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GCE A Level

Biology
Photosynthesis

2013-2014

Photosynthesis

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Q 1 Describe how, in photosynthesis, light energy is converted into chemical energy, in the form of ATP.
[June 2013 # 1]
The pigments are arranged in light harvesting clusters called photosystems where the energy of light
absorbed by the accessory pigments is passed to primary pigments I chlorophyll a. This energy excites
electrons raising their energy level. These electrons are taken up by the electron acceptor and then
passed down to electron carrier chain to produce ATP.
ADP + Pi ----> ATP
The energy released is used to pump protons into thylakoid space. Thylakoid membrane is impermeable
to protons. This leads to ultimate reduction of NADP to NADPH which creates a proton gradient across
the chloroplast. The protons move down the gradient using ATP synthase.
Q 2 Describe the structure of a chloroplast. [June 2013 # 2]

Chloroplasts are biconcave discs about 3-10 m in diameter. Each chloroplast is surrounded by an
envelope of two phospholipid membranes. A system of membranes also runs through the ground
substance, or stroma. The membrane system is the site of the light-dependent reactions of
photosynthesis. It consists of a series of flattened fluid-filled sacs, or thylakoids, which in places form
stacks, called grana. The membranes of grana forms a large surface area which holds the pigments,
enzymes and electron carriers needed for the light-dependent reactions. The pigment molecules are
also arranged in particular light-harvesting clusters for efficient light absorption.
The stroma is the site of the light-independent reactions. It contains the enzymes of the Calvin cycle.
Also within the stroma are small (70S) ribosomes, a loop of DNA, lipid droplets and starch grains.
Q 3 Describe the arrangement and location of chloroplast pigments and discuss their effect on
absorption spectra. [Nov 2012 # 1]
Chlorophyll a is a primary pigment and the accessory pigments include other forms of chlorophyll a,
chlorophyll b and the carotenoids. The pigments are arranged in light harvesting clusters called
photosystems. In a photosystem, several hundred accessory pigment molecules surround a primary
pigment molecule and the energy of the light absorbed by the different pigments is passed to the
primary pigment. The primary pigments are said to act as reaction centres. Photosystem I is arranged

Photosynthesis

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around a molecule of chlorophyll a with peak absorption at 700nm. Photosystem II is based on a


molecule of chlorophyll a with peak absorption of 680nm. Chlorophyll a and b absorbs light in red and
blue region. Carotenoids absorb light in blue-violet region.
Q 4(a) Describe how non-cyclic photophosphorylation produces ATP and reduced NADP. [June 2011 # 1]
Both photosystem I and photosystem II are involved in non-cyclic photophosphorylation. The pigments
are arranged in light harvesting clusters called photosystems where the energy of light absorbed by the
accessory pigments is passed to primary pigments I chlorophyll a. This energy excites electrons raising
their energy level. These electrons are taken up by the electron acceptor and then passed down to
electron carrier chain to produce ATP.
PS II contains an enzyme that splits water when activated by light. The reaction is called photolysis
where the water molecules are split into oxygen and hydrogen atoms. Each hydrogen loses its electron
becoming a positively charged hydrogen ion. The electrons are picked up by the chlorophyll in PSII to
replace the electrons they lost. The electrons from PS II then passes to PS I and then along a different
chain of carriers to NADP. The NADP also picks up the hydrogen ion from the split water molecule
becoming reduced NADP.

chain of electron
carriers

E
High energy
electron

PS I

Oxidized
NADP + H+

ADP + ip

PS II

ATP

Reduced
NADP

light

H2O
V
E
L

light
O2

H+

chain of electron
carriers

(b) Outline the steps of the Calvin cycle.


Carbon dioxide enters the active site of rubisco, which combines with a 5-carbon compound called
ribulose biphosphate, forming an unstable 6-carbon compound. The products of the reaction are two
molecules of glycerate-3-phosphate. Energy from ATP and hydrogen from NADP, from light dependent
stage, are then used to convert GP into triose phosphate. This triose phosphate is used to regenerate
RuBP using ATP and also can form fatty acids, acetyl coA e.t.c.

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Q 5 Outline the process of the photolysis of water and describe what happens to the products of
photolysis. [Nov 2012 # 3]
PS II absorbs light to break down water.
2H2O ----> 4H+ + 4e- + O2
Oxygen is produced which is used by cells in aerobic respiration or released out of the plant through
stomata.
The protons given out is used to reduce NADP by using the electrons from P I. Reduced NADP is used in
light independent stage, in calvin cycle to convert glycerate-3-phosphate to triose phosphate. The
electrons are also used in electron carrier chain to release energy for photophosphorylation and to
produce ATP. Electrons from photosystem II goes to photosystem I.
Q 6(a) Describe the photoactivation of chlorophyll and its role in cyclic photophosphorylation. [June
2011 # 2]
Photosynthetic pigments are arranged in light harvesting clusters called photosystem. In a photosystem,
several accessory pigment molecules surround a primary pigment molecule and the energy of the light
absorbed by different pigments is passed to the primary pigment. PS I absorbs light of wavelength
700nm. When chlorophyll molecules in photosystem I absorb light energy, the electron excites to a
higher energy level and is passed back to chlorophyll a (PS I) via a chain of electron carriers. During this
process, ATP is synthesized.
(b) Explain briefly how reduced NADP is formed in the light-dependent stage and how it is used in the
light-independent stage.
Photolysis of water released hydrogen ion by photosystem II. This hydrogen ion and the electron
released from photosystem I combines with NADP forming reduced NADP. This reduced NADP is used in
Calvin cycle to convert glycerate-3-phosphate to triose phosphate. ATP is used and NADP is regenerated.
Q 7(a) Describe how the structure of a chloroplast is related to its functions. [Nov 2011 # 1]
Refer Q2
(b) Describe how you would separate chloroplast pigments using chromatography.
Grind leaf with a solvent, example propanone. The leaf extract contains a mixture of pigments. Draw a
pencil line on the chromatography paper and place a drop of the extract on it. Place the paper vertically
in jar of a different solvent. The solvent rises up the paper. Each pigment, present in the extract travels
at different speed. The pigments are separated as they ascend and the distance moved by each pigment
is unique. Measure the distance from the start line to the solvent front and measure the distances of
each pigment spot from the start line. For each spot, calculate the Rf value:
distance from start line to pigment spot

