Reasons for Gaps Between Direct and Indirect Efficiency

As we are aware, boiler efficiency can be stated in two different ways, one being direct and another,
indirect. Each method has its own advantages and disadvantages.
The direct method gives us more realistic efficiency values but in order to understand where the
losses are taking place, indirect efficiency will be more helpful.
Constant topic of contemplation among the steam users is the difference between direct and indirect
efficiency. Studies done at a large number of plants show that there exists a huge gap between direct
and indirect efficiency depending on the type of the boiler and boiler operating practices followed. If
one tries to find out the reasons behind this gap, we can find out where these unaccounted losses are
taking place and think of possible solutions.
This article tries to find out the reasons behind this wide gap between direct and indirect efficiency.
First of all, we will have a look at both the methods of calculating boiler efficiency.

Direct Efficiency
In the direct method, efficiency is calculated by dividing energy delivered by the boiler by energy input
as fuel, using the equation:
% Efficiency = F (hs - hw) / NCV X f

Steam mass flow rate

[ ]

[ ]

[ ]

kg
Kcal
Kcal
(enthalpy of steam at operating pressure
enthalpy of feed water
)
hr
Kg
Kg
Kcal
kg
Net calorific value of fuel
actual fuel flow
Kg
hr

[ ]

[ ]

where F=Steam generationKg/ hr

hs = enthalpy of steam at operatin pressure in Kcal/Kg
hw = enthalpy of feed water in Kcal/Kg
NCV = Net calorific value of fuel in Kcal/Kg
f = actual fuel flow in Kg/hr

Indirect Efficiency
The method most standards follow is the indirect efficiency calculation method. In this method, each
loss is individually calculated, and the sum of these losses is then subtracted from 100 to give
efficiency %.
This method has one advantage - since each loss is individually measured, we have quantitative data
which we can use to actually reduce an individual loss, thereby increasing efficiency. The losses which
occur during the operation of the boiler are Stack losses, Radiation losses and losses due to water
and hydrogen in fuel.
So, % Efficiency = 100 - (L1 + L2 + L3+L4)
Where,
L1= Stack Loss
L2= Losses due to enthalpy in water vapour in flue gases
L3= Radiation Loss
L4= Unburnt Loss
Why does the difference exist between direct and indirect boiler efficiency?

1.

Indirect method is snapshot after boiler is tuned

Indirect efficiency gives us the efficiency of the boiler at a particular time. It does not give us the overall
picture of the boiler over a period of time. The boiler is tuned to operate under certain specific
conditions, but these conditions are never constant. For e.g the boiler is set to operate at a certain
ambient temperature. This temperature is never constant and changes during the course of time.
Hence the efficiency of the boiler also changes with the change in conditions.
2.

Efficiency is at 100% load condition

The indirect efficiency of any boiler is specified at 100% load. But practically no boiler operates at
100% load. Hence in actual the committed efficiency will never be achieved. In reality the efficiency of
the boiler falls down at lower loads. Since boilers rarely operate at full load conditions the actual
efficiency figures achieved are always less than that specified in indirect method. This adds to the gap
between direct and indirect efficiency.
3.

Start up and shut down losses

Start up and shut down losses are mandatory in every boiler. Burners are incorporated with pre- purge
and post-purge which actually is a safety measure. During start-up, the burner does not start firing
immediately. Instead it purges air for a period of 30 seconds before the actual atomization. The
purpose of Pre-purge is to blow away the residual exhaust flue gases that exist in the furnace and the
boiler tubes since the boiler is shut down. Similarly a post purge cycle is carried out after the
shutdown. These purging cycles blow away hot flue gases which actually is a loss. This problem gets
aggravated when boiler is operated on lower loads. Reason: if the loads drop below the turn-down
ratio, the burner trips and the boiler shuts down. This would get reduced if the loads are higher and do
not fluctuate.
4.

Blowdown Losses

Blowdown has to be carried out from the boiler to maintain the correct TDS levels in the boiler. Water
contains certain level of TDS. When the water is heated it leads to increased concentration of the TDS
which is not good for the boiler. Hence after a certain period of time some quantity of water is removed
and fresh water is charged. This is actually a loss as usable heat is being drained out. The fresh
charge leads to lowering of water temperature and hence higher fuel quantity will be required. Hence
blowdown affects the steam fuel ratio.
5.

