a r e

n-1
(3.6)
q ]T
(-1) J w. = (p +1) (-w 2 + w 3
j=0
+(-1)n_1
n)+(-1)Ilwn+l
+pW
n X
and
(P - q + D X
j
(3.7)
(-1)
w.
"
= ( - l ) n + 1 w n + 1 +w 1 -(p+1) j ( - l ) n + 1 w n + wQ [ .
Replace n by 2n in (3. 4), (3. 5) (3. 6) and (3. 7).
(3.8)
<7=w0+w2+...
+w2n_2
P = wx + w 3 + . . . + w 2 n _ 1
Write
and
(3.9)
Adding and s u b t r a c t i n g (3. 4), (3. 6) give

(3.10)
(1 + q ) (J = - p p - ( w 2 n - w Q )
and
(3.11)
(1 + q ) p = p O +q(w 2 n _ 1 - w_ x )
for the sum of the even - (odd -) indexed t e r m s of ^w \ . C l e a r l y by

(1.5) addition of (3. 10) and (3. 11) yields the sum of the f i r s t 2 n t e r m s
(3. 4) as expected.
Solve (3. 10) and (3. 11) so that
j p 2 - (l+q) 2 [ a = ( l + q ) ( w 2 n - w Q ) - pq ( w ^ ^ - w ^ )
(3.12)
and
j p 2 - ( l + q ) 2 [ 9 = p ( w 2 n - wQ) - q ( l + q ) ( w 2 n _ 1 - w ^ )
(3.13)
Using the a l t e r n a t i v e
expression w
= bu
we have
(
n+1
I n
n-1
i o = w~
\/ w n+^
2 un - nq w,1 un-1,
f w . 0 = w 0 u - nq w~ u ,
V n+3
3 n
2 n-1
, - qau
.
~ (2. 14),
1^8
Oct.
whence
C
, = w ru -n q ^w
\ w n+r
<
i
= w u - q
I
n r
^
n and r . Equations
(3.14)
on i n t e r c h a n g i n g
from (1.5), (2. 1) and (2. 1.-4).
,
r - 1, u n-1
w 1 u 1
n-1 r - 1
(3.14) m a y a l s o be
obtained
Of c o u r s e
w , = w . u ,. - q w . . u , . ,
n+r
r - j n+j
^ r - j - 1 n+j-1
(3.15)
n+j
r-j
n+j-1
r-j-1
also.
F u r t h e r , from ( 1 . 6) and (2. 7) it follows that
/o
, r
wn + .r + q w
i \
(3.16)
n-r
= v
w
r
n
t h a t i s , the e x p r e s s i o n on the left is independent of a, b, n.
r and n in (3. 16) and then set r = 0. Accordingly,
(3. 17)
Interchange
+q w
=a v .
n ^ . -n
n
O b s e r v e a l s o from ( 1 . 6) and (2. 6) that
w . - q
-I
(3.18)
"r
r_1
s
u ,
7 . - q w
s -1
n+s
^
n
s
which [lo] is an i n t e g e r provided s divides r .
Two binomial r e s u l t s of i n t e r e s t m a y be noted.
Firstly,
(1.6) it follows that
(3.19)
2n=("q)
w h e r e we have used the fact
j> ( ->
--<
a^ - pa + q = 0, (3^ - pp + q = 0.
Starting from ( 1 . 3) and ( 1 . 6), we r e a d i l y d e r i v e

2nw
= A(p + d ) n + B(p - d ) n
from
l6<
[n/2]
n
(3.20) 2 w n = a
pn_2jdZJ(J)
2
J
Z
j=o
[n-lj
+ (2b-pa)
Z
J=0
( *
J
J p ^ ^ d
whence follow the known [ l ] e x p r e s s i o n s

2nun=
(3.21)
[n
(J++11)pn-2Jd2J
j=0
2n " 1 v n =
(3.22)
pn-2Jd2J
(J)
j=0
[n 2]
j=0
(3.23)
2 fn=
2 n _ l l
(3.24)
n+1
i
<2j+V5
n /2]
Z
j=0
2j)
Suitable substitutions in the above r e s u l t s lead to the s p e c i a l c a s e s

jVn|'
for K l *
JM'
jfnj
and j l n j ; for e x a m p l e , for j f n j , in (3.4)
<T+P=f
2n+l-1'
and in (3. 14) with r = n,
+ f
n-l=f2n=
<&
k=0
using (3. 19).

If we w r i t e
(3.25)
% _
W
n+1
so that, by (1.5),
(3.26)
-p- q r
,
'
n-1 - p - q r
n-k'
170
enabling us t o e x p r e s s the limit of the r a t i o a s a continued
Oct.
fraction.
S o m e t i m e s , when q = - 1 , it is notationally convenient to w r i t e

a
- e " = s m h f] + cosh n
Q
'O
= -e
- 7] - sinh T) - cosh n
o
'o
b
o
w h e r e (1.2)
-o
-1
(3. 28)
cosh T) = ' , sinh r\ = , tanh t) - p d
*
'
o 2 '
'o 2
o ^ o
Z e r o suffices signify that q = - 1 .
Combining this hyperbolic notation with the r e m a r k s i m m e d i a t e l y
p r e c e d i n g (3.27), and p r o c e e d i n g to the limit ( r e f e r (3.1)), wevsee that
for
p - 1,
q == - 1 , that i s , for \h I (and its s p e c i a l i z a t i o n s Si \, Si (),
.
r
T-
h n i..l
1
a"1
- e
-r\\
cosh 7| - sinh r\
1 +
1 + 1
1
2
( o b s e r v e that by (2.12) = g
is a root of x + x - 1 = 0 so t h a t
ttl
i
g } leading to the continued fraction. )
F u r t h e r m o r e , (3.27) and (3.28), with (1.5), imply
+ ( ~ l ) n B ) sinh n rj + (A - (-1 ) n B ) cosh n ri
o, n
o x '
o
'o x o % '
o'
'o
Hyperbolic e x p r e s s i o n s for the s p e c i a l i z e d s e q u e n c e s a r e then,
(3130) w
=(A
(2.6), (2.7), (2.9), (2.10),

u
(3.31)
=
n
sinh (n + 1) 77
T
cosh
71
cosh (n + 1)
'o
cosh
o
(n odd)
'
,
x
(n even)
from
1965

v
(3.32)
'
= 2 s i n h n T)
2 c o s h n r)
with c o r r e s p o n d i n g e x p r e s s i o n s for
i s r e p l a c e d by T] .
A hyperbolic
4.
f ,
(n e v e n )
(n
odd)
respectively,
e x p r e s s i o n for
NON- LINEAR
171
i n w h i c h r\
is given in
[5] .
PROPERTIES
E s s e n t i a l l y , the p r o b l e m in obtaining n o n - l i n e a r f o r m u l a s (as in

t h e l i n e a r c a s e ) i s to d e t e c t t h e a p p r o p r i a t e c o e f f i c i e n t s ( f u n c t i o n s of
k
p , q) of w . B a s i c n o n - l i n e a r ( q u a d r a t i c ) r e s u l t s h a v e a l r e a d y b e e n
r e c o r d e d i n [6 J , n a m e l y ;
(4.
1)
x
'
(4.
2)
v
'
aw
, + ( b - rp a ) w
, . - w
w - qw
, w
,
m+n
m+n-1
m
n
^ m-1
n-1
2
2
a w 0 + v( b - rp a ) w~
, = w - qw
, = w ., w , - q w w 0
2n
' 2n-l
n
^ n-1
n+1 n - 1 ^ n
n-2
iA o\
(4. 3)
x
'
2
n-1
., w
, - w = q
e
n
n+1
n-1
n
O b v i o u s l y , f r o m ( 4 . 3) w i t h
(4, 4)
n = 0,
e = q (wl
w ^ x - wQ)
w h i c h m a y be c o m p a r e d w i t h ( 1 . 9), u s i n g ( 1 . 5) a n d ( 2 . 2 3 ) .
A n e x t e n s i o n of ( 4 . 3) i s , by ( 1 . 6) a n d ( 2 . 6),
/ A r\
(4. 5)
v
'
2
n-r
2
, w
- w = e q
u
,
n
n+r
n-r
n
r-1
r = n in (4.5), we have
w
Putting
2
(4. 6)
x
'
2
+ e u
n
Interchange
and
T = a w0
n-1
2n
in (4.5), then suppose
/ A ~7\
2 .
-n
2
( 4 . 7)
w w
= a + e q
u
,
x
'
n -n
^
n-1
(n = 1 r e d u c e s (4. 7) t o (4. 4 ) . )
Specializations
of ( 4 . 1) a r e ,
r =. 0.
We d e d u c e
on m u l t i p l i c a t i o n b y 2 a n d u s e of
( 1 . 2 ) , ( 1 . 4 ) , ( 2 . 6 ) , ( 2 . 7 ) a n d ( 2 . 15), t h e k n o w n [8] r e s u l t s
172
(4. 8)
Oct.
2 u , 1 = u . 1 v + u
, v
m+n-1
m-1 n
n-1 m
and
(4. 9)
'
2 v . . = v v . + d u 1 u 1 .
m+n
m n
m - 1 n-1
Next, by (4.6), we d e r i v e , using (2. 6), (2.7),
(4.10)
x
'
and
(4. 11)
2 v , = v2 + d2 u 2 1
2n
n
n-1
( 1 . 2) and ( 1 . 4),
u- . , = u , v
2n-l
n-1 n
with
i A i o\
(4. 12)
Again,
2 0 n , 2
2 I 0 n
v . = v - 2q = d u , + 2q
.
2n
n
n-1
^
(4.1) with m = 2n gives an e x p r e s s i o n for w~
which we deduce,
for
from
by (4. 10), (2.6), (2.7) and the r e c u r r e n c e r e l a t i o n
v~ ,
3n
/A i o\
(4. 13)
3n-l
2
n
= v - q
n-1
and
/
V-2
3n
(4. 14)
x
'
= v
v
- 3q
n
n
R e s u l t s (4. 10) - (4. 14) occur in Lucas [8] in a slightly adjusted
notation.
Coming now to the sum of the f i r s t
half of (4. 2).
Write
(4.15)
n t e r m s , we use the f i r s t
n-1
^ = Z w2
j=0
Then, it follows that

(4.16)
2
(1-q) r = a ( 7 + ( b - p a ) p - j ^ n - 1
+ (b
"Pa)
2n-l 1
1965
173
whence r may be found from (3. 12) and (3. 13).

Repeating the first half of (4. 2) leads to
(4.17)
- q 2 w ^ x = b w 2 n + 1 + <b- p a ) q w 2 n - 1
w ^
From (1. 6), (1.8) and (2.6),

(4. 18)
w
n-r
- w
n+r+t
w .. = q
n+t
^
e u
, u ., ,
r-1 r+t-1
whence t = 0 gives (4.5)

Repiac
Replacing
w
for
by u
in (3. 14) and (3. 15) (with -j
substituted
j) yields
x . - u u - q u , u T=U
.u , . - q u
i u .. ,
n+r
n r
n-1 r-1
n-j r+j
^ n-j-1 r+j-1
whence
u u - u
. u , . = q (u , u , - u
. , u . . ,)
n r
n-j r+j
^ n-1 r-1
n-j-1 r+j-1
(4.20)
x
'
{
^
n-j ,
.
- q J(u. u
... - u
,9.)
^
j r-n+j
r-n+2j
n-j+1
- q J
u. -, u
,. H
j - 1 r-n+j-1
by repeated application of (4. 19) and replacement in the first half of

(4. 19) of n by r-n+j
(un = 1).
Note that
and r
by j to obtain an expression for
(4.20) is
the
special
case
,,.
of (4.18) for which
w =u
so that e = -q (n, r, j in (4. 20) replaced by n - r, n + r + t,
n
n
^
respectively and (2.17) used).
In particular, it follows from (4.20) with j = 1 that
(4. 21)
v
'
, u -> - u ^ u , ~ q
n-1 r-2
n-2 r-1
^
Moreover,
quences
(4.22)
v
'
, .
r-n-1
(4.21)
and w = b u
-, - q a u 0
x
'
n
n-1 n
n-2
(w \ and jw' (
give
&
for the
se-
w' w - w w' = q (a* b - a b!)(u n u ~ - u *, u- , )

n x
n r
n r
' n-1 r-2
n-2 r-1
=q
^
(a'b - a b') u
,
' r-n-1
Cubic expressions in w
derive only the sum of the first
then use (1.5) again.
Thus
are generally quite complicated, so we

n cubes,
Cube both sides of(1.5)and
174
3 3
3 3
(4. 23)
w ,, = p w - q w , - 3 pq w * w w ,.
x
'
n+1 r
n n
n-1
^
n-1 n n+1
But, from (4. 3),
Oct.
(4. 24)
'
, w w ,, = w + q
n-1 n n+1
n ^
ew
,
n
so that from (4. 23) and (4. 24) it follows that

O
(4. 25)
Q.
*2
' "2
w n + 1 + (3 pq - p ) w n + q w ^
= - 3 pq 11 e w n
Now a calculation involving (1.6) and the s u m m a t i o n of g e o m e t r i c

s e r i e s leads to
(4.26)
n-1
j=1
.
J
q w
^
= 3
i-pq+q
jwx - q
w0-qn'
o
(wn-q
w ^ x) \
Write
n-1
(4.27)
w3
co = X
j=0
Combining (4. 25), (4. 26) and (4. 27), we find

(4,28)
(l+3pq-p3+q3)a;
ÊS_ jw^q^-q*1" V
1-pq+q
+q
3 3
w
n _ r
3
n
q K ^
3
3
(l+3pq-p ) w Q
A p p r o p r i a t e substitution in the above f o r m u l a s of 4. Lead to c o r responding r e s u l t s for the s p e c i a l s e q u e n c e s (2.1) - ( 2 . 5 ) .

s t a n c e , applying (4. 16) and (4. 28) to if
3
I, we have
11
r^_
co = I J'f
+ f + St-l)
"* f , + z\
x
4 < n-1
n
'
n-2
>
F o r in-
i f 2n-rVi!
respectively.
5.
DEGENERATE CASE
Throughout the a n a l y s i s of the n a t u r e of Jw [ , the hypothesis

2
2
that p $ 4 q h a s been a s s u m e d . But suppose now that p = 4C1. The
1965
simplest
degenerate
case
175
o c c u r s when p = 2, q = 1 (a = p = 1)
for
which e x i s t s the t r i v i a l sequence (n ^ 0)

(5.1)
v n (2, 1) : 2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
...
...
and the sequence of n a t u r a l n u m b e r s (n > 0)

(5.2)
u n ( 2 , 1) : r,
2,
3,
4,
5,
that i s , u = n+1 and v = 2 . F o r negative

n, (2. 19) i m rp l i e s v = v .
to
n
n
~n
n
that i s , e v e r y e l e m e n t of j u (2, 1) is 2, while (2. 17) i m p l i e s
u
= -u
2,
that i s , like e l e m e n t s of Ju
(2, 1)1 a r e the positive and
negative i n t e g e r s in o r d e r .
Generally, in the d e g e n e r a t e c a s e ,
a=p =
(5.3)
The m a i n f e a t u r e s of the d e g e n e r a t e c a s e , as they apply to j u

and
5v | a r e
Riordan.
discussed
in C a r l i t z [2] ,
with acknowledgement
I
to
Brief c o m m e n t s , as they r e l a t e to Sw I , a r e m a d e in [6 J .
In p a s s i n g , we note that C a r l i t z [2] has e s t a b l i s h e d the i n t e r e s t i n g r e lationship between d e g e n e r a t e
K<P.>(
and the E u l e r i a n polynomial A, (x) which
satisfies the
differential
equation
A ,, (x) = (1 + nx) A (x) + x(l - x) ^ - A (x) ,
n+1
n
dx
n
2
w h e r e A (x) = A, (x) = 1, A~(x) = 1+x, A Ax) = 1 + 4x + x .
Finally, it m u s t be e m p h a s i z e d that jh [ and its s p e c i a l i z a t i o n s
jf | and jl | can have no such d e g e n e r a t e c a s e s , b e c a u s e
- 4q
then equals 5 ( + 0).
REFERENCES
1.
Bessel-Hagen,
E. ,
"Repertorium
Leipzig, 1929, p . 1563.
d e r hBheren M a t h e m a t i c , "
176
2.
Carlitz,
L. , "Generating functions for p o w e r s
Oct.
of c e r t a i n s e -
quences of n u m b e r s , " Duke Math. J . , Vol. 29, 1962, pp. 521-537.

3.
Dickson, L, , " H i s t o r y of the t h e o r y of n u m b e r s , " Vol. 1, New

York, 1952, Chapter 17.
4.
Horadam,
A. F , "A g e n e r a l i z e d Fibonacci sequence, " A m e r .
5.
H o r a d a m , A. F . ,
Math. Month., Vol. 68, No. 5, 1961, pp. 455-459.

"Fibonacci number t r i p l e s , " A m e r .
Math.
Monthly, Vol. 68, No. 8, 1961, pp. 7 5 1 - 7 5 3 .

6.
H o r a d a m , A. F . , "Generating functions for p o w e r s of a c e r t a i n

g e n e r a l i z e d sequence of n u m b e r s , " (to a p p e a r in Duke Math. J . ) .
7.
Jarden,
D. ,
"Recurring
sequences,"
Riveon
Lematematika,
J e r u s a l e m , 1958.
8.
L u c a s , E. , " T h e o r i e des n o m b r e s , " P a r i s ,
1961, Chapter 18.
9.
Subba Rao, K. , "Some p r o p e r t i e s of Fibonacci n u m b e r s , " A m e r .

