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Table of Contents
1
Introduction....................................................................................................................................... 2
Theory ................................................................................................................................................ 2
3.2
3.3
3.3.1
3.3.2
3.3.5
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
Post-Liquefaction Settlement......................................................................................................... 38
References............................................................................................................................................... 42
Table of Symbols .................................................................................................................................... 45
Introduction
Liquefaction of soils is a major cause of both damage and loss of life in earthquakes (e.g.; the 1964
Alaska and Niigata, 1983 Nihonakai-Chubu, 1987 Elmore Ranch and Superstition Hills, 1989 Loma
Prieta, 1993 Kushiro-Oki, 1994 Northridge, 1995 Hyogoken-Nambu (Kobe), 1999 Izmit earthquakes).
Researchers have tried to quantify seismic soil liquefaction initiation risk through the use of both
deterministic and probabilistic techniques based on laboratory test results and/or correlations of
insitu index tests with field case history performance data.
Settle3D offers different methods of calculating the factor of safety associated with liquefaction
resistance, probability of liquefaction, and the input parameters required for those calculations. This
manual also describes a simplified method for calculating the lateral spreading displacement as well
as the vertical settlement due to liquefaction.
Theory
The use of in situ index testing is the dominant approach for assessment of the likelihood of
triggering or initiation of liquefaction. There in-situ test methods have now reached a level of
sufficient maturity as to represent viable tools for this purpose. The following tests are often used:
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
Shear Wave Velocity (VST)
The potential for liquefaction can be evaluated by comparing the earthquake loading (CSR) with the
liquefaction resistance (CRR) - this is usually expressed as a factor of safety against
Liquefaction:
=
7.5
where
7.5
=
=
=
=
This section summarizes the methods available for calculating liquefaction resistance based on SPT
data. The following are presented:
Cyclic Stress Ratio (CSR)
Stress Reduction Factor (rd)
SPT N-Value Correction Factors
Cyclic Resistance Ratio (CRR)
Relative Density (DR)
Fines Content Correction
Magnitude Scaling Factor (MSF)
Overburden Correction Factor
Shear Stress Reduction Factor
3.1
The cyclic stress ratio, CSR, as proposed by Seed and Idriss (1971), is defined as the average cyclic
shear stress, , developed on the horizontal surface of soil layers due to vertically propagating
shear waves normalized by the initial vertical effective stress, , to incorporate the increase in shear
strength due to increase in effective stress. By appropriately weighting the individual stress cycles
based on laboratory test data, it has been found that a reasonable amplitude to use for the average
or equivalent uniform stress, , is about 65% of the maximum shear stress.
=
= 0.65 (
) ( )
where
gravitational acceleration
3.2
The stress reduction factor, rd, is used to determine the maximum shear stress at different depths in
the soil. Values generally range from 1 at the ground surface to lower values at larger depths.
The following formulations are provided in Settle3D:
NCEER (1997)
Idriss (1999)
Kayen (1992)
Cetin et al. (2004)
Liao and Whitman (1986a)
NCEER (1997)
= 1.0 0.00765
= 1.174 0.0267
= 0.744 0.008
= 0.50
9.15
9.15 < 23
23 < 30
> 30
where
depth in meters
Idriss (1999)
ln( ) = () + ()
+ 5.133)
11.73
+ 5.142)
11.28
where
depth in meters 34
4
earthquake magnitude
Kayen (1992)
= 1 0.012
where
=
depth in meters
(, , , ,12
)
0.341(+0.0785,12
+7.586)
16.258
+
0.201
=
0.341(0.0785,12+7.586)
16.258 + 0.201
for z<20 m (65ft)
[1 +
(, , , ,12
)=
0.341(0.0785,12
+7.586)
16.258 + 0.201
for z20m (65ft)
() = 0.8500 0.0198
() = 120.8500 0.0198
where
=
depth in meters
gravitational acceleration
,12
Notes:
-
For very soft sites with ,12 less than 120m/s, use a limiting stiffness of 120m/s in
calculations.
for z9.15m
3.3
Before the CRR can be calculated, the N values obtained from the SPT must be corrected for the
following factors: overburden, rod length, non-standard sampler, borehole diameter, and hammer
energy efficiency, resulting in a(1 )60 value. The equation below illustrates the correction.
60 =
(1 )60 = 60
The equations used to calculate the correction factors are summarized below.
