CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 General
Steel-reinforced concrete is widely used in construction of buildings,
bridges, decks, etc. The corrosion of the steel reinforcing bars in the concrete
limits the life of concrete structures. Corrosion occurs in the steel regardless
of the inherent capacity of concrete to protect the steel from corrosion;
imposed by the loss of the alkalinity in the concrete or the diffusion of
aggressive ions (such as chloride and sulfate ions) [26]. However, there are
many ways to prevent the penetration of an aggressive ions into the concrete.
Among these methods the use of chemical admixtures.
There are many researches and papers had been published in this field,
therefore, the literature review concerned with the present work can be
divided into three categories that depend on the researches subjects which
included:

a)

corrosion

of

steel-reinforced

concrete

in

aggressive

environments, b) effect of reinforcement corrosion on mechanical properties

of concrete, and c) corrosion prevention and remedial of the reinforcement
concrete.

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Chapter Two

Literature Review

2.2 Corrosion of Steel in Concrete in Aggressive Environments

Sayed and Sherbini 1984 [27], investigated the factors responsible for
the premature cracking of the reinforced concrete using chemical analysis of
concrete and Microscopic inspection. They found that: a) the presence of a
high concentration of carbonates in the matrix, b) transgranular cracking
emanating from pitting had occurred in the reinforcing steel, c) high
concentration of aggressive ions (carbonates) in addition to calcareous
contaminants had forced the cracking of the concrete as well as the
transgranular cracking of the embedded reinforcing steel.
Cigna, et al. 1993 [28], studied the corrosion behavior of steel
embedded in concrete specimens in the atmosphere and in artificial sea water
using polarization resistance (Rp), corrosion potential, electrical resistivity
and polarization curves. It has been shown that: a) corrosion potential values
strongly depend on the environment and are not necessarily related to the
corrosion behavior; very low potentials do not always indicate a situation of
corrosion risk, b) the type of aggregate used have a great influence on the
corrosivity of the concrete.
Al-Amoudi and Maslehuddin 1993 [29], investigated the effect of
chloride, sulfate and chloride-sulfate solutions on corrosion of steel embedded
in cement paste by measuring corrosion potentials and corrosion current
density using D.C. linear polarization resistance technique. The results
indicated that a) the corrosion activity was very minimal in specimens
immersed in pure sulfate solution, b) the reinforcement corrosion activity was
found to be higher in specimens immersed in chloride-sulfate solution as
compared to those immersed in pure chloride solution, and c) the corrosion
rate of steel was observed to be doubled when the sulfate concentration in
15.7% Cl- solution is increased from 0.55 to 2.1%.
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Chapter Two

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Rasheeduzzafar, et al. 1994 [30], studied the effect of magnesiumsodium sulfate environment on the performance of the plain and blended
cements and elucidated the sulfate attack mechanisms on these cements in the
mixed magnesium and sodium sulfate environment for exposure time of two
years. They found that a) the deterioration was observed in all cements, b) the
deterioration is more pronounced in the blast-furnace-slag (BFS) and silicafume (SF) cements and it significantly exceeds that observed in plain and flyash-(FA-) blended cements, c)

XRD and SEM analyses indicated that the

greater deterioration in BFS- and SF-blended cements may be attributable to

the depletion of the hydrated calcium hydroxide, and d) in the absence of
Ca(OH)2, magnesium ions react more directly and extensively with the
cementitious calcium silicate hydrate to generate gypsum (SO 4- containing)
and noncementitious magnesium silicate hydrate resulting in aggravated
deterioration.
Gonzalez, et al. 1995 [31], conducted a study about average local
attack (pits) of reinforcement in chloride-contaminated concrete using natural
corrosion tests and accelerated tests. It was found that the maximum
penetration of localized attack on steel embedded in concrete containing
chlorides is equivalent to about 4-8 times the average general penetration.
Dehwah, et al. 2002 [32], studied the influence of sulfate concentration
and the effect of cation type associated with sulfate ions, namely Na + and
Mg2+, on chloride-induced reinforcement corrosion in Portland cement
concretes (with tri calcium aluminates C3A varying from 3.6% to 9.65% by
weight of cement) exposed to mixed chloride and sulfate solutions (with fixed
NaCl at 5% and varying sulfate concentration to represent that noted in the
sulfate-bearing soil and ground water) for a period of 1200 days.
Reinforcement corrosion was evaluated by measuring corrosion potentials and
corrosion current density at regular intervals. The results indicated that the
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Chapter Two