Math. Month., Vol. 60, No. 10, 1953, pp. 680-684.
10.
T a g i u r i , A . , " R e c u r r e n c e s e q u e n c e s of positive i n t e g r a l t e r m s , "

(Italian), P e r i o d , di Mat. , s e r i e 2, Vol. 3, 1901, pp. 1-12.
11.
Tagiuri, A . ,
"Sequences of positive i n t e g e r s , " (Italian),
ibid.
pp. 97-114.
12.
V o r o b ' e v , N N , "The Fibonacci n u m b e r s , " ( t r a n s l a t e d from the

R u s s i a n ) , New York, 1961.
A. F . H o r a d a m
University of New England, A r m i d a l e , A u s t r a l i a .
XXXXXXXXXXXXXX
REQUEST
The Fibonacci Bibliographical R e s e a r c h Center d e s i r e s that any
r e a d e r finding a Fibonacci r e f e r e n c e , send a c a r d giving the r e f e r e n c e
and a brief d e s c r i p t i o n of the c o n t e n t s . P l e a s e forward all such inf o r m a t i o n to:
Fibonacci Bibliographical R e s e a r c h C e n t e r ,
Mathematics Department,
San J o s e State College,
San J o s e , California
NON-FIBONACCI NUMBERS
H. W. GOULD
West V i r g i n i a University, Morgantown, W. V i r g i n i a
In o r d e r to u n d e r s t a n d the p r o p e r t i e s of a set it is often worth

while to study the c o m p l e m e n t of the set.
When The Fibonacci A s s o c i a -
tion and this Q u a r t e r l y w e r e being e s t a b l i s h e d ,
the w r i t e r began to
think about non- Fibonacci n u m b e r s a s well a s about Fibonacci n u m b e r s ,

but what is known about non- Fibonacci n u m b e r s ? With the hope of gene r a t i n g m o r e i n t e r e s t in n o n - F i b o n a c c i n u m b e r s ,
I posed as the f i r s t
p r o b l e m in this Q u a r t e r l y , p r o b l e m H - 1 , the question of finding a form u l a for the n - t h n o n - F i b o n a c c i n u m b e r .
The p u r p o s e of the p r e s e n t
p a p e r is to d i s c u s s the p r o b l e m and give a solution to it.

We begin with the concept of c o m p l e m e n t a r y s e q u e n c e s .
quence is an o r d e r e d seto
A se-
Two s e t s of n a t u r a l n u m b e r s , say A and
B, a r e called c o m p l e m e n t a r y if they a r e disjoint and t h e i r union is the

set of all n a t u r a l n u m b e r s .
Many e x a m p l e s a r e available:
Even n u m -
b e r s and odd n u m b e r s ; p r i m e s and n o n - p r i m e s ; k-th p o w e r s and non

k-th powers.
But the r e a d e r m a y not r e a l i z e that f o r m u l a s can be
w r i t t e n down for such s e q u e n c e s .
Of c o u r s e , even and odd n u m b e r s
a r e g e n e r a t e d e a s i l y by 2n and 2 n - l
w h e r e n is any n a t u r a l n u m b e r ,
but it is not as well known that a bonafide formula for the n - t h
non
k - t h power is given by the e x p r e s s i o n
n+
[Vn+
[^~
k 2
w h e r e s q u a r e b r a c k e t s indicate the i n t e g r a l p a r t of a n u m b e r .
Such a
formula i s quite e n t e r t a i n i n g , and is a s p e c i a l c a s e given by Lambek

a n d M o s e r [l l] in a g e n e r a l study of c o m p l e m e n t a r y s e q u e n c e s .
They
give seven e x a m p l e s , as well as a g e n e r a l r e s u l t .

A r e m a r k a b l e p a i r of c o m p l e m e n t a r y sequences was d i s c o v e r e d
about forty y e a r s ago by Samuel Beatty at the U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto.
He posed his d i s c o v e r y a s a p r o b l e m in the A m e r i c a n M a t h e m a t i c a l
Monthly [2] . We m a y state B e a t t y ' s t h e o r e m in the following equivalent
177
178
form,
Oct.
If x and y a r e i r r a t i o n a l n u m b e r s such that
l / x + 1/y = 1,
then the sequences [nx] and [ny] , n = 1, 2, 3, . . , a r e c o m p l e m e n t a r y .

This t h e o r e m has been r e d i s c o v e r e d a n u m b e r of t i m e s since
1926,
The s h o r t list of r e f e r e n c e s at the end of this p a p e r will give
some idea of what is known about c o m p l e m e n t a r y s e q u e n c e s .

r e s u l t has been fairly popular in Canada.
Beatty's
B e s i d e s the w o r k in Canada
by Lambek and M o s e r , t h e r e was the w o r k of Coxeter, and the m a s t e r ' s t h e s i s by Ian Connell (published in p a r t in [3 J ).
The i n t e r e s t i n g
extension by Myer Angel [ i j was w r i t t e n when he was a second y e a r

student at McGill U n i v e r s i t y .
Our m a i n i n t e r e s t h e r e is in the 1954
p a p e r of Lambek and M o s e r .
Let f(n), n= 1, 2, 3, . . . , be a n o n - d e c r e a s i n g sequence of p o s i tive i n t e g e r s and define, as in [l Ij and [8, e d i t o r ' s r e m a r k s ] , the ! inverse1 f
by
f (n) = n u m b e r of k such that f(k) < n =
1 < k
f(k) < n
is the d i s t r i b u t i o n function which one would expect to study
Thus f
in connection with any s e q u e n c e .
If f defines the sequence of p r i m e
n u m b e r s , then f' (n) = ^ ( n - l ) = n u m b e r of p r i m e s < n.

f
= f.
1 .
We shall a l s o define
F(n) = f ' ( n + l ) .
Note a l s o that
Next, define r e c u r s i v e l y
F Q (n) = n; F ^ n ) = n + F ( F k ^ ( n ) ) ,
k > 0 .
M o s e r and Lambek showred that if Cf(n) is the sequence c o m p l e m e n t a r y

to f(n), then
Cf(n) = k L
F k (n)
What is m o r e , they showed that the sequence
F, (n) a t t a i n s its limit
Cf(n) in a finite n u m b e r of steps when this limit is finite.
In fact one
need not go beyond k = Cf(n) - n.

Thus the n - t h n o n - p r i m e n u m b e r is the limit of the sequence
n + fl'(n), n+ n(n + n"(n)), . . . .
the limit.
Often two steps a r e sufficient to
n,
attain
Thus the n - t h n a t u r a l n u m b e r which is not a p e r f e c t k - t h
power is given by the e x p r e s s i o n enunciated at the outset of this p a p e r .
1965
The n - t h n a t u r a l n u m b e r not of the form [e
179
| with m > 1 is
n + [log(n + 1 +[log(n+l)] ) ] .
As for the Fibonacci and n o n - F i b o n a c c i n u m b e r s , let f(n) = f
'
n
be a Fibonacci n u m b e r , defined r e c u r s i v e l y by f ,. = f + f , with
1 J
n+1
n
n-1
f. = 1 , f? = 2, Let g d e s i g n a t e the n o n - F i b o n a c c i n u m b e r s .
The
following
will i l l uF(n)
s t r a t e the
involved.
n
f tableHn)
A calculations
B
D
C
n
~ -f
_
_
__
2
2
1
3
3
1 [
2
1
2 1
2
4
3
5
4
3
2
3
3
6
4
7
4
5
4
3
3
7
4
8
5
8
3
4
5 :
5
10
9
5
13
4
6
4
10
5
11
5
21
4
4
11
7
5
12
5
nsE [
j 0, 67
2. 10
1 2.95
3.55
10
| 4.02
11
4.39
12
4.71
34
13
14
14
4.99
9
10
55
14
15
15
5. 24
15
16
16
5.45
11
12
89
144
16
17
17
5. 65
233
17
18
18
5.84
13
377
19
20
6.00
19
20
610
19
20
14
5
6
15
16
987
21
22
22
6. 30
22
23
23
23
24
24
24
25
19
20
25
26
25
26
i 6.67
j
i
26
27
27
j 6.90
21
i
I
28
28
28
7.00
7
7
29
30
7
7
29
30
7.09
29
30
j 7. 19
24
31
31
31
j 7. 28
25
26
1
i
32
32
1 7-36
32
33
33
33
j 7.44
27
34
35
35
! 7.52
17
18
22
23
6. 15
6.43
6.55
j 6. 79
180
Q ct.
In the table, successive columns indicate the steps in evaluation

of the limit
= Cf(n) as follows:
A = n + F(n),
B = F(n + F(n)),
C = n + F(n + F(n)),
D = F(n + F(n + F(n))),
E = n + F(n + F(n + F(n)))
Three iterations were found necessary to generate the non-Fibonacci

numbers
g , at least up to n = 40.
It is left as a research problem
for the reader to determine if more than three iterations are ever
necessary.
It is evident that to obtain an elegant formula for
then two problems:
we have
(a) the number of steps required to find
Cf(n); (b)
a neat formula for the distribution function

inverse
F(n) or equivalently the
f (n).
The study of F or f
corresponds to the study of the distribu-
tion of prime numbers, but because of the regular pattern of distribution we can supply a fairly neat.formula for
F(n).
It was noted by K,
Subba Rao [13] that we have the asymptotic result:

F(n)
~ \^MJL 9
x
'
log a
a s
n-ôo
where
1 + \/5
a = - .
As a matter of fact one can prove much more.
THEOREM.
We have the following
Let F(n) = number of Fibonacci numbers
^ n.
Then
F(n) ~ !"Qg n + log& J5 - 1 = 2 . 08 l o&g n + 0 . 67

'
log a
a
and, for
n > n , F(n) is the greatest integer 1 this value0
in the table gives the value of the expression

computed from a standard 10-inch slide rule.
Column F
2.08 log n + 0.67
as
Even this crude cal-
culation is good enough to show how closely the formula comes to F(n).
1965
181
Thus we have the following a p p r o x i m a t e formula for the n - t h

non-Fibonacci number:
g
= n + F(n + F(n + F(n) ,
with
F(n) = [log a n + \
log a 5 - l ]
for
n > 2 ,
= [ 2 , 0 8 log n 4- 0, 67]
We shall conclude by noting some c u r i o u s g e n e r a t i n g functions for
the d i s t r i b u t i o n function (or i n v e r s e )
sequence
of positive i n t e g e r s
x
2
n=l
xf
(n)
f (n).
F o r any n o n - d e c r e a s i n g
f(n), we have [ 8 , e d i t o r ' s
= (1 - x)
remarks]
2
f(n) x n ,
n=l
and
f(k)
k=l
j=l
J,K
f(n)
j=l
k=l
+ (j)
J,K
the l a t t e r identity holding for an a r b i t r a r y a r r a y of n u m b e r s
A. , ,
being m e r e l y an example of s u m m i n g in the one c a s e by rows and in

the other c a s e by columns f i r s t .
As an example with application to
f o r m u l a s involving the F i b o n a c c i n u m b e r s we m a y note that

f
J,K
J K
k=l j=l
j=l k=l + F ( j - l )
'
In this formula, take A
= 1 identically. Then we find the formula
J> k
f
2
k=l
F ( k - 1) = n f n -
fn+2 + 2 ,
(F(0) = 0)
this being but one of m a n y i n t e r e s t i n g r e l a t i o n s connecting f
and
F(n).
and
F r o m T h e o r e m 2 of [l l] we have that the s e q u e n c e s
n + F(n-l) are complementary.
n +f
The r e a d e r m a y find it of i n t e r e s t to
develop the c o r r e s p o n d i n g f o r m u l a s for n o n - L u c a s n u m b e r s or other
182
r e c u r r e n t sequences,
Oct.
In a forthcoming p a p e r [lO] Holladay has given
a v e r y g e n e r a l and c l o s e l y r e a s o n e d account of some r e m a r k a b l e r e sults for c o m p l e m e n t a r y s e q u e n c e s .
If a p e r s o n a l r e m a r k be allowed,
his p a p e r is an outgrowth of d i s c u s s i o n s concerning p r o b l e m H - l and

the application of c o m p l e m e n t a r y s e q u e n c e s to c e r t a i n p r o b l e m s in
game t h e o r y .
As a final r e m a r k ,
t h e r e is the question of the d i s t r i b u t i o n of
n o n - F i b o n a c c i n u m b e r s and identities which they m a y satisfy.
It is
hoped to d i s c u s s other p r o p e r t i e s of n o n - F i b o n a c c i n u m b e r s and other

f o r m u l a s for them in a l a t e r p a p e r .
REFERENCES
1.
Myer Angel, P a r t i t i o n s of the n a t u r a l n u m b e r s , Canadian Math.

B u l l . , 7(1964), 219-236.
2.
Samuel Beatty,
P r o b l e m 3177(=3173), A m e r .
Math.
Monthly,
3.
Ian G. Connell, Some p r o p e r t i e s of Beatty s e q u e n c e s ,
Canadian
4.
H. S. Mo Coxeter,
33(1926), 159; solution, 34(1927), 159-160.

Math. B u l l . , 2(1959), 181-197.
The golden section, phyllotaxis, and Wy-
thoff's g a m e , Scripta M a t h e m a t i c a , 19(1953), 135-143.

5.
Ky Fan,
P r o b l e m 4399, A m e r . Math. Monthly,
57(1950), 343;
solution, 59(1952), 4 8 - 4 9 .
6.
E. No Gilbert,
Functions which r e p r e s e n t all i n t e g e r s , A m e r .
Math. Monthly, 70(1963), 736-738; Acknowledgement, 1082.

7.
H. W. Gould, P r o b l e m H - l , Fibonacci Q u a r t e r l y , 1(1963), No. 1,

p . 46.
8.
H W. Gould,
L. M o s e r ,
G e n e r a l i z a t i o n of a b r a c k e t function formula of
Canadian Math.
Bull.,
6(1963), 275-277; E d i t o r ' s
c o m m e n t , 277-278.
9.
H. D. G r o s s m a n ,
A set containing a l l i n t e g e r s , A m e r . Math.
Monthly, 69(1962), 5 3 2 - 5 3 3 .
10.
J o h n C . Holladay, Some convergent r e c u r s i v e s e q u e n c e s , h o m e o m o r p h i c i d e n t i t i e s , and inductively defined c o m p l e m e n t a r y s e q u e n c e s , To be published, 40-page m a n u s c r i p t .
1965
11.
J e L a m b e k a n d L . M o s e r , I n v e r s e and c o m p l e m e n t a r y sequences
of n a t u r a l n u m b e r s , A m e r , Math. Monthly,
12.
183
61(1954),
454-458,
R. Sprague, Ein Satz u b e r Teilfolgen d e r Reihe d e r n a t u r l i c h e n

Zahlen, Math. Annalen, 115(1938), 153-156.
13.
K. Subba Rao, Some p r o p e r t i e s of Fibonacci n u m b e r s , BulL , Calcutta Math. S o c , 46(1954), 253-257.
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
C o r r e c t i o n s to "Summation F o r m u l a e for Multinomial Coefficients"
by Selmo Tauber, Vol. Ill, No. 2:
(5) line 3 (p. 97)
N+l
(6) last line (p. 97)
I ^ X ^ , . . . etc
a=l
(8) lines 3 and 4, upper index of m u l t , coeff.
(p. 99)
N+h+1
N+q-1
RENEW YOUR SUBSCRIPTION! ! .'

All s u b s c r i p t i o n c o r r e s p o n d e n c e should be a d d r e s s e d to B r o t h e r U,
Alfred, St. M a r y ' s College, Calif. All checks ($4.00 p e r year) should
be m a d e out to the Fibonacci A s s o c i a t i o n or the Fibonacci Q u a r t e r l y ,
M a n u s c r i p t s intended for publication in the Q u a r t e r l y should be sent
to V e r n e r E. Hoggatt, J r . , M a t h e m a t i c s D e p a r t m e n t , San J o s e State
College, Sari J o s e , Calif. All m a n u s c r i p t s should be typed, doublespaced. Drawings should be m a d e the s a m e size as they will a p p e a r
in the Q u a r t e r l y , and should be done in India ink on e i t h e r vellum or
bond p a p e r . Authors should keep a copy of the m a n u s c r i p t sent to the
editors.
The Q u a r t e r l y is e n t e r e d as t h i r d c l a s s m a i l at the St. M a r y ' s College
P o s t Office, California, as an official publication of the " Fibonacci
Association.
TWO FIBONACCI CONJECTURES

DMITRI THORO
San Jose State College, San Jose, California
Consider the p r o b l e m of solving, in positive i n t e g e r s , the following Diophantine equation (suggested by the Editor):
(1)
+ F n + 1 y = x2 + y2.
Fnx
F i r s t let us note that (1) always h a s the t r i v i a l solution (F , F , , ) ,

3
n
n+1'
i. e. , x = F , y = F ,, . Does (1) e v e r have a n o n - t r i v i a l solution? If
n is fixed,
we know from analytic g e o m e t r y that t h e r e a r e at m o s t a
finite n u m b e r of solutions.
However, we shall soon see that for i n -
finitely m a n y n (1) h a s at l e a s t two n o n - t r i v i a l solutions.

T h e o r e m 1.
If n > 1 and n = 1 (mod 3), then
F
n+2,
2
F
n+2
2
and
F
F
n+2,
2
n-1
2
a r e n o n - t r i v i a l solutions of (1).
Proof.
Since n = l
(mod 3), F
=F
+2
;=0 (mod 2) which g u a r a n t e e s
that the quotients involved a r e indeed i n t e g e r s .
One m a y i m m e d i a t e l y
verify that they satisfy (1).

T h e o r e m 2.
If
(x , y ) i s a solution of (1), than u = 2x

o
o
V = 2yJ - F ,, is a solution of
o
n+1
u 2 + v 2 = F
(2)
Proof.
If
,1)
This is an i m m e d i a t e consequence of the identity ( L u c a s , 1876)

F
2n
- F ,
o n
+ F * = F 9 ,. .
n+1
2n+l
u = u o and v = v o is a solution of (2) with (u o, v o') 4' {\,

P
(or any of the other 7 solutions of (2) obtained bychanging signs
or i n t e r c h a n g i n g F
and F
) w e shall call (u ,v ) a n o n - t r i v i a l solu-
tion of (2).
184
1965
T h e o r e m 3.
If
n ^ 1
185
(mod 3), then (1) h a s a n o n - t r i v i a l solution if
and only if (2) h a s a n o n - t r i v i a l solution.

Proof.
(a)
u = 2x
If (x , y ) is a n o n - t r i v i a l solution of (1), then by T h e o r e m 2,
o
then x
o
If 2x o
since F
(b)
- F , v = 2yJ * F (1 is a solution of (2). If 2x - F = F

n
o
n+1
o n
n,
= F (and hence Jy = F ,, or 0) or x = 0, a c o n t r a d i c t i o n .
n
o
n+1
'
o
F = F . , , x = F , T/ / 2 or x
<0 which is i m pc o s s i b l e
n
n+1
o
n+2
o
,~ is odd and we a r e c o n s i d e r i n g only positive solutions of (1).
Let us a s s u m e
>0,v
>0 is a n o n - t r i v i a l solution of (2).
v
o
o
'
F
is even if and only if w = 0 (mod 3); thus by hypothesis F^ ,, is
w
2
2
2n+l
odd. But F T ., = u + v , hence u
and v
m u s t be of different
2n+l
o
o
o
o
p a r i t y . M o r e o v e r , for the s a m e r e a s o n F
and F .. m u s t a l s o be
of different p a r i t y .
Thus (interchanging n a m e s if n e c e s s a r y ) we m a y
be s u r e that
+F
n,
2
is an i n t e g r a l solution of (1).
u
+ F
,,
n+1
2
~
If
o
+ F
= F
we would, a s before, get a c o n t r a d i c t i o n .

