The Golden Quest:

A Comparative Study of Common Mythological Motifs in

Oriental and Occidental Traditions of Alchemy

Urmi Chanda-Vaz
Adv. PG Diploma in Comparative Mythology,
Dept. of Sanskrit, University of Mumbai
e: urmi.chanda@gmail.com
1

INDEX
Abstract ............................................................................................................................ 3

1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 4
2. A Brief History of Alchemy .............................................................................................. 6
3. Some important tenets ................................................................................................... 9
4. Creation motifs ................................................................................................................. 11
5. Animal myths and symbols ............................................................................................. 17
6. Gods, Priests and Alchemists ............................................................................................. 22
7. The Mythology of Metals ................................................................................................ 36
Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 45

Abstract
The beginnings of alchemy mark an interesting period between mythical time and historical time.
Between the primitive understanding of nature and the development of science, alchemy bridges a
gap with magic and mythology. It may have had its share of brickbats in the modern times, but
alchemy has allured and intrigued the minds of some of history's best men. These men tried to make
sense of and replicate nature in their labs, aiming for perfection symbolized by gold. In exoteric terms,
they sought to create the pure, precious metal and in esoteric terms, they sought a pure
consciousness. This fascinating branch of knowledge was best explained and understood through myth
and allegory. This paper attempts a comparative study of mythological motifs, tenets and tales in
order to understand the common ground of all aspirants of the Golden Quest.

1. INTRODUCTION
Change is everywhere. The immutable cycles of night and day, birth and death, and the seasons must
have proved to man very early in time that change indeed is the law of nature. Man must have beheld
in awe the transformation of a caterpillar to a butterfly, water to ice, seed to plant, the human infant
to an old person and many such processes in nature. He must have bowed to the powers that could
bring about these miraculous changes and eventually wondered if he could do the same.
Just as things change in nature, he must have aspired to change the nature of things, giving rise to the
first experiments with materials like plants and stones around him. 'Celestial stones' or meteors
will have especially fascinated the primitive man, as Mircea Eliade suggests in his book, The Forge and
the Crucible'. The prehistoric man's first brush with these mysterious metallic substances was perhaps
the beginning of the magic associated with it. When ores were eventually discovered, man realised
how these sacred, secret treasures could be purified or completely changed in combination with other
substances.
The idea of such transmutation did not restrict itself to materials in nature. Man extended it to the
realm of his body and mind and started trying to purify, to perfect them. This led to the development
of a three-fold ideology of the transmutation of man, metal and mind that has come to be
understood as Alchemy. The spiritual or mental aspects of alchemy were naturally a later
development. In its initial phase, alchemy restricted itself to transmuting metals (into gold) and finding
elixirs (of immortality). It is on these grounds that most definitions of alchemy are based. Some of
them have been considered below:
The Oxford English Dictionary offers the two following definitions:

The medieval forerunner of chemistry, concerned with the transmutation of matter, in

particular with attempts to convert base metals into gold or find a universal elixir.

A seemingly magical process of transformation, creation, or combination.

Mircea Eliade's definition1 of alchemy is given with respect to man accelerating or slowing down
nature's temporal processes. He says:
Thus it seems that the central secret of the Art (alchemy) is related to the alchemist's
mastery of cosmic and human time.
Carl Jung, on the other hand, sees psychological truths in alchemical processes. In his book
Psychologie und Alchemie, he says:
Alchemy is a symbolic representation of the individuation process. He adds, Only by
discovering alchemy have I clearly understood that the Unconscious is a process and that ego's
rapports with the unconscious and his contents initiate an evolution, more precisely a real
metamorphoses of the psyche.
Of these, H J Sheppard's definition seems most precise and all encompassing.
Alchemy is the art of liberating parts of the Cosmos from temporal existence and achieving
perfection which for metals is gold, and, for man, longevity, then immortality, and finally
redemption.
Because the traditions of alchemy have been greatly varied across time and cultures, definitions of
alchemy are equally diverse. However the three enlisted definitions offer insights into three definitive
views on the subject. Interest in research in this field has been sustained and more ideas and
definitions have been forthcoming.
However, this paper deals primarily with the mythological aspects of alchemy. This study aims to
conduct a comparative study of the common myths and motifs that occur across different alchemical
traditions. From the east to the west, an assessment will be made of the recurrent or divergent myths
and symbols in order to understand the primeval patterns pertaining to metals, man and his mind.

1 Mircea Eliade, 'What is Alchemy?', Hidden Truths: Magic, Alchemy and the Occult (Religion, History and Cultural
Selections from The Encyclopedia of Religion), Edited by Lawrence E. Sullivan, (Macmillan Publishing Company), p. 246

2. A BRIEF HISTORY OF ALCHEMY

The subject of alchemy has always been shrouded in mystery and myth. Christian myths about the
origin of alchemy also abound where God is supposed to have taught Adam this art, or where fallen
angels taught it to human women in exchange for sex 2! There are also theories about how alchemy
was taught by aliens or that it was a lost art of Atlantis3.
In his iconic book, The Forge and the Crucible, Eliade traces a convincing evolution of alchemy from
prehistoric times. But some scholars believe that the roots of alchemy were not all that ancient and
that it emerged from the melting pot of Egyptian, Greek and oriental cultures as late at the 12 th
century CE4. Still others are of the opinion that alchemy has its roots in China in the 4 th century BCE5.
Each of these nations have their respective histories of alchemy that will be considered shortly.
However, but for the sake of this paper, we shall turn to the popular view of alchemical history,
choosing Egypt as our starting point.
The origins of alchemy are most commonly attributed to Hermes Trismegistes or Hermes 'Three times
Great' of ancient Egypt. This sage-like character is believed to have lived anywhere between the 19 th
and 13th centuries BCE. A seeming fusion of the Egyptian god, Thoth and the Greek god, Hermes, he is
more legend than history. But it is plausible to attribute the beginnings of alchemy to the land of Egypt
where we have the first known instances of embalming and mummification. These ancient procedures
presupposed experiments with natural chemicals and hence the popular notion of Egypt being
alchemy's original home.
Sources point us to Egypt where the Corpus Hermeticum a compendium of fifteen manuscripts
about alchemy and the famous Tabula Smaragdina (emerald tablet), which are thought to have been