Rf =

Q 8(a) Explain how the palisade mesophyll cells of a leaf are adapted for photosynthesis. [Nov 2011 # 3]
Palisade mesophyll cells are closely packed to absorb maximum light. They are vertical at right angles to
surface of leaf to reduce the number of cross walls. The large vacuole in them pushes the chloroplasts to
the edge of the cell. When the chloroplasts are at the end of the cell, the diffusion path for carbon
dioxide is minimized. Also large number of chloroplasts can therefore absorb maximum light. They have
air spaces to help circulate gases. Palisade mesophyll cells have large surface area and moist cell
surfaces for diffusion of gases. Their cell walls are thin for maximum light penetration and for diffusion
of gases. Chloroplasts can move towards light or away from high light intensity to avoid damage.

Photosynthesis

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(b) Describe the structure of photosystems and explain how a photosystem functions in cyclic
photophosphorylation.
The pigments are arranged in light harvesting clusters called photosystems. In a photosystem, several
hundred accessory pigment molecules surround a primary pigment molecule and the energy of the light
absorbed by the different pigments is passed to the primary pigment. The primary pigments are said to
act as reaction centres.
Photosystem I is arranged around a molecule of chlorophyll a with peak absorption at 700nm.
Photosystem II is based on a molecule of chlorophyll a with peak absorption of 680nm.
Cyclic photophosphorylation involves only photosystem I. Light is absorbed by photosystem I and is
passed to chlorophyll a. An electron in the chlorophyll a molecule is excited to a higher energy level and
is emitted from the chlorophyll molecule. It is captured by an electron acceptor and passed back to a
chlorophyll a molecule via a chain of electron carriers. During this process, enough energy is released to
synthesize ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate.
Q 9(a) Explain how the palisade mesophyll cells of a leaf are adapted for photosynthesis. [June 2010 # 1]
Palisade mesophyll cells are closely packed to absorb maximum light. They are vertical at right angles to
surface of leaf to reduce the number of cross walls. The large vacuole in them pushes the chloroplasts to
the edge of the cell. When the chloroplasts are at the end of the cell, the diffusion path for carbon
dioxide is minimized. Also large number of chloroplasts can therefore absorb maximum light. They have
air spaces to help circulate gases. Palisade mesophyll cells have large surface area and moist cell
surfaces for diffusion of gases. Their cell walls are thin for maximum light penetration and for diffusion
of gases. Chloroplasts can move towards light or away from high light intensity to avoid damage.
(b) Outline the light independent stage for photosynthesis.
It takes place in the stroma of the chloroplast where the enzyme ribulose bisphosphate is formed.
Carbon dioxide diffuses into the stroma from the air spaces within the leaf. It enters the active site of
rubisco, which combines it with a 5-carbon compound called ribulose bisphosphate, RuBP, forming an
unstable 6-carbon compound. The products of this reaction are two 3-carbon molecules, glycerate 3phosphate. The combination of carbon dioxide with RuBP is called carbon fixation.
Energy from ATP and hydrogen from reduced NADP are then used to convert the glycerate 3-phosphate
into triose phosphate. Triose Phosphate is the first carbohydrate produced in photosynthesis.
Most of this triose phosphate is used to produce ribulose biphosphate, so that more carbon dioxide can
be fixed. The rest is used to make substances like glucose, starch, cellulose, sucrose, amino acids, lipids
and nucleotides.
Q 10(a) Describe the structure of photosystems and explain how a photosystem functions in cyclic
photophosphorylation. [June 2010 # 2]
Refer Q 8 (b)
(b) Explain briefly how reduced NADP is formed in the light-dependent stage and how it is used in the
light-independent stage.
Refer Q 6 (b)
Q 11(a) Describe the structure of a chloroplast. [June 2007]
Refer Q 2
(b) Explain how the palisade mesophyll cells of a leaf are adapted for photosynthesis.
Refer Q 8 (a)

Photosynthesis

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Q 12(a) Describe the structure of photosystems and explain how a photosystem functions in cyclic
photophosphorylation. [Nov 2007]
Refer Q 6 (a)
(b) Explain briefly how reduced NADP is formed in the light-dependent stage and how it is used in the
light-independent stage.
Refer Q 6 (b)
Q 13 Describe the transfer of light energy to chemical energy in ATP during photosynthesis. [Nov 2006]
Refer Q 1
Q 14(a) Outline the main features of the Calvin cycle. [June 2004]
Refer Q 4 (b)
(b) Explain the role of NADP in photosynthesis.
NADP is a coenzyme. It can accept a hydrogen ion and carries high energy electrons. Thereby becoming
reduced. It carries electrons and protons from light dependent stage on thylakoid membrane to stroma..
The reduced NADP can be regenerated. ATP is produced.

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