The r e a d e r is invited to show that the n u m b e r of n o n - t r i v i a l solutions of (1) is always even.
Now the p r o b l e m of r e p r e s e n t i n g a n u m b e r a s the sum of two
s q u a r e s h a s r e c e i v e d c o n s i d e r a b l e attention.
The following
result,
known to F e r m a t and o t h e r s was proved by E u l e r :

2
If N = be
> 0 , w h e r e b is s q u a r e - f r e e , then N i s r e p r e s e n t a b l e
a s the sum of two s q u a r e s if and only if b h a s no p r i m e f a c t o r s of the
form
4k + 3.
T h e o r e m s on the n u m b e r of such r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s can be found in
v i r t u a l l y e v e r y introductory, text on n u m b e r t h e o r y .
Thus by T h e o r e m 3 if n | 1
form
(mod 3)
and F ^ ,- is a p r i m e of:
4k+l, the only solution of (1) in positive i n t e g e r s is
since e v e r y p r i m e of the form

s e n t i a l l y only one way.
4k+l
(F , F
.)
is the sum of two s q u a r e s in e s -
186
Oct.
It is i n t e r e s t i n g to note that the p e r t i n e n t identity

(a 2 + b 2 ) ( c 2 + d 2 ) = (ac bd) 2 + (ad + b e ) 2
was given by F i b o n a c c i in his Liber Abaci of 1202.
to expedite n u m e r i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s .
However,
This can be u s e d
one needs to b e w a r e
(or at l e a s t be a w a r e ) of such a c c i d e n t s a s the following:

Let
n >o, n = 2 (mod 3);
(i)
If n < 32 (and n f 17), then 2n+l
(ii)
If n < 17, both 2n+l
and
F?
,,
is a p r i m e .
are primes!
Another useful r e s u l t is
T h e o r e m 4.
F~
, E 1, 2, or 5 (mod 8).
2
2
Proof.
We shall use the identity F ? ,, = F + F , . If g is odd,.
then g 2 = 1 (mod 8). Thus if F and F ,, a r e both odd, F_
=2
& *
'
n
n+1
2n+l
(mod 8). Since two consecutive Fibonacci n u m b e r s a r e r e l a t i v e l y
prime,
the only r e m a i n i n g possibility is that
and
a r e of
different p a r i t y ; in this c a s e we get F ? , = 1 or 5 (mod 8).

The r e a d e r m a y prove that in g e n e r a l F ^ 4 (mod 8).
Finally, this p r o b l e m s u g g e s t s the following conjectures:
Conjecture 1.
T h e r e a r e infinitely m a n y values of
for which (1)
h a s only a t r i v i a l solution.
Conjecture 2.
F ? + 1 is n e v e r divisible by a p r i m e of the form 4k+3.
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
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d a t e s : F e b r u a r y 15, April 15, October 15, and D e c e m b e r 15.
RENEW YOUR SUBSCRIPTION! ! !
FIBONACCIOUS FACTORS
ROBERT B. ELY, III
1.
INTRODUCTION
In e a r l i e r i s s u e s of the Q u a r t e r l y t h e r e have been shown and

p r o v e n a n s w e r s to the following questions about the basic s e r i e s (1, 1,
2, 3, 5 - - - ) .
(1)
By what p r i m e s a r e the v a r i o u s t e r m s , U ., d i v i s i b l e ?
(2)
At what points do v a r i o u s p r i m e s f i r s t a p p e a r a s f a c t o r s ?
(3)
At what p e r i o d s do they r e a p p e a r ?
In this p a p e r we deal with a n s w e r s to the s a m e questions as to
the g e n e r a l s e r i e s (a, b, a + b, a + 2b, 2a + 3b

20
).
PERIODS OF R E A P P E A R A N C E ARE THE SAME
Our t a s k is simplified if we a n s w e r the last question first:

If k is the p e r i o d at which a p r i m e r e p e a t s its z e r o r e s i d u e s
in the b a s i c s e r i e s , k is a l s o the period of z e r o r e s i d u e s in any
general series.
Suppose that a p r i m e f i r s t divides the nth t e r m of a given s e r i e s (a, b, a + b
) and let the
(which we h e r e a f t e r a b b r e v i a t e to
borhood a s
( n - l ) t h t e r m be c.
M
[p") the s e r i e s r u n s in this
c, 0, c, c, 2c, 3c e t c .
means
neigh-
The t e r m s after the z e r o a r e
those of the b a s i c s e r i e s each multiplied by c.

also c x i o
Then modulo p,
Now if x ^ i o
if c = o [p. Again, if x = o [p, so a l s o cx= o [p.
that in the two s e r i e s (1, 1, 2, - - - ) and (c, c, 2c
[p, so
This
) the
z e r o s a p p e a r at the s a m e t e r m s
3.
(1)
SUMMARY OF PREVIOUS RESULTS AS TO FIRST APPEARANCES

T h e r e a r e some t e r m s of the basic s e r i e s divisible by any p r i m e
one m a y choose,
(2)
v
The t e r m
U , . . . is divisible byJ U , U,
abc
a
b
U 1 2 * 144
is divisible by
187
U ...
c
E. G.
188
U
Oct.
u2= i
U3=2
U4= 3
U6=8
(3)
Such a t e r m
U .,
for which n is c o m p o s i t e ,
may also
have
other f a c t o r s , called " p r i m i t i v e p r i m e d i v i s o r s ; " and the g e n e r a l form

of t h e s e p r i m e s is d e t e r m i n e d by the following r u l e s (but t h e i r identity
m u s t be found by t r i a l and e r r o r ) .
(A) If n is odd; p is of the form
2 kn 1
(B) If n = 2 ( 2 r + l ) ; p is of the form n k . l

(C) If n = 2 m (2 r + 1); p is of the form n k / 2 - 1
E x a m p l e s a r e listed in the F e b r u a r y 1963 Q u a r t e r l y at pp. 4 4 - 4 5 .
(4)
The fact that n is p r i m e does not imply that U
is p r i m e .
E.g.,
U U 19 = 4181 = 37 x 113; even though 19 is p r i m e . However, the conv e r s e is t r u e : If U. is p r i m e , so a l s o is n.

n
^
(5)
The even p r i m e , 2, is a factor of e v e r y t h i r d t e r m of the s e r i e s ;
and the odd p r i m e 5 is a factor of e v e r y 5th t e r m .
(6)
All other odd p r i m e s a r e of the f o r m s 1 and 3 [10.
They
a p p e a r and r e a p p e a r as f a c t o r s according to the following r u l e s :

(a) If p= 1 [10, it will f i r s t a p p e a r when the n of U. = jJ
d being
some positive integer; and will r e a p p e a r e v e r y nth
term
thereafter;
D 4" 1
(b) If p5 3
[10, it will f i r s t a p p e a r when n = --3, and e v e r y
nth t e r m t h e r e a f t e r , d again being some positive i n t e g e r .

7
h
3 divides U8
U4 and e v e" r8y t4th
term thereafter
11
10th "
uio
"
M
13
"
7th
"
U?
17
U9
"
9th
"
19
18th "
U18 "
(c) The r u l e s for d e t e r m i n i n g the d i v i s o r ,
have not yet been given.
of p =fc 1 in (6)
Examination of the p r i m e s l e s s than 80 give
d = 1, 2 or 4 in all c a s e s except 47, w h e r e it is 3.

range from
d,
E. g. ,
p = 2,000 to 3,000,
However,
in the
given in the F e b r u a r y 1963 i s s u e at
pp. 36-40, d h a s values ranging from 1 to 78.
1965
(7)
Nothing has thus far been said about the a p p e a r a n c e s and p e r i o d s
of c o m p o s i t e f a c t o r s ,
4.
(1)
189
ab (a / b ) , nor f a c t o r s which a r e p o w e r s , p C .
NEW ANSWERS TO THE QUESTION OF FIRST APPEARANCES

"By what factors a r e the t e r m s of the g e n e r a l s e r i e s (a, b, a + b,
a + 2b, + 3b . . . ) d i v i s i b l e ? "
It can be shown that if A, B and C denote any t h r e e s u c c e s s i v e
2
t e r m s in this s e r i e s , then B - AC = a constant, no m a t t e r which
t h r e e t e r m s a r e chosen,
and no m a t t e r what the values of A and
(the f i r s t two t e r m s ) .
Specifically,
work on the f i r s t few t e r m s of the g e n e r a l s e r i e s
shows what this constant m u s t be

b
- a (a + b) = b
- ab - a
or (a + b ) 2 - b (a + 2b) = a 2 + 2ab + b 2
- ab - a b 2
= - b + ab + a
2
2
= -(b - ab - a )
How can we m a k e use of this constancy of B

the p o s s i b i l i t y of a given p r i m e ,
general s e r i e s ?
term,
p,
AC to d e t e r m i n e
as a factor of some t e r m in the
By changing the equation to a congruence [p.
If any
C, of the s e r i e s is divisible by p; then C and its two i m m e d i a t e
p r e d e c e s s o r s m u s t satisfy the congruence

B 2 - ACE (b 2 - ab - a 2 )
[p
But we a r e a s s u m i n g C E O [p. This e l i m i n a t e s the t e r m - AC. Hence

2_
2
2
we m u s t have B - . (b - ab - a ) [p.
In other w o r d s , once we know the f i r s t two t e r m s , a and b of
a g e n e r a l s e r i e s ; we know that the only p o s s i b l e f a c t o r s for t e r m s of
2
2
the s e r i e s a r e those for which (b - ab - a ) is a q u a d r a t i c r e s i d u e .
P r i m e s of which this is not t r u e cannot be the modulus in the congruence
B 2 E (b 2 - ab - a 2 )
[p.-
190
However,
it does not folLow from the n e c e s s i t y of this condition
that it is a l s o sufficient.
Nevertheless,
Oct.
E. g. , 1, 4, 5 . . . is n e v e r divisible by 89.
B r o t h e r Alfred h a s shown that t h e r e a r e some p r i m e s
which a r e f a c t o r s of a l l F i b o n a c c i o u s s e r i e s .
(2)
We can no longer say that U ,
a s a single example will show.

115, 186, 301.
(3)
is divisible by U , Uv and U ,
Consider 3, 7, 10, 17, 27, 44, 7 1 ,
U 1 Q = 301 is divisible by U 2 = 7, but not by IL = 27.
Neither can we say of a g e n e r a l s e r i e s that if U.
too is n.
Vide 2, 5, 7, 12, 19, 31 . . . for which U/
is p r i m e , so
is p r i m e but 6
is not.
(4)
(a) Nor do we have in the g e n e r a l s e r i e s a set of p r i m i t i v e p r i m e
f a c t o r s , in view of (2) above.

(b) Thus we a r e fairly limited, as to r u l e s for the f o r m s of c e r tain, p o s s i b l e or i m p o s s i b l e p r i m e f a c t o r s of the g e n e r a l s e r i e s .
We
m a k e h e r e only two o b s e r v a t i o n s :
(i) F o r p r i m e s of the form
a r e s i d u e for any value of a.
p = 4k + 3, e i t h e r
a or
-a
Hence t h e s e p r i m e s a r e p o s s i b l e , but not
n e c e s s a r i l y c e r t a i n f a c t o r s of any g e n e r a l s e r i e s .
(ii) On the other hand, for p r i m e s of the form

t h e r e can be values of a for which n e i t h e r
E . g . , neither
2 or
a nor
p = 4k + 1,
- a is a r e s i d u e .
-2 is a r e s i d u e [5; and n e i t h e r 2 nor 5
6 a r e r e s i d u e s [13.
is
Hence t h e s e p r i m e s a r e i m p o s s i b l e f a c t o r s
nor
of
g e n e r a l s e r i e s for which the initial t e r m s a r e c o r r e c t l y chosen.

E . g . , no t e r m s of the s e r i e s 1, 63, 64, 127 a r e e v e r divisible by
5,
11, 13 or 17, since (63 Z - 64) = (3969-64) = 3905 i s a non-
r e s i d u e of e a c h of t h e s e p r i m e s .
Hence let us put a s i d e for the m o m e n t the m o r e p a r t i c u l a r r u l e s
of f o r m s of f a c t o r s of the g e n e r a l s e r i e s , and t u r n to the place of f i r s t
a p p e a r a n c e of p o s s i b l e f a c t o r s .
The i n t e r v a l s of r e a p p e a r a n c e a r e as
in the basic s e r i e s .
(5)
F i r s t let us review 2 and 5.
only four p a t t e r n s , depending

1, 1, 0, 1,
0, 0, 0, 0,
1, 0, 1, 1,
0, 1, 1, 0
If any s e r i e s is reduced
on choice of initial t e r m s
1, 0, 1, 1, 0, . . . . .
0, 0, 0, 0
......
0, 1, 1, 0
.......
2, we have
1965
191
That is to say: one of the f i r s t t h r e e t e r m s m u s t be even; and t h e r e after e i t h e r all or e v e r y 3rd t e r m is even.
F o r 5, the situation is a Little m o r e complex,,
Actual c o m p u t a -
tion of f i r s t a p p e a r a n c e s for the v a r i o u s combinations of r e m a i n d e r s

of the f i r s t two t e r m s enables us to m a k e the following table:
If the second t e r m h a s a r e m a i n d e r of
0
and the
first a
remainder
of
1 2
1
4
.1
f 2
I 2
1 2
rr"
2
[5
the e n t r i e s show the n u m b e r of the s m a l l e s t t e r m divisible by 5, w h e r e

N signifies
nonee "
Thus we see that 5 m a y f i r s t a p p e a r as a factor
of any t e r m from the 1st to the 5th 5 or be s u p p r e s s e d e n t i r e l y ; by

p r o p e r choice of f i r s t t e r m s .
ify,
However, as the r e a d e r can e a s i l y v e r -
if 5 a p p e a r s once as a factor,
it r e a p p e a r s in e v e r y 5th t e r m
thereafter.
(6)
Now, as before,
let us t u r n from t h e s e two special c a s e s of 2
(the only even p r i m e ) and 5 (the only one E 5
[10) and c o n s i d e r the r e -
maining ones of the f o r m s 1 a n d . 3
We m a k e the
[10.,
following
conjectures:
(a) By p r o p e r choice of initial t e r m s we c a n m a k e any such p r i m e ,
p, f i r s t a p p e a r as a factor of any t e r m whose n u m b e r (rank)<p; or, if
p is of the form
4 k + 1, we can s u p p r e s s it a l t o g e t h e r .
(b) If such a p r i m e a p p e a r s at all, it will r e a p p e a r at the s a m e

i n t e r v a l as in the basic s e r i e s .
To t e s t t h e s e c o n j e c t u r e s ,
and 1 1 .
let us m a k e t a b l e s , a s for 5, for 7
192
Oct.
0
Jl~
6
1 |
3'-
122
[HT~
!| 2
IJ2
1 2
Note the a b s e n c e of N ' s ; since 7 is always a factor of some t e r m s of

any g e n e r a l s e r i e s .
F o r 11:
b,
Second t e r m
1
10
10
10
j] 2
|j2
10
5 i
8 j
10
5
N |
9 1
1
\\ 2
I
10
JjY
1
!
10
j| 2
10
3 J
-j-j
N
H
8
6'
10 1 N
8 | 10 !
N |
6 1
10 1
4
5 ] 9
N
6
L _ J
L_
Observing t h e s e t h r e e t a b l e s , we see the following c o m m o n f e a t u r e s :
10
8 !
(i) The top line is always a l l l ! s ;

(ii) The left column is always a l l 2 ' s , except for the top e n t r y .
(iii) One diagonal is all 3' s.
(iv) The other diagonal is all k ' s (where k will be s e e n to be the
constant of r e a p p e a r a n c e ,
in this c a s e 10), except for the upper left
corner.
(v) The nth line (except the top) is line 1 " s p a c e d out" at i n t e r vals of m from the 3.
(vi) Hence only line 1 need be computed.
1965
193
Some of the f e a t u r e s a r e obvious:

(i) The top line of l ' s m e a n only that a (in the s e r i e s
a+ b . . . ) ~ o [p.
(ii)
a, b,
Hence the f i r s t z e r o is at the f i r s t t e r m ,
The left column of 2's is s i m i l a r l y explicable.
The e x c e p -
tion of 1 at the top left c o r n e r is b e c a u s e both a and b = o, and the

e a r l i e r of the two is a, the 1st t e r m .
The diagonal of 3 r s is due to t h e i r r e p r e s e n t i n g s e r i e s in
(iii)
which the f i r s t two t e r m s a r e
a, p - a , p.
The a ' s
vary; but p in the
3rd t e r m does not.