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presence of sulfate ions in the chloride solution did not influence the time to
initiation of chloride-induced reinforcement corrosion, but the rate of
corrosion increased with increasing sulfate concentration. Furthermore, the
rate of chloride-induced reinforcement corrosion in concrete specimens
exposed to sodium chloride plus magnesium sulfate solutions was found more
pronounced than that observed in the concrete specimens exposed to sodium
sulfate solution.
ZIVICA 2003 [33], studied the common action of carbonation and
chloride causing corrosion of steel reinforcement. The results obtained
showed that: a) carbonation of concrete foregoing the action of chloride
solutions may intensify the process of corrosion of steel reinforcement in
converse sequence of the action of mentioned media and b) at the same time
the sodium chloride solution had been shown as a more aggressive medium
opposite to the calcium and magnesium chloride solutions.
Morris, et al. 2004 [34], conducted a study that based on a correlation
of electrochemical parameters such as corrosion potential () and current
density ( ) together with concrete resistivity () and chloride
concentration data. A relationship between chloride values for rebar corrosion
initiation and resistivity values (indicative of concrete quality) was proposed.
The results showed that: when the electrical resistivity of concrete increases
from 2 to 100 k cm, the value of the chloride threshold (Cl th) increases from
0.44 to 2.32 % relative to the weight of cement.
Garces, et al. 2005 [35], studied corrosion rate of corrugated steel
bars and measured at different pH values in solutions simulating chloride
environments. Hydrochloric acid solutions of different pHs were prepared in
order to compare the steel corrosion rates in these solutions with those
observed in ferrous chloride solutions of the same pH. A comparison of
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Chapter Two

Literature Review

polarization resistance measurements (Rp) with gravimetrically weight loss

determined was presented. Additionally, a comparison was made between
measurements of AC impedance with those of the Rp method. The results
indicated that the corrosion rate in the studied media follows the general trend
found in other media of similar pH values: corrosion increases in acidic
solutions, remains rather stable for pH range 311 and decreases significantly
in highly alkaline solutions.
Poursaee, et al. 2010 [36], had investigated the effect of three different
deicing salts (NaCl, MgCl2, and CaCl2) on the corrosion of steel rebar and
their impact on the durability of the mortar using accelerator corrosion
technique. The results showed that CaCl 2 has the most negative effect on the
steel and, in high concentrations, on the integrity of the mortar. While MgCl 2
also deteriorates the mortar if used in high concentration, moreover, NaCl has
no apparent effect on mortar durability even in high concentration.
Zhang, et al. 2010 [37], had investigated the corrosion behavior of
steel rebar in simulated pore solutions and gangue-blended cement mortar.
The simulated pore solutions were based on the pore solution composition of
gangue-blended cement. The corrosion behavior of steel rebar in gangueblended cement is different from that in simulated solutions. The gangue
cementitious mortar surrounding steel rebar provides stable passivity
environments for steel, leading to a decrease in ion diffusion coefficients.
Alternating current impedance (ACI) analysis results indicated that the
indicator Rc for concrete resistivity is higher for gangue mortar than for
ordinary Portland cement (OPC), which improves its corrosion potential. The
results from energy dispersive X-ray analysis showed more aluminates and
silicates at the rebar interface for gangue-blended cement. These aluminates
improve the chloride binding capacity of hydrates in mortar, and increase the
corrosion protection of steel rebar.
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Chapter Two

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2.3 Effect of Corrosion on Mechanical Properties of Concrete