2 Robert Allen Bartlett, Real Alchemy: A Primer of Practical Alchemy, (Nicolas-Hays, Inc., 2009), p 1
3 Ibid.
4 A. Tramer, R. Voltz, F. Lahmani & and J. Szczepinska-Tramer, What Is (Was) Alchemy? (Acta Physica Polonica A,
supplement, Vol 112, 2007), p S-5
5 Trevor H. Levere, Transforming Matter: A History of Chemistry from Alchemy to the Buckyball, (John Hopkins University
Press, 2001), p 3

authored by Hermes Trismegistes6. According to a myth, which tries to make a Biblical connection with
alchemy, the Tabula Smaragdina was discovered by Sara, wife of Abraham, at the tomb of Hermes
Trismegistes. The corpse of the sage was supposedly found clutching the tablet to his chest 7. These
texts were preserved and found in Greece and then made available through translations. The earliest
Latin translations made the text obscure, so it is through Jbir ibn ayyan's version that the world was
acquainted to them. The Arabic corpus was discovered by E J Holmyard, a science historian of the 19 th
century CE. He declared that the Arabic Jabirian corpus was indeed one of the oldest, but the base
text may have been Greek.
It is easy to be confounded by these mixed, roundabout histories when it comes to alchemy. But
broadly speaking, the knowledge of alchemy traveled from Egypt to the Hellenistic and Islamic world
in the early centuries of the Common Era. After the fall of the Latin Empire, alchemy lay forgotten for
many centuries. However, it continued to be developed in the east at the time especially in India,
China and the Arabic nations. Interest in alchemy was revived in Europe through Spain 10 th century CE
onwards. From then on, right upto the Industrial Revolution, alchemy influenced not just the realms of
material sciences but also those of philosophy and metaphysics. Having started with Egypt, we shall
briefly outline the respective alchemical histories of the other nations below.
Chinese alchemy
Central to Chinese alchemy is the mineral cinnabar. The importance given to cinnabar and other
blood-coloured compounds can be traced back to the Neolithic times in China 8. Several burials with
red mineral compounds have been unearthed. It is, therefore, veritably argued that the Chinese were
among the first practitioners of alchemy, alongside Hellenistic Egypt.
Chinese alchemy has strong philosophical links with Lao Tzu's Taoism, which came to be popular
around the 6th century BCE. Chan Tao Ling, the first Taoist pope, spent many years studying alchemy
and even succeeding in creating the elixir of immortality. A popular myth says Ling took the elixir and
6 Mark Haeffner, Dictionary of Alchemy, (Karnac Books, 2004), p 118
7 Ibid.
8 Nathan Sivin, 'Chinese Alchemy' in Hidden Truths: Magic, Alchemy and the Occult (Religion, History and Cultural
Selections from The Encyclopedia of Religion), Edited by Lawrence E. Sullivan, (Macmillan Publishing Company), p. 257

became perfectly youthful at age sixty9. People flocked to him in thousands to get this miraculous
solution. Because he demanded sackfuls of rice in return, he was dubbed the 'rice thief'. He is said to
have ascended to heaven at the age of 122. These myths and stories place the beginnings of Chinese
alchemy firmly in the early Christian era.
Chinese alchemy is centred around ideas of immortality of the body and spirit and induction into the
divine ranks once immortality was assumed. Laboratory-made metal-based compounds were
consumed to attain those goals. These ideas were communicated through metaphors drawn from
nature and popular religion. In time, these ideas evolved and acquired a spiritual character. Eventually
core alchemical practices ceased to exist mainstream, but its remnants can be seen to this day in the
still extant system of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM).
Indian alchemy
The origin of Indian alchemy has been attributed to the semi-mythical sage called Nagarjuna. There
may have been several texts across centuries roughly 2 nd to the 12th centuries CE10 developing
alchemical studies by several authors, but only one author is given credit. Texts like Kaksaputa Tantra,
Rasendramangalam, and Sushruta Samhita were important texts of alchemy. Alchemy in India has two
branches viz. Hindu alchemy and Buddhist alchemy but there are several overlaps. Schools of Yoga,
Tantra, Vajrayana Siddha, Nathas share several precepts of alchemy. The Hindu branch, with its focus
on mercurial solutions, is known as dhatuvada, while the Buddhist branch is called rasayana.
The Hindu premise of alchemy is based on the idea that everything is an emanation of the Supreme
and everything must return to it. With the use of alchemical solutions in conjunction with
meditational practices, sacrifices and prayers and person could perfect his body and become, in
essence, like the Supreme. Gold was the standard of eternity and purity and the elements used most
in the alchemist's lab were mercury and sulphur. A perfected body, free of age and disease and full of
powers would be a jivanmukta or a siddha.
9 K. S. Tom, Echoes from Old China: Life, Legends, and Lore of the Middle Kingdom, (University of Hawaii Press, 1989),
p 65
10 David White, 'Indian Alchemy' in Hidden Truths: Magic, Alchemy and the Occult (Religion, History and Cultural
Selections from The Encyclopedia of Religion), Edited by Lawrence E. Sullivan, (Macmillan Publishing Company), p. 262

The Buddhist conception was a little more metaphysical and focused on purifying the mind in pursuit
of the Bodhicitta. Alchemy was of the mind rather than matter. Sexual, meditative and

yogic

processes were used to attain those ends.

Jaina alchemy, which also contributed in a big way to Indian chemical sciences, developed in the later
stages early Middle Age11. However, Jaina tradition also traces back the beginnings of alchemy to
Sage Nagarjuna.
Islamic alchemy
Alchemy's strong connections with the Islamic world is perhaps most evident from the etymologies of
common 'alchemical' words. Take for example the following Arabic words: al-kmya (alchemy), ai-iksr
(elixir), and ajar al-falsifa (philosopher's stone). The word

al-kmya refers to the art of

transmutation, and as with other traditions of the world, Islamic alchemy also referred to physical and
spiritual transmutation. Purification of metals and that of the soul were the two aims of alchemy. In
Sufi thought, the iksr stood for divine truth that would transform and purity the soul of the mystic.
The words and ideas come from Greece and the Muslim world acknowledges the masters of the
ancient world viz. Aristotle, Galen, Socrates and Plato among others. The Arabs trace back the
tradition to Adam, and the most venerated Muhammad was also said to practice and endorse alchemy
during the 7th century CE. Al ibn Ab Tlib and Khlid ibn Yazd and later Jbir ibn ayyan were among
the prominent names in alchemy in that period12. Definitive historical accounts of Islamic alchemy
come in with the Jabirian corpus of Jbir ibn ayyan and later, Al Rz in the 9 th - 10th centuries CE from
where it traveled to Medieval Europe.
Hellenistic and Medieval alchemy
The Jewish community seems to have been the harbinger of alchemy in medieval Europe. The earliest
legends are that of Maria the Jewess, aka Maria Hebraea or Maria Prophetissa who seems to have
11 J C Sikdar, Jaina Alchemy, (Indian Journal of History of Science, Vol 15, no. 1, 1980), p 6
12 Habibeh Rahim, 'Islamic Alchemy' in Hidden Truths: Magic, Alchemy and the Occult (Religion, History and Cultural
Selections from The Encyclopedia of Religion), Edited by Lawrence E. Sullivan, (Macmillan Publishing Company), p. 264

lived in the first and third centuries CE13. She is credited to have formulated several alchemical
solutions and authored treatises on the subject. She is also said to have developed the colour
gradation system that is so characteristic of later Hellenistic alchemy 14. Maria also stood for both
aspects of this tradition exoteric and esoteric.
Hellenistic alchemy was a complex system of beliefs and practices, which assumed religious and cultic
significance in the early centuries of the common era. Deriving from the philosophies of ancient Greek
philosophers like Plato, Aristotle, Socrates, and the Stoics and from the esoteric interpretations of
Islamic, medieval European alchemy came to be characterised by gnosticism, Hermeticism, ritualism,
and symbolism in addition to lab-oriented practices.
This brief historical basis helps us understand when and how the culture of alchemy developed
through time and across continents. Further in this paper, the myths and symbols of alchemy from all
these traditions will be compared and contrasted.