(iv)
The identities in the other diagonal r e p r e s e n t g e n e r a l s e r i e s
of which the f i r s t two t e r m s a r e both a (2, 2, 4 . . , 3, 3, 6 . . . ,

4, 4, 8 . . . ).
The t e r m s of each of t h e s e s e r i e s a r e those of the b a s i c
(1, 1, . . . ) each multiplied by a.

s e r i e s gave a r e m a i n d e r
Consequently if any t e r m in the b a s i c
[p it would a l s o give a r e m a i n d e r (usually
different) when multiplied by a constant.

term,
U. ,
On the other hand, if the nth
of the basic s e r i e s = o [p; so a l s o a U
E o [p. That is to
say, the e a r l i e s t z e r o r e m a i n d e r in (a, a, 2a . . . ) o c c u r s at the s a m e

t e r m , r e g a r d l e s s of the value of a.
(v) The "spacing out" of Line 1 to get the e n t r i e s in Line n of
the table is explicable s i m i l a r l y .
If x = o [p so a l s o k x E o [p
while
if x o [p so a l s o kx ^ o [p9 in the f i r s t c a s e for any value of k,

and in the second so long a s k i o [p.
This m e a n s that the o c c u r r e n c e of z e r o s in any s e r i e s (a, b,
a + b . . . ) is unchanged if each t e r m in the s e r i e s is multiplied by the
s a m e constant, k o [ p .
In other w o r d s , while n o n - z e r o
remainders
m a y v a r y , p will occur as a factor of p r e c i s e l y the s a m e t e r m s in

s e r i e s (1, 2, 3, 5 . . . ), (2, 4, 6, 10 . . . ), (3, 6, 9, 15 . . . ) e t c .
Hence
the e n t r i e s in line 1 and col. 2, line 2 and col. 4, line 3 and col. 6 of
the table m u s t be the s a m e ; and s i m i l a r r e a s o n i n g shows how the r e s t
of the spacing out follows the s a m e pattern
(vi) Finally we m u s t c o n s i d e r line " 1 " of the t a b l e .
out the h a r d and obvious way r e q u i r e s us to r u n out, r e d u c e d
To fill it
[p, the
v a r i o u s s e r i e s (1, 2, 3, 5 . . . ), (1, 3, 4, 7 . . . ), (1, 4, 5, 9 . . . ) until we r e a c h a z e r o in each; and then m a k e c o r r e s p o n d i n g e n t r i e s in
194
line 1.
Oct.
This done, spacing out a s p e r (v) will compLete the t a b l e .
An a l t e r n a t i v e ,
or a c r o s s - c h e c k can be m a d e as follows:
Sup-
pose we run out the basic s e r i e s for a p r i m e we have not yet c o n s i d e r e d ,

13*
The s e r i e s r e d u c e d
[13 to the f i r s t z e r o is 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 0.
Attached is a table p a r t i a l l y filled in, with the i n v a r i a b l e 1st row

left column of 2 ' s , diagonal of 3 f s, and diagonal of 7's (the
of l ' s ,
z e r o p e r i o d of the basic s e r i e s ) .
There a r e other e n t r i e s , which we
now explain.
For
[13
R e m a i n d e r of Second T e r m (b)
0
1
8
12
5
8
12
5
3
11
10
3
11
10
2
5
1
8
12
8
12
5
1
0 marked
0
"
0
"
0 "
10
11
12
///
\\\
^ ^
UN
The e n t r y in (1, 1) is 7; b e c a u s e we have just s e e n that 7 is the

z e r o - p e r i o d of the basic s e r i e s .
T h e r e is s i m i l a r l y a 6 in the s q u a r e
(1, 2) because after a look at the b a s i c s e r i e s , we see that if we s t a r t

a n e w s e r i e s with f i r s t t e r m s 1, 2, instead of 1, 1; we a r r i v e at 0 after
6 t e r m s i n s t e a d of 7.
already,
In fact, as the 7 and 11 tables have i l l u s t r a t e d
the e n t r y in s q u a r e (1, 2) of the table is always
k - 1 , where
1965
195
k is the n u m b e r of the f i r s t z e r o t e r m in the b a s i c s e r i e s .
Similarly
t h e e n t r y i n the s q u a r e (2, 3) is always k - 2 ; and in the s q u a r e (3, 5) it

is k - 3 ; e t c . ; because as we select l a t e r and l a t e r p a i r s of t e r m s in the
basic s e r i e s to s t a r t new s e r i e s , we r e d u c e one by one the n u m b e r of
the f i r s t t e r m in which z e r o a p p e a r s .
Hence we can, without further
computation than the basic s e r i e s reduced
[p, fill in a n u m b e r of en-
t r i e s on v a r i o u s lines of the z e r o a p p e a r a n c e table (see the attached

figure for 1 3).
M o r e o v e r , we can use t h e s e e n t r i e s , with a little m o r e t r i a l and
e r r o r , to w o r k back to values in line 1 of the t a b l e .
us again look at the 13 t a b l e .
F o r e x a m p l e , let
The period of z e r o - a p p e a r a n c e s being 7
(as we have seen from the b a s i c s e r i e s ) and 3, 5 being the 4th and 5th
t e r m s in the basic s e r i e s , we know that 0 a p p e a r s at the (7-3)th t e r m
in a new s e r i e s (3, 5, 8, 0 . . . ),
Suppose we multiply the new s e r i e s ,
t e r m by t e r m , by such a factor (9) as m a k e s a still newer s e r i e s with

the f i r s t t e r m 1.
We have
3 x 9, 5 x 9, 8 x 9, Ox 9 - - -
[13
or
27 ,
45,
72,
0 ---
[13
or
1 ,
6,
7,
0 ---
[13
Hence from the e n t r y of 4 in s q u a r e (3, 5) we can check the s a m e ent r y in (1, 6); both m u s t be and a r e 4.
H e r e we note an i n t e r e s t i n g point.
Still working with modulus
13, we have the b a s i c s e r i e s

1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 8, f i r s t z e r o 7
from which we get
1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 0,
zero 6
2, 3, 5, 8, 0
3, 5, 8, 0
zero 5
zero 4
5, 8
zero 3
We have found the e n t r y in the table (first zero) for 3, 5 was the s a m e
as for (1, 6).
(1, 1).
S i m i l a r l y we have seen that (1, 2) is simply 1 l e s s than
Again (2, 3) E (14, 21) 5 (1, 8); and (5, 8) = (40, 64) = (1, 12).
However, this gives us e n t r i e s in line 1 only for c l a i m s 1, 2, 6, 8 and

12.
We have no data for the r e m a i n i n g c o l u m n s , i . e . for s e r i e s b e -
ginning (1, 3) (1, 4) (1, 5) (1, 7) (1, 9) (1, 10) and (1, 11).
196
Oct.
One might at first imagine that these deficiencies were due to the
fact that we had only run our basic series out to the first zero, instead
of continuing beyond this restricted period to the full period, when not
only zero but all remainders
11,
1, 12, 0,
ever,
(3,
[13 repeat:
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 0, 8, 8, 3,
12, 12, 11, 10, 8, 5, 0, 5, 5, 10, 2, 12, 1, 0.
How-
the reader will find that the new entries in squares (8, 8) (8, 3)
11) etc. still "run back" to the same set of 5 entries on line 10
There are no entries on line 1 in columns 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10 and
11;
because series with first terms 1 and second terms 3, 4, 5, 7, 9,
10 and 11 have no terms divisible by 13J Recall our test, of whether

p could be a factor of a series beginning (1, b, 1 + b),
2
b - b ~1 a r e s i d u e of p ? It w i l l b e found t h a t
( 3 2 - - 3 - 1) E 5 o r 8
( 4 2 - - 4 - 1) ~ 1 1 or 2
( 5 2 -- 5 - 1) = 19= 6 or 7
( 7
(9
i. e. 9
is
7 - 1) = .41= 2 or 11
- - 9 - 1) = .71 = 6 or 7
(102 - 10 - 1) =89 = 11 or 2
( l l 2 - 11 - 1) = 109=5 or 8
are none of them residues
[130
Consequently there must be entries of N (for "never") in each

of Columns 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10 and 11 of Line 1.
TO SUMMARIZE as to the appearances of p as a factor of terms
in a general series (a, b, a *b).
If p is prime
2
(i) It will never appear unless =b (b
2
- ab - a ) is a residue of p.
(ii) If it can appear per (i), and does so, it will reappear at the
same interval as in the basic series.
(iii)
To determine the place of first appearance there is no sim-
pler method known to the writer than to reduce

run the series out to the first zero.
a and b [p and then
However, this can be quite a bit
simpler than running out the series, itself.
E . g . , what, if any, terms
1965
197
a r e divisible by 19 in the s e r i e s 119, 231, 350, 581?

119 = 5
[19
231 = 3
Note
[19
Hence the f i r s t 3 t e r m s = 5, 3, 8 and 3 2 - 5. 8 = -31 = 112 = 7, a r e s idue; so that 1 9 is a possible factor, then we have 5, 3, 8, 11, .0.
the 5th t e r m 931 is so d i v i s i b l e .
I.e.,
M o r e o v e r , since the z e r o period of
the basic s e r i e s is 18; this is a l s o the period in our given s e r i e s ; and

the 23rd, 41st and e v e r y 18th t e r m t h e r e a f t e r is divisible by 19.
If p is c o m p o s i t e , the r u l e s for z e r o a p p e a r a n c e s can be d e r i v e d
from the r u l e s of its p r i m e f a c t o r s in a m a n n e r e a s i l y i l l u s t r a t e d by
two e x a m p l e s :
(1) What, if any, t e r m s a r e divisible by 143 in the s e r i e s
1, 6, 7, 13 - - - ?
Since 143 = 11 x 1 3 we f i r s t check p o s s i b i l i t y of both p r i m e s as f a c t o r s
6 2 - 6 - 1 = 29 ~ 7 [11 and 3 [13
- 7 = 4 is a r e s i d u e of 11; and 3 is a r e s i d u e of 13.
Hence both p r i m e s a r e p o s s i b l e f a c t o r s
Moreover,
it can e a s i l y be found that z e r o
[l 1 a p p e a r s at the
6th t e r m with a p e r i o d of 10; while z e r o [13 a p p e a r s at the 4th t e r m

with a p e r i o d of 7.
Hence the n u m b e r
n, of the first t e r m divisible by 143 m u s t s a t -
isfy the c o n g r u e n c e s .
n^6
[10
and n = 4
[l 3
The m i n i m u m solution is 56.
Hence the 56th t e r m is the s m a l l e s t d i -
visible as r e q u i r e d by 143.
(2) On the other hand, t h e r e a r e c a s e s in which, while t h e r e m a y
be t e r m s of a s e r i e s divisible by each of two (or m o r e ) p r i m e s , t h e r e
m a y be none divisible by both (or all).
Consider
1, 7, 8, 15, 23
As the r e a d e r can check, the 4th t e r m and e v e r y 5th t h e r e a f t e r is d i visible by 5; while the 8th t e r m (99) and e v e r y 10th t h e r e a f t e r i s d i visible by 1 1 .
However,
t h e r e is no t e r m divisible by 55.
This is
198
Oct,
due to the fact that t h e r e is no solution to the simultaneous c o n g r u e n c e s

n = 4 [5
(a n u m b e r ending in 4 or 9)
n E 8 [ 10 (a n u m b e r ending in 8)
No number satisfies both conditions.
Thus t h e r e is no fixed and s i m p l e t e s t for divisibility of a gene r a l s e r i e s by a c o m p o s i t e n u m b e r .
One m u s t d e t e r m i n e for each p r i m e
factor of the c o m p o s i t e modulus, (i) the t e r m at which it f i r s t a p p e a r s

and (ii) the p e r i o d at which it r e a p p e a r s t h e r e a f t e r .
Then one m u s t
t e s t the c o n g r u e n c e s e x p r e s s i n g t h e s e two conditions for each p r i m e

in the c o m p o s i t e modulus; and e i t h e r solve them or find them to be
insoluble.
To complete this a n a l y s i s would r e q u i r e attack on the p r o b l e m of
z e r o a p p e a r a n c e s in both the b a s i c and g e n e r a l s e r i e s for moduli which
c
a r e p o w e r s of p r i m e s , p . However, this d i s c u s s i o n is postponed
pending publication of a proof by J. H. E Cohn that in the basic s e r i e s
no t e r m s a r e exact s q u a r e s , except U. , UT
and U'^.
Beyond this we offer only t h e s e C o n j e c t u r e s :

In the b a s i c s e r i e s
(i) If the k
term
i s the f i r s t one divisible by p,
choice of f i r s t two t e r m s ,
then the
c-1
and will not be g r e a t e r than the (p
)th
term.
(ii)
T h e r e will
2
chosen so that (b (iii) If t h e r e is
at the s a m e p e r i o d as
be no f i r s t a p p e a r a n c e , if the f i r s t t e r m s a r e
2
c
ba - a ) a r e n o n r e s i d u e s [p .
a f i r s t a p p e a r a n c e , t h e r e will be r e a p p e a r a n c e s
in the basic s e r i e s .
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
The Fibonacci A s s o c i a t i o n invites
Educationa]
Institutions to apply:
for A c a d e m i c Mem b e r s h i p in the A s s o c i a t i o n .
T h e m i n i m u m subIcription fee is $25 annually. (Ac a d e m i c Mem bers will r e c e i v e t w o
copies of each issue and wi 11 have t h e i r n a m e s listed in the J o u r n a l . )
L-
A GENERATING FUNCTION FOR FIBONACCI NUMBERS

R. G. BUSCHMAN
State University of New York, Buffalo, N. Y.
Since i n t e r e s t i n g identities for c e r t a i n n u m b e r t h e o r e t i c functions can be d e r i v e d from t h e i r g e n e r a t i n g functions, in p a r t i c u l a r gene r a t i n g functions for Dirichlet s e r i e s ,
the following p r o b l e m s e e m e d
to be of i n t e r e s t .
Problem:
Find a g e n e r a t i n g function
G which yields the F i b -
onacci n u m b e r s in the coefficients of a Dirichlet s e r i e s .

F i r s t we note that we m u s t w r i t e the s e r i e s in the form
00
(1)
G(s) =
2 f
n"S ,
n n
n=l
c = 1, the f 's i n c r e a s e too r a p i d l y .
since the s e r i e s d i v e r g e s for
P a r t of the goal i s , a s a r e s u l t , to find a simple e x p r e s s i o n to use for

c .
n
One a t t e m p t at the solution p r o c e e d s as follows.
Consider the
m o r e g e n e r a l difference equation,
(2)
u0, u
un+1
= aun + bun_1
(n*l)
from which we can w r i t e

U
[ z 2 (u l " Z l V ' Z?(U1 " z 2 u O ) 3/< z 2 " Z l )
with z, z ? = - b , z +z ? = a,
^ z?
Substituting into the D i r i c h l e t
s e r i e s we have
CD
(3)
X u
CO
c n.
n n
n= 1
= A(z n )
1
CO
c
n
z_ n
c
n= 1
+ A(z_)
Z
zT n"
n l
n= 1
w h e r e the function A is defined by
A^)
2
2
= (uQz1-u1z1)/(z1+b)
199
(u1"z1u0)/<z2"zl)
200
A GENERATING FUNCTION FOR FIBONACCI NUMBERS
Oct.
Since c
m u s t be c h o s e n to g u a r a n t e e the convergence of the s e r i e s

i
i
i
i
in (3), it is convenient to s e l e c t c = c a n d t h e n | c z 7 | < 1, | c z . | < 1.
n
Cd
Hence equation (3) can be w r i t t e n

00
(4)
, u
= A(zj) F(az.., s) + A(z ) F(az , s )
n=l
F(z, s) is a function d i s c u s s e d by T r u e s d e l l [2] .
where
,
Further
00
F(z, s) =
= z $ ( z , s, 1) ,
n=l
< denotes the L e r c h Zeta-function - some of the p r o p e r t i e s of
where
which a r e known [1:1.11] .
This allows the r e s u l t to be e x p r e s s e d in
various forms.
The difference equation
(2) can be r e w r i t t e n for
1
the form
2
n> v , , v ,, = acv + be v ,
0
1
n+1
n
n-1
=v
in
(n > 1) .
=
F o r the Fibonacci c a s e it is convenient to set c = l / 2 , so that the gene r a t i n g function for
f , that is
CO
G(s) =
(2" n f n ) n " S
n=l
can be w r i t t e n in the form
(5)
G(s) = ( 2 / / " 5 ) J F [ ( l + y - 5 ) / 4 , s] - F [(1 - S5)/4,
s] j .
To m a k e efficient use of this g e n e r a t i n g function one n e e d s to

have available i d e n t i t i e s involving the function F(z, s), e s p e c i a l l y such
identities as involve p r o d u c t s . Analogous to the ^-function, an infinite
p r o d u c t expansion for
F(z, s) in t e r m s of s, with fixed
z, might be
helpful.
REFERENCES
1.
A. E r d e l y i , et a l . , High T r a n s c e n d e n t a l Functions,
M c G r a w - H i l l , New York, 1953.
2.
C. A. T r u e s d e l l , "On a Function which o c c u r s in the T h e o r y of

the S t r u c t u r e of P o l y m e r s , " Ann. of Math. 46(1945), pp. 1 4 4 - 1 5 1 .
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
Vol.
l9
ADVANCED PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS

Edited by VERNER E. HOGGATT, JR.
San Jose State College, San Jose, California
Send all c o m m u n i c a t i o n s
Solutions to V e r n e r E. Hoggatt,
concerning Advanced P r o b l e m s
and
Jr. , Mathematics Department,
San
J o s e State College, San J o s e , California.
This d e p a r t m e n t e s p e c i a l l y
w e l c o m e s p r o b l e m s believed to be new or extending old r e s u l t s .
Pro-
p o s e r s should submit solutions or other information that will a s s i s t

the editor,.
To facilitate t h e i r consideration, solutions should be sub-
m i t t e d on s e p a r a t e signed sheets within two months after
publication
of the p r o b l e m s .
H - 6 1 Proposed by P. F. Byrd, San Jose State College, San Jose, California
(corrected)
Let
f
. = 0 for
n, k
f
0 < n <k-2, L
k
. = S
n, k
. l
f . , for
n-j, k
, , = 1 and
k-l,k
n > k .
Show that
1
2
^
i
n,>
^ 1 j. 1
,, ,
2
2k
n+1 i k
Hence
lim
lim
H - 6 5 Proposed by J. Wlodarski, Porz-Westhoven,
n, k
_ 1_
Federal Republic of Germany
The units digit of a positive i n t e g e r ,
M, is 9.
Take the 9 and put
it on the left of the r e m a i n i n g digits of M forming a new i n t e g e r , N,

such that N = 9M.
Find the s m a l l e s t
201
M for which this is p o s s i b l e .
202
H-66
Proposed by Douglas Lind, University of Virginia, Charlottesville,

Va., and
Raymond Whitney, Pennsylvania State University, Hazelton Campus, Hazelton,
Oct.
Pa.
Let
2 a.y , . = 0
j=o J n + J
be a l i n e a r h o m o g e n e o u s r e c u r r e n c e r e l a t i o n with c o n s t a n t
a..
coefficients
L e t t h e r o o t s of t h e a u x i l i a r y p o l y n o m i a l
2
j=0
and each root
r.
a.x
J
= 0
be
r,,
r~,
b e of m u l t i p l i c i t y
m.
(i = 1 , 2 , . . . , m ) .
..., r
Jeske (Lin-
e a r R e c u r r e n c e R e l a t i o n s - P a r t i , F i b o n a c c i Q u a r t e r l y , V o l . 1, N o . Z,,
pp. 69-74) showed that
oo
*. m . - l
r.t
y V = 2
n E r
n=0
i=l
j=0
b..t J .
1J
He a l s o s t a t e d that f r o m this we m a y obtain
z^x
(
">
m
= 2
i=l
m.-l
I
n
x
2
j=0
(i) Show t h a t (*) i s i n g e n e r a l i n c o r r e c t ,
b..nJ
1J
(ii) s t a t e u n d e r w h a t
t i o n s it y i e l d s t h e c o r r e c t r e s u l t , a n d (iii) g i v e t h e c o r r e c t
H-67
Proposed by J. W. Gootherts, Sunnyvale,
Let
B = (x B n , B , , . . .
0
1
two v e c t o r s in E u c l i d i a n n
ee ff ff ii cc ii ee nn tt ss of
of dd ee gg rr ee ee nn aa nn dd
condi-
formulation.
California
B ) and V = (F , F
,,,... F
, ) be
n
m
m+1
m+n
+ 1 space.
The B4' s a r e binomial c o tt hh ee FF , . ' s a r e c o n s e c u t i v e F i b o n a c c i
&
b
nm + i
n u m b e r s s t a r t i n g at any i n t e g e r m .
1965

