MATH 38

Mathematical Analysis III

I. F. Evidente
IMSP (UPLB)

Outline

Absolute Convergence, Conditional Convergence and Divergence

Power Series

Absolutely Convergent, Conditionally Convergent or Divergent?

1

Test for absolutely convergence.

Absolutely Convergent, Conditionally Convergent or Divergent?

1

Test for absolutely convergence.

If it is not absolutely convergent, test for conditional convergence.

Absolutely Convergent, Conditionally Convergent or Divergent?

1

Test for absolutely convergence.

If it is not absolutely convergent, test for conditional convergence.

If it is not conditionally convergent, it is divergent.

Absolutely Convergent, Conditionally Convergent or Divergent?

1

Test for absolutely convergence.

If it is not absolutely convergent, test for conditional convergence.

If it is not conditionally convergent, it is divergent.

Remark
If the infinite series is not absolutely convergent, it does not mean it is
divergent!!!

Example
Determine whether the given series is absolutely convergent, conditionally
convergent or divergent.
1

(1)n (2n + 1)
X
n2
n=1

(1)n 3n+1
X
nn
n=1

Outline

Absolute Convergence, Conditional Convergence and Divergence

Power Series

Definition
Let {c n }
n=0 be a sequence and a
the form

R. A power series in x a is a sum of

Definition
Let {c n }
n=0 be a sequence and a
the form

R. A power series in x a is a sum of

c 0 + c 1 (x a) + c 2 (x a)2 + ... + c n (x a)n + ...

Definition
Let {c n }
n=0 be a sequence and a
the form

R. A power series in x a is a sum of

c 0 + c 1 (x a) + c 2 (x a)2 + ... + c n (x a)n + ...

Notation
For compactness, we write a power series in x a as:
c 0 + c 1 (x a) + c 2 (x a)2 + ... + c n (x a)n + ... =

Definition
Let {c n }
n=0 be a sequence and a
the form

R. A power series in x a is a sum of

c 0 + c 1 (x a) + c 2 (x a)2 + ... + c n (x a)n + ...

Notation
For compactness, we write a power series in x a as:
c 0 + c 1 (x a) + c 2 (x a)2 + ... + c n (x a)n + ... =

X
n=0

c n (x a)n

Definition
Let {c n }
n=0 be a sequence and a
the form

R. A power series in x a is a sum of

c 0 + c 1 (x a) + c 2 (x a)2 + ... + c n (x a)n + ...

Notation
For compactness, we write a power series in x a as:
c 0 + c 1 (x a) + c 2 (x a)2 + ... + c n (x a)n + ... =

c n (x a)n

n=0

(Again, the lower index may be some other nonnegative integer k .)

Example
(x 2)n
X
is a power series in x 2:
2n
n=0

Example
(x 2)n
X
is a power series in x 2:
2n
n=0
(x 2)n
X
=
2n
n=0

Example
(x 2)n
X
is a power series in x 2:
2n
n=0
(x 2)n
X
(x 2) (x 2)2 (x 2)3
=
1
+
+
+
+ ...
2n
2
8
16
n=0

Example
(x 2)n
X
is a power series in x 2:
2n
n=0
(x 2)n
X
(x 2) (x 2)2 (x 2)3
=
1
+
+
+
+ ...
2n
2
8
16
n=0

Example
xn
X
is a power series in x 0 (or simply x ):
n=0 n!

Example
(x 2)n
X
is a power series in x 2:
2n
n=0
(x 2)n
X
(x 2) (x 2)2 (x 2)3
=
1
+
+
+
+ ...
2n
2
8
16
n=0

Example
xn
X
is a power series in x 0 (or simply x ):
n=0 n!
xn
X
=
n=0 n!

Example
(x 2)n
X
is a power series in x 2:
2n
n=0
(x 2)n
X
(x 2) (x 2)2 (x 2)3
=
1
+
+
+
+ ...
2n
2
8
16
n=0

Example
xn
X
is a power series in x 0 (or simply x ):
n=0 n!
xn
X
1
1
= 1 + x + x 2 + x 3 + ...
n!
2
6
n=0

Just a note

Just a note

When we expand:

Just a note

When we expand:

X
n=0

c n (x a)n

Just a note

When we expand:

X
n=0

c n (x a)n

= c 0 (x a)0 + c 1 (x a)1 + c 2 (x a)2 + ... + c n (x a)n + ...

Just a note

When we expand:

c n (x a)n

= c 0 (x a)0 + c 1 (x a)1 + c 2 (x a)2 + ... + c n (x a)n + ...

n=0

= c 0 + c 1 (x a) + c 2 (x a)2 + ... + c n (x a)n + ...

Note
In power series notation:
for all x

R (including x = a )

(x a)0 = 1

A power series is a function in x , so we can evaluate it at some x = x 0

R.

A power series is a function in x , so we can evaluate it at some x = x 0

If we plug in x = x 0 , what do we obtain?

R.

A power series is a function in x , so we can evaluate it at some x = x 0

If we plug in x = x 0 , what do we obtain?
We obtain an infinite series.