Almusallam 2001 [38], conducted a study to assess the effect of degree
of corrosion of reinforcing steel bars of 6 and 12 mm in diameter on their
mechanical properties. The reinforced concrete specimens were corroded and
then removed and tested in tension. The results indicated that the level of
reinforcement corrosion does not influence the tensile strength of steel bars,
calculated on the area of cross-section. However, when the nominal diameter
is utilized in the calculation, the tensile strength is less than the values stated
in the ASTM A 615 requirement of 600 MPa when the degree of corrosion
was 11 and 24% for 6 and 12 mm diameter steel bars, respectively.
Furthermore, reinforcing steel bars with more than 12% corrosion indicates a
brittle failure.
Fang, et al. 2004 [39], evaluate the effects of corrosion on bond and
bondslip behavior, for a series of specimens with varying reinforcement
corrosion levels between 0% and 9%, and for specimens with and without
stirrups that provide confinement. Pullout tests were carried out to specimens
with both smooth and deformed bars. The tests were included the ultimate
bond strength and free end slip for various degrees of corrosion under pullout
loads. It has been shown that: a) for deformed bars without confinement, bond
strength decreased rapidly as the corrosion level increased; bond strength at
9% corrosion was only one third of that of noncorroded specimens, b) for
deformed bars with confinement, corrosion had no substantial influence on
the bond strength, c) for smooth bar without confinement, there is a change in
effect of the corrosion on the bond strength at a certain level; that is, when
corrosion level was low, bond strength increased as corrosion level increased,
with the ultimate bond strength as much as 2.5 times that of noncorroded,
while bond strength decreased rapidly at higher corrosion levels. The break
point was for corrosion levels of around 24%, and d) for smooth bar with
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Chapter Two

Literature Review

confinement, bond strength increased as corrosion level increased, up to a

relatively high degree of corrosion. The increase in bond strength could be
observed even at a corrosion level of more than 5%.
Kilinc, et al. 2005 [40], had investigated effects of sulfates on strength
of Portland cement mortars the specimens were subjected to flexural and
compressive strength tests at the ages of 7, 28 and 90 days. The results
showed that the effect of magnesium sulfate was more pronounced when the
concentration of the salt exceeds 6 %. The strength of mortars decreased as
the concentration of the sodium sulfate increased.
Guneyisi, et al. 2005 [41], studied the steel reinforcement corrosion,
electrical resistivity, and compressive strength of concretes having two
different water-cement ratios (0.65 and 0.45) using plain and blended Portland
cements (300 and 400 kg/m3) and subjected to three different curing
procedures (uncontrolled, controlled, and wet curing). An accelerated
impressed voltage setup has been used to investigate the effect of using plain
or blended cements on the resistance of concrete against damage caused by
corrosion of the embedded reinforcement. The resistivity of the cover
concrete had been measured non-destructively by placing electrodes on
concrete surface. The results indicated that: a) the wet curing was essential to
achieve higher strength and durability characteristics for both plain and
especially blended cement concretes, b) the concretes, which received
inadequate (uncontrolled) curing, exhibited poor performance in terms of
strength and corrosion resistance.
Abosrra, et al. 2011 [42], had investigated corrosion of steel bars
embedded in concrete of different compressive strengths (20, 30, and 46
MPa) in a 3% NaCl solution by weight for 1, 7 and 15 days by applying an
external current of 0.4A using portable power supply in order to accelerate the
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Chapter Two