Find the Limit of the angle between these vectors as
203
n approaches
infinity.
H - 6 8 Proposed by H. W. Gould, Wes t Virginia University,
Morgantown, West Virginia
Prove that
n
2
k=l
with equality only for
H-62
.
1
k
2
> =JL
n+2" 1
, n >1
n = 1,2.
Proposed by H. W. Gould, West Virginia University,

(corrected)
Find all polynomials
f(x)
r
X
f(x+l)=
and g(x), of the form
a.x,
j=o
Morgantown, West Virginia
a.
an integer
g(x) =
2
b.x,
j=0 J
b. an integer
J
such that
2 jx 2 f 3 (x+l) - (x+l) 2 g 3 (x)( + 3 j x 2 f 2 (x+l) - (x+l) 2 g 2 (x)(
+(2x+l) |xf(x+l) - (x+l)g(x)| = 0 .
H - 6 9 Proposed by M. N. S. Swamy, University of Saskatchewan,
Given the polynomials
Regina,
B (x) and b (x) defined by,
(x) = x B ,(x) + b , (x)

(n > 0)
v
n x ;
n-1
n-1x '
'
B (x) - (x + 1) B , (x) + b . (x) (n > 0)
n
n-1
n-1
'
b 0 (x)
Canada
= B0(x) = 1
204
Oct.
it is p o s s i b l e to show that,
B (x) = I ( n + r + 1 ) x r ,
and
n
b (x) = 1
0
n+r\
/n+rN
Vn-ry
It can a l s o be shown that the z e r o s of B (x) or b (x) a r e all r e a l ,

n
n
negative and distinct. The p r o b l e m is whether it is p o s s i b l e to f a c t o r ize B (x) and b (x). I have found that for the f i r s t few values of n,
n '
n '
the r e s u l t
n
B(X)
n
77
r = I x + 4 cos
(iTTl/
h o l d s . Does this r e s u l t hold good for all n?

s i m i l a r r e s u l t for b (x) ?
n
Z
Is it p o s s i b l e to find a
SOLUTIONS
FROM BEST SET OF K TO BEST SET OF K+l ?
H-42
Proposed by J. D. E. Konhauser, State College,
Pa.
A set of nine i n t e g e r s having the p r o p e r t y that no two p a i r s have

the s a m e sum is the set consisting of the nine consecutive Fibonacci
n u m b e r s , 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 1 3, 21, 34, 55 with total sum 14Z.
Starting with 1,
and annexing at each step the s m a l l e s t positive i n t e g e r which p r o duces a set with the stated p r o p e r t y yields the set 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 30,
39 with sum 122.
Is this the best r e s u l t ?
sum be found?
P a r t i a l solution by the p r o p o s e r .
Can a set with lower total
1965

Partial answer.
ll6o
205
The set 1, 2, 4, 5, 9, 14, 20, 26, 35 has total sum
For eight numbers the best set appears to be 1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 15, 20,
25 with sum 80.
Annexing the lowest possible integer to extend the set
to nine members requires annexing 38 which produces a set with sum

118.
It is not clear (to me, at least) how to progress from a best set
of k integers to a best set for

Comments by Murray Berg, Oakland,
The
set
k + 1 integers.
California
given above in the partial
solution is invalid since
1+5 = 4+2 = 6 and the problem asks for distinct sums for different pairs.
Comments by the Editor
An apparent solution summing to 118 was received but was discarded since the sum was larger than the partial solution given above.
Please resubmit if you read this.
AT LAST A SOLUTION
H-26
Proposed by L. Carlitz, Duke University
Let R. = (b ), where
Ki
rs
b
rs
(corrected)
= (^L'\)
_
KTI ti
(r, s = 1, 2, . . . . k+1). Then
show
Rn
_/ x
k ^ i
/r-lwk+l-r
k+1-r-s+j r+s-2j j - l \
F
F
J - l M s - j )Fn-l
n
n+iy
Letting R, = (a
), we evaluate
by extending the proposer' s
method of solving B-16 (Fibonacci Quarterly, Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 155157).
Using Carlitz's notation, we may easily show by induction that
the transformation
x' =
y' = x + y
induces the transformation
206

,0, k
(0)y
> _
,1,
k-i , .1. k
(L)xy
+ ( 0 )y
,k-i ,
X
Oct.
y'
k:
x y
,k-l,
,k-l
k-l)x
k-1
, .k-1,
k-1 , , k - l .
y + . . . + l ! )xy
+(
)y
y ' k = <)xk + ( ^ J x ^ y + . . . + ( k )xy k _ 1 + ( k )y k

Carlitz also showed that the
T?- is given by
M)
(1)
,x + F y
n-1
n
F x +F
y
n
n+1'
so that T\ induces the transformation

(2)
Tj: I ^ ( k - r + l ,
k I
W,r-1
k+1
=
k+l-B s-1
We note here a misprint in the B-16 solution:

should begin
with
&
T . instead of
2
(1) into (2) to obtain
{ r = 1 ; 2>
...
T, .
1
the last transformation
To evaluate
rs
, we substitute
_,
k+l-s s-1
_ .k+l-r,_
,
xr-l
T a x
y
= s(F , x + F Jy)
(F x + F ,,y)
%
7
T
rs
'
n-1
n'
n
n+1 '
s=l
k+1 - r
, _L1
,
1-r-i.î k + l - r - i i
k+l-r jk
.
y
v
. '
i
' n-1
n
1=0
r-1
X 2
,
, . >
,r-lx._r-l -J^J
j=0
i=o
j=o
-x
>k+1)>
rs
j = 1
)F
n
n+r
F^+1x
i
r-l-j j
n+1
1965
207
k+1 - s s -1
of x
y
, summing all terms of the last
We equate coefficients
sum with i+j = s - 1 , and since j i s - 1 we find

_
rs "
s- 1
,k+l-rur-l
k+2-r-s+j r+s-2-2j j
F
F
J0ls-l-jMj-l,Fn-l
n
n+1
_
"
j= l
. k + l - r w r - l . k+1-r-s+j
S
"J M J - 1 ) n-1
r+s-2jj-l
F
n
n+1 '
ANOTHER LATE ONE

H-38
Proposed by R. G. Buschman, SUNY, Buffalo, N. Y.
(See Fibonacci Numbers, Chebyshev Polynomials, Generaliza tions and Difference
Equations; Vol. 1, No. 4, Dec. 1963, pp. 1-7.)
Show
(u , + (-b) r u
)/u = X .
n+r
n-r 7 / n
r
Solution by Douglas
hind
Let z1 / z ? be the roots of z

b = z, z ? .
- az - b = 0, and note a = z, + z ? ,
We recall from the article that

Un = j (UJ-ZJUQJZJ - ( t l j - Z ^ J z * [ / ( Z 2 - Z l )
and
* n = I ( a "" 2 z 1 ) z 2 " ( a - 2 z 2 ) z i ' } /( Z 2" Z 1^ *

Now
1
since
U
A = z0 + z
n
2
1
a-2z,= z ? ~z ] = -(a-2z ), so that
\
nAr
\i
\ n
)(urZlU0)z2
+ r
/
vn +
" Û1~Z2U0)Z1
-
= u , + (-b) r u
n+r
n~r
the desired result.
Also solved by Clyde Bridget and the proposer.
. / u\ r /
\ n "T
" b ) (urZlU0)z2
+ (
(-b)r(urz2u0)z^r[/(z2-Zl)
THE FIBONACCI NUMBERS AND THE "MAGIC NUMBERS

J. WLODARSKI
F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c of Germany
It was r e p o r t e d h e r e (The Fibonacci Q u a r t e r l y , i s s u e 4, 1963)

that one of the fundamental a s y m m e t r i e s in the world of a t o m s is a s y m m e t r i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of fission f r a g m e n t s by m a s s n u m b e r s r e s u l t i n g
from the b o m b a r d m e n t of m o s t heavy nuclei (by t h e r m a l n e u t r o n s ) .
The p r o b l e m of this type of the a s y m m e t r y is one of m o s t difficult p r o b l e m s in the b r a n c h of f i s s i o n - p h y s i c s .
It s e e m s that by the h e r e mentioned a s y m m e t r y t h e r e is a connection between the Fibonacci n u m b e r s (. . . 34, 55, 89, 144, . . . ) and
the s o - c a l l e d " m a g i c " n u m b e r s (2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82 for p r o t o n s and
2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126 for n e u t r o n s ) , which a r e well known in
nuclear physics.
O o L
As a m a t t e r of fact the f i s s i o n - n u c l e u s Q ? U
p o s s e s s e s 144
n e u t r o n s and consequently a sufficient quantity of n e u t r o n s to form two
neutron-shells:
trons.
one with 50 n e u t r o n s and the other with 82 neu-
If the r e s t of 12 n e u t r o n s [144 - (50 + 82)] divide in two equal
p a r t s , the whole n u m b e r of n e u t r o n s in the heavy fragment is 82 + 6 =

88 (89)
and in the light f r a g m e n t s 50 + 6 = 56 (55). ^

T O /
The 92 p r o t o n s of the nucleus Q?U

can a l s o form two shells
with " m a g i c " n u m b e r s of p r o t o n s : 28 and 50 r e s p e c t i v e l y . If the r e s t
of p r o t o n s [92 - (28 + 50)] = 14 divide in the s a m e m a n n e r as the r e s t
of the 12 n e u t r o n s , the whole n u m b e r of protons in light f i s s i o n - f r a g m e n t
should be: 28 -r 7 = 35(34) and in the heavy fragment:
50 + 7 = 57(55).
These n u m b e r s of p r o t o n s (35 and 57) and the n e u t r o n s (56 and

88) in both f i s s i o n - f r a g m e n t s of the nucleus
well the m o s t e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s .
Q?U
conform r a t h e r
The n u m b e r in p a r e n t h e s i s is the n e a r e s t F i b o n a c c i n u m b e r .
1)
Mukhin,
K. N. ,
Introduction to Nuclear
USSR (1963), p . 350.
xxxxxxxxxxxxxx
208
Physics.
Moskow,
AN ELEMENTARY METHOD OF SUMMATION

D. G. MEAD
T h e p u r p o s e of t h i s n o t e i s t o p r e s e n t a n e l e m e n t a r y m e t h o d f o r
s u m m i n g the f i r s t
n t e r m s of a s e q u e n c e w h i c h s a t i s f i e s a g i v e n h o m o -
geneous linear r e c u r s i o n relatione
The method i s ,
in fact,
a simple
e x t e n s i o n of t h a t n o r m a l l y u s e d f o r s u m m i n g a g e o m e t r i c p r o g r e s s i o n ,
which we first r e c a l l .
Let:
S = a + ar + ar
+ . . . + ar
Then:
-rS
- ar - ar
. - ar
n+1
- ar
Therefore:
S(l - r) = a - a r
a n d if
n+1
r / 1,
n+1
S =
1 - r
We n o w t u r n to t h e g e n e r a l c a s e .
G.
J
satisfies
G . ,, + 2
(1)
w h e r e the
j+k
c.
i = 1
G.,,
. = 0,
j+k-i
a r e fixed q u a n t i t i e s , we w r i t e , a s above
S = G, + G~ + G~ + . . . . + J G, , ,
1 2
3
i k+1
t
0 , 8 = 0 , 0 , + c , G~ + . . .
+ g c , G,
1
1 1 1 2
I l k
C 2 S:
If f o r e v e r y p o s i t i v e i n t e g e r j ,
c2G1+.
+ G, , k+2
+. . . +G
|
I
i
+c,G, , , + . . . +c,G
, |+ c , G
1 k+1
1 n-1.5
1 n
n
c9G, , +c~G,
2 k-1
2 k
+ . . . +c~G
î+c-G
,+c~G
2 n-2i
2 n-1
2 n
+ . . . + c , kG n - k, s; + . . .
v^ G ii-
+ c
vkG ?2
209
+ ck, G n
210
Oct.
Since, adding v e r t i c a l l y and using (1), the sum of the t e r m s inside

the dotted lines is z e r o , we see:
S(l +c ] [ +. . + c k ) = G x (l +c ] [ +. . . + c k
) +G 2 (1 + c x +. . , + c k
) +. . . + G k
+ G (c. + c 0 +. . . + c. ) + G , (c 0 +. . . + c. ) + - . + c. G . , . .
n 1
2
k . n-1 2
k
k n-k+1
If 1 + c, + c . + , . . + c. , / 0, we can solve for
1 2
k-1
The s a m e method can be u s e d to find
S.
t
X i G- for a given t,
1
i=l
if the G. satisfy (1) To facilitate the p r e s e n t a t i o n , we collect some
t e r m i n o l o g y and facts a
Let E be the o p e r a t o r with the p r o p e r t y that
EG. = G. ,, .
I
l+l
To say that G. satisfies (1) is equivalent to the s t a t e m e n t that the
operator
v
0(E) = E K +
k
2
i=l
c. E K " X
1
when applied to any G., yields z e r o (E
being the identity operator),,
The a s s o c i a t e d polynomial
k
k
0(x) = x
X
i=l
k-i
c.x
1
is called the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c polynomial.'** The s p e c i a l r o l e of the n u m b e r one in our g e n e r a l i z a t i o n is now e a s i l y stated, for
1 + c, + . . . + c, ^ 0
1
k '
if and only if unity is not a root of the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c polynomial.
0(x) is unique if we a s s u m e 0 ( E ) G. = 0 for all positive j
the d e g r e e of 0 (x) > k.
implies
1965
It is known ( [2] , pp. 548-552) that if 0 ( E ) G . = 0, then

J
satisfies
[0(E)]
B. = 0, for
211
B^-j^G.
J J
j
t > 1.
If 0(1) / 0 then if,(l) ^ 0, w h e r e i//(x) = [0(x)] , and the method j u s t

d e s c r i b e d can be used to find
n
T = 2
j=l
t-1
B. = 2 j
J
j=l
G.
J
Writing
+2
d x "1,
i=l
0(x) = x
we find:
pnT =
kt-j
kt-1
I
P-B. + X
r.B
where
kt-j
p. = 1 + X d. and r . =
x
J
i=i
J
kt
i=j+i
d. .
x
Since 0 ( E ) G . = 0 and B. = j G.? one can e a s i l y obtain T in t e r m s of

1
k-1
n-k+2
n
The a s s u m p t i o n that unity not be a root of the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
polynomial h a s been c r i t i c a l to our d i s c u s s i o n so far. We now a s s u m e
\G.{
satisfies
X(E) G. = 0
J
w h e r e X(E) is a polynomial with X(l) = 0o
F a c t o r i n g out all the fac-
t o r s x - 1 in X(x), we obtain
X(x) = (x - l ) a 0(x), w h e r e
0(1) 4 0.
212
Letting
Oct.
C. = </>(E)G.3 we note:
6(1)S = <t>Q . ^
n-k
G.q. + .^
G. = . ^
k-1
C. + ^ G
. s.
where
v
X(x) = x* +
i=l
k-j
q. = 1 + X
J
i=l
v
K_1
c..x
1
c. and
s. =
k
2
i=j+L
c.
*
However, it is known ( [ 2 ] , pp. 548-552) that if (E - l ) a C. = 0,

then C. is a polynomial of d e g r e e < a ~ . l . If we a s s u m e the f o r m u l a s
for
n
j=l
a r e known, for
j a positive i n t e g e r , the only p r o b l e m r e m a i n i n g is

a-1
that of d e t e r m i n i n g the polynomial C. = d_ + d. j + . . . + d . j
. It
j
0
1
a-1
is e a s y to show that the difference o p e r a t o r E - l when applied to a
polynomial of d e g r e e r yields a polynomial of d e g r e e r - 1. T h e r e fore (E - 1) C-. involves only d . , d 7 . . . , d. and the s y s t e m of
l i n e a r equations on the d. obtained by computing (E - 1) J C-., j = 0, 1,
2, . . . , a - 1 can c l e a r l y be solved for the d..
The above is a g e n e r a l i z a t i o n of the technique used by E r b a c h e r
and Fuchs to solve p r o b l e m H - 1 7 . [4 J
Example:
A s s u m e that for
X(E)G. = 0, w h e r e
X(x) = (x - I )
GL = G 2 = G 3 = G 4 = G
*G 2 = 0,
(E - 1 )
Hence
(x
- 3x
satisfies
3
+ 4x + 2) = ( x - 1 ) <#(x). If
= 0, G 6 = 1, then C 1 = 0 ( E ) G 1 = 0, C 2 = 0(E)
C 3 = 0(E) G 3 = 1.
e a c h positive i n t e g e r j , G.
With C. = dQ + d } j + d 2 j 2 ,
C 1 = 2d 2 = 1, (E - 1) CL = dl + 3d 2 = 0 and C
2
C- = 1 - (3/2) j + j / 2 and
we find
= dQ + c^ + o^.
1965
AN E L E M E N T A R Y METHOD OF SUMMATION
n-3
< ( 1 ) S = 4 S = 2 G ,i - 2 G L9 + G .5 + .1 ^ (1 - ( 3 'j ) / 2 + j
213
/' 2 ) + 3 G n + 6 G n-1i + 2 G n - 2
0
n-3
(1 - (3j)/2 + f/Z)
In conclusion,
+ 3 0 ^ + 6G
, + 2G^
we have seen how the e l e m e n t a r y method used to
sum a g e o m e t r i c p r o g r e s s i o n can be g e n e r a l i z e d to find the sum of the

first
n t e r m s of a sequence "which satisfies a linear homogeneous r e -
c u r s i o n reLation.
It m a y be w o r t h stating that this method is applicable
to a sequence whose t e r m s a r e p r o d u c t s of c o r r e s p o n d i n g t e r m s
of
s e q u e n c e s each of which satisfy a linear homogeneous r e c u r s i o n r e l a tion (see [ l ] pp. 42-45 for a s p e c i a l c a s e ) .
We p r o p o s e as a p r o b l e m for the r e a d e r :
the sum of the f i r s t
Find in closed form
n t e r m s of the sequence Jw { :
1, 2, 10, 36, 145, . . .
where w ' = F G with F ^ = F ,. + F (F, = F 9 = 1) and

n
n n
n+2
n+1
n 1 &
G n+2
, ? = 2Gn+1,. + Gn (G11 = 1, G29 = 2).REFERENCES
1.
Dov J a r d e n , R e c u r r i n g Sequences, J e r u s a l e m , 1958.
2.
C. J o r d a n ,
"Calculus of Finite Differences, " Chelsea,
New
York, Ed. 1950.

