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ulfiT
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15'7
1.1
lntroduction
I'let
158
ColcL
159
159
160
161
162
163
163
165
165
161
167
168
'fhe processes used are clivclsc iD scele, rllryirll liun forqiDg encl r'ol1irrg oi
ingots weighing sever-al tonncs to dr'arrir,g ol ujr.es less than 0.u05 rnn rl
dianletcr. Allhoullh a number of a componelrts can Le manufactureci cornpletelr',
nlctal lbrming is prin arily usccl to produce such matcr'ial es bar anrl sheets rvhich
erc subsequenUv machined or pr-essed iDto the final shape. A char.t showing the
major mctal fornring processcs is given in lig 1.1
1.2
hom rolling.
lilic
b1,
channel.
fb|ging pror:css.
section.irn be
eo.L
Manufacturinq Process -
IIl
1.3
Cla
apl
lngot ( Ca-sl)
Bas
as follow
(i)
Dn
(Fi
(ii) Int
apl
th
Large
Billet (aasr)
thi
(iii) Te
AI
ter
(iv) B
l
(fir
i
(v)
Sh
Heary &
to
Iightseclions
Seamless
x
I
ENGINEERING PRODUCTS
l\.{achning / Assernbly
1.3
C ohc ePt 3
(i) Ditect
work piece and the metal flo1vs at i!{ht angles to the direction ol compressirn
(Fig 1.2). The best er<amples ofthis type ofprocess are ro]ling and forging
(ii) Indirect
iL::
(Cast)
+
=;l
(iii)
tensiie force-
:r..ial
(v)
Rolls
Dircction oi leed
(b) Rolling
tu)
\fte
dntunL7
Fig. 1.2 Direcl ComPrPssion
b)
Extrusion
4.
k piece
6.
(c) Decp Drd!0i19
7.
'Ilhe varir
Strelch
lornring
(ii)
Fig. 1.4 I'ension trpe process
-*\vP
Col
wh
temperat
tcmpera{
greeter
consideri
The effer
1.4 Classification
temperature.
ot
as (i)
(i)
Hot working
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Th
a)
I nt rod.u.
tiot atd
Conc e p t s
al.
6. lt does not iniluence mechanical properties7. Due to oxidation and scaling. the sudace finish is poor.
The various hot working processes ar.el
a) Forging,
b) Rolling,
c) Pipe wekling,
d) Extrusion,
e) Spinning,
0 Piercing,
g)
(ii)
Draw
g.
Cold working
greater lorce
to
ol delormatjon
consider.ably jess.
working
be classifiecl
called IIot
but belo\r
,-
rape_
is
Mahuldcturiip Prccess - I
c)
e)
g)
1.5
Cold drawing
Coining
d)
fl
Embossing
Bending
Shearing, etc.
1.7
Str
In
the desi:
the forcr
koow tl
Castings of various metals and alloys are used when the shape is very large
or awkward to {brge, rvhen quality and strength are noi pdmary considerations,
when economy is desirable, or when the metal or alloy is difficult to shape bl hot
or cold working. In castings local differences of [retallurgical structure and
chemical composition as well as any blow holes lormed duling solidification oi the
metal are permanent. Thus in general castings have inferior rnechanical
propeliies.
deternir
apply th
Wrouglrt metals, although they also start from the liquid state, are cast into
ingots of simple shape and size. The ingots are later subjected to hot worhiDg
operation. The subsequent rcheating before hot wortring reduces the tendency for
local segregation and subsequent mechanical working eliminates further.rny
existing de{ects such as blow holes. llot working aiso imparts directional
propedies to the metals caused by the dformation of g?ains along the direction of
working. Castings do nol show directional propeities. The rvrought metals
generally exhibit superior rnechanical properties lihc strength, ductilitv and
toughness compared to castings.
exlensic
Th
central I
indicate
of the s1
grippinE
1.6
1.
