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E. Bazzo
Federal University of Santa Catarina
1. Introduction
Hydraulic turbines are among the most efficient technologies for energy conversion, the efficiencies achieved by
hydraulic turbines surpassed the level of 90% since the 1920s (Creager and Justin, 1958). Although the efficiency of
single turbines is a typical subject matter in most of the literature on the subject of turbomachinery (for instance,
Pfleiderer and Peterman, 1972; Japikse and Baines, 1997), the analysis of the overall efficiency of an individual
hydropower plant has not been as much a major concern, perhaps mainly because the efficiencies achieved nowadays
are already high. The promotion of efficiency increases may not contribute to substantial improvements in terms of
efficiency numbers, nevertheless, the energy conservation of small efficiency improvements can be significant when
large amounts of energy are generated and some critical situations may require an optimized way of generating power
from water. Techniques with low cost of implementation that can provide awareness about more rational processes of
power generation should be investigated to indicate the extent of energy conservation possibilities. This work
investigates the use of optimization techniques in the analysis of the overall efficiency of hydropower plants.
The analysis proposed here can be related to the literature focusing on the problem of hydro unit scheduling with
turbine considerations. Philpott et al. (2000), for instance, treat the problem of scheduling the turbines in a chain of
stations down a river valley, considering the cost of a unit commitment at some instant in time (i.e., which of the
generating units are on or off in every interval of the scheduling horizon), this cost is measured in terms of the water the
unit is wasting and takes into account the nonlinear efficiencies of the turbines. Hreinsson (1988) presents a model to
optimize the hourly power production of a purely hydroelectric system by minimizing losses in turbines and waterways.
Piekutowski et al. (1994) describe a short term hydro optimization which incorporates turbine efficiencies and flow
limits, penstock head losses, tailrace elevation and generator losses. Other examples can be found in the literature of the
area.
This work proposes the optimization of unit commitment centered on the overall efficiency curve of the
hydropower plants, considering the core problem of runner water flow and turbine shaft power. The analysis of the
overall efficiency of hydropower plants, as undertaken in this work, consists of studying the shape of the efficiency
curve of a hydropower plant for all the range of power the plant can generate, considering the total number of turbines
installed. An optimization technique allows the estimation of the maximum overall efficiency of a hydropower plant
below which the operation of the turbines represents a waste of the water flow energy. The analysis also tries to identify
the possible ways of energy waste with the aid of the maximum overall efficiency curves, the main purpose is to reduce
the water consumption for a given power demand by finding the best combination of operation points of the turbines
installed.
2. Problem Definition
The Brazilian electric system is strongly based on hydropower generation. The total electrical power installed in
Brazil is about 83 GW. Hydropower plants generate more than 79% of that amount (Aneel, 2003). The country also has
a number of the largest hydropower plants in the world; most of the power available is generated by plants with a
capacity within the range of 0.4 GW to 4 GW. In addition, the construction in the country of the largest hydropower
plant currently operating in the world with a capacity of 12.6 GW can be considered as a mile-stone in the development
of hydropower in the world (Oud, 2002). As a result of this configuration, the Brazilian electric system is strongly
dependent on the water levels of the storage dams, and affected by the uncertainty of future inflows. Critical low levels
of reservoirs may lead to shortages in the supply of electrical energy, causing economic and social costs.
The possibility of maximizing the power generation to increase the power availability for a given water flow is the
motivation of this work. In this work it is studied a technique for improving the operation efficiency of impoundment
hydropower plants, thus saving the stored water in an energy conservation effort. The technique consists of an
optimization algorithm applied to the efficiency curves of hydraulic turbines. Finding the best operation points of each
turbine has the objective of maximizing the overall efficiency of the power plant for every electrical power demand
required from the plant by the external grid. The best configuration of operation points is searched by the technique, and
this configuration can guide the operators to set the operation points in a different way than the procedures that may be
usually employed.
Simulations were performed to study cases where the plants have turbines with the same efficiency curves and
where the plants have turbines with different efficiency curves. Although the most common case is the existence of
plants with equal turbines, in a large hydropower system cases of plants having different turbines exist.