Literature Review

chemical reactions. Corrosion rate was measured using polarization technique

and "Pull-out" tests of reinforced concrete specimens were then conducted to
assess the corroded steel/concrete bond characteristics. It was found that the
corrosion rate of steel bars and bond strength between corroded steel/concrete
are dependent on concrete strength and accelerated corrosion period. As
concrete strength increased from 20 to 46 MPa, corrosion rate of embedded
steel decreased. They observed in first day of corrosion acceleration a slight
increase in steel/concrete bond strength, whereas severe corrosion after 7 and
15 days of corrosion acceleration significantly reduced steel/concrete bond
strength and presence of localized corrosion pits and severe grooves of steel
bars after 7 and 15 days, respectively were observed.
Apostolopoulos, et al. 2013 [43], had investigated the effects of
chloride-induced corrosion, in terms of mechanical properties and pit
depths on steel bars embedded in concrete (embedded samples) and directly
exposed (bare samples), immersed in a salt spray chamber. The results
indicate that: for the same level of mass loss, degradation of the embedded
samples was found to be much more severe than that of the bare samples,
in terms of losses in yield strength and uniform elongation, and b) analysis of
the statistical significance of the pit depth and area values measured, based on
a methodology developed using advanced imaging analysis, indicate that
degradation of the steel bars embedded in concrete produced a more severe
pitting corrosion in terms of depth of pitting, compared to the steel samples
directly exposed to the same corrosive medium, for the same (on average)
mass loss.

2.4 Corrosion Prevention and Remedial of Steel in Concrete

Mor and Mehta, 1984 [44], carried out a preliminary investigation to
clarify the effect of HRWRA admixtures on cement hydration. Concrete
19

Chapter Two

Literature Review

mixtures of constant w/c ratio were made with ASTM Type I Portland cement
and two types of HRWRA, namely a naphthalene formaldehyde condensate
and melamine formaldehyde condensate. The amount of HRWRA in concrete
was 1, 2 or 3 percent by weight of cement. They concluded that the test at 7
and 28 days give compressive strength higher by 5 to 10 %, compared with
the reference concrete. However, test on the 7-month age specimens showed
that the strength advantage had disappeared. All specimens were partially
submerged in Cl-+SO4= solution at concentration identical to those present in
severe aggressive environment. Results indicated that, under the action of
aggressive solution, HRWRA concrete showed considerable improvement in
compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, electrodynamics modulus of
elasticity and electrical resistance at all ages compared to reference concrete.
Lukas 1987 [45], discussed the influence of HRWRA concrete on
chloride diffusion. Concrete mixes with cement content of 350 kg/m 3 and w/c
ratio of 0.49, slump of 214 mm was prepared. HRWRA concrete was also
prepared using 1.57% Melment L10 HRWRA with the same composition as
the reference concrete. After one day preliminary storage in their moulds, the
samples were stored in a water bath for 7 days and then in the open air until
exposure to chloride solution to one side of the specimens by partial
submersion. The concentration of the solution was 3% by mass of sodium
chloride. Results indicated that the penetrated chloride content decreases with
reduction in w/c ratio. They also concluded that HRWRA concrete has a
smaller tendency to absorb chloride than reference concrete of the same w/c
ratio.
Dhir, et al. 1987 [46], studied the effect of a HRWRA on the durability
potential of normal-workability concrete, 7510 mm slump. The rate of
carbonation and the chloride ion diffusion were also studied to examine the
corrosion risk of embedded steel in concrete. The investigation was based on
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Chapter Two

Literature Review

cement-reduced concrete mixes covering a range of 28 days strength from 20

to 65 N/mm. CONPLAST 337 admixture was used as a HRWRA at an
optimum dosage of 1.5% by weight of cement. They found that the rate of
carbonation and chloride ion diffusion were lower for the HRWRA concrete
than the corresponding reference concrete for equal workability and strength.
This means that the use of a HRWRA admixture can effectively minimize a
corrosion risk of embedded steel in concrete.
Lee, et al. 2000 [47], conducted an experimental study on the
simulation of corrosion in large-scale reinforced concrete columns and their
repair using carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) sheets. Seven columns
were subjected to an accelerated corrosion regime, wrapped using CFRP
sheets, then tested to structural failure and (or) subjected to further post-repair
accelerated corrosion, monitoring, and testing. Accelerated corrosion was
achieved by adding sodium chloride to the mixing water, applying a current to
the reinforcement cage, and subjecting the specimens to cyclic wetting and
drying. Results showed that: a) the CFRP repair greatly improved the strength
of the repaired member and retarded the rate of post-repair corrosion, and b)
subjecting the repaired column to extensive, post-repair corrosion resulted in
no loss of strength or stiffness and only a slight reduction in the ductility of
the repaired member.
Al-Hubboubi 2001 [48], had investigated the effectiveness of the
HRWRA with respect to electrochemical behavior of embedded reinforcing
steel in concrete. Reference concrete containing 550 kg/m3 cement, w/c = 0.39
and slump of 100 mm was prepared. 5.5% Melment L10 by weight of cement
was used to prepare HRWRA concrete. The specimens were partially
submerged in Cl- +SO4-