3.
J a m e s A. J e s k e ,
" L i n e a r R e c u r r e n c e Relations, P a r t i , " The
Fibonacci Q u a r t e r l y , Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 69-74.

4.
P r o b l e m H-17,
The Fibonacci Q u a r t e r l y ,
P r o p o s e d in Vol. 1,
No. 2, 1963, p. 55 and solved by Joseph E r b a c h e r and John Allen

Fuchs in Vol. 2, No. 1, 1964, p. 5 1 .
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
ON IDENTITIES INVOLVING FIBONACCI NUMBERS

V. C. HARRIS
San Diego State College, San Diego, California
R a t h e r extensive l i s t s of identities involving Fibonacci n u m b e r s

have been given by K. Subba Rao [l] and by David Zeitlin [2] .
Addi-
tional identities a r e p r e s e n t e d h e r e , with the feature that s u m m a t i o n

by p a r t s h a s been used for effecting the proofs (except for identity
3).
Let f o = 0 and f,1 = 1 and let f n =f n-1, + f n-Z, for
Then
&
(2)
n > 2.
2 kfk = nf n + 2 - fn+3 + 2
k=0
(D k kf k = l - l l V ) ^ . ! + l-D*'1*^
1
k=0
<3>
- Z>
(-i)kf2k=[(-Dn(f2n+2+2n)-i]/5
2
k=0
(4)
(-l)k2k+l='[<-1)n<f2n+3+f2a+l>+2]/5
I
k=u
<5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
*
k=0
*
k=0
kf
kf
2k=(n+1)f2n+l
2k+l
1
(-D^k
k=0
-f2n+2
(n+1)f2n+2-f2n+3+1
^ ^ Z n + Z
<-D k kf 2 k+l = t - D ^ Z n + S
k=0
214
< n + 1 > f 2n>/ 5
< n + 1 > f 2n+l>/ 5 "
'b
1965
ON I D E N T I T I E S I N V O L V I N G
n
(9)
2,
kf
2
k=0
(10)
X
k=0
n
(12)
* '
X
i n
k=0
,2
=(n+2)f
2 n + 1
-(2n
l)f
-2
2 n
k 2 f 2 k + 1 = ( n 2 + 2 ) f 2 n + 2 - (2n+l)f
2
k=0
t")
2 k
215
- 1
4=<2n+1>f2nf2n+l-4+l+1
k
(-1) kf
n
^
= v(-1) x( n + l ) f
, ,,
m+3k
'
' m+3n+l
+f
2
- vv
( ( - l )' n f m +.-a
3 n +.29 m - li )7 // > m = 2 3 3 , .
(13)
A
'
n
X
in
k=0
,
(-l)Kkf
,., = (-l)n(n+l)f
,
,
m+4k x ' x
m + 4A n + 2
-((-l)nfm+4n+4 + f
(14)
121
)A
m=2.3,...
(-l)kkfm+5kM-Dn[(55n+35)fm+5n+1
2
k=0
-25fm-5n+2+(22n+18)W5n]
-[
n
2
k=0
(15)
(16)
n
2
k=0
(17)
(18)
K
2
kx=0
2
k=0
2
k=0
k \
2 0 f
m+l-
1 7 f
m-
1 0 f
m-l]-
m = 1
'2'
k
2 :f.
= f n+4 - (n+3)
n
k =0 K l
= (n+Df+4
- f
+6
+ 5 - n(n+l)/2
l
= ( n 2 + 2 ) f n + 2 -. ( 2 n - 3 ) f n + 3
k 3 f k = ( n 3 + 6n - 12)f
+2
- 8
- ( 3 n 2 - 9n + 1 9 ) f n + 3 + 50
216
FIBONACCI NUMBERS
(19)
2
k 4 f, = (n 4 + 12n 2 - 48n + 98)f
k
n
k=0
^
Oct.
- ( 4 n 3 - 18n 2 + 76n - 159)f n + 3 - 416
(20)
k=o
(21)
,S n
k=0
n
(22)
n n+1
2
_ 1
k f k+l = 2 f n+2 f n+l f n
f f i , , = i (f , , f , , f - (-1)
, k k+2 2 n+3 n+1 n
k=0
(23)
2
v n
f .+1)
n-1
J i<+ln^-1>nn-l+1^
k=u
5 kfk ÊiKtiV^'Vi'-iW:n+1
k=0
{24)
+ (~l) n (3f - 2f , ) + 5
n
n _ 1
^ ~
4
The well-known method of s u m m a t i o n by p a r t s i s e s t a b l i s h e d from
the identity
u k A v k = A (u k v k ) - v k + 1 A u k
On s u m m i n g t h e r e r e s u l t s
k=0
Of c o u r s e ,
u, A v, = u. v,
k
k
kk
n+1
0
n
"
k=0
a suitable choice of u, and A v,
in i n t e g r a t i o n by p a r t s .
kk++l i
A u
kk
i s e s s e n t i a l j u s t a s it i s
In o r d e r to find v ^ from Av]j r e s u l t s i n [ i j
1965
ON IDENTITIES INVOLVING
and [2] have been used when needed.
Also,
217
any constant term in v,
can be omitted in the two t e r m s of the right member.

To prove (1), let u ' = k and A v
k-1
1
v, =
k
Omitting the constant
n+1
1
kf
k=0
kf
k+i
v, ,
Then A u , = 1 and
we find
" k=0
*
n0
k + 1
f. = f. x l -1
1
k+1
i=Q
-1 from
=f .
k+Z = < n + 1 f n t Z - W 1 - V
nf n+2
, 0 - x(fn+4
, - fn+2
x o ); + 2
= nf
n+2 " fn+3
+ 2
To prove (2), let u , = k and
V ( - 1 ) \K=
k=0
. k - 1
i=o
(-D'f. -
2 (-1)%x
i=o
Then Au, = 1
with k > 2
x
and v, = (-1) f,
k - 2? - l .
(-l)kkfk = I
k=2
Omitting the t e r m
(~l)kkfv - 1 = M - l ^ f .k-2
n_1
( - D V D ^ . !
+ 1
k=l
= (-l) n (n+l)f
n
2
k=2
(-D
- 2
n-2
To prove (3) and (4), together, write in (3) u, = (-1)

k
Av
k=
1=0
\ - 1
k-1
hi'
i=0
2i
v.,
,
( - i ) \ .
+ (~l)n~l
n-1
n+1
-1 from
and
218
FIBONACCI NUMBERS
k-1
So that A u k = 2 ( - l ) "
and v k =
f 2k ^
A= X (-D k f 2k - S ( - ^ z k ^ - ^ z k
Zk
k=0
=
Zk
k=l
Then
n+1
Zk
Oct.
"i
n
- 2 X (-l)k+1f2k+1 " ^
k=0
^k+i
^'^zmr^^
where
B=
X (-1) f
2k + r
k=0
In (4) let u k = ( - l ) k and A v k = f 2 k + 1

Then
so A U R = 2 ( - l ) k + 1
n+1
B
1 kf
? 0 <" ) 2k + l = (" ) 2k
- 2
1 kf
, .
( - i r + 1 f .2k+2
X
k=0
^ ^ W z + ^ ^ Z n + Z - 2A
Solving gives the r e s u l t s .

To obtain (5) let u, = k and then v, = f-,
n
2
k=0
and vfe= f^.
n+1
kf
2k=kf2k-l
n
X
2
k=0
2k+l
,.
= (n+1)f
This gives
2n+l
"f2n+2
The o t h e r s a r e proved s i m i l a r l y , except that (23) w a s obtained

from (21) and (22). Note that the s a m e method could be used to extend
the r e s u l t s .
REFERENCES
K0 Subba Rao, "Some P r o p e r t i e s of Fibonacci N u m b e r s , " A m e r i c a n M a t h e m a t i c a l Monthly, Vol. 60, 1953, pp. 680-684.
David Zeitlin, "On Identities for Fibonacci N u m b e r s , " A m e r i c a n
M a t h e m a t i c a l Monthly, Vol. 70, 1963, pp. 9 8 7 - 9 9 1 .
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
CONCERNING THE EUCLIDEAN ALGORITHM

R. P. K E L I S K Y
IBM Watson Research Center, Yorktown Heights, New York
In m o s t d i s c u s s i o n s of the i n t e g e r solutions of the equation

(1)
ax + by = 1,
(a, b) = 1,
r e f e r e n c e is m a d e to the fact that an i n t e g e r solution of (1) m a y be obtained by using the Euclidean a l g o r i t h m .
With the r e s t r i c t i o n that
a > b > 1 we shall show that in the x - y plane the solution of (1) obtained by the E u c l i d e a n a l g o r i t h m is the lattice point on the line (1) which
is n e a r e s t the origin.
This is p r o b a b l y not a new r e s u l t , but we cannot
find a r e f e r e n c e to it in the literature,,
Dickson [l, pp. 41-521 gives
other a l g o r i t h m s for solving (!) for which it is known that the a l g o r i t h m

yields the lattice point on (1) which is n e a r e s t the origin.
Suppose a > b, (a, b) = 1, and a ^ 1 (mod b) and c o n s i d e r the
Euclidean a l g o r i t h m applied to the i n t e g e r s
a and b. One obtains the
well-known sequence of equations:

a
= b
n-2
n-3
= r
n-2
ll
1 < r1
<
^2
+ r2,
1 < r2
<
rx
q3
1 < r
<
^n-1
q
n-1
Ty
n-1
, < r 9
n-1
n-2
+ r
n
with r = 1.
The r e q u i r e m e n t that a ^ 1 (mod b) is equivalent to
r > 1, and hence the E u c l i d e a n a l g o r i t h m will r e q u i r e at l e a s t a s e c ond stepo Hence n ^ 2 and r . > 2
^
n-1 ~
To obtain a solution of (1) one then d e r i v e s the following sequence
of equations in which, for notational convenience, a = r ,
219
and
b = r
220
1 = r
~
n
(3)
Oct.
~ - q r 1
n-Z
n n-1
- ^n
q r n - 3Q + ( l + q^nq ^ n - 1^' r n - 2
= P . r . . + Q. r .
1 n-i-1
l n-i
= P
r .
+ Q rn .
n - 1
n 0
The P . and Q. a r e polynomials in the q. and the solution (P , Q )
l
l r J
n
n n
will be called the Euclidean a l g o r i t h m solution of (1)0 It is d e t e r m i n e d
uniquely by the a l g o r i t h m d e s c r i b e d by the equations (2) and (3).
L e m m a 1:
| p I < 4 b and | Q I < I a .
1
n'
2
' n'
2
Proof:
(4)
We f i r s t p r o v e by induction
|p. | < I2 r n -.i
and
(5)
|Q.| < 2 r n _ i - l
for
i=
with equality p o s s i b l e in (4) only if i = 1.

1 = P. r
I
l-.-n,
We have
. . + Q. r
n-i-1
l n-i
and since
r n - i.- 20 = r n - i- 1n q^ n - i. + r n - i
it follows that
1 = Q.I r n - i.- 29 + x(P.I - ^qn - i.Q.)r
r n - i. - 11
and we have the r e c u r r e n c e r e l a t i o n s
(6)
and
P.+1
= Q.
1965
(7)
= P. - q .Q.
l+l
with P . = 1 and Q_ = -q .
1
1
^n
that r , > 2. Similarly,
^n-i i
To prove that
^
'n-2
Q,
<.
V i
From (6) it follows that
221
| p . I = 1 % i- r , rec a l l
' 1'
2 n-1
n-2 <
^ 1
r
,
2 n-2
n-1
| p | < I r ' , and from (7) | Q | < I r

2 n-2'
2 n-3
since
Q,
lQl
P ,1 - <HLn. -, lQ~,l I > |Pi I +q.n-1

< ^ - r
n + q , * r
n-1
^n-1
0
n-2
2 rn-3
Now suppose that
lpkl<2rn-k
for
k = 2, . . . . , i.
a n d
lQkl<7rn-k-l
Then from (6)

|p,
'
k+1
'Q
kl
<
7rn-k.l'
and
Q k+1
|p
<
k~ V-kQkl=
kl
< i2rx n-k
+ q
2 rn-k-2
This
completes
the induction.
proved the lemma if we take
Since
Vkl
n-k ( Z r n-k-l )
r , = a and r 0 = b, we have
i = n in (4) and (5).
It seems intuitively clear that there cannot be two lattice points

on (1) which a r e equidistant from the origin if a / b. The proof of this
is straightforward but for completeness we give it here.
222
L e m m a 2:
Oct.
If a > b > 0 and (a, b) = 1, t h e r e do not exist two d i s -
tinct lattice points on ax + by = 1 which a r e equidistant from the origin.

Proof:
Suppose
(a, (3) and (<f, */) a r e distinct lattice
on the given line which a r e equidistant from the origin.
points
Then
a 2 + p 2 = f 2 + 1Z
(8)
and act + bp = a f + b*7 = 1. We solve for
p in t e r m s of a, r\
in t e r m s
of , and substitute t h e s e in (8) to obtain

(a 2 - f 2 ) b 2 = 2a(a - f ) - a 2 ( a 2 - 2 ) .
(9)
Since a / f
by h y p o t h e s i s ,
(a + ) b 2 = 2a - a 2 ( a + f ) .
(10)
But this i m p l i e s that a | ( a + f ) s i n c e (a, b) = 1, and a l s o that (a + f ) ) 2 a .

Hence, a + <f = a, or a + <f = 2a. If a + <jf = a, then (10) i m p l i e s
2
2
the Diophantine equation a + b = 2 which is i m p o s s i b l e if a / b.
If a + = 2a, then a + b = 1. C l e a r l y t h e r e is no solution to
this equation such that a ^ b ^ 0 and (a, b) = 1.
It is well known that if (x , y n ) is any lattice point on (1) then all
of the lattice points on (1) a r e given by the equations
x = x n - bt
y = y0
where
at
t runs over the set of all i n t e g e r s .

Theorem.
We can now prove our
If a > b > 1 and (a, b) = 1 then the Euclidean a l -
gorithm solution of (1) is the lattice point on (1) which is n e a r e s t the

origin.
Proof.
F i r s t suppose that a ^ l
(mod b).
Denote the E u c l i d e a n
a l g o r i t h m solution of (1) by (P , Q ). C l e a r l y the set, S, of positive

2
o11 n
2
2
i n t e &g e r s x(P - bt) + x(Q + at)^ h a s a s m a l l e s t m e m b e r . If P + Q
n
n
n
n
i s not the s m a l l e s t n u m b e r in S then t h e r e e x i s t s an i n t e g e r t ^ 0 such
that
P 2 + Q 2 > (P - bt) 2 + (Q + a t ) 2
n
n
n
n
1965
223
or
0< (aZ + b2) Itl < 2 | p b - Q a l .
1
J
'
n
n j
But from the lemma we have
0 < (a 2 +b 2 ) | t | < 2 ( | p
j
This is impossible; hence
| b + |Q |a)< a 2 + b 2 .
n
'
n'
t = 0 and (P , Q ) is the smallest number

n n
in S.
The only remaining case is if a = 1 (mod b) and a > b ^ 1. Here
the Euclidean algorithm is complete in one step and P . = 1 and
Q, = - q, = - (a - l ) / b .
can be rewritten
S(t) = (P, - bt) 2 + (Q
The expression
,-
c l t
c-a |
I F
+ at)
.
,1
7i
b
2
where
c =a
2
+b .
Now S(t) is a minimum for
b > 1 and c^ a imply that

fore,
the integer
c(b-l) + a > 0,
or
t=t*=(c-a)/bc,
0 < t- <: 10
t for which S(t) is a minimum is either
It is easy to show that
S(l) > S(0) if
(c-a)/bc < 1/2.
but
There0 or
1.
But
be < Ib and b > 1;

hence
(P, , Q, ) is the point on ax + by = 1 whichis nearest the origin.
This completes the proof of the theorem.

It is an easy consequence of this theorem that if a and b are
consecutive Fibonacci numbers, a > b > 1, then the Lattice point
P on
the Line ax + by = 1 which is nearest the origin has Fibonacci coordinates.
In fact,
if a = F
. , , then P is (F , , - F ) where n is
m+1
n-1
lithe greatest even integer not exceeding m. This foLlows readily from
the identity
F
,, F . - F F = (-l)nF
...
m+1 n-1
m n
m-n+1
REFERENCES
1.
Dickson,
L. E. ,
"History of the Theory of Numbers, " Vol. 2,
Chelsea, New York (1952).
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
A STRIP METHOD OF SUMMING LINEAR FIBONACCI EXPRESSIONS

BROTHER U. ALFRED
St. Mary's College, California
Given a l i n e a r F i b o n a c c i e x p r e s s i o n such a s
362880 F , , . - 2177280 F ^ n + 5594400 F J_. n - 8013600 F 1 1 C
r+21
r+19
r+17
r+15
+ 6972840 F ,. . - 3759840 F . . . +1225230 F 1 0 - 223290 F tn
r+13
r+11
r+9
r+7
+ 19171 F , c - 512 F , , + F _,_.
r+5
r+3
r+1
we w i s h to e x p r e s s t h i s , for e x a m p l e , as
A F ,, , + B F . . .
r+11
r+10
The f o r m u l a s for doing so a r e well known being
F
= F
n
and
F
However,
F
k+1
+F
n-k
F
k
n + k + l " F k+1
n-k-1
F
n+k
the d i r e c t p r o c e s s can be r e p l a c e d by a s t r i p method in
which the given coefficients a r e a r r a n g e d in descending o r d e r of

subscripts,
one space being allowed for each s u b s c r i p t , even though
c e r t a i n s u b s c r i p t s m a y be m i s s i n g in the given l i n e a r e x p r e s s i o n .
This m a y be done conveniently on ruled paper,
the s t r i p employed
having the s a m e spacing in its rulings as the p a p e r .

The s t r i p c o n s i s t s of the Fibonacci n u m b e r s in descending o r d e r .
To obtain the coefficient of the higher s u b s c r i p t F i b o n a c c i n u m b e r in
the s u m m a t i o n ,
subscript,
place the 1 above the z e r o at the place of the h i g h e r
multiply each n u m b e r on the s t r i p by the c o r r e s p o n d i n g
given coefficient and add the r e s u l t s .

lower s u b s c r i p t F i b o n a c c i n u m b e r ,
To find the coefficient of the
do likewise with the 1 below the
z e r o opposite the position of the lower s u b s c r i p t Fibonacci n u m b e r .