A consideration of few cases shows some values of possible energy waste. It is shown that, for even relatively small
increases of about 1% or 2% in efficiency, the energy conservation in absolute terms is significant since the hydropower
plants in Brazil have often a large power generating capacity. An important contribution of this investigation is to
provide awareness about the best operation procedures rather than to provide an on-line optimization technique.
3. Water Power
Water used for power generation, such as in rivers, derives its capacity to perform work from the energy of the sun
which is responsible by the operation of the hydrological cycle. The water evaporated by solar energy is condensed by
various meteorological processes and precipitates on highlands to further flow as runoff to rivers, where it can be used
to power generation. The fact that the hydrological cycle is dependent on meteorological factors a priori not controllable
by man, imposes the need of proper planning of the hydropower generation system. This planning involves, among
other issues, the planning of the generation reserve installed in the system and the hydro-scheduling problem with the
long-range forecasting of water availability and the scheduling of reservoir water releases that may be constrained by
factors such as hydraulically coupled plants or river navigation (Wood and Wollenberg, 1996).
In computations for power and energy available from a hydroelectric plant during a given period, storage
requirements are estimated based on the water flow demanded by the power output. Converting the number of MW of
power needed to meet the requirements of output to its equivalent in cubic meter per second is a way of estimating this
water flow. Choosing the points of turbine operation has an effect on this calculated water flow, and these effects are
studied next.
The problem investigated here can be considered as a minor issue of power development from water energy if
compared to the general questions of hydropower operation, nevertheless, it is an opportunity of energy conservation
that should be explored.
4. Efficiency of Hydraulic Turbines
Power may be developed from water by three fundamental processes: by action of its weight, of its pressure, or its
velocity. The power developed by turbines generally is a combination of these processes. The impulse type of turbines
utilizes the kinetic energy of a high-velocity jet, and the reaction type of turbines utilizes the combined action of
velocity and pressure. The study presented next is concerned with the reaction type and more specifically with the
Francis turbine.
If a steady discharge, Q, of water is available with a net head, H, the power that can be developed from this flow
passing through the runner is (Pfleiderer & Peterman, 1972):
P = . .H .Q.g
(1)
Where g is the local value of gravity acceleration, is the value of water density, and is the efficiency of the
turbine. The efficiency depends mainly on the specific turbine and power being generated. For constant head and
specific speed, the efficiency of a Francis turbine has a typical behavior as depicted in Fig. (1). A change in the value of
the head also modifies the efficiency curve, reducing or increasing the total possible power output. Figure (1) illustrates
the real data of efficiency as a function of power of two different Francis turbines (different manufacturers and different
capacities) under the same conditions of head = 100 m and speed = 100 rpm. The different constitution of each turbine
combined with these conditions results a maximum power output of 210 MW and 330 MW for the first and second
turbines respectively.
From Eq. (1), it can be promptly observed that, for a demanded power, the water flow required is a function of the
efficiency, the head, the gravity acceleration, and the density. If the last three variables are considered constant, the
quantity of water is determined since the efficiency is also a known value for being a function of the demanded power, a
function defined by the efficiency curve (Fig. (1)).
(2)
The variable overall is the overall efficiency of the plant. It should be noted that the water flow in a single unit is a
direct function of the power of this unit (Eq. (1)) and therefore the overall efficiency is a composition of the single
efficiency curves of the turbines which results in a surface for two units or a hypersurface for more than two units.
Figure (2) illustrates the efficiency surfaces and respective contour plots for the case of plants with two units. The
left side of the figure illustrates the case where the plant has two equal units, and the right side illustrates the case where
the plant has two different units. What can be seen is that, for a given power demand, there are many possible ways of
combining the operation of the units, and a combination results an efficiency value. For the case of two units illustrated,
a power demand is a linear constraint and the plane originated by the line of possible combinations that intersects the
surface generates a curve of feasible efficiencies.
The point where this curve has its maximum should be the point of operation. Since the contour plot of the left side
of Fig. (2) has a symmetric shape, it is suggested that the maximum efficiency is obtained by simply dividing the
demanded power in two and then setting the operation of the units based on this value. But taking into account the right
side of Fig. (2), the result is not as obvious and a search for the best point must be done. Large power plants generally
have more than two units and thus a specialized search, that is, optimization techniques, may be required.