Table 1.1:
Factor
Equipment Variable
Overburden Pressure
Energy Ratio
Borehole Diameter
Rod Length
Sampling Method
3.3.1
Donut hammer
Safety hammer
Automatic hammer
65 mm -115 mm
150 mm
200 mm
<3 m
3m4m
4m-6m
6 m -10 m
10 m 30 m
Standard Sampler
Sampler without Liner
Term
Correction
CN
Section 3.3.1
CE
CB
CR
CS
0.5-1.0
0.7-1.2
0.8-1.3
1.0
1.05
1.12
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.95
1.00
1.0
1.0-1.3
The overburden correction factor adjusts N values to the N 1 value that would be measured at the
same depth if the effective overburden stress was 1 atm.
The following formulations are available:
Liao and Whitman (1986)
Bazaraa (1967)
Idriss and Boulanger (2004)
Peck (1974)
Kayen et al. (1992)
1
)
0
0.5
1.7
0.5
= ( )
Bazaraa (1967)
=
=
1 + 20
0
1.5
4
0
> 1.5
3.25 + 0.50
2.0
(1 )60 46
Peck, Hansen, and Thorburn (1974)
= 0.77 log (
2000
)
0
0
282
2.2
1.7
1.2 +
3.3.2
The energy efficiency correction factor is calculated using the measured energy ratio as follows.
=
60
It varies from 0.5-1.3. The ranges are taken from Skempton (1986).
Hammer Type
Donut hammer
Safety hammer
Automatic hammer
CE
0.5-1.0
0.7-1.2
0.8-1.3
More specifically,
Hammer Type
Automatic Trip
Europe Donut Free fall
China Donut Free Fall
China Donut Rope& Pulley
Japan Donut Free Fall
Japan Donut Rope& Pulley
United States Safety Rope& pulley
United States Donut Rope& pulley
United States Automatic Trip Rope& pulley
CE
0.9-1.6
1.0
1.0
0.83
1.3
1.12
0.89
0.72
1.25
CB
1.0
1.05
1.15
3.3.4
The rod length correction factor accounts for how energy transferred to the sampling rods is affected
by the rod length.
Youd et al. (2001)
The following table from Youd et al (2001) summarizes the rod correction factor for various rod
lengths. The rod length above the ground must also be added to obtain the total rod length before
choosing the appropriate correction factor.
CR
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.95
1.00
3.3.5
The sampler correction factor is applied in cases when the split spoon sampler has room for liner
rings, but those rings were not used.
Cetin et al. (2004)
CS
= 1.0
= 1.0 1.3
= 1.1
1,60
= 1 +
100
= 1.3
3.4
Condition
Standard sampler
Sampler without liners
1,60 10
Reference
(NCEER, 1997)
(NCEER, 1997)
(Cetin et al, 2004)
10 1,60 30
1,60 30
The cyclic resistance ratio is the other term required to calculate the factor of safety against
liquefaction. The cyclic resistance ratio represents the maximum CSR at which a given soil can
resist liquefaction. The equation for CRR, corrected for overburden pressure and magnitude, is:
= 7.5
The following methods of calculating CRR are for CRR7.5 and still need to have the MSF correction
factors applied:
Seed et al. (1984)
Youd and Idriss (2001)
Idriss and Boulanger (2004)
Cetin et al. (2004) Deterministic and Probabilistic
Japanese Bridge Code (JRA 1990)
Liao et al. (1998) Probabilistic
Youd and Noble (1997) Probabilistic
11
Figure 3: SPT clean-sand base curve for magnitude 7.5 earthquakes with data from liquefaction case
histories (modified from Seed et al. 1985)
12
(1 )60
1
50
1
+
+
2
9.7
15.7
(
) )
+ 0.01
+ 0.01
=7.5,=1
(1 )60
(1 )60
(1 )60
(1 )60
= exp (
+(
) (
) +(
) 2.8)
14.1
126
23.6
25.4
((1 )60 , , , , )
= exp [
]
13.32
((1 )60 , , , , ) = (
)
2.70
where
13
1 ( )=
inverse of the standard cumulative normal distribution (ie. mean = 0, and standard
deviation = 1)
The deterministic analysis is done for a probability of liquefaction of 50% and a factor of safety of 1.
Japanese Bridge Code (JRA 1990)
This method is based on the equivalent clean sand value of N and the particle size distribution of
sand. The method of fines correction implemented is not necessarily the same as the one used in
Idriss and Boulanger (2004). The various methods of calculating fines correction factors will be
discussed in the next section.