R.

A power series is a function in x , so we can evaluate it at some x = x 0

If we plug in x = x 0 , what do we obtain?
We obtain an infinite series.

Example
Evaluate

(x 2)n
X
at the following values:
2n
n=0

R.

A power series is a function in x , so we can evaluate it at some x = x 0

If we plug in x = x 0 , what do we obtain?
We obtain an infinite series.

Example
Evaluate

(x 2)n
X
at the following values:
2n
n=0

At x = 3:

R.

A power series is a function in x , so we can evaluate it at some x = x 0

If we plug in x = x 0 , what do we obtain?
We obtain an infinite series.

Example
(x 2)n
X
at the following values:
2n
n=0
1 n
X
At x = 3:
n=0 2

Evaluate

R.

A power series is a function in x , so we can evaluate it at some x = x 0

If we plug in x = x 0 , what do we obtain?
We obtain an infinite series.

Example
(x 2)n
X
at the following values:
2n
n=0
1 n
X
At x = 3:
n=0 2

Evaluate

At x = 5:

R.

A power series is a function in x , so we can evaluate it at some x = x 0

If we plug in x = x 0 , what do we obtain?
We obtain an infinite series.

Example
(x 2)n
X
at the following values:
2n
n=0
1 n
X
At x = 3:
n=0 2
3 n
X
At x = 5:
n=0 2

Evaluate

R.

A power series is a function in x , so we can evaluate it at some x = x 0

If we plug in x = x 0 , what do we obtain?
We obtain an infinite series.

Example
(x 2)n
X
at the following values:
2n
n=0
1 n
X
At x = 3:
n=0 2
3 n
X
At x = 5:
n=0 2

Evaluate

R.

Be careful about evaluating a power series in x a at x = a !

Example
Evaluate

(x 2)n
X
at x = 2:
2n
n=0

Be careful about evaluating a power series in x a at x = a !

Example
Evaluate

(x 2)n
X
at x = 2:
2n
n=0
(x 2)n
X
=
2n
n=0

Be careful about evaluating a power series in x a at x = a !

Example
Evaluate

(x 2)n
X
at x = 2:
2n
n=0
(x 2)n
X
=1
2n
n=0

Be careful about evaluating a power series in x a at x = a !

Example
Evaluate

(x 2)n
X
at x = 2:
2n
n=0
(x 2)n
X
=1
2n
n=0

Note
Evaluated at x = a ,

X
n=0

c n (x a)n =

Be careful about evaluating a power series in x a at x = a !

Example
Evaluate

(x 2)n
X
at x = 2:
2n
n=0
(x 2)n
X
=1
2n
n=0

Note
Evaluated at x = a ,

X
n=0

c n (x a)n = c 0 .

Relevant Question

Relevant Question
Given a power series, for what values of x = x 0 will we obtain a convergent
infinite series?

Relevant Question
Given a power series, for what values of x = x 0 will we obtain a convergent
infinite series?

Example
Given

(x 2)n
X
2n
n=0

Relevant Question
Given a power series, for what values of x = x 0 will we obtain a convergent
infinite series?

Example
(x 2)n
X
2n
n=0
1 n
X
At x = 3:
n=0 2

Given

Relevant Question
Given a power series, for what values of x = x 0 will we obtain a convergent
infinite series?

Example
(x 2)n
X
2n
n=0
1 n
X
At x = 3:
(convergent)
n=0 2

Given

Relevant Question
Given a power series, for what values of x = x 0 will we obtain a convergent
infinite series?

Example
(x 2)n
X
2n
n=0
1 n
X
At x = 3:
(convergent)
n=0 2
3 n
X
At x = 5:
n=0 2

Given

Relevant Question
Given a power series, for what values of x = x 0 will we obtain a convergent
infinite series?

Example
(x 2)n
X
2n
n=0
1 n
X
At x = 3:
(convergent)
n=0 2
3 n
X
At x = 5:
(divergent)
n=0 2

Given

Relevant Question
Given a power series, for what values of x = x 0 will we obtain a convergent
infinite series?

Example
(x 2)n
X
2n
n=0
1 n
X
At x = 3:
(convergent)
n=0 2
3 n
X
At x = 5:
(divergent)
n=0 2
(x 2)n
X
At x = 2:
= 1 (convergent)
2n
n=0

Given

Relevant Question
Given a power series, for what values of x = x 0 will we obtain a convergent
infinite series?

Example
(x 2)n
X
2n
n=0
1 n
X
At x = 3:
(convergent)
n=0 2
3 n
X
At x = 5:
(divergent)
n=0 2
(x 2)n
X
At x = 2:
= 1 (convergent)
2n
n=0

Given

(Solve this example!)

Remark
A power series in x a is always convergent when x = a .

Theorem
Let

X
n=0

c n (x a)n be a power series. Exactly one of the following is true:

Theorem
Let

c n (x a)n be a power series. Exactly one of the following is true:

n=0
1

The power series converges only when x = a . (Case 1)

The power series is absolutely convergent for all x

There exists R > 0 such that the power series is absolutely convergent
for all x such that |x a| < R and divergent for all |x a| > R . (Case 3)

R. (Case 2)

Remark
1

The theorem states that the set of all values for which a power series
in x a converges is always an interval centered at a .