13 Raphael Patai, The Jewish Alchemists: A History and Source Book, (Princeton University Press, 2014), p 10
14 Mark Haeffner, Dictionary of Alchemy, (Karnac Books, 2004), p 169

10

3. IMPORTANT TENETS
Hermeticism: The term Hermeticism (or Hermetism) is derived from the word, 'Hermes'. Hermes
Trismegistus (thrice great) is a legendary philosopher from ancient Egypt and often identified with
the Egyptian god, Thoth or the Greek God, Hermes. He is supposed to have given mankind the
knowledge of the three great arts of alchemy, astrology and theurgy. Hermeticism, thus, is a religious
and philosophical tradition that has to do with the study and practice of these arts. Its wisdom is to be
found in a body of literature comprising The Corpus Hermeticum, The Emerald Tablet of Hermes
Trismegistus and The Perfect Sermon (also known as The Asclepius). Its practitioners are called
Hermetics. The wisdom of Hermes travelled from Egypt to Greece to Rome to Arabia and then Europe.
It was considered a forerunner to the development of science and gained great traction in medieval
Europe during the Renaissance and Reformation. Its most famous adherents include Plutarch, St.
Thomas of Aquinas, John Donne, Isaac Newton and Walter Scott.
Philosopher's stone: Also known in Latin as the Lapis Philosophorum, the
Philosopher's Stone is central to the Western school of alchemy. It is
understood to be a legendary alchemical substance that is capable of
transforming any metal like lead into gold (or silver), heal people and prolong
life. The process of creating the Philosopher's Stone has been described as
the Magnum Opus. But the concept has metaphorical allusions too and is
thought to be a symbol of personal transformation. It known by many other
terms15 such as The Stone of the Wise, The Celestial Ruby, The Elixir of Life
and Tincture among others. There are a few Biblical myths associated with
the Philosopher's Stone. One myth says this stone was given to Adam by God

Encasing the circle within

a square within a triangle
within a lerger circle was a
symbol of the
Philosopher's Stone
[Image source: Wikimedia
Commons]

himself and another refers to it as the rejected cornerstone from King

Soloman's temple16. In the Hindu tradition, it has been equated with the
Chintamani17.
15 Israel Regardie, Philosopher's Stone: Spiritual Alchemy, Psychology, and Ritual Magic, (Llewellyn Worldwide, 2013),
glossary, p 459
16 Raphael Patai. The Jewish Alchemists: A History and Source Book (Princeton University Press, 1995), p.19
17 Gunon, Ren, Symbols of Sacred Science, (Sophia Perennis, USA, 2004), p. 277

11

Elixir: Closely connected with the concept of Philosopher's Stone is the concept of elixirs. Although
the Philosopher's Stone itself has sometimes been called the Elixir, the fundamental difference
between the two is that of their perceived state of matter. While the 'stone' is thought of as a solid
material, the elixir essentially implies some sort of a liquid a drink. The Greek Ambrosia and the
Hindu Soma come closest to the conception of an elixir a magical drink that makes the drinker
immortal and forever youthful and free of decay and disease. In the strictly alchemical sense, an elixir
was some sort of a 'medicine' that would cure metals of their corruptions and impurities 18.
Prima materia: Prima materia is that ethereal material which forms the base of preparing the
Philosopher's Stone. It is an unknown substance, which could be chemical, philosophical, or
mythological in nature. In psychological terms, Jung has even called it a projection of psychic content,
unique to every individual19. However, in purely alchemical terms, Prima Materia has been a
mysterious medium, which has been variously understood to be anything from the Microcosmos to
Urine, from Chaos to Venom, from clouds to Boiling Milk among many others as defined in Ruland's
1612 alchemical dictionary, Lexicon alchemiae sive dictionarium alchemistarum. A related ancillary
concept is that of Prima Energia, and with Prima Materia, it forms the basic duality of nature. Its
parallels can be found in Chinese alchemy as Yin and Yang, in Hindu alchemy as Prakriti and Purusa20,
and in Hermetic 'science' as sulphur and mercury.
Magnum Opus: Magnum Opus refers to the process by which the Prima Materia turns into the
Philosopher's Stone. Originally defined in three stages, the concept was eventually expanded to
include upto 14 or more stages. The three basic processes 21 have physical and metaphorical
implications and are Nigredo (blackening) or the phase of putrefaction or decaying; Albedo
(whitening) or the purging of the black matter using a liquid and Rubedo (reddening/ purpling) or the
final stage of transmutation whereby the substance takes on the reddish hue of gold. In some texts,

18 Haefnner, op. cit., p 117

19 Carrie L. Rothgeb, Abstracts of the Collected Works of C.G. Jung , (Karnac Books, 1994), p 12
20 Manfred M. Junius, Spagyrics: The Alchemical Preparation of Medicinal Essences, Tinctures, and Elixirs, (Inner Traditions
/ Bear & Co, 2007), p 42
21 Jane Alexander, The Body, Mind, Spirit Miscellany: The Ultimate Collection of Fascinations, Facts, Truths, and Insights,
(Sterling Publishing Company, Inc., 2009), p 53

12

there are upto ten stages22 of transformation viz. Division, Coitus, Calcination, Sublimation, Solution,
Generation, Putrefaction, Fermentation, Conjunction and Separation and each stage is represented by
a symbol. These symbols will be elaborated upon below.
Traditio Mystica: While a Hermetic principle, the tradition of mysteriousness surrounding alchemy
was common to all cultures. There was great secretiveness relating to alchemical knowledge and its
transmission was strictly from a master to a worthy pupil. Learning was meant to be by revelation and
disclosure was considered a taboo23. The language was shrouded in mystery and the use of symbols
was rampant. Traditio Mystica referred to the mythical, magical and mystical nature of alchemy.