solution. The strength development and initial

surface absorption were investigated for reference and HRWRA concrete. The
A.C electrical resistance, half-cell potentials and corrosion currents were
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Chapter Two

Literature Review

examined. Results demonstrated that the incorporation of HRWRA led to a

considerable improvement in strength and great reduction in initial surface
absorption and corrosion activity after 180 - 240 days of exposure.
Memon, et al. 2002 [49], had investigated the effects of mineral and
chemical admixtures namely fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag,
silica fume and superplasticizers on the porosity, pore size distribution and
compressive strength development of high-strength concrete in seawater
curing condition exposed to tidal zone. In this study, three levels of cement
replacement (0%, 30% and 70% by weight) were used. They found that: a)
the pore size distribution of high-strength concrete was significantly finer and
the mean volume pore radii (MVPR) at the age of 6 months were reduced
about three times compared to normal Portland cement (NPC) concrete, b)
both concrete mixes (30% and 70%) exhibited better performance than the
NPC concrete in seawater exposed to tidal zone, and c) high-strength concrete
produced would withstand severe seawater exposure without serious
deterioration.
Sun, et al. 2004 [50], studied the influences of the types, amount and
adding approaches of mineral admixtures on pH values, electrical resistance
of concrete, anodic polarization potential and mass loss ratio of steel bars in
concrete subjected to 50 immersiondrying cycles were. The testing results
showed that: a) the addition of mineral admixtures reduced the pH values of
the binder pastes in green high performance concrete (GHPC), especially
when two or three types of mineral admixtures were added at the same time
(double- or triple adding approaches), whereas the final pH values were still
above the critical breakage pH value of passivation film on the steel bar
surface (11.5), b) double- and triple-adding approaches also greatly increased
the electrical resistance of concrete, which led to a delay in the initial time of
corrosion and a decrease in the corrosion rate of steel bars, and c) fly ash can
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Chapter Two

Literature Review

reduce the corrosion of steel bars when a large amount of fly-ash replacement
was used.
Lawrence, et al. 2005 [51], studied the effect of different kinds of
mineral admixtures on the compressive strength of mortars made with up to
75% of crushed quartz, limestone filler or fly ash of different fineness. They
found that: a) for short hydration times (1 to 2 days), the nature of mineral
admixture is not a significant parameter, as mortars containing the same
amount of different kinds of admixtures having equivalent fineness present
similar strengths, b) for long hydration times (up to 6 months), the excess
strength due to fly ash pozzolanic activity is quantified by the difference
between the strengths of mortars containing the same proportions of inert and
pozzolanic admixtures with the same fineness. In the case of inert mineral
admixtures, the increase in strength with the fineness of mineral admixtures
cannot be explained by the filler effect, but can be attributed to the physical
effect of heterogeneous nucleation.
Prabakar, et al. 2009 [52], conducted an experimental study to
evaluate the effect of Sodium Nitrate as a corrosion inhibitor in concrete with
1%, 2%, 3%, and 4% by weight of cement. Durability properties such as
Rapid Chloride Penetration Test (RCPT) were studied. Compressive strength,
flexural and split tensile strengths were also studied. The results showed that:
a) durability properties enhanced and further with increase in corrosion
inhibitor dosage. Concrete with 4% Sodium Nitrate had got 1.8 times better
performance as compared to normal concrete, and b) the mechanical
properties of concrete also enhanced with adding of Sodium Nitrate.
Hassan, et al. 2009 [53], had investigated the corrosion of steel
reinforcement embedded in full-scale self-consolidating concrete (SCC)
beams was compared to normal concrete (NC). Beams containing epoxy- and
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Chapter Two