=7.5,=1 = 0.0882
(1 )60
0.35
+ 0.255 log (
) + 3
+ 0.7
50
=7.5,=1 = 0.0882
(1 )60
0.05
+ 0.7
0.6 50 < 2
3 = 0 < 40%
3 = 0.004 0.16 40%
/2
Liao et al. (1998) Probabilistic
14
( ) = ln (
) = 7.0351 + 2.1738 0.2678(1 )60 + 3.0265 ln()
1
15
3.5
Relative Density, DR
The relative density of a soil is used in the calculation of the overburden correction factor, CN. The
following methods are provided in Settle3D:
Skempton (1986)
1,60 = 41 2
Ishihara (1979)
= 0.06761,60
1,60
46
16
3.6
The fines content has been shown to influence 1,60 and a number of equations have been proposed
to account for this.
Idriss and Boulanger (2008)
(1 )60 = (1 )60 + (1 )60
(1 )60 = exp (1.63 +
2
9.7
15.7
(
) )
+ 0.01
+ 0.01
= 5.0 35%
= 1.0 5%
1.5
= [0.99 + (
)] 5% < < 35%
1000
= 1.2 35%
Cetin et al. (2004)
(1 )60 = (1 )60
= (1 + 0.004) + 0.05 (
)
1,60
5% 35%
17
3.7
As mentioned previously, the CRR equations above need to be corrected for earthquake magnitude (if
the earthquake magnitude is not 7.5).
Tokimatsu and Seed (1987)
= 2.5 0.2
Idriss (1999)
= 6.9 exp (
) 0.058 1.8
4
) 0.058 1.8
4
( ) = ln (
) = 7.0351 + 2.1738 0.2678(1 )60 + 3.0265 ln()
1
< 20% =
103.81
< 7
4.53
< 32% =
103.74
< 7
4.33
< 50% =
104.21
< 7.75
4.81
18
) =(
)
=7.5
7.5
3.8
In addition to magnitude, the CRR must be corrected for overburden. It is necessary to correct for
overburden because the CRR of sand depends on the effective overburden stress; liquefaction
resistance increases with increases confining stress.
Hynes and Olsen (1999) (NCEER)
1
=
=
= (
19
Figure 7: Recommended curves for estimating K for engineering practice (from NCEER 1996
workshop)
The parameter f is a function of site conditions, and the estimates above are recommended
conservative values for clean and silty sands and gravels.
Idriss and Boulanger (2008)
This method is basically the same as Idriss and Boulanger (2004), except that the limit for K is
higher.
= 1 ln (
1
0.3
18.9 17.3
=
) 1.1
(1 )60
46
1
(18.9 2.55(1 )60 )
20
Figure 8: K values, shown with NCEER recommendations (for n=0.7 and DR<60%) for comparison
21
3.9
K is the static shear stress correction factor, used to correct CRR values for the effects of static
shear stresses.
Idriss and Boulanger (2003)
= + exp ( )
1
100
ln (
)
0.35
0.6 0
where
relative density
=
empirical constant which determines the value of p at which dilatancy is suppressed
and depends on the grain type (Q10 for quartz and feldspar, 8 for limestone, 7 for anthracite, and
5.5 for chalk)
atmospheric pressure
22
The Magnitude Scaling Factor, MSF, and Stress Reduction Factor, R d, equations are the same for
CPT as SPT. These equations can be found in sections 3.7 and 3.2, respectively.
The following methods are available in Settle3D for determining triggering of liquefaction.
Robertson and Wride (1997)
Modified Robertson and Wride (1998)
Boulanger and Idriss (2004)
Moss et al. (2006) Deterministic
Moss et al. (2006) Probabilistic
Robertson and Wride (1997)
= 1.0 0.00765 9.15
= 1.174 0.0267 9.15 < 23
= 0.744 0.008 23 < 30
= 0.50 > 30
=
=[
] [( ) ]
2
=[
] 100%
= 1.0
= 0.5
= 1.0
The recommended procedure for calculating the soil behaviour type index can be iterative. The
following procedure is outlined in the NCEER summary report (Robertson and Wride, 1997).
1) Assume n = 1.0 and calculate Q using the following equation and calculate Ic with the
equation above.