22 C. J. S. Thompson, Alchemy and Alchemists, (Courier Corporation, 2012), p 129

23 Encyclopedia of Religion, Second edition, p 246

13

4. CREATION MOTIFS
Alchemy implies transmutation; transmutation implies creation. When the form of a substance or a
soul changes, it is essentially born again created into a new entity. To create, one must bring
together opposites. One must imitate the coming together of Earth Mother and Sky Father to bring
things into being. Principles of oneness to duality and back to oneness and their respective processes
of transformation dominate the sphere of alchemical beliefs.
Creation motifs and myths were, therefore, central to all traditions of alchemy. Several rites and rituals
in alchemy were but symbolic of the process of creation. They often borrowed terminology from
popular creation myths of the region. Enacting creation myths supposedly infused special powers in
the alchemist and enabled him to create mini universes in his crucible. In this section, we shall
examine some of the common creation motifs that occur in different alchemical traditions.
Earth Mother
A primary myth of creation that occur in the
context of alchemy is that of the Earth Mother.
Eliade24 gives an account of many ancient cultures
which believed in the notion of the earth as the
primal mother a womb that gives birth to all
matter, especially metals. Since metals, minerals
and chemicals are drawn from earth and are
central to the laboratory aspect of alchemy, the
Earth Mother symbol is very sacred to alchemists.
Image of Earth Mother from Alexander Roos: Alchemie &
Mystik, Taschen, 2007 via Wikipedia

Clay or stone is seen as the basic building block of

creation in many myths25 and in that sense it could
be considered the prima materia that elusive
primal substance often referred to by alchemists.

24 Mircea Eliade, The Forge and the Crucible, (The University of Chicago Press, 1978), p 43
25 David Adams Leeming, Creation Myths of the World, (ABC-CLIO, 2010), p 313

14

Sky Father
As with agricultural myths pertaining to creation, metallurgical myths also presuppose the fertilizing
Sky Father as a counterpart to the Earth Mother. This Sky Father was responsible for raining the waters
of life that would activate dormant earth. It is the fluid to the rigid, the yang to the yin, the purusha to
the prakriti. The separation of the Sky Father and the Earth Mother create an essential tension that
acts as a catalyst for change and creation.
Ouroboros, the serpent of regeneration: The Ouroborous is a
serpent symbol that is very common in the body of alchemical
myths. It occurs in Egyptian, Greek, Chinese and Christian myths
among others. It is depicted as a serpent/dragon eating its own tail
or a dragon and serpent eating each others' tails in an endless circle.
The symbol originated in ancient Egypt and represented
regeneration and eternity26. This ancient symbol was based on the
principles of sun worship, serpent-worship and phallism, suggests
Read27. He says: These interpretations were taken over by
The Ouroboros or the serpent of
regeneration [Image source:
nitasia.wordpress.com

alchemists, who also used serpentine symbols for the fixed and
volatile principles, masculine and feminine characters, sophic
sulphur and sophic mercury, the tria prima, and in a wider sense to
denote wisdom, power and creative energy.

The Cosmic Egg: The Cosmic/Orphic/Philosophical Egg often appears in conjunction to Ouroboros, the
serpent symbol. The cosmic egg is another universal cosmogonic myth, where it is supposed that the
world originated from some kind of a primal egg. The Brahmanda and Hiranyagarba from Hinduism
are classic examples of the cosmic egg, from which all creation arises. Similar motifs occur in
Hellenistic and Chinese alchemy as well. In fact, the term 'egg' was traditionally in Hellenistic alchemy
to refer to the sealed vessel in which the substances were worked upon 28.
26 John Read, From Alchemy to Chemistry, (Courier Corporation, 2013), p 59
27 Ibid.
28 Rosemary Guiley, The Encyclopedia of Magic and Alchemy, (Infobase Publishing, 2006) p 85

15

Battistani29 crisply summarizes the symbolism of the egg in the context of alchemy. The author says:
In alchemical doctrine... it is likened to a sealed vase (the alembic), containing the substance to be
subjected to transmutation. Adepts associate the egg with the four cosmic elements (shell/earth,
membrane/air, albumen/water, yolk/fire) and use it literally in the production of the philosopher's
stone, as an ingredient of the alchemical compound.
Dismemberment
As sordid as it sounds, dismemberment is another popular theme that can be observed in alchemy.
But dismemberment in this context is for the sake of creation. It draws from the age old idea of
destroying the old in order to create the new. In his famous work, Psychology and Alchemy, Carl Jung
says, The secret is that only that which can destroy itself is truly alive.
Here the entity that is destroyed is single, unlike the necessary dual principles in other forms of
creation. In this case, the parts of the dismembered being give rise to new entities. The
dismemberment of Osiris in Egyptian mythology, that of Ymir in Norse mythology and the sacrifice of
the primeval man or purusha in Hindu mythology are some examples of the same. Myths of
dismemberment not only add a supernatural element but also underline the idea that creation or
transformation is not possible without some pain and sacrifice.

29 Matilde Battistini, Astrology, Magic, and Alchemy in Art, (Getty Publications, 2007), p 342

16

5. ANIMAL MYTHS AND SYMBOLS

Alchemy has its roots in prehistory a time when man was
intimately connected with nature. The creation motifs
discussed above are examples of how the world was
perceived at an elemental level. The earth and all its
creatures were part of a divine matrix and therefore sacred.
While alchemy dealt mostly with matter and the spirit, their
worldview seemed to encompass other aspects of nature too.
Animals, for instance, appear to play an important role. They
appear as prolific symbols in alchemical literature to help
define alchemical processes. Some of these animals were real
and some, mythical. The four sacred animals of alchemy were
A symbolic animal motif representing the
alchemical process. [Image source:
levity.com]

'lion representing the enigma of fire, man representing the

mercury of secret philosophy, eagle corresponding to air and
the bull symbolizing the earth. The Egyptian Sphinx
incorporated all these four symbols.

These symbols use the special attributes of the animals in question to qualify an alchemical activity. In
doing so, a rich tapestry of myth and intrigue is built in the narrative of alchemy. Composite images
with several animals, like the one alongside, occurred in various texts and represented the process of
transmutation. Some of the popular animal symbols and myths, occurring mostly in Western alchemy,
have been explored below.
The Green Lion: Lions form an important part of the alchemical imagery. Chemically, a lion stood for
'any salt or fixed substance obtained from metals' 30. Different coloured lions were used to signify
different properties and applications of chemicals. For example, a black lion signified a dark substance
like lead ore that needed to be purified by fire; a red lion stood for the life force in blood or cinnabar,
while a yellow lion represented yellow sulphides31.
30 Dennis Hauck, The Complete Idiot's Guide to Alchemy, (Penguin, 2008), p 63
31 C. J. S. Thompson, Op. Cit. p 127

17

But the most commonly known symbol is that of the

green lion. A green lion usually stood for a strong
purifying chemical like green vitriol or sometimes the
ore of antimony32. The devouring of the sun could
signify the strength of the acid which could even
consume gold. There are many other possible
interpretations and associations.
For the naturalist, the green lion devouring the sun
The green lion devouring the sun as illustrated in an
alchemical manuscript. [Image source:
atlanteangardens.blogspot.in]

stood for photosynthesis a chemical change well

known to the world33. Alchemists tried to isolate and
replicate this life force of plants in their labs.