6. Efficiency Optimization
6.1. Objective Function
The problem of optimization is better stated if it is done so in terms of maximizing the overall efficiency. From Eq.
(2), the objective function to be optimized is:
n
overall =
i =1
. g .H .
i =1
(3)
P = Power Demand
(4)
i =1
Inputs to the optimization are the density of water, gravity acceleration, head, and water flows. The flows are
functions of the power and efficiency curves of the turbines installed. During the computation the equations
representing these relations must be considered:
Q1 =
P1
.g.H .1
... Qn =
Pn
.g .H . n
(5)
The optimization has to result the best combination of outputs of each unit that obey the total demanded power and
at the same time maximizes the overall efficiency.
The stated problem can be solved for different cases of head and for plants having equal units with the same
efficiency curves, or for plants having different units with different efficiency curves.
6.2. Optimization Method
This is a multivariate optimization with linear equality constraints (Gill and Wright, 1981). It can be considered a
simple optimization problem since the efficiency curves are smooth functions with easily identified global maximum,
not having local maximum points. There are many options available today for solving this type of optimization problem
and reference is made to the literature related to the subject. The results presented next were obtained by a simple
multidimensional search without the use of derivatives called the Cyclic Coordinate Method (Bazaraa and Shetty,
1979). This method is suited to the problem and performs well.
The method of Cyclic Coordinates consists of maximizing a function f(x) (in this problem function f is Eq. (3)) of
several variables proceeding in the following manner: given a vector of a possible solution x, a suitable direction d is
determined and then f(x) is maximized from x in the direction d by a line search algorithm. By sequentially changing the
vector d and maximizing the function in this direction, the global maximum is found. The Cyclic Coordinate method
uses the coordinate axes (in this situation the power of each unit) as search directions. More specifically, the method
searches along the directions d1, , dn, where dj is a vector of zeros except for a one at the jth position. Thus, along the
search direction dj, the power Pj of unit j is changed, while the power levels of all other units are kept fixed. The
direction is changed until the algorithm reaches the optimum point. Figure (3) illustrates this procedure.
(6)
Where is an appropriately selected value above 0, and h(x) is a constraint function. The problem of optimization
is then transformed into the optimization of the following objective function:
g ( x) = f ( x) .h 2 ( x )
(7)
From Eq. (6), it is clear that if h2(x) is different from zero, the function g(x) will always be assigned a low value,
thus not representing a optimization solution. Choosing a constraint function of the form:
h( x) = P1 + ... + Pn Power Demand
(8)
Makes h2(x) = 0 only for the possible solutions, penalizing the solutions that do not obey the constraint imposed by
the value of demanded power. In Fig. (3), this penalty function could be represented as a straight line of feasible
solutions. Additional care must be taken when computing the variable . For further understanding of the optimization
technique, again is made reference to the optimization subject literature.
7. Overall Efficiency Analysis
The main result of running an optimization algorithm applied to this problem of finding the best operation points of
a group of units in a hydropower plant is the possibility of tracing the maximum overall efficiency curve of the plant.
An overall efficiency curve of a power plant is the efficiency curve traced for the range of power that a hydroelectric
plant can generate (Creager and Justin, 1958) and is a composition of the single efficiency curves of the units,
depending on the shape of those curves.
The maximum overall efficiency curve is composed of the maximum efficiencies provided by the best combination
of unit operation points and is obtained by running the optimization algorithm for all the range of demanded power.
Below the maximum overall efficiency a large number of different curves that do not represent the maximum
efficiencies possible for a given power demand may exist.
situations, in a supplementary energy conservation effort. Further studies on the integration of the considerations about
the overall efficiency curves of hydropower plants with other unit scheduling algorithms could also promote good
results towards energy conservation in energy conversion processes of hydropower developments.
Wood, A., Wollenberg, B.F., 1996, Power Generation Operation and Control John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
York,USA, 2nd edition.
10. Copyright Notice
The authors, E.W.Hirano and E.Bazzo, are the only responsible for the printed material included in his paper.