Remark
1

The theorem states that the set of all values for which a power series
in x a converges is always an interval centered at a .

This set of values is called the interval of convergence (IOC) of the

power series.

Remark
1

The theorem states that the set of all values for which a power series
in x a converges is always an interval centered at a .

This set of values is called the interval of convergence (IOC) of the

power series.
The radius of the interval of convergence

Remark
1

The theorem states that the set of all values for which a power series
in x a converges is always an interval centered at a .

This set of values is called the interval of convergence (IOC) of the

power series.
The radius of the interval of convergence is called the radius of
convergence (ROC) of the power series.

Remark
1

The theorem states that the set of all values for which a power series
in x a converges is always an interval centered at a .

This set of values is called the interval of convergence (IOC) of the

power series.
The radius of the interval of convergence is called the radius of
convergence (ROC) of the power series.

1
2
3

Case 1: ROC = 0
Case 2: ROC =
Case 3: ROC = R

Remark
1

The theorem states that the set of all values for which a power series
in x a converges is always an interval centered at a .

This set of values is called the interval of convergence (IOC) of the

power series.
The radius of the interval of convergence is called the radius of
convergence (ROC) of the power series.

1
2
3
4

Case 1: ROC = 0
Case 2: ROC =
Case 3: ROC = R

For Case 3: The power series may or may not converge at the
endpoints of the IOC.

Remark
1

The theorem states that the set of all values for which a power series
in x a converges is always an interval centered at a .

This set of values is called the interval of convergence (IOC) of the

power series.
The radius of the interval of convergence is called the radius of
convergence (ROC) of the power series.

1
2
3
4

Case 1: ROC = 0
Case 2: ROC =
Case 3: ROC = R

For Case 3: The power series may or may not converge at the
endpoints of the IOC.

(Illustration for Case 3!)

To find ROC and IOC

We already know x = a is in the interval of convergence.

To find ROC and IOC

We already know x = a is in the interval of convergence.

Consider the case x 6= a .

To find ROC and IOC

We already know x = a is in the interval of convergence.

Consider the case x 6= a .

Use ratio or root test. Simplification yields something of the form

To find ROC and IOC

We already know x = a is in the interval of convergence.

Consider the case x 6= a .

Use ratio or root test. Simplification yields something of the form

lim |x a| f (n)

To find ROC and IOC

We already know x = a is in the interval of convergence.

Consider the case x 6= a .

Use ratio or root test. Simplification yields something of the form

lim |x a| f (n) = |x a| lim f (n)

To find ROC and IOC

We already know x = a is in the interval of convergence.

Consider the case x 6= a .

Use ratio or root test. Simplification yields something of the form

lim |x a| f (n) = |x a| lim f (n)

If lim f (n) = 0, then ROC = , IOC = (, ). (Case 2)

n

To find ROC and IOC

We already know x = a is in the interval of convergence.

Consider the case x 6= a .

Use ratio or root test. Simplification yields something of the form

lim |x a| f (n) = |x a| lim f (n)

If lim f (n) = 0, then ROC = , IOC = (, ). (Case 2)

n
If lim f (n) = , then ROC = 0, IOC = {a}. (Case 1)
n

To find ROC and IOC

We already know x = a is in the interval of convergence.

Consider the case x 6= a .

Use ratio or root test. Simplification yields something of the form

lim |x a| f (n) = |x a| lim f (n)

If lim f (n) = 0, then ROC = , IOC = (, ). (Case 2)

n
If lim f (n) = , then ROC = 0, IOC = {a}. (Case 1)
n
If lim f (n) = L , then solve for ROC. (Case 3)
n

Case 3: If lim f (n) = L , then solve for ROC:

n

Case 3: If lim f (n) = L , then solve for ROC:

n

ROC: R =

1
L

Case 3: If lim f (n) = L , then solve for ROC:

n

ROC: R =

IOC:

1
L

Case 3: If lim f (n) = L , then solve for ROC:

n

ROC: R =

IOC:

1
L

(1) The interval of convergence includes all x such that R < x a < R .

Case 3: If lim f (n) = L , then solve for ROC:

n

ROC: R =

IOC:

1
L

(1) The interval of convergence includes all x such that R < x a < R .
(2) Test for convergence at x a = R and x a = R (do not use ratio or
root test!)

Case 3: If lim f (n) = L , then solve for ROC:

n

ROC: R =

IOC:

1
L

(1) The interval of convergence includes all x such that R < x a < R .
(2) Test for convergence at x a = R and x a = R (do not use ratio or
root test!)
(3) Get the union of (1) and (2) solve for x .

Example
Find the radius and interval of convergence of the following:

(x 2)n
X
2n
n=0
xn
X

n=0

n!

(x + 2)n
n+1
n=0 (n + 1)3

X n
n (x + 1)n
n=0