An archaic French text on alchemy, La Cosmopolite, makes an interesting statement about the
imagery. There is this one green lion, which closes and opens the seven indissoluble seals of the
seven metallic spirits which torments the bodies, until it has perfected them, by means of the artists
long and resolute patience. As as be seen in the illustration above (p 17), the 'seven indissoluble
seals' have been depicted by seven red stars. One cannot help
but draw a comparison with the seven chakras of the human
body as propounded in Hindu alchemy. One can, then, look
at the green lion as a symbol of a purifying agent that
would unlock the potential of metals or persons.
Raven: As has been elaborated above (see Magnum Opus,
p 12), the alchemical process was divided into three
main stages viz. Nigredo (blackening), Albedo (whitening)
and Rubedo (reddening). Some more intermediate stages
were proposed by other alchemists. Each of these stages

A raven representing the stage of nigredo in

alchemical art. [Image source: soul-guidance.com]

32 Brian Cotnoir, The Weiser Concise Guide to Alchemy, (Weiser Books, 2006) p 18
33 Hauck, Op. cit., p 63

18

was represented by an animal or bird. The raven, for example, stood for the first stage of decay or
putrefaction, when the matter in question turned black. The blackening could be a result of direct or
indirect heat. Marlan34 quotes Edward Kelly on the symbolism of the raven: The beginning of our work
is the black raven which, like all things are to grow and receive life, must first putrefy. For putrefaction
is a necessary condition of solution, as salvation is of birth and regeneration.
The raven or the crow is an obvious choice of a symbol for all things dark and thereby inauspicious,
and it occurs in most cultures. But it is an inevitable symbol, as darkness is before light.
White Swan: The alchemical process continues whence the
blackened substance becomes white with extreme heat. In
decaying matter, the whiteness manifests as fungus. This
stage of albedo is symbolised by a white swan 35. The
substance, when sublimated with the application of
greater heat even 'flies up' like the bird in question. A
white goose, white eagle, or a white albatross were
Illustration of a white swan representing the
whitening stage [Image source:
esotericonline.net]

sometimes used instead of a swan36. The swan is typically a

symbol of purity, owing to
its pristine white colour.

Parallels can be seen in Hindu mythology too, where the goddess of

wisdom and discernment, Saraswati, is associated with a swan.
Eagle/ Mercurial bird: The eagle, a symbol of majesty, was associated
with most important element of alchemy, i.e. mercury. It was thus
also known as the mercurial bird. According to Cosman and Jones37,
An eagle was mercury after the process of sublimation. Sublimation
34
35
36
37

Eagle or mercurial bird [Image

source: unearthed.com]

Stanton Marlan, The Black Sun: The Alchemy and Art of Darkness, (Texas A&M University Press, 2008), p 81
Herbert Silberer, Hidden Symbolism of Alchemy and the Occult Arts, (Courier Corporation, 1917), p 98
Hauck, Op. cit., p 61
Madeleine Pelner Cosman & Linda Gale Jones, Handbook to Life in the Medieval World, (Infobase Publishing, 2009), p
428

19

was chemical purification of matter by heating it, reducing it, volatizing it. Because mercury was
volatile and supposedly voracious, it resembled the imperious eagle devouring lesser birds. Mercury
destroyed, consumed, and reduced gold to its first matter. The spread eagle in alchemical aviary was
sublimed sal ammoniac.
Dragon: Like the serpent Ouroboros (see p 15), the
dragon is an essential symbol of alchemy and stands for
many things. The mythical animal was, in fact, used
interchangeably with the serpent and salamander
symbols. Some authors38 opine that an unwinged
dragon represented the nigredo stage while a winged
An image two intertwined twin dragons appearing in
alchemical texts. [Image source: mindspring.com]

dragon represented the rubedo stage. Some others say

that the dragon was used to symbolise 'an alloy of

copper and silver made by warming the two metals with mercury (the sea)... At the end of twenty
days, no traces of the silver and copper remained visible, so that the dragon had bitten its tail till
nothing was left.'39 There are many other interpretations and variations of the dragon symbol, but it
would suffice to say that it was a very pregnant image not just in alchemy of
the West but of other cultures too.
Toad: The toad is also associated with the putrefaction stage of alchemy. It
stands for the base matter that is release after the first stage of nigredo. The
Ripley Scrolls, written by George Ripley a famous 16 th century English
alchemist, associate the toad with 'earth, blackness, immoderate eating,
venomousness and death'.40 However, the associations of the toad were not
entirely negative. Being of the earth, it stood for stability too. For example, in
images where a toad was chained to the ground and an eagle hovered above,

A black toad at the centre

of the apparatus
the process of bringing together stable and volatile elements was depicted 41.
representing base matter.
[Image source: levity.com]
38 Jordan Stratford & Jeffrey S Kupperman, A Dictionary of Western Alchemy, (Quest Books, 2014), p 28
39 E J Holmyard, Alchemy, (Courier Corporation, 2012), pp 160-161
40 Alison Adams and Stanton J. Linden, Emblems of Alchemy, (Librairie Droz, 1998), p 90
41 Hauck, Op. cit., p 62

20

Phoenix: The Phoenix is a mythical bird that self combusts after

its 'mission' and rises again from its own ashes in an endless
cycle. Among alchemists, it was also called the Orpus. With its
deeply mystical significance, it was naturally drawn into the
alchemical leitmotif. The Phoenix has been called the 'crown of
the alchemical Opus', and it represents the 'spiritual and divine
dimension from which souls were born'42. It also represented the
The mythical Phoenix represented the
highest ideal in alchemy [Image via
Pinterest]

planet Mercury, the solar and male principles and the

'Philosopher's gold'. The phoenix was also closely associated
with the Emerald Tablet43.

While the ones listed above are the most defining animal symbols of Western alchemy, Hauck 44
mentions several other creatures who were associated with the craft. Among them were two fish
swimming in the opposite direction representing the essence of the spirit and soul during dissolution;
a stag with antlers represented the red tincture or red powder; the unicorn was the symbol of white
powders & tinctures and of sublimation; birds, bees and butterflies were associated with purity and
rebirth; dogs stood for domesticated spirit and 'benevolent' mercury, while wolves were a symbol of
untamed natural forces and metal antimony.
Animal symbolism in Chinese culture is also a very well-known fact. Apart from the more popular
zodiac context, animal symbolism prevailed in the realm of Chinese alchemy too in the early centuries
of the Common Era. Certain animals like the crane, the common house fowl and the tortoise were
associated with longevity45. Formulae for many elixirs included the blood and/ or eggs of these
creatures. It was believed that drinking these concoctions would ensure longevity and vitality.
Islamic and Indian alchemical traditions, on the other hand, do not seem to have too much in terms of
animals myths or symbols. The other kinds of myths will be dealt with in the following sections.