Ambient temp variation

Each boiler is set to operate under certain temperature conditions. But the ambient temperature is not
constant and varies during the day. This leads to the change in steam fuel ratio.
In case of solid fuel fired boilers, following additional factors come in to the picture further reducing the
gap between direct and indirect efficiency.
1.

Ash & Grit Losses:

Ash is generated when any solid fuel is burnt. The quality of solid fuel is not consistent at all the times
which leads to higher losses due to unburnt particles. Thus the fuel consumed is higher for generating
a specific amount of steam. The quality of fuel leads to the change in the steam fuel ratio.
2.

Inconsistency in fuel firing:

In case of manual solid fuel fired boilers the fuel feeding rate is not even. This depends purely on the

experience and the assumption of the boiler operator. This leads to inconsistent fuel feeding and will
lead to lower steam fuel ratio. In case of indirect efficiency the fuel firing rate is considered constant
and hence it does not show the real picture.
3.

Consistency of fuel quality in terms of calorific value:

The calorific value of the fuel is not constant at all times. It changes with the change in season. The
moisture / impurities change from time to time leading to an inconsistent steam fuel ratio. This is
immediately reflected in direct efficiency because the steam generated to the heat input ratio will vary.
4.

Fouling nature of fuels

All the solid fuels have fouling tendency. The flue gases generated will foul the tubes during the course
of time. This leads to reduces heat transfer area and will increase the fuel consumption.
From the above points it evident that direct efficiency shows the real picture as against indirect
efficiency. Any change in external factors and conditions will have a direct impact on the fuel
consumed for generating a specific quantity of steam. In reality the fuel consumption is much higher
than what is committed due to the above reasons. Hence the direct efficiency is lesser than indirect
efficiency. It is always advisable to aim at reducing the gap between direct and indirect boiler
efficiency.

Understanding Indirect Boiler Efficiency

Indirect Efficiency Calculation & BS845

The method most standards (including IS8753, BS845 etc.) follow is the indirect efficiency calculation
method. In this method, each loss is individually calculated, and the sum of these losses is then
subtracted from 100 to give efficiency %.
So, % Efficiency = 100 - (sum of all losses)
This method has one big advantage - since each loss is individually measured, we have quantitative
data which we can use to actually reduce an individual loss, thereby increasing efficiency. So this
method tells us where we are, and how to get where we want to be.
In a typical oil fired boiler, there are three losses to consider :

1. Loss due to water and hydrogen in fuel:

This is the difference between GCV and NCV of a fuel, and needs to be considered if efficiency is
calculated on GCV. Not much can be done to reduce this loss, as it is a function of fuel constituents
alone.

2. Stack loss:
Improper combustion is responsible for this loss. In most burners, the manufacturer specifies a
minimum level of excess air required to ensure that complete combustion of the fuel takes place.
However, typically, excess air levels are higher than this specification, so fuel is being spent to heat air
from ambient to flue gas temperature. Further, since the amount of air required depends on amount of
fuel (which in turn depends on load on the boiler), it varies continuously, making it that much more
difficult to ensure that the excess air levels are kept within specified levels. This loss presents the
greatest opportunity for energy conservation schemes, whether manual or through automation. Stack
loss can increase if the damper is not correctly positioned, or if the burner nozzles need cleaning, or in
the case of oil, even if oil temperature is not controlled.

3. Radiation loss:
This is a function of temperature gradient between the boiler water and the ambient, quality of
insulation and surface area of the boiler. It is typically specified by the boiler manufacturer at full load
conditions (say 1% for a packaged boiler). However, since it is a constant loss, at half load it will be
double as a percentage. Accordingly, if steam flow is known, we can work out the instantaneous
radiation loss.

Boiler efficiency and blowdown

Most standards for computation of boiler efficiency, including BS845 and IS8753 are designed for a
spot measure of boiler efficiency. Invariably, they ask that the blowdown valve be kept shut throughout
the efficiency determination process, and therefore remove blowdown from the perspective. However,
depending on feed water quality, boiler blowdown can be between 2 and 5 % of steam generation, and
is a huge loss by itself. As utility managers, we are not really as interested in the absolute value of
efficiency as per some specified method, but more in the steam/unit fuel figure. Accordingly, the
blowdown loss is of utmost importance in reduction of a boilers operating cost.