Defects in metals such as blow holes and porositl tend to get filled up
due to plastic deformation.
2.
3.
Disadoantages
.:
3.4
UNIT
1)
2) El
il) It
lntroduction
,1)
In forging the metals or alloys are plastically deformed to the desired shapes,
using compressive force, The compressive force is appliecl using hammers or
presses.
A pair of dies is used: One die is stationery and the other is attached to the
hammer which has a linear nrotiorr. Forging process can be canicd out bol]r in the
cold and hot state of the mei,al. Horvever in majority ol cases forgug is done rthen
the metal is in hot statc.
ForgeableMaterials
A netal lvlich has to be forged should possess good ductility. Ductility refcrs
to the capacity ofa rnatedal to undcrgo plastic deformation when subjectecl ro a
Ioad or stress. In addition to this, the material should have good resistancc to
shock and fatigue, good machining characteistics etc. some ol the comnlon metals
and alloys which can be forged, include aluminium alloys, copper alloys, stainless
stcel, lorv carbon steel, Nickel alloys, Magncsium alloys, Titanium alloys ctc.
3.3
ForgingTemperatures
In forging, the metal is hcated to higher lemperature so that it bccomcs
plastic befbre delomation. Excessive tempcrature may result in the burDing of the
metal. Insufficient temperature $'iil not give adequate plasticity to the n1ctal. In
addition the finishing temperature should be such that at rvhich no grain grorvth
takes, so that the lvorh piece possesses a {ine grained structure. Table 3.1 giYes
the lorging tenperatures lbr diflerent nelals and allols.
Aletal lAllnl'
Fary:ing tenlpel-a t u re' C' A D p r.r:i nnte)
sr.
rvo.
Stat
tili!
1.
lllild steel
1300
2.
I2;it
4.
5.
6.
al1o1's
11i:
:l ..
:
1':ri.-,4rn-'
s00
th
2)
3)
4)
3.6
Hi
T.
Nt
Hand
Thc tc
oper:ations s
TILe d
hammering.
rvelded on t
faced. The r
ol .sn, all dia
hole is
variorN
use<
fitti
Anvils
;;0
ancl should
S25
0.?5m fror
900
attained by
JJO
600
tenpErc.)...
5) l{
6) F.
-7) F.
3.5 Disad
1) In
3.2
St
flo
Forging
3.1
-
Advar
3,4
e desired shapes,
insa
hanlmer.s or
.i attached to the
n out both in the
irg is done when
2)
3)
4)
!' Duclility
refers
e.- subjected to a
s'id resistance to
aornmon metals
t :lloys, stainless
n rlloys
etc.
3.6
'Ihe tools and eqllipment used and their applications in numerous forging
operations are described below:
r --iat it
becones
rj:. burning ol the
J :o the tnetal. In
[ 10 grain growth
e. Table 3.1 gives
=C ,Tpproxin.cLte)
80{)
?50
900
350
600
The anuil:'l}'e anvil (lig. 3.1) fbnns a suplJort lbr blacksnith's work when
hal1-rn,ering. The body ol the anvi] is made of mild steel with a tool steei fece
welded on the body, but the beak or horn used for bending curves is not steel
faced. The round hole in the anvil called pritchel hole and is used lbr bending rods
of small diameter and as a die fbr hot punching operations. The square or hardie
hole is used for holding square shanks of
va ous fittings-
Fig.3-I Anotl
atturitp
Pro.ess -
III
3.8 classification
of forging process
a)
b)
3.8.1
r:nber of hardwood
t e boards and lilt
I and release the
E the weight of the
ei lifting as air or'
Ere of hand tools,
i to
45 KN falling
e disadvantages ol
trld the intensity of
(i)
(ii)
(iv) The delivery date is too close to permit the making of dics lor closed die
forging.
The size and weight are not a limitation in open die forging. Items such es
marine propeller shalts which may be several metcm in diameter and as long as
25 :neters are lorged by open-die practice. Converseiy forgings no more than a few
centimeters in ma-ximum dimensions are also produced in open dies.