42
43
44
45

Battistini, Op. cit., p 253

Hauck, Op. cit., p 159
Ibid., p 62
Obed Simon Johnson, A Study of Chinese Alchemy, (Martino Publishing, 2009), p 61

21

6. GODS, PRIESTS AND ALCHEMISTS

The profusion of mythology continues in the realm of alchemy with tales of gods, divine priests and
magical shamans. Because alchemy was about creation and affecting fundamental changes in nature,
all gods of creation became venerable for alchemists. On the level of the laboratory, one sought to
control and replicate nature's processes; and on the level of the spirit, elevation was the goal. An
alchemist could not do either without divine intervention. So he prayed to certain gods to invest him
with powers or grant him a master who would help him channel these higher forces. In this section we
shall see how the god and the guru were important tenets of alchemy and despite the differences in
myth, all traditions shared similar paradigms.
Hermes Trismegistus: It wouldn't be right to begin any list of
priests and gods of alchemy without placing the so-called
founding father right at the top. There are many postulates
about the origin and life of this legendary sage, but he
remains unknowable to a great extent. In fact, it is his
enigmatic character that lent the whole branch of alchemy
Hermes Trismegistus is pictured as a wise old
man with a flowing beard in several
alchemical texts. [Image source:
ambrosiasociety.com]

such mysteriousness over the centuries. As mentioned above

(see pages 6, 11), there was probably a line of teachers who
were called Hermes, just like the great Indian sage, Vyasa46.

However, he is generally conceived of as one person, whose wisdom is collected in a corpus of

literature that include The Corpus Hermeticum, The Emerald Tablet of Hermes Trismegistus and The
Perfect Sermon (also known as The Asclepius). His image is very wizard-like in later texts an old man
with a beard and flowing robes. The 'Thrice Great Hermes' is said to be a blend of the Egyptian god,
Thoth and the Greek god, Hermes. His famous maxim was 'He who knows himself, knows the All 47'. He
is credited with giving Egypt profound philosophical wisdom, having defeated Typhon the dragon of
46 Subodh Kapoor, A Dictionary of Hinduism: Including Its Mythology, Religion, History, Literature, and Pantheon, (Genesis
Publishing Pvt Ltd, 2004), p 453
47 David Adams Leeming, Creation Myths of the World: Parts I-II, (ABC-CLIO, 2010), p 428

22

ignorance, and mental, moral & physical perversions48.

Thoth: The Egyptian god, Thoth, had a central role to play in Egyptian
alchemy. As the scribe of gods and the god of the moon, he was
naturally associated with knowledge and magic. Thoth was also related
to the realm of the dead, as he weighed the the souls of the dead in the
Judgment Hall of Osiris49. He was associated with mystical wisdom,
healing, magic, speech, writing, etc. The son of Agathodaimon was
believed to have the greatest mystical powers. His ineffability is
described by Hauck50: Thoth is impossible to characterize because he
transcends anything we normally think about gods and men. At first
glance, he seems like a simple personification of the powers of logic...
The ibis-headed Egyptian god,
Thoth. [Image source:
philipcoppens.com]

However, there are clues in the many alternative names of this God of
Thought from ancient Egypt papyri that suggest he really represents the
ultimate archetype of the Word of God creating the universe.'

Osiris: Osiris was the Egyptian god of the dead and the underworld and was
deeply entrenched in Egyptian alchemical lore. The myth of Osiris'
dismemberment by his brother Set and his resurrection by his wife, Isis, is a
common creation myth. Isis also holds an important place in Egyptian
alchemy. Dismemberment and creation, as noted, above are principal tenets
in alchemy. Added to it, the dimension of magic, made Osiris a perfect
object of veneration by alchemists. The green-skinned god was considered
merciful, benign and eternally youthful. He is depicted, Pharoah-like, with a
crown, a crook, a flail and partially mummified legs. Jung worked extensively
in interpreting the Osiris myth on the psychological level focusing on the
symbolism of death and rebirth. To him, the myth was important to Egyptian

Osiris, the Egyptian god of the

underworld. [Image source:
think-aboutit.com]

48 Rosemary Guiley, The Encyclopedia of Witches, Witchcraft and Wicca, (Infobase Publishing, 2008), p 160
49 Ibid., p 134
50 Dennis William Hauck, The Emerald Tablet: Alchemy of Personal Transformation, (Penguin, 1999)

23

alchemists as it denoted a method of transmutation of the consciousness, rather than that of metals
and chemicals. This is why the myth thrived over centuries. In conclusion, one may quote Cavalli 51. He
says, The Osiris myth survived old Egypt because it possessed elements of both, magic and alchemy,
bridging an old magical tradition to a protoscience that eventually coalesced into formal laboratories
and experimentation.
Hermes: The Greek god, Hermes whose namesake Hermes
Trismegistus is, also is an important figure in ancient Greek
alchemy. His Roman counterpart of this messenger god is Mercury.
According to the Encyclopedia of Magic and Alchemy, Hermes
represents 'wisdom, cunning, magic, spiritual illumination, skill with
words and mischief'. He is depicted as a beautiful, muscular man in
the nude having wings and wearing a winged helmet. The wings
signify his swiftness in delivering messages both in the realms of
heaven and the underworld. He carries a caduceus in his hands,
which is the symbol of medicine even today. The caduceus indicates
Hermes' association with healing practices. The staff with two
intertwined serpents represent the reconciliation of opposites52.

Greek god Hermes holding a

caduceus [Image source:
mythologian.net]

A myth suggests that Hermes couples with Aphrodite the goddess of

love, to create the Hermaphrodite of alchemy. This is one of the best
etymological explanations of the word. The Great Hermaphrodite
represents the fundamental principle of the union of opposites
Hierosgamos that has such an important part in alchemy. Call it yin &
yang, mercury & sulphur, wet & dry, cold & hot and so on.

The Great Hermaphrodite

[Image source:
nachtkabarett.com]

The complex and overlapping imagery of Hermes, Thoth and Hermes

Trismegistus forms the crux of Western alchemical symbolism.