The w o r k is shown for the example given at the beginning of
this note.
224
1965
A STRIP METHOD OF SUMMING LINEAR
225
U P P E R SUBSCRIPT CALCULATION
STRIP
89
55
34
21
13
8
5
3
2
1
1
0
1
-1
2
-3
5
-8
13
-21
34
STRIP
55
34
21
13
8
5
3
2
1
1
0
1
-1
2
-3
5
-8
13
-21
34
-55
GIVEN COEFFICIENTS
PRODUCTS
362880
32296320
-2177280
-74027520
5594400
72727200
-8013600
-40068000
6972840
13945680
-3759840 ( F r + U )
-3759840
1225230
1225230
-223290
-446580
19171
95855
-512
-6656
34
1981723
LOWER SUBSCRIPT CALCULATIONS

GIVEN COEFFICIENTS
PRODUCTS
362880
19958400
-2177280
-45722880
5594400
44755200
-8013600
-24040800
6972840
6972840
-3759840 (F
r+10'
1225230
-1225230
-223290
669870
19171
-153368
-512
10752
-55
1224729
226
FIBONACCI EXPRESSIONS
Oct.
The final r e s u l t would thus be

1981723 F . . . + 1224729 F ,. n
r+11
r+10
In c a r r y i n g out t h e s e calculations it goes without saying that the p r o d ucts need not be w r i t t e n out but m a y be cumulated on a c a l c u l a t o r .
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
THE FIBONACCI ASSOCIATION ANNOUNCES

The a p p e a r a n c e of a booklet entitled: "Introduction to Fibonacci D i s c o v e r y " by B r o t h e r U. Alfred, Managing Editor of the Fibonacci
Q u a r t e r lyk As the title i m p l i e s the aim of this publication is to p r o vide the r e a d e r with the opportunity to w o r k out v a r i o u s facets of the
Fibonacci n u m b e r s by himself. At the s a m e t i m e , t h e r e is sufficient
help in the form of a n s w e r s and explanations to r e a s s u r e him r e g a r d ing the c o r r e c t n e s s of his work.
The t r e a t m e n t is r e l a t i v e l y brief, t h e r e being some sixty pages in all.
The m a t e r i a l was set up by t y p e w r i t e r and subsequently lithographed.
The books have a paper cover and a r e held together by glue binding.
P r i c e per copy is $1.50 with a quantity p r i c e of $1. 25 when four or
m o r e copies a r e o r d e r e d at once. The following topics a r e t r e a t e d :
D i s c o v e r i n g Fibonacci F o r m u l a s
Proof of F o r m u l a s by M a t h e m a t i c a l Induction
The Fibonacci Shift F o r m u l a s
Explicit F o r m u l a s for the Fibonacci and Lucas Sequences
Division P r o p e r t i e s of Fibonacci N u m b e r s
G e n e r a l Fibonacci Sequences
The A s s o c i a t e d " L u c a s " Sequence
The Fibonacci Sequence and P a s c a l ' s Triangle
The Golden Section
M a t r i c e s and Fibonacci N u m b e r s
Continued F r a c t i o n s and Fibonacci N u m b e r s
This booklet should provide the m e a n s of becoming acquainted with
Fibonacci n u m b e r s and s o m e of t h e i r m a i n r a m i f i c a t i o n s . It should
s e r v e as a useful r e f e r e n c e for r e a d e r s of the Fibonacci Q u a r t e r l y who
wish to l e a r n about the m a i n a s p e c t s of Fibonacci n u m b e r s . It should
a l s o prove of value to groups of competent high school or college stud e n t s . While not r e c o m m e n d e d for the " p r o " , it might be a useful
r e f e r e n c e to have on hand to loan to students or fellow faculty m e m b e r s
who want to know something about Fibonacci n u m b e r s .
The booklet is now available for p u r c h a s e . Send all o r d e r s to:
B r o t h e r U. Alfred, Managing Editor, St. M a r y ' s College, Calif.
(Note. This a d d r e s s is sufficient, since St. M a r y ' s College is a post
office.)
A NEAR-GOLDEN RECTANGLE AND RELATED RECURSIVE SERIES

MARJORIE BICKNELL AND JAMES LEISSNER
Adrian C. Wilcox High School, Santa Clara, California
Thomas Jefferson High School, San Antonio, Texas
The r e c t a n g l e whose diagonals form e q u i l a t e r a l t r i a n g l e s with its

widths has s o m e s u r p r i s i n g p r o p e r t i e s , including a r e l a t e d F i b o n a c c i like s e r i e s of i n t e g e r s .
comparison,
Before d i s c u s s i n g this r e c t a n g l e , for l a t e r
we call to mind another r e c t a n g l e .
The famous
Golden
Rectangle h a s the p r o p e r t y that when a full-width s q u a r e is cut from

one end, the r e m a i n i n g p a r t has the s a m e p r o p o r t i o n s as the o r i g i n a l
rectangle,
the r a t i o of length to width being (1 + V5)/2.
Joseph Raab
d i s c u s s e d other golden-type r e c t a n g l e s [_lj , which have the p r o p e r t y

that when an i n t e g r a l n u m b e r
k of full-width s q u a r e s a r e cut from one
end, the r e m a i n i n g p a r t h a s the s a m e p r o p o r t i o n s a s the o r i g i n a l r e c t a n g l e . T h e s e golden-type r e c t a n g l e s a l s o have r e l a t e d s e r i e s of i n t e gers.

In the r e c t a n g l e whose diagonals form e q u i l a t e r a l t r i a n g l e s with
its widths, the r a t i o of length to width is
^ 3 , c e r t a i n l y not "golden."
But after cutting a full-width s q u a r e from one end, t h e r e a p p e a r s a

glitter a s the r a t i o of length to width b e c o m e s
(1 +
^)/2.
Operating
s i m i l a r l y on this r e c t a n g l e , the r a t i o b e c o m e s ^3 + 1, and r e p e a t i n g the

p r o c e s s one last t i m e m a k e s the r a t i o of length to width again ^ 3 .
2 - VJ
60
...,y, -.,..
V3 - 1
'
2fc|
2 - V3(e-2 V3 - 3
5-
S% -
1-jj
V3
227
228
A NEAR-GOLDEN RECTANGLE A N D RELATED
Oct.
Some m o r e " n e a r - g o l d e n " r e c t a n g l e s a p p e a r as m o r e g e n e r a l

c a s e s of r e m o v i n g s q u a r e s of the width in a r e c t a n g l e to obtain r e c tangles s i m i l a r to the o r i g i n a l .
To simplify the d i s c u s s i o n , we will
designate a r e c t a n g l e by a capital l e t t e r and its r a t i o of length to width

by the c o r r e s p o n d i n g s m a l l l e t t e r .
From a rectangle
the total n u m b e r
rectangle
P.
R with width x and length y + m x , r e m o v e
m of full-width s q u a r e s contained in R to obtain
From
P, remove
the total n u m b e r n of
s q u a r e s contained in P to form r e c t a n g l e
full-width
R' 0
y + mx
ky-^fe
*r
x - ny
*
ny
R!
JL
If R1 is s i m i l a r to R, then r 1 = r
so that y / ( x - ny) = (y + m x ) / x .
Solving for x / y 1 p, we find

I2~2
(mn + ^/m n + 4 m n ) / 2 n ,
/ 2 2
p = (mn + \*m n + 4 m n ) / 2 m ,
(Note that R:R' = rp, and that m = n = 1 yields the Golden R e c t a n g l e . )
When we cut full-width s q u a r e s from
number
P , if we r e m o v e an i n t e g r a l
n l e s s than the total n u m b e r of full-width s q u a r e s a v a i l a b l e ,
and if R1 and R a r e s i m i l a r ,
r = ( s/
^ (m+n)^ + 4 + m
i)A
p = ( V( m + n )2 + 4 + m
n)/2.
1965
RECURSIVE SERIES
(Note again the Golden Rectangle for
229
m = 1 and n = 0, when P = R ' . )
Suppose that we r e m o v e the full amount of available full-width

P and R', but R ! and R a r e not s i m i l a r .
s q u a r e s in forming
rectangle
T, s i m i l a r to R, can be obtained from
of an i n t e g r a l n u m b e r
R'
If a
by the r e m o v a l
q of s q u a r e s of the width of R', then
r = t = (M n 2 ( m + q ) 2 + 4n(m+q) + n(m - q))/2n,

p = ( ^ n 2 ( m + q ) 2 + 4n(m+q) + n(m + q))/2(m + q),
r 1 = ( V n 2 ( m + q ) 2 + 4n(m+q) + n(m + q ) / 2 n .
Again, q = 0 and m = 1 yields the Golden Rectangle, with
r = p = r f = (1 + >/5.)/2.
A l s o , q = m = n = 1 yields (for R and T) the
r e c t a n g l e with diagonals forming e q u i l a t e r a l t r i a n g l e s with its widths,

with p = (1 +
N/
3)/2.
The s i m i l a r i t y of form between the r a t i o (1 +

called 0 , and the golden r a t i o given above,
N3)/2,
hereafter
s u g g e s t s that we seek a
F i b o n a c c i - t y p e s e r i e s a s s o c i a t e d with p o w e r s of 0 .
Consider the fol-
lowing:
e --= (1
e2-. = (2
v/3)/2
= (1)0 + 0
^3)/2.
:= '(1)0 + 1 / 2
0 : = (5 + 3 >/3)/4 = (3/2)0 + 1/2
e 4 == (7
+ 4^3)/4
= (4/2)0 + 3 / 4
0 5 : = (19 + ll>^3)/8 = (11/4)0 + (4/4)

<? 6 == (26 + 15^3)/8 = (15/4)0 + (11/8).
The n u m e r a t o r s of e i t h e r the coefficients of
0 or the constant addends
and the coefficients of ^3 form the following s e r i e s :

15, 4 1 , 56, . . .
1, 1, 3, 4, 11,
It can be proved by induction that this s e r i e s is d e -
fined by
2n
2n+l
2n-l
2n
2n-2
2n-l
230
A N E A R - G O L D E N R E C T A N G L E AND R E L A T E D
where
P , = P ? = 1.
Oct.
A s e c o n d s e r i e s : 1, 2, 5, 7, 19, 2 6 , . . . ,
having
the s a m e r e c u r s i o n f o r m u l a s a s the above, a p p e a r s in the c o m p u t a t i o n

of p o w e r s of
If
0.
We s h a l l caLl t h e
0 = (1 + ^ 3 ) / 2 a n d 0 =
nth
(1 -
t e r m in the second s e r i e s
^ 3 ) / 2 , it i s n o t d i f f i c u l t to
R .
n
show
by i n d u c t i o n t h a t
Pn= (en -f1)/

R
n =
^-z^-n^
(0n+9Sn)/2 & - n / 2 3 ,
= l ,
w h e r e [x] i s t h e L a r g e s t i n t e g e r i n x .
2, 3,
....
The s e r i e s just defined b e a r a
s t r i k i n g r e s e m b l a n c e t o t h e F i b o n a c c i a n d L u c a s s e r i e s a s d e f i n e d by
t h e B i n e t f o r m u l a i n t e r m s of t h e g o l d e n r a t i o , w h e r e t h e
and
nth
nth
Fibonacci
L u c a s n u m b e r a r e g i v e n r e s p e c t i v e l y by
rp
an - pn
n , Rn ,
1 + ^5
1 - ^S
a
F =
- , L - a + 6 for a =
, p =
J5
n
2
2
U s e of t h e a b o v e f o r m f o r P
and R
n
and s t a n d a r d limit t h e o r e m s
n
l e a d s to
Limit
P0 /P~
, =
2n' 2 n - l
and
Limit
R0 / R 0
, = d> ;
r
2n' 2 n - l
n-> co
n>co
L i m i t P 0 M / P , =2(9 a n d L i m i t R_ , . / R ~ = 2 0 .
2 n + l ' 2n
2n+l'
2n
n-a* 0 0
n __^co
F i n a l l y3 , a s n i n c r e a s e s , R / P
oscillates about its limit, N / 3 .
n' n
A l s o e s t a b l i s h e d by i n d u c t i o n a r e f o r m s f o r p o w e r s of #0
0n
= {P
X
0 ) / 2
Bn-D/2]
+ p
^' n
/ 2
[n/2]
+ p
n-1'
[(n+l)/2]
"
and
r
= ( - 2 ) n ( P n + 1 / 2 t n / 2 ] - P n 0 / 2 D11"1)/2] )
For comparison,
if
IjtJl
?
where
a,
then
a*1 = ( L
+ F
is the nth F i b o n a c c i n u m b e r and L
n
n
\f5)/2
'
the nth Lucas n u m b e r .
1965
RECURSIVE SERIES
231
Other t h e o r e m s , a l s o possible to e s t a b l i s h by induction, a r e :

2n
1 P . = P ? ,, - x( P 9 . + l ) / 2 ,
. ,
I
2n+l
2n-l
''
i=l
2n+l
1=1
2(2n-l)
v
.""%
P = P P
- p
i
2n 2n+l
2n-1
1=1
P P , , - P n P , ? = (~l)n + 1 .
n n+3
n+1 n+2
Considering the even o r d e r e d e l e m e n t s and the odd o r d e r e d e l e m e n t s of the s e r i e s s e p a r a t e l y leads to
P
= 4P
2n
p
^2n+l
2n-2 " P2n-4

4p
p
^2n-l
^2n-3'
which in t u r n can be used to p r o v e the following r e l a t i o n s h i p s between

R
and p , and s u m m a t i o n f o r m u l a s for even or odd e l e m e n t s of the

n
n
s e r i e s P, :
n
R9 = P 9 , + P 9 ,
2n
2n-l
2n
Zn
Zn-1
LTI
n
. ,, - l )"/ 2 = x( 3 P2n
- P 92n-29 - l ); // 2 ,
9
.2 . P 92i. = x( P 2n+l
i=l
and
n
V
^
i=l
P 92,i - l1 = P 92n = ( P 92n+3

,~ - P 92 nx+l l) '// 2 .
REFERENCES
Joseph A. Raab, "A G e n e r a l i z a t i o n of the Connection Between the
Fibonacci Sequence and P a s c a l ' s T r i a n g l e , " Fibonacci Q u a r t e r l y ,
3:1, Oct. , 1963, pp 8 21-32.
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
FACTORIZATION OF 36 FIBONACCI NUMBERS F n WITH n>100

L. A. G. DRESEL AND D. E. DAYKIN
Reading University,
The Fibonacci numbers F
England
are defined by F, = F>= 1 and
J
n
1
2
F ,, = F + F , for n > 1. W e present be Low the factorization of
n+1
n
n-1
^
certain F
with n > 100. The factors of F
before the double
n
n
asterisk are improper factors of F
(they divide F
with m < n),
and those behind the double asterisk are proper factors of F . All the
factors shown are believed to be primes. W e obtained the results on
the Elliott 80^-computer at Reading University, and we hope to discuss
our methods and extend the table in a later paper.
F102 = 2 3 * 1597 * 3571 * 6376021 ** 919 * 3469
F104 = 3 * 7 * 233 * 521 * 90481 ** 103 * 102193207
F105 = 2 * 5 * 13 * 61 * 421 * 141961 ** 8288823481
F106= 953 * 55945741 ** 119218851371
F108 = 2 4 * 3 4 * 17 * 19 * 53 * 107 * 109 * 5779 ** 11128427
F110 = 5 * ll 2 * 89 * 199 * 661 * 474541 ** 331 * 39161
F112 = 3 * 7 2 * 13 * 29 * 47 * 281 * 14503 ** 10745088481
F114 - 2 3 * 37 * 113 * 797 * 9349 * 54833 ** 229 * 95419
F116 = 3 * 59 * 19489 * 514229 ** 347 * 1270083883
F117 = 2 * 1 7 * 233 * 135721 ** 29717 * 39589685693
F118 = 353 * 2710260697 ** 709 * 8969 * 336419
F120 = 2 5 * 3 2 * 5 * 7 * 11 * 23 * 31 * 41 * 61 * 2161 * 2521 ** 241 * 20641
F126 = 2 3 * 13 * 17 * 19 * 29 * 211 * 421 * 35239681 ** 1009 * 31249
F128 = 3 * 7 * 47 * 1087 * 2207 * 4481 ** 127 * 186812208641
F129 = 2 * 433494437 ** 257 * 5417 * 8513 * 39639893
F130 = 5 * 11 * 233 * 521 * 147 36206161 ** 131 * 2081 * 24571
F132 = 2 4 * 3 2 * 43 * 89 * 199 * 307 * 9901 * 19801 ** 261399601
F134 = 269 * 116849 * 1429913 ** 4021 * 24994118449
F138 = 2 3 * 137 * 139 * 461 * 829 * 18077 * 28657 ** 691 * 1485571
F140 = 3 * 5 * 11 * 13 * 29 * 41 * 71 * 281 * 911 * 141961 ** 12317523121
F1.44 = 2 6 * 3 3 * 7 * 17 * 19 * 23 * 47 * 107 * 1103 * 103681 ** 10749957121
F147 = 2 * 13 * 97 * 421 * 6168709 ** 293 * 3529 * 347502052673
F148 = 3 * 73 * 149 * 2221 * 54018521 ** 11987 * 81143477963
232
1965
FACTORIZATION O F 36 FIBONACCI NUMBERS F
233
F150 = 2 J * 52
-Ml * 31 * 61 * 101 * 151 * 3001 * 230686501 ** 12301*18451
F156 = 2 4 > 3 2 * 79 * 233 * 521 * 859 * 90481 * 135721 .** 12280217041
F162 = 2 3 * 17 * 19 * 53 * 109 * 2269 * 4373 * 5779 * 19441 ** 3079- 62650261
F165 = 2 * 5 * 61 * 89 * 661 * 19801 * 474541 ** 86 461 * 518101 * 900241
F168 = 2 5 * 3 2 * 7 2 * 13 * 23 '* 29 * 83 * 211 * 281 * 421 * 1427 * 14503
** 167 * 65740583
F174 = 2 3 * 59 * 173 * 19489 * 514229 * 3821263937 ** 349 * 947104099
F180 = 2 4 * 3 3 * 5 * 1 1 * 1 7 * 1 9 * 31 * 41 * 61 * 107 * 181 * 541 * 2521
* 109441 ** 10783342081
F190 = 5 * 11 * 37 * 113 * 7 61 * 9349 * 29641 * 677 35001 ** 191 * 41611
* 87382901
F198 = 2 3 * 17 * 19 * 89 * 197 * 199 * 9901 * 19801 * 18546805133 ** 991
* 217 9 * 1513909
F204 = 2 4 * 3 2 * 67 * 919 * 1597 * 3469 * 3571 * 63443 * 6376021 ** 409
* 66265118449
F210 = 2 3 * 5*11 * 13 * 29 * 31 * 61 * 71 * 211 * 421 * 911 * 141961 *
8288823481 ** 21211 * 767131
F216 = 2 5 * 3 4 * 7 * 1 7 * 19 * 23 * 53 * 107 * 109 * 5779 * 103681
* 11128427 ** 6263 * 177962167367
F228 = 2 4 * 3 2 * 37 * 113 * 229 * 797 * 9349 * 54833 * 95419 * 29134601
** 227 * 26449 * 212067587
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LETTER TO THE EDITOR
ERIC HALSEY
Redlands, California
Re: My a r t i c l e The F i b o n a c c i Number F w h e r e u i s not an i n t e g e r

in is sue n u m b e r 2 of the c u r r e n t volume of the Q u a r t e r l y . I have d i s c o v e r e d t h a t , due to e x c e s s i v e h a s t e and timidity on m y p a r t , I placed
undue r e s t r i c t i o n s on the l e t t e r u. This v a r i a b l e can a s s u m e not only
all r a t i o n a l v a l u e s , a s stated in the a r t i c l e , but a l l r e a l values a s well.
Obviously, only for r a t i o n a l values c a n a complete n u m e r i c a l e x p r e s sion of F be obtained.
u
COMMENTS ON " T H E GENERATED, COMPOSITIONS

YIELD FIBONACCI NUMBERS"
HENRY WINTHROP
University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida
The following explanations will serve to round out the paper mentioned above which appears in T h ^ F i b o n a ^
3, No. 2,
131-4).
The expression
F(h., <fi) of model display (1) designates the par-
titions of the integer, i, in which the partitions are expressed as functions in <p and in which the coefficient of each partition represents the
number of possible permutations of that partition.
The general term of model display (3) can be given as
= ik + [(i-1) + 2 ]!k 2 + [(i-2) + 4] Ik 3 + . . .
(1)
1i-2>J3!
(i-3)!5!
+ [i-(n-l) + 2(n-l)] I k n + . . . +
k1
irr n )!(2n-l): ~~
(i-n)!(2n-l)l
where the coefficient of k
is the n-th term of the 2r-th order of the
figurate numbers.
A discussion of figurate numbers of various orders will be found
in Higher Algebra by Hall and Knight (Macmillan, 1936, 4th edition),
pp.
319-22.
The following additional references to the paper in question will
be found of value by the reader.