Open die forgings are produced
52
Case
2:
3.8.2
In this ca,ce the sheping of the hot. nctal is achieved compleLely rvithin thc
$'alls or cavities of trvo dies that coDe together to errclose the rvorkpiece on all
siclos. The in]pression for rhe forging can be entircly in either die or divided
betweer the top and botton dies.
The forging slock rvhich is generally a lound ol' squarc bar is cut to rhe
required lengih to get the volune of metal necdcd to fill the die cavities, plus an
allowancc for flash- The stock after heating to the required forging tcnlperature is
kcpt in bel*,een the two halves ol the die. Thc for.ce is applied by means c,ff
hanlmers which allorvs the melal to undergo plastic deformetion and fill the dic
cavity. Figure 3.1? shou,s a schenatic of closed die forging.
a)
b)
c)
Drop forging.
Press lbrging.
Nlachirre lbrging.
a) Drop fbrging: In drop forging the various types of hammers are used to
apply the pressure. Thc rop half of the die is attached to rhe halnner while the
bcttofr h.r]f is fixed ro thc arvil. The D]-essure is appiied by repeated blows ftorn
thc top hall of the clie o1l to the irealeC metal kcpt in the botton half ol die.
In this closcd irnpr'ession dios ar.e used. Fol.ging is produced by impact or
Drcssure which compels 1.h-. hot end llor\ able metal tu confirnr to 1_he shape of lhe
dies as in fi
ilow of thc
number of r
metal until
the forged
required. L
die.
6a
;
V\
\
I'igur,
forgir, g. He
stock in var
b)P
hamnler'. tl
shape- 'I'he
Hydr:
lorgiDgs in
Iler-e lhe nr
mediurn car
:i lorce of '-
step
:.,e lcngth. In the
::j ro produce an
ii:ed by successive
.:.:: is lollorved by
dies as in figure. In this operation there is drastic flow of metal 'I'o ensure ploper
flow of the metal dudng the intermittent bjows, the operation is directed into :1
number of si,eps. cach step changes the form gadually contrclling Lhe flo$' oi the
lnetal until the flnal shape is obtaiDed- Number of steps involved depends upon
the forged qu:llities of the etal, size and shapc ol the parts and the lolerances
required. Large and cornplicated shapes may require use of nlore thcn one set ol
die.
b)
Manufa.turihg Prctess
III
slender ibrginis and forgings lrorn less ductile al1oys. The typical products
produced by press fbrging al'e: large levers. flanges. toothed rvheels. ]rollorv boclies,
railway $.heel discs, ctc-,
provides a u
dense and h
l"
i
il
Fig. 3.19 Hytlroulic foryne press
Cornparison betu:ecn Itammer forging antl press forgjng; Flamner blorv
produces shock and vibrations in the structure and founclation au.l th.l
surrounding_s. This implies a practjcal lirnit to the sjze ol the harnlr-rer. The
hanmering proccss is more thorough and effcctive than pressing but $.hcn fhe
thickness of the material is largJe the eflects olhammering rna], not penetrate right
through, and the oLrter surface of the netal will be be er \aorked than thosc
deeper below. In the hamnering process speed of operation can be altered
accordiDg to the size of forging. In harnmering, the position of the \rork should be
altered rapidll' bctlyeen the blorvs ancl lhis can be done upto a lirDitt,cl size and
1!eight.
Ir
In
ups,
a fir<ed die. l
forrncd to sh
times rhe di
cavity. For
although in
dies. The irr
cases tdnlm
Forgin
sLlch as bolti
pr-oduced in
movable die
from upsetti
perlormed.