Literature Review

non-epoxy-coated stirrups were monitored under an accelerated corrosion

test. The corrosion performance of NC/SCC beams was evaluated based on
the results of current measurement, half-cell potential tests, chloride ion
content, mass loss and bar diameter degradation. The investigation also
included the effect of admixture type and the size of specimen on corrosion
performance. In general, SCC beams showed superior performance compared
to their NC counterparts in terms of corrosion cracking, corrosion
development rate, half-cell potential values, rebar mass loss and rebar
diameter reduction. They found that: a) SCC beams showed localized
corrosion with concrete spalling due to non-uniform concrete properties along
the length, which was a result of the casting technique, b) difference between
SCC and NC mixes in terms of corrosion was more pronounced in large-scale
beams, and c) types of admixture used in SCC have no influence on corrosion
performance.
Al-Mehthel, et al. 2009 [54], conducted a study to evaluate the
improvement in corrosion-resistance of chloride-contaminated silica fume
cement concrete due to the use of corrosion inhibitors. Three proprietary and
one generic corrosion inhibitors were evaluated for their performance in
inhibiting reinforcement corrosion in the silica fume cement concrete
specimens contaminated with 0.4%, 1%, and 2% chloride concentration, by
weight of cement. Potentials corrosion and accelerated corrosion methods
were used. It has been shown that: a) the extent of corrosion increased with
increasing chloride contamination in the concrete specimens, b) incorporation
of inhibitor decreased the rate of reinforcement corrosion. The rate of
reinforcement corrosion in the concrete specimens incorporating an organic
inhibitor that was added to the concrete during mixing was the least followed
by that in the concrete specimens on which a penetrating corrosion inhibitor

24

Chapter Two

Literature Review

was applied, and c) the accelerated impressed current technique was noted to
be suitable for quickly screening the performance of corrosion inhibitors.
Xie, et al. 2012 [55], investigated rehabilitation of corrosion-damaged
reinforced concrete (RC)

beams with carbon fiber reinforced polymer

(CFRP), which focus on the effectiveness of CFRP-repaired methods and the

effects of CFRP amount on flexural behavior of the beams. A modified
retrofit method based on substrate repairs was developed, which is bonding
CFRP after replacing V-notch of substrate concrete with polymer mortar. To
compare the modified method with two common retrofit methods, which are
respectively bonding directly CFRP and bonding CFRP after replacing
damaged concrete, four-point bending experiments were conducted on a
series of corrosion-damaged RC beams with CFRP. Important factors were
considered in the experimental study, including the number of CFRP layers
and corrosion level denoted by the mass loss rate of tensile steel. The results
show that: a) the modified retrofit method could provide better load carrying
capacity for the beams having more than 15% mass loss of tensile steel, b) the
simple method of directly bonding CFRP was suitable for the beams having
less than 15% mass loss of tensile steel, and c) by optimizing the amount of
CFRP, it is possible to balance strength recovery with control of failure mode.

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Chapter Two

Literature Review

2.5 Concluding Remarks

From the review of above previous literature works concerned with
reinforcement concrete, the following remarks can be summarized as follow:
1. Intensive electrochemical investigations concerned with corrosion of
embedded steel in concrete exposed to corrosive environments such as
chloride, sulfate, and acidic solutions.
2. In the review of the previous work on monitoring of reinforcement
corrosion in concrete, most of the researchers using half-cell potential
method, accelerated corrosion technique, linear polarization resistance
measurements, xray diffraction, and scanning electron microscopy.
3. Limited studies were carried out to study the effect of polymeric
compounds on corrosion activity of embedded steel in concrete structures.
4. The research work concerned with the use of plastocrete-N polymer was
restricted for improving compressive strength only. While the present
study aimed to justify the use of such polymeric material as corrosion
inhibitor for steel reinforcement.

26