51 Thom F Cavalli, Embodying Osiris: The Secrets of Alchemical Transformation, (Quest Books, 2013), p 53
52 Guiley, op. cit., p 133

24

Vulcan: The Graeco-Roman mythological traditions are rife with

alchemical motifs. Based on the Greek god Hephaestus, Vulcan was
the Roman god of firework and metal craft. The son Jupiter and Juno
has a benevolent and malevolent side and ancient Romans placated
him with fire rituals and sacrifices. He was responsible for both,
creative and destructive fires like volcanoes, made iron implements
and armour for the gods. He is depicted with a forge and in some
versions is lame in one leg.
The ancient Roman god of fire and
smithy, Vulcan [Image source:
crystalinks.com]

While Vulcan, the blacksmith god, was proclaimed to be the patron

deity of alchemists by medieval alchemist, Paracelsus only in the 15 th

century, the god has been associated with the craft since the times of Plato 53. Atwood54 explains the
significance and symbolism of Vulcan from the point of view of Hermetic philosophy: The Vulcan of
the Alchemists is motion. Why Vulcan is represented as lame in the myths is because motion or action
in this life is halting; it runs after something it never catches; it runs in a line keeping on without
returning, circularly into its own principle; in this life it is not meant to do so, for nothing here contains
its own principle in itself. Vulcan is not the fire, but stirrer up of the fire the instrument of the
motive agent the mind.
Eliade55 lists a number of smith-gods who may have been associated with metal-working alchemists. In
Mesopotamian mythology, the God of Hurricane receives weapons from a smith god, much like the
divine smith Tvashtri does for Indra in Hindu mythology. The motif continues in a Canaanitish legend
in which the 'skilled' god, Kothar-Wa-Khasis (or Kothar-Wa-Hasis) forges two cudgels for the god, Baal.
Further, in Egyptian lore, Ptah the potter god creates weapons for Horus; in Greek mythology
Hephaestus forges a thunderbolt for Zeus, while dwarfs with magical powers are responsible for
making Thor's invincible hammer, Mjolnir. Such 'metal' myths abound in alchemical mythology, but
those will be explored in another section. For now, we continue to look at gods and priests.
53 Aaron Cheak, Alchemical Traditions: From Antiquity to the Avant-Garde, (Numen Books, 2013), p 153
54 M A Atwood, Hermetic Philosophy & Alchemy, (Routledge, 2012), p 588
55 Eliade, op. cit., pp 97-98

25

One may also mention a number of mythical priest-like personages associated with alchemical metal
work in early Greece, as listed by Eliade in his book The Forge and the Crucible. Groups of people
called Telchines, Cabiri, Kuretes and Dactyles were apparently secret guilds who worked in different
kinds of metals. Eliade explains: According to various traditions, the Telchines were the first people to
work in iron and bronze, the Idean Dactyles discovered iron-smelting and the Kuretes bronze work.
The latter, too, were reputed for their special dance which they performed with a clash of arms. The
Cabiri, like the Kuretes, are given the title of 'masters of the furnace' and were called 'mighty in fire';
their worship spread all over the eastern Mediterranean. The Dactyles were priests of Cybele, the
goddess of the mountains as well of mines and caves...56
The patterns of magic, myth and ritual begin
to emerge strongly in early Greece through
such practices and becomes a paradigm even
in the later ages. One is reminded of the
fairytale of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs,
which seems to have been inspired from such
legends. The story depicts the dwarfs as
strange secretive little men who know and
A grab from the Disney animation film, 'Snow White and the
Seven Dwarfs', showing the dwarfs in action in the mines.
[Image source: disney.wikia.com]

practice the art of metal work, excavating

enormous amounts of precious metal and

stones from hidden caves and indulging in some form of ritual singing. The fact that they are able to
bring Snow White back from the brink of death several times also suggests that they might have had
possession of some kind of life-giving elixir.
Such groups of priest/ shaman like figures occur in many cultures. Though the Celtic Druids were not
alchemists strictly speaking, they definitely ascribed to clandestine esoteric practices deep in the
forests in a bid to unlock the secrets of longevity. This resembled greatly the spiritual aspects of
alchemy that will be discussed in the last section. We return to the subject of gods and priests for now.

56 Eliade, op. cit., pp 102-103

26

Sumerian mythology also has a lot of alchemical precepts by way of creation myths and a number of
gods and goddesses, who stand for creative, transmutative processes. Some of them are as under.

Enki, Ninhursag and the Tree of Life [Image source:

wespenre.com]

Enki and Ninhursag: Enki is the archetypal male god who creates humankind. He is the alchemist of
the gods, a magician who can change the form of all things in nature. He is, therefore, the perfect role
model for the alchemist. His Babylonian counterpart is the god Ea, and they perform similar functions.
with lumps of clay mixed with a magic liquid that was either blood or spittle 57. Ninhursag is Enki's
female counterpart, who is both his sister and wife. She is the earth mother, who is important to
alchemists because she holds and nurtures metals within her womb. Enki and Ninhursag create man
with lumps of clay mixed with a magic liquid that was either blood or spittle 58. The base matter like
the alchemical prima materia comes from a creature called Geshtu-e, who is sacrificed. The motif of
man being made from clay occurs in the Chinese myth of the goddess Nuwa, in the Egyptian myth of
Khnum and also in the Bible. In all three cases, gods are said to have created man out of clay 59. Here,
one cannot help but relate it to the Hindu myth of Ganesha, who is created by Parvati using clay/ or
dirt from her body.
Other gods in the Sumerian pantheon that are instrumental to the symbolism and mythology of
alchemy are Nergal, the god of war; Adad, the storm god; Ishtar, the goddess of fertility and so on.

57 Gary Edson, Mysticism and Alchemy through the Ages: The Quest for Transformation, (Mc Farland, 2012), p 97
58 Ibid.
59 Ibid.

27

In the realm of Indian alchemy the Vedic soma is a central precept, as it contributes to the alchemical
ideas of elixirs of vitality and longevity. In this regard, the moon god, Chandra is most important
because he is also identified with Soma. The myth of ocean churning also stands out prominently from
the Puranas as from there emerges amrita the nectar of immortality. However, the philosophy of
Indian alchemy blooms fully through Tantra and Siddha, and by extension through Shakta and Shaiva
symbolism. Cheak rightly points out how all most Indian alchemical texts, like Rasarhdaya Tantra,
Rasarnava [tantra] and Kakachandeshvarimata, describe themselves as tantras and matas60. Some of
the important gods from each of these strands will be examined below.
Chandra: Chandra, the moon god, is the source of rasa,
semen, or the essence of life61. A myth about royal
consumption is popular about the moon. Having spent all his
rasa in a lunar cycle, the moon must perform a sacrifice in
order to renew his prowess and continue the cycle. The
perpetual waxing and waning of the moon has been a
symbol of dissolution and regeneration among many
cultures. In the Indian context, especially Ayurveda,
An illustration of Chandra from a medieval
text [Image source: Wikimedia Commons]

rejuvenation is done through elixir therapy or rasayana. The

symbol of rasa as semen runs strongly through sexual

alchemy that is unique to India and has its roots in the moon myth. Other Vedic gods like Prajapati,
Indra and Varuna also make minor appearances in myths about alchemy.
Shiva and Shakti: The Shiva-Shakti duo is the single most
important mythological symbol in Indian alchemy because it
represents creation by the union of the male and female
principles. In Tantric art, this union is represented by a 6pointed star, which is the coming together of two triangles.
60 Cheak, op. cit., p 223
61 David Gordon White, The Alchemical Body: Siddha Traditions in Medieval India, (Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt.
Ltd., 2004), p 24

28

Shiva is revered in Tantra as the original teacher of alchemy 62.