3.9
Floll tc
Roll as
alvav to perl
Forging
plovides a unifomr finished shapes- Shapes formed by press lorging are gcncrally
dense and hornogeneous in structure.
rt-pical products
Il
0l
55
(i)
In upset forging, one end of the bar is heated and the other end is gripped in
rr-oj
ilamDer blolv
::.::On and
the
-:::rrlnmer. Thc
:_-: !.rt rrhen the
r:,.:netrate right
: :-.,
be altered
= ulk should be
,,.::-:ied size and
..
-.
romparalivcly
:- .- Size is not a
: ::n almost any
:.:.r'ougbout the
i:.:eas hyclraulic
Press lorging
a fixed die. Pressure is applied lengthwise on lhe hot end causing it to be upseL or
formed to shape. The length of the stock to be upset should not be more than 2 to 3
times the diameter or else the material is bent rather lhan bulge out to li1l the dic
cavity. For some products entire operations nay be compJetcd in one position
although in rnost cases work is progr'essively placed in differcnt positions in the
dics. Ihe impressions may be in the punch in the g'ripping die or in both. In mosl
cases tdmming is not necessary.
Forging ofthe dng and rod types rvith all kinds of threads and shouldets
such as bolts, nuts, n'ashers, collars, pinions, gear blalks, etc., can be convenicnth'
produced in such forging machinc. The heated end is gripped iD fixcd die and the
movable die and punch form the shape aller lorging. In machine lorging apart
ftom upsetting, operations such as punchilli, tlimnling and extrusiol can also be
pclformed.
3.9
Roll forging
Roll as shorvn in figure rvhich are not completel]' cilcular but arc 25 75Lh c:oL
away to pernit the stock to enter between thc rolls.'lhe circular portion ol the ro11
56
is grooved according to the shape lequired. Heated rod is placed bettveen them and
thc rolls are rotated which gives shape of the job. By rolling like lhis through
required nun,ber ol steps final shapc can be achieved. Ro1l lbrging is primarily
used lor reducing and tapcdng operations on short lengths of bar stock. Finaliy
after rolling it requires sizing operations. To manufacture chisels, tapered tubing,
ends of leal springs. axles, crow bars, knife, blades, etc., roll forging is ernployed.
Conpared to drop forging 2070 of matedal is saved and production rate is 3000
times grcater. This process has limitations as to the shapes that can be rolled and
the rolls are costly.
lt)
Upsetti
the
ac
delornr
friction
the
up,
flolvs
(11,)
er
Fulleri
cross
f'rllsr4
metal f
the cen
extensi
rods.
3.10
Forgingoperations
Dudng fbrying of components from the initial bar stock to the final shape
they are subjected to vaious operations. So]lle ol the cornmon forging operations
(i)
(ii )
Upsetting.
Fullering.
(iii) Edging.
iiv) Drawing.
(v)
Swaging.
(vi) Piercing.
(vii) Punching.
(.llr) Edginl
satheri
by the
laterall
'acturine Ptucess -
III
then a d
,g like this through
iorging is primarilY
ri bar stock. FinailY
i:ls, tapered tubing,
i.rging is employed.
iuction rate is 3000
d between
51
(.i)
ii' Fullering:
-_ _
.t/./i
:\, l/////)
_,.---
l.
Edgtzg. This is used rvhile shaping the ends of the bars nhich helps in
cjlbgl4Slhe r4eleL-As the dies approjrch each other, the metal is conhned
by the die fiom flowing in the horizontal direction. while it is fiee to florv
laterally to filI the die.
Manuf..cturi,Le Prccess -
58
i\r)
III
Drauting: This process is used to reduce the cross section of the work with a
corresponding increase in length. As the force is applied through the dies on
the heated metal the cross section gradually reduces.
Swaging: This makes use of concave dies to reduce the diameters of small
diameter bars.
Figue :
un
forging
!o
constant ovi
Taking
,d
From \r
3.11
But
The assumptions made while analysing forces during lorging are as follows:
a)
b)
c)
Differer
rnisses criterion.
From (l
Forging is carried out under plane strain condition i.e., the width is
constant.
d)
e)
a)
With