Understanding Boiler Stack Losses

What are stack losses?

Constant combustion takes place inside a boiler furnace. In order to burn the fuel, oxygen is
required. Hence, the burner is supplied with air. Air normally has 21% Oxygen, 78% Nitrogen
and moisture content depending upon the location. The fuel which is burnt inside is
composed of hydrocarbons mainly. After combustion, Carbon dioxide and water vapor are
formed due to combustion of carbon and hydrogen as followsC+ O2=CO2
2H2 + O2 = 2H2O
Air comes inside a boiler at ambient temperature, i.e. around 25- 40 Degree Celsius
depending upon the location. After combustion, combustion products, i.e. Water vapor,
Carbon dioxide and other gases depending on fuel composition are formed. These flue
gases heat the water and then leave the system through a Chimney. These flue gases are at
high temperature and carry a large amount of heat (m*cp* ?t). This heat energy is taken
from the fuel being burnt and along with the flue gases it escapes un utilized. These losses
are termed as stack losses.
Excess Air and stack losses
From the equations mentioned above, it can be seen that one molecule of oxygen is
required for the complete combustion of one unit carbon to form one molecule of carbon
dioxide. Similarly, one molecule of Oxygen is required for combustion of two Hydrogen
molecules. So, there is a fixed ratio of Oxygen which should be supplied in order to achieve
complete combustion. In reality, the perfect mixing of fuel and Oxygen never takes place
and if we supply just the necessary amount Oxygen (air), due to improper mixing, complete
combustion of Caron does not take place. This results in partial combustion of the fuel as
follows
2C + O2 = 2CO
It can be seen that due to insufficient amount of Oxygen, instead of Carbon dioxide, Carbon
monoxide is formed. This process releases significantly less amount of heat as compared to
the previous one. Hence, additional Oxygen should be supplied in order to achieve
complete combustion of Carbon. This is achieved by sending in some quantity of excess air.
One more reason to supply excess air is, there are always fluctuations taking place during
combustion. Oxygen content of air changes seasonally. Apart from that, in case of increase
in boiler load, oxygen starvation might take place. Considering all these parameters, it is
always recommended to allow certain buffer or excess air to pass in.

Heat carried per hour by stack gases can be calculated byQ= m*Cp*t
Where,
m= mass flow rate of flue gases (kg/hr.)
Cp= Specific heat capacity of flue gases
t = Difference between inlet and outlet temperatures of flue gases.

Stack losses are directly proportional to mass flow rate of flue gases and the difference
between inlet and outlet temperatures of flue gases. Mass flow rate of flue gases and the
outlet temperature of flue gases should always be monitored to keep a check on stack
losses.

Controlling mass flow rate of flue gases

For efficient combustion, we need to supply a certain amount of excess air. Only required
amount of excess air should be supplied. Depending upon the type of fuel which is being
used and burner type, standard percentage of allowable excess should be found out and
these values should be followed strictly.

Controlling outlet temperature of flue gases

A common trend observed is, as boiler is operated continuously, the measured outlet
temperature of flue gases increases. After operation for a few months, significant rise in flue
gas temperature and hence stack losses is observed. The reason behind this is, as a boiler
is operated, scales are formed on the boiler tubes. As the thickness of the scales increases,
the coefficient of heat transfer goes down. As a result, heat from flue gases is not transferred
to the water side and it is carried away by the flue gases. The best way to tackle the
situation is monitoring flue gas temperature just at the boiler outlet and cleaning the tubes
when it goes beyond acceptable limits. By treating feed water, the frequency of cleaning can
be brought down.

Heat recovery from flue gases

Heat which is being carried away by flue gases can be recovered up to a certain limit. This
reduces the temperature of flue gases and saves the cost of cooling the gases before
leaving them into the atmosphere. The easiest way of recovering heat from flue gases is to
pass them through a pre heater. Pre heater heats the air going inside the furnace. This
elevated temperature of air results in reduced value of ?t hence reduces the stack losses.

Dew point condensation

Depending upon the type of fuel being used, acidic vapors can be present in the flue gases

(like SO2). If the temperature drops below the dew point for these acidic vapors, corrosion of
metal walls takes place. This puts a restriction on up to what level heat from flue gases
should be recovered.
Installing a pre heater system and constantly monitoring excess oxygen and flue
gas temperature can help to reduce the stack losses and keep them minimal.