1.
H. Winthrop,
"Mathematics In The Social Sciences,"
School
Science and Mathematics, 1957, Vol. 57, pp. 9-16.

2.
H. Winthrop, "On The Use of Difference Equations In Behavioral

Diffusion Theory, " School Science and Mathematics, 1958, Vol.
58,
30
pp. 1-6.
H. Winthrop,
"A Kinetic Theory Of Socio-Psychological Dif-
fusion, " Journal of Social Psychology,

4.
H. Winthrop,
1945, Vol. 22, 31-60.
"Experimental Results In Relations To A Mathe-
matical Theory Of Behavioral Diffusion, " Journal of Social Psychology, 1958, Vol. 47, 85-99.
Continued on page 240.
234

Edited by A. P. HILLMAN
Send all c o m m u n i c a t i o n s
Solutions to P r o f e s s o r
r e g a r d i n g E l e m e n t a r y P r o b l e m s and
A. P . Hillman,
D e p a r t m e n t of
Mathematics
a n d S t a t i s t i c s , U n i v e r s i t y of N e w M e x i c o , A l b u q u e r q u e ,
New M e x i c o .
E a c h p r o b l e m or solution should be s u b m i t t e d in legible f o r m ,
prefer-
a b l y typed in double s p a c i n g , on a s e p a r a t e s h e e t o r s h e e t s in t h e f o r mat used below.
Solutions
s h o u l d b e r e c e i v e d w i t h i n t w o m o n t h s of
publication.
B-70
Proposed by Douglas Lind, University
Denote
taining
B-71
Show that the following e x p r e s s i o n ,
con-
e x ( J ex( J e x ( . . . / ex( f x d x ) d x ) . . . d x ) d x ) d x
^0
JO
JO
JO
,, / F , _, w h e r e
n+1 '
n+2
is the
a"
+ a~
n-th
Fibonacci number.
Proposed by Douglas Lind, University
Find
B-72
bbyy e x ( a ) .
Va.
integrals,
I
^0
equals
of Virginia, Charlottesville,
of Virginia, Charlottesville,
+ a - 4 +. . . , w h e r e
Proposed by ]. A. H. Hunter, Toronto,
a = (1 +
Va.
5)/2.
Canada
E a c h d i s t i n c t l e t t e r in this s i m p l e a l p h a m e t i c stands for a p a r t i c u l a r and different

Fibonacci series,
digit.
We a l l k n o w h o w r a b b i t s
link up with the
so now evaluate our R A B B I T S .

R A B B I T S
BEA R
R A B B I T S
A S
A
S E R I E S
B - 7 3 Proposed by Douglas Lind, University of Virginia, Charlottesville,
Va.
P r o v e that
n
2
k=0
2 (?) (k+TTl) = l +
j=0
2n+r-2
2
m=0
235
2 (mTX) .
p=0
236
where
Oct.
( ) = 0 for n < r .
V
B - 7 4 Proposed by M. N. S. Swamy, University of Saskatchewan,
Regina,
Canada
The F i b o n a c c i polynomial f (x) is defined by 1 = 1, f? = x,

and f (x) = xf . (x) + f _(x) for n > 2. Show the following:
n
n-1
n-2n
(a)
x 2
f (x) = f ,. + f -1 .
N
'
, r
n+1
n
r=l
(b)
f , ,. = f , 1 f ,. + f f .
*
m+n+1
m+1 n+1
m n
(c)
f (x)
S
j=0
(n
ZJ l
w h e r e [kj is the g r e a t e s t i n t e g e r not exceeding k.
Hence show that
the n - t h F i b o n a c c i n u m b e r
F
O-D/2]
s
i=o
.j_i
(nn ! ) .
J
B - 7 5 Proposed by M. N. S. Swamy, University of Saskatchewan,
Regina,
Canada
Let f (x) be a s defined in B - 7 4 . Show that the d e r i v a t i v e

n
,
n-1
f n x(x)' = X, fr x(x)' fn - r x (x)' for n > 1.
r=l
SOLUTIONS
ONE, TWO, THREE OUT
B-58
Proposed by Sidney Kravitz, Dover, New
]ersey
Show that no F i b o n a c c i n u m b e r other than 1, 2, or 3 is equal to

a Lucas n u m b e r .
Since
(I)
{L)
L, = F,
Va.
, + F, ,, , the a s s e r t i o n i s equivalent to
F
n
= F
+ F
*k-l
k+1*
1965
If k > 3, the
237
n > k+1 and (1) is clearly impossible since

F
k-1
Impossibility for
XI
<
k+1
_L1
k+1
XO
k+2
k ^ 3 implies impossibility for
signs a r e different.
For
-3 < k < 3 we find
k i -3
= L
&
F~ = L = 2, F , = L, = 1, and
0, 1, and 2 respectively.
since only
= 1,
l
F . = L~ = 3, corresponding to k = - 1 ,
Hence these a r e the only solutions.
(The crux of this problem is solved in the discussion of equation (12)

in C a r l i t z ' "A Note on Fibonacci Numbers,
No.
this Quarterly 1 (1964)
2 pp. 15-28).
Also solved by J. L. Brown, Jr.; Gary C. McDonald; C. B. A. Peck; and the

proposer.
B-59
Proposed by Brother U. Alfred, St. Mary's College,
California
Show that the volume of a truncated right c i r c u l a r cone of slant

height
&
with
,
n-1
and
in
n+1
^"<Fn+l
the d i a m e t e r s of the bases is
n-l)/24.
Va.
It is we 11-known that if h is the height of the frustrum of a right

c i r c u l a r cone, s the slant height,
b a s e s , then the volume
and
and
the radii of the
V is
V = (rrh/3)(rj + r } r 2 + r^)
= (rr/3) \ / 7 ^ ( r 2 - r 1 ) 2 ( r J + r ^
For this rproblem
r, = F . / 2 , r 0 = F , , / 2
1
n-1'
2
n+1'
+ r2).
and
s = F ,
n
so that
V = 5 \v / F 2 - x(F , , - F T ) 2 / 4 x ( F 2
. + F . F , 1 +F2
)/4
3
n
n+1
n-1' '
n-1
n-1 n+1
n+1"
77 V F 2 - F 2 / 4 x( F 2 1 +F
.F x l + F 2
)/l2
n
n'
n-1
n-1 n+1
n+1"
\/377 F
( F 2 . + F . F ,_ + F 2 , 1 ) / 2 4
n-1
n-1 n+1
n+1"
238
Oct.
- V I , ( F n + 1 - F n . 1 ) ( F ^ 1 + F n _ l F n + 1 + F^ + 1 )/24
"
n-1>/24'
We remark that the area
A of the curved surface of the frustrum is
A = n F (F , . + F
, )/2 = {n/2)F L .
n n+1
n-1"
'
n n
Also solved by Carole Bania, Gary C. McDonald, Kenneth E. Newcomer,
C. B. A. Peck, M. N. S. Swamy, Howard L. Walton, John Wessner, Charles
Ziegenfus, and the proposer. McDonald also added the formula for the
curved surface.
B-oO
California
n-th
2
L^ L~ x o + 5 F 0 , 1 = 1 , where F
and L
are the
2n 2n+2
2n+l
n
n
Fibonacci number and Lucas number, respectively.
Show that
Solution by 2nd Lt. Charles R. Wall, U. S. Army, A. P. 0., San Francisco,
Calif.
Using my second answer to B-22 (Vol. 2, No. 1, p. 78),
2(n+1)
2n
= 5F
(n+l)+n
= 5F2n+l
= 5F
(n+l)-n
Ll+1
Thus
2
L
2n+2 L 2n "
5F
2n+l
= l
'
Also solved by J. L. Brown, Jr.; J. A. H. Hunter; Douglas Lind, Kathleen Marafino,

Gary C. McDonald, C. B. A. Peck, Benjamin Sharpe, M. N. S. Swamy, Howard L.
Walton, John Wessner, Kathleen M. Wickett, David Zeitlin, Charles Ziegenfus, and
the proposer. Also by David KLarner.
MODULO THREE
B-6l
Proposed by J. A. H. Hunter, Toronto, Ontario

Define a sequence
U, , U ? , . . . by
U = U
,+n
n
n-1
Prove that
= 0(mod n) if
Solution by John Wessner, Melbourne,
+n +l
U, = 3
for
$ 0 (mod 3).
Florida
and
n > 1 .
1965
239
An a l t e r n a t i v e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n for U is
n
n
7
Un=
1
(k^+k+1).
k=l
Upon expanding the individual s u m s involved we obtain
Un=
[n(2n+l)(n+l)/6]
Hence,
+ [n(n+l)/2]
+ n = (n/3)
[(n+2)(n+l)+3] .
U = 0(mod n) if and only if (n+l)(n+2) = 0(mod 3). This
dition obtains if and only if n
con-
^ 0(mod 3).
Also solved by Robert J. Hursey, Jr., Douglas Lind, Gary C. McDonald, Robert
McGee, C. B. A. Peck, Charles R. Wall, David Zeitlin, and the proposer.
UNIQUE SUM OF SQUARES

B-62
Proposed by Brother U. Alfred, St. Mary's College,
California
P r o v e that a Fibonacci n u m b e r with odd s u b s c r i p t cannot be r e p r e s e n t e d a s the sum of s q u a r e s of two Fibonacci n u m b e r s in m o r e than
one way.
Solution by J. L. Brown, jr., Pennsylvania
State University,
State College,
Pa.
F r o m the identity3
F n .,
2n+l
F . .,
2n+l
k > n
F 0 ,, = F + F, ,, , (n> 1) it follows
2n+l
n
n+1
< (F + F , , ) = F
T h e r e f o r e , any r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
x
n+2
n
n+1'
+?.
= F, + F 2 x(k < m) m u s t have both k and m < n+1.
k
m
'
(otherwise
Ff + F Z < F ^ + F z ^ , = F , ,. for k > 2).
1
k
rn
n
n+1
2n+l
'
that
2
2
Also solved by Douglas Lind, Joseph A. Orjechouski

C. B. A. Peck, and the proposer.
AN ISOSCELES
and Robert McGee
(jointly),
TRIANGLE
1 3 - 6 3 An old problem whose source is unknown, suggested

New Jersey.
In
by Sidney Kravitz,
A ABC let s i d e s AB and AC be equal.
point D on side AB such that AD = CD = BC.
Dover,
Let t h e r e be
Show that
2cos $ A = A B / B C = (1 + \/5)/2 ,
the golden m e a n .
Solution by John Wessner, Melbourne,
Then
Florida
By i n s p e c t i o n of the figure and the law of c o s i n e s

AD 2 = C D 2 + A C 2 - 2CD* AC cos f A.
240
Since

AD = CD = BC
and
AB = AC,
Oct.
it follows i m m e d i a t e l y that
2 cos $ A = A C / C D = A B / B C .
The second r e s u l t c o m e s from the fact that
$ B = $ BDC = $ A + $ DCA = 2 $ A
and hence
$ A = 36 and 2 cos A = (1 + >/5)/2.
(See N. N. Vorobyov: The F i b o n a c c i N u m b e r s (New York, (1961) p . 5 6 . )
Also solved by Herta Taussig Freitag, Cheryl Hendrix, Kathleen Marafino, and
Carol Barrington (jointly), ]. A. H. Hunter, Douglas Lind, James Leissner, C. B. A.
Peck, Kathleen M. Wickett, and the proposer.
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
Continued from page 234.
5.
H. Winthrop,
"The M a t h e m a t i c s Of The Round Robin, " M a t h e -
m a t i c s Magazine (In P r e s s ) .
6.
H. Winthrop,
"A M a t h e m a t i c a l Model F o r The Study Of The
P r o p a g a t i o n Of Novel Social Behavior, " Indian Sociological Bulletin, July 1965, Vol. II. (In P r e s s )
7.
H. Winthrop, "Some G e n e r a l i z a t i o n s Of The Dying Rabbit P r o b lem, " (In P r e p a r a t i o n ) .
8.
N. N. Vorob'ev, Fibonacci N u m b e r s , B l a i s d e l l Publishing Company, New York, 1961.

XXXXXXXXXXXXX
ASSOCIATION PUBLISHES BOOKLET

B r o t h e r U. Alfred h a s just completed a new booklet entitled: I n t r o d u c tion to Fibonacci D i s c o v e r y . This booklet for t e a c h e r s , r e s e a r c h e r s ,
and bright students can be s e c u r e d for $1.50 each or 4 copies for
$5.00 from B r o t h e r U. Alfred, St. M a r y ' s College, Calif.

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134

TIME GENERATED COMPOSITIONS YIELD

One is d i r e c t e d to advanced p r o b l e m H-5Q D e c e m b e r 1964, F i b onacci Q u a r t e r l y , for the partitioning i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the i n t e g e r

Suppose one defines two s e t s of Morgan-Voyce polynomials

both sets satisfying

n+l(x) " Pn(x)j

Thus for k = 1, we again find B ,(1) = F n

M. N. S. Swamy dealing extensively with M o r g a n - Voyce polynomials will

The author is completely indebted to Dr. V. E.

Hoggatt, J r . , for bringing to his attention the t h e o r e m and its proof.

m i t t e d to the Faculty of The New School for Social R e s e a r c h , 1953.

"Open P r o b l e m s of I n t e r e s t in Applied M a t h e m a t i c s , "

M a t h e m a t i c s Magazine, 1964, Vol. 37, pp. 112-118.

"The Analysis of T i m e - F l o w Equivalents in Finite Dif-

f e r e n c e Equations Governing Growth" (In p r e p a r a t i o n ) .

MYSTERY PUZZLER AND PH!

t h e r e exist a p a i r of t r i a n g l e s which have five of t h e i r six p a r t s equal

(Here the six p a r t s a r e the t h r e e sides

as you have stated it, is posed in a high school g e o m e t r y text

entitled, " G e o m e t r y " b y M o i s e and Downs, published by Addison Wesley

I d i s c o v e r e d this after I solved the p r o b l e m myself.

But the above

solution does not do j u s t i c e to the p r o b l e m at all, since m y old friend

Note: Golden Mean = 96 = r in what

since the t r i a n g l e s would then be con-

T h e r e f o r e , the five p a r t s m u s t be t h r e e angles and two sides

which m e a n s that the two t r i a n g l e s a r e s i m i l a r .

But, the two sides

cannot be in c o r r e s p o n d i n g o r d e r , or the t r i a n g l e s would be congruent

MYSTERY P U Z Z L E R AND PHI

Then I began to c o n s i d e r v a r i o u s other values of k

a n g l e . Once we know t h i s , then another t r i a n g l e with s i d e s ^ , a, ak

MYSTERY P U Z Z L E R AND PHI

These a r e i n s t a n c e s of the s t r i c t . t r i a n g l e inequality.

For Case 1, consider k > 1

> ak (condition 2 above)

+ ak > a (condition 3 above)

This p a r t r e v o l v e s around the p r o b l e m of finding out when 1 + k > k ,

Solving this p r o b l e m p r o d u c e s the r e s u l t that

MYSTERY P U Z Z L E R AND PHI

Now, if k < 1 show ak + ak

what values of k m a k e k + k > 1.

and its additive i n v e r s e is

< k < 1 the p r o b -

LADDER NETWORK ANALYSIS USING POLYNOMIALS

In this p a p e r we develop some ideas with the r e c u r r i n g s e r i e s

sections in c a s c a d e that m a k e up this

network can be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by defining:

a) the attenuation (input voltage/output voltage)

c) the input impedance

A r e s u l t obtained by applying Kirchhoff's and Ohm's Laws to

LADDER NETWORK ANALYSIS

T h e n , c o m b i n i n g (c) a n d (d) w i t h (1), l e a d s t o

is always a square, where

LADDER NETWORK ANALYSIS

Then, r e p l a c i n g the n u m e r a t o r in (12) by the r e s u l t in (14) leads to

a) S. L. Basin, "The A p p e a r a n c e of Fibonacci N u m b e r s and the

"The Fibonacci Sequence as it A p p e a r s in Na-

t u r e , " Fibonacci Q u a r t e r l y , 1(1963) pp. 5 4 - 5 5 .

State College; and the r e f e r e e .

CONCERNING LATTICE PATHS AND FIBONACCI NUMBERS

R s E. Greenwood [1] h a s investigated plane Lattice paths from

Considering such paths and using a method of e n u m e r a t i o n