As Dakshinamurti, he is the guru of all gurus, as Nilakantha, he
is the subduer of poison, as Chandrashekhara, he is the keeper
of the moon. He is the primal alchemist who works on the
primal matter i.e. Prakriti. Hence, Shiva is connected with
alchemy on a number of levels.
Shakti is worshipped in her many forms by alchemists and
tantrics too. She is venerated as Kali, Gauri, Kakachandeshwari,
Tripurasundari, Chandi or Kamakya.
Shiva and Shakti in symbolic union as
depicted in many alchemical texts [Image
source: exoticindiaart.com]

As stated above, the element of semen in important in the

sexual dimension of alchemy. The other aspect is menstrual

blood and these two tattvas were often used in Tantric rites. In the context of rituals, these fluids are
not merely human excrement but divine tools of transmutation. Mercury and sulphur are said to have
originated from Shiva's semen and Shakti's menstrual blood respectively, but we shall plumb those
myths in the next section on myths about metals. Suffice it to say here that Shiva and Shakti are very
important in the context of Indian alchemy.
Apart from gods, other supernatural beings like yakshis and yognis are also revered in the tradition of
alchemy. The yoginis are especially significant in the context of Tantrism and were known to grant
esoteric powers to their sadhakas.
Further, one must point to the importance of gurus in the alchemical craft. The Indian system of
education, since ancient times, has given the teacher supreme importance. Divine knowledge was
revealed to the rishis and seers, who in turn passed it down to their students. The oral tradition of
dissemination of knowledge continued this way for centuries until the art of writing was developed. In
the Indian alchemical tradition, some teachers, seers and priests figure prominently. We take a look at
these legendary figures next.
62 Eliade, op. cit., p 132

29

Sage Agastya and the Siddhas: What Hermes Trismegistus is to Egyptian and Hellenistic alchemy, sage
Agastya is to the Siddha tradition. An immortal, he is the first among the 18 Siddhars or masters of
alchemy and is said to have taught the craft to the rest of mankind 63. But then, the mythical figure of
Agastya [spelled variously as Agasthiyar, Agathiyar, Akattiyar, etc.] is credited for all things Tamil
language and the arts. The name of sage Bogar/ Bhogar also appears in the list of important
contributors to the art and science of alchemy.

Sage Nagarjuna as conceived by the Buddhist

alchemists is the legendary character who
taught them the craft [Image source:
chinabuddhismencyclopedia.com]

Sage Nagarjuna and Buddhist alchemists: The figure of Nagarjuna is a perplexing one, given the
multiple personalities, texts and traditions associated with him. Chiefly, he is associated with the
Madhyamika school of Philosophy and Mahayana Buddhism 64 and even Jaina alchemy. In Bana's
Harshacharita, one Nagarjuna gives a Satavahana king an elixir in the form of a jewel. Hsuan-tsang's
accounts speak of a Bodhisattva Nagarjuna who consumed his own magical elixirs and lived hundreds
of years. He also occurs in Chinese and Tibetan myths as well, in which he was given the knowledge of
63 Mohan Lal, Encyclopedia of India Literature: Sasay to Zorgot, (Sahitya Akademi, 1992), p 4093
64 White, op. cit., p 67

30

Mahayana by the Nagas, who also gave him his name. However, cautions White 65, Even in those
Chinese, Tibetan, and Indian legends in which the philosopher Nagarjuna is made out to be an
alchemist of sorts the possessor of an elixir of long life and some rudiments of transmutational
alchemy there is never any specific mention of raw materials or techniques he employs in his craft.
But he is sometimes associated with mercury, which will be discussed in the next section. It can be
concluded that Nagarjuna indeed was the fount of Buddhist alchemical thought and its chief mascot.
Matsyendranath and the Nathas: The Natha tradition is a mix of
Yogic and Tantric philosophies with the seers Matsyendranath
and Gorakhnath at its centre. The concepts of Kundalini, Hatha
Yoga and mastery over natural forces are some of the
fundamentals of this school of thought. Divine knowledge is
revealed to the two masters by Shiva and through them to the
nathas, who are accomplished yogis. While not explicit, many of
their myths and legends have strong alchemical currents. For
example, consumption of mercury that would kill an ordinary
man, would become a life-lengthening elixir or a Natha yogi who
knows how to control the way the body reacts to the element.
Gorakhnath, one of the Nathas is
considered an important icon among
Indian alchemists. [Image source:
artoflivingsblog.com]

Alchemy kicked in in a big way in the Islamic nations in the

middle ages and soon influenced Western alchemy. In fact, the

concepts of 'Philosopher's Stone' and 'Elixir of Life' were both Islamic imports to the West. Because of
their strongly monotheistic tenets, gods and mythical beings have no part to play in Islamic alchemy.
However, because it is an Abrahamic religion, some Biblical myths pertaining to alchemy are
applicable to to for example, Adam being the first alchemist. But these myths will be dealt with a
little later.
What stands out in the Islamic tradition is the strong line of alchemists and teachers, who contributed
immensely to the craft, especially chemical sciences. Jabir Ibn Hayyan of Persia known as Geber in the
65 Ibid.

31

West, was called the 'Father of Arab Chemistry' thanks to his vast corpus of literature referred to as
the Jabirian corpus66. Other important alchemical masters included Ibn Sina, Muhammad ibn
Zakariya, Abu Bakr, Al-Razi, Ali ibn Wahshiya and others.
We now turn to Chinese alchemy among oriental
traditions. Chinese alchemy is fundamentally rooted in
Taoism which is a philosophical system there are
hardly any divinities associated with it. The only
exception is The Kitchen or the Stove God, which is a
later Taoist development. Chamberlain suggests that the
Taoist alchemists may have been inspired by this god,
also known as Zao Jun, Zao Shen, or Zhang Lang67.
The story of this important domestic god can be traced
back to the 2nd century BCE, where it starts with an
ordinary mortal who rises to assume a divine position.
The connection of a 'fire' god and alchemy is pretty
obvious in this context.

Zao Jun, the Chinese god of the Kitchen or the

Stove [Image source: Wikipedia]

However, Taoist Chinese alchemy recognises a line masters.

These are proper historical figures with their achievements and claims recorded in word. The craft is
split into Waidan (outer alchemy concerned with metallurgy) and Neidan (inner alchemy related to
spiritual practices)68, and these