Variation in Boiler Efficiency with Load

It is a general observation that boiler efficiency tends to decrease as the boiler load decreases. Both
practically and theoretically, for any boiler, the efficiency is highest at maximum load conditions. At part
loads, considerable drop in the boiler efficiency is noticed. This article briefly explains why efficiency of
a boiler drops down when it is operated at part loads.
Reasons for drop in boiler efficiency at low/part loadsRadiation losses
The boiler is designed to transfer a specific amount of heat through the designed surface
area. For this the fuel should be fired at the specified rate. Radiation losses depend on the heat
transfer area. Heat transfer area is constant for a given boiler and hence, remains constant at different
load conditions. This implies that some part of the generated heat is always lost as radiation losses.
Therefore when the boiler is operated at lower loads, lesser amount of fuel is fired. As a result, lesser
amount of heat is generated. But some part (Which is constant) is going to be lost. Hence radiation
losses increase at lower loads.
In simple words,
Suppose the boiler heat transfer area is designed for 1000Kcal/hr. The radiation losses for this surface
are say 10 Kcal/hr i.e. 1%. So when the boiler is operated at lower loads, lesser fuel is fired and in turn
lesser heat is generated say 500 Kcal/hr. But the radiation losses remain 10Kcal/hr, as the surface
area doesnt change. This means 10Kcal (2%) of total 500Kcal generated is lost. Thus radiation losses
increase. Thus it is advised not to run boilers on lower loads.
Low Fire Operation:
During the operation at lower loads the combustion is less efficient. This is because of the increased
oxygen % in the flue gases. Generally the oxygen % is 2-3% greater at low fire operation than what at
high fire. Thus the oxygen % rises above the ideal 3-3.5% and efficiency drops.
Start up and shut down losses:
Start up and shut down losses are mandatory in every boiler. Burners are incorporated with pre- purge
and post-purge which actually is a safety measure.
During start-up, the burner does not start firing immediately. Instead it purges air for a period of 30
seconds before the actual atomization. The purpose of Pre-purge is to blow away the residual exhaust
flue gases that exist in the furnace and the boiler tubes since the boiler is shut down. Similarly a post
purge cycle is carried out after the shut down. These purging cycles blow away hot flue gases which
actually is a loss. This problem gets aggravated when boiler is operated on lower loads. The reason
for this is, if the loads drop below the turn-down ratio, the burner trips and the boiler shuts down.
Occurrence of such situations can be brought down if the loads are higher and do not fluctuate.
At the low load conditions, all of the above 3 parameters come into the picture which in turn bring
down the boiler efficiency. To ensure that boiler operates at high efficiencies, it should always be
operated at full load conditions.

Benefits of On-Line Boiler Efficiency Monitoring

Why maintaining boiler efficiency is crucial?

In case of boilers, cost of buying a new boiler is small compared to the amount of money spent in
operating the boiler year on year. The following diagram shows the break-up of total cost of ownership
for both oil/gas fired boilers and solid fuel fired boilers. It can be easily noticed that the fuel cost is the
biggest contributor in the overall ownership cost for both oil/gas and solid fuel fired boilers.
Amount of money spent on fuel is closely related to the efficiency of the boiler. Although boiler
efficiency is an important parameter in the boiler specification when buying a new boiler, little attention
is given to it once the boiler is steaming. The myth is that boiler will always continue to generate fuel at
its rated efficiency. Truth is, the actual delivered boiler efficiency tends to be lower than 3%-12% than
the rated efficiency.
A survey conducted by CII shows that scope of savings in boiler house ranges from 28% to 46% for
different industries (out of total scope of savings in the entire steam and condensate loop).
At the same time, as following illustration clarifies, steam consumption increased by 16% when boiler
efficiency dropped by 10%.
This makes putting check on boiler losses even more crucial.
The cost of steam generation has gone up by almost 2.5 times in the last decade. The cost of
generating steam using a solid fuel fired boiler today is greater than an oil fired boiler ten years ago. In
the next sections of this article, we will explore how online efficiency monitoring can help us to tackle
the situation in a much better way.
Online boiler efficiency monitoring- Why is it important?
It can be observed that the efficiency of a boiler is not static- but it is dynamic. Users take it for granted
that the boiler is operating at the rated efficiency. Monitoring across large number of boiler houses
shows that there are many variations which affect the boiler efficiency. It is important to adjust the
boiler for these variations regularly to ensure optimum boiler performance.
A few of the factors which affect boiler performance are-

1.