1.0
=[
) [( ) ] = [
]
23
1 = ( )
2
= ( ) 1.7
= 1.0 1.64
= 0.4034 + 5.5813 21.632 + 33.75 17.88
> 1.64
1 = 1
1
7.5 = 0.833 [
] + 0.05 1 < 50
1000
1 3
7.5 = 93 [
] + 0.08
1000
50 1 < 160
Figure 9: Normalized CPT soil behaviour type chart, proposed by Robertson (1990)
OCR = overconsolidation ratio, = friction angle
24
The soil types from the chart above are listed below:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
=(
)( )
2
=[
] 100
=
=
(
=
100)
= (= 0.1 )
1
1 = ( ) =
2
2
= (
)
25
= 0 5%
= 0.0267( 5) 5 < < 35%
= 0.8 35%
1 1
= 1 + 1
1 =
1
1
7.5 = 0.833 [
] + 0.05 1 < 50
1000
1 3
7.5 = 93 [
] + 0.08
1000
50 1 < 160
0.264
1.3380.249(1)
= ( )
1.7
21 1 254
= [(3.47 log())2 + (log() + 1.22)2 ]0.5
26
(101 )
=
100
101
=
=
1 = 1 + 1
1 = (5.4 +
2
1
9.7
15.7
) exp (1.63 +
(
) )
16
+ 0.01
+ 0.01
=1 = exp (
=7.5,
1
1 2
1 3
1 4
+(
) (
) +(
) 3)
540
67
80
114
= 6.9 exp (
) 0.058 1.8
4
= 1 ln (
) 1.0
1
0.3
37.3 8.27(1 )0.264
1 211
= 7.5
= 1.859(1.1 )3 0
= 1.859(2.163 0.478(1 )0.264 )3 0
= 0.032 + 4.7 6.0( )2
0.4
= 11.74 + 8.34(1 )0.264 1.371(1 )0.528
1 69
= 0 2
27
1
= min ( , 0.035(2 ) (
))
< < 2
1 =
1
1 2
1 3
= exp (
(
) +(
) 4.42)
24.5
61.7
106
1
1 2
1 3
1
=
exp
(
(
)
+
(
) 4.42) (1 + exp (
9.82))
24.5
61.7
106
11.1
1.045
1
+ 1 (0.110) + (0.001) + (1 + 0.850) 0.848 ln( ) 0.002 ln( ) 20.923 + 1.6321 ( )
}
7.177
Probability of liquefaction according to this method is also calculated by the following correlation;
= {
1.045
1
+ 1 (0.110) + (0.001) + (1 + 0.850) 7.177 ln() 0.848 ln( ) 0.002 ln( ) 20.923
}
1.632
28
where
1
normalized exponent
( )
1 ( ) =
The deterministic analysis is done for a probability of liquefaction of 50% and a factor of safety of 1.
A revised estimate of the normalization exponent is found using the normalized tip resistance,
shown in the figure below.
Figure 10: Proposed CPT normalization exponent curves from Moss et al. (2006), labeled by
normalization exponent, c, values
29
The Magnitude Scaling Factor, MSF, and Stress Reduction Factor, R d, equations are the same for
CPT as SPT. These equations can be found in sections 3.7 and 3.2, respectively.
Two methods are available for calculating triggering of liquefaction from velocity data.
NCEER (1997)
These investigators normalized VS1:
1 = ( )
0
0.25
1 2
) + /(1 1 ) /1
100
where Vs1c is the limiting upper value of Vs1 for liquefaction occurrence, and
Vs1c=220 m/s for sands and gravel with FC 5%
Vs1c=210 m/s for sands and gravel with FC 20%
Vs1c=200 m/s for sands and gravel with FC 35%
Figure 11: Proposed cyclic stress ratio curves for different fines content (FC)
(Andrus and Stokoe 2000)
30
5%
= 1 + ( 5)
= 1 + 30
35%
where
= 0.009 0.0109(1 /100) + 0.0038(1 /100)2
Figure 12: Vs-based probability cyclic stress ratio curves logistic regression (Juang et al. 2002)
31
The LDI is basically the lateral spreading that occurs due to liquefaction. It is calculated by
integrating the maximum shear strains over depth.
=
(1 )60
= 1.859 (1.1
) 0
46
The spreadsheet example in Idriss and Boulanger (2008) also imposes the following limit.
3
(1 )60
: 1.859 (1.1
) 0.5
46
The limiting shear strain can also be calculated from the relative density, with the same limits as
above.