Shift variations

Typically in plants, load pattern changes from shift to shift. If the boiler response to these load
variations is not changed, the efficiency of the boiler drops. The required changes in settings can be
as simple as changing firing rate or pressure limit of the boiler. The changes can be easily done from
the boiler control panel itself in oil, gas or solid fuel fired boilers. Online efficiency monitoring helps to
identify what needs to be changed at what time.

2.

Daily variations

Load variations may occurs from day to day too. Again, the boiler needs to be adjusted to cater to this
efficiently.

3.

Weekly variations

As the fuel quality is changing continuously, adjustments need to be made to the combustion system
to take care of these variations. In oil or gas fired boilers, the quality of oil being received may vary
from tanker to tanker. The moisture content in solid fuel changes from time to time and the source of

purchase. This changes in fuel quality makes adjustments necessary.

4.

Seasonal variations

Boiler loading pattern is an important factor here too. The production requirement of the plant may be
affected by seasonal demands. This calls for adjustments again. In solid fuel fired boilers, the fuel
available may change depending on the seasons. The ambient air temperatures and humidity will also
change from season to season. The combustion system needs adjustment too.

Online efficiency monitoring How does it help?

Online boiler efficiency monitoring works through measuring several critical parameters. Some of the
measured parameters are- stack temperature, steam temperature, feed water temperature,
combustion air (inlet) temperature, Stack oxygen, furnace pressure, steam flow, fuel flow, blowdown,
blowdown TDS etc.

The strength of online monitoring is not only limited to measuring the parameters as they also
calculate different losses, efficiency and generate valuable trends and analysis. The losses which such
systems can calculate include blowdown losses, radiation losses, and enthalpy losses and stack
losses.

Efficiency and Steam: Fuel Ratio Calculation

Real time efficiency monitoring makes available its users the boiler efficiency at any time. This helps
the plant personnel to relate any changes in the boiler efficiency to the reasons behind the changes.
This particularly helps in identification of factors which are preventing the boiler from running at the
optimum efficiency and hence help the personnel to take the correct action.

Patterns/ Trends and Analysis

Many times, observing data over a long period of time can give valuable insights. Observing trends
and pattern of a boiler over months can help to spot important trends and take diagnostic actions. It is
good to have a real time monitoring system which intelligently suggests corrective action by analysing
the trends over a long period.

Typical Boiler Questions

What is Scale Formation ?

How do I stop Scale Formation from happening ?
What is corrosion ?
How do I stop Corrosion ?
Why all the concern about Condensate Treatment and Monitoring ?
How do I prevent the Most Common Boiler Problems ?
A More In-depth Look
What is the meaning of Horse power ?

What is Scale Formation ?

Scale formations in boilers are responsible for lost efficiency, increased maintenance and operating costs
not to mention lost revenue due to outages and downtime. Most scale formations in boilers can be traced
to the presence of hardness in the make-up water. This hardness reacts in the high temperatures
environment within the boiler to form and insoluble scale. This insoluble scale coats the heat transfer
surfaces, acting as an insulator to impede heat transfer.
Hardness isn't the only cause if scale formation in boilers, other impurities such as iron, silica, copper, oil,
etc. are often found in samples of boiler scale. In fact, it is rare to find scale which isn't the result of
several of these impurities.
Normally pre-softening the water before feeding it to the boiler is the first step in eliminating scale
formations. Even when the make-up is soft, there is still a need for chemical scale inhibitors inside the
boiler. With proper treatment the problems of lost efficiency, tube damage and lost production can be
avoided or greatly reduced. Proper treatment requires the right balance of chemical treatment and control.

How do I stop Scale Formation from happening ?

The first and foremost aspect of stopping scale formation is to have a good idea of the make-up water
that is feeding your system. If you aren't sure, have a certified laboratory complete a fully analysis on this
water so you can make an informed decision on what exactly the potential problems you may encounter.
After determining these specific aspects of your make-up water then your water treatment expert can
guide you through a program that fits your situation.
Just a few items that may be of concern when putting together a good water treatment program for your