= 1.859(1.1 )3
0.4
(1 )60 7
Using the limiting shear strain, , and the factor of safety, the maximum shear strain can be
calculated.
= 0 2
=
1
= min ( , 0.035(2 ) (
))
< < 2
32
Wu et al. (2003)
Cetin et al. (2009)
Figure 13: Relationship between maximum cyclic shear strain and factor of safety for different
relative densities, Dr, for clean sands
[based on data from Ishihara and Yoshimine (1992) and Seed (1979)]
33
Figure 14: Relationship between normalized SPT N-value, dynamic shear stress ratio and residual
shear strain potential for clean sands
Figure 15: Relationship between normalized SPT N-value, dynamic shear stress ratio and residual
shear strain potential for FC=10%
34
Figure 16: Relationship between normalized SPT-N value, dynamic shear stress ratio, and residual
shear strain potential for FC=20%
Wu et al. (2003)
Figure 17: Estimation of cyclically induced deviatoric strains (Wu et al. 2003)
35
where ,20,1,1 are CSR values, corresponding to one-dimensional, 20 uniform loading cycles,
under a confining pressure of 100 kPa = 1 atm.
,20,1,1 = ,20
= ( )
, = 1 0.005
The recommended maximum double amplitude shear strain boundary curves are also shown in the
figure below.
36
Figure 14: Recommended maximum double amplitude shear strain boundary curves
37
Post-Liquefaction Settlement
The liquefaction settlement calculations in Settle3D are completely separate from the settlements
from the stress calculations. They are not superimposed in any way.
Vertical displacements from liquefaction occur due to settlement from reconsolidation as well as
shear deformation from lateral spreading.
The liquefaction settlement calculated in Settle3D is caused by the reconsolidation of the liquefied
soil. Reconsolidation strains are calculated, based on the maximum shear strains that developed
during the cyclic loading.
1 =
The following formulations (largely graphical methods) for are provided in Settle3D:
Ishihara and Yoshimine (1992)
Tokimatsu and Seed (1987)
Shamoto et al. (1998)
Wu et al. (2003)
Cetin et al. (2009)
Figure 16: volumetric strain assessment chart (adapted from Tokimatsu and Seed 1984)
Figure 17: Relationship between normalized SPT-N value, dynamic shear stress ratio and residual
volumetric strain potential for clean sands
39
Figure 18: Relationship between normalized SPT-N value, dynamic shear stress ratio, and residual
volumetric strain potential for FC=10%
Figure 19: Relationship between normalized SPT N-value, dynamic shear stress ratio, and residual
volumetric strain potential for FC=20%
40
Wu et al. (2003)
Figure 20: Cyclically induced volumetric strains (adapted from Wu and Seed 2004)
Figure 21: Post-cyclic volumetric strain boundary curves (Cetin et al. 2009)
41
References
Andrus, R., Stokoe, K. H. (1997), "Liquefaction Resistance Based on Shear Wave Velocity",
Proceedings of NCEER Workshop on Evaluation of Liquefaction Resistance of Soils.
Boulanger, R. W., (2003a). "Relating K to relative state parameter index." J. Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Eng., ASCE 129(8), 77073.
Boulanger, R. W., and Idriss, I. M. (2004). "State normalization of penetration resistances and the
effect of overburden stress on liquefaction resistance." Proc., 11th Intl. Conf. on Soil Dynamics and
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42
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of SPT-, CPT-, and shear wave-based methods for liquefaction potential assessment using Loma
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Liquefaction Probability", Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 114, No. 4, pp. 389409.
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44
Table of Symbols
a max
Mw
N60
%FC
D50
H
Cfines
N1,60
N1,60cs
CN
N1,60
CSR
N1,60Sr
PL
Sr
F
lim
CRR M=7.5,=1
CRR
FS
max
LDI
v
S
probability of liquefaction
residual shear strength
factor for calculating maximum shear strain
limiting shear strain
cyclic resistance ratio for magnitude M=7.5 and overburden stress=100kPa
cyclic resistance ratio, corrected for magnitude and overburden
factor of safety
maximum shear strain
lateral displacement index
vertical reconsolidation strain
vertical reconsolidation settlement
SPT
CPT
Vs
Vs,12m
FC
Mw
Earthquake magnitude
Soil depth
av
Gravitational acceleration
45
rd
MSF
Pa
-1 (PL)
ru
max
CSRss,20,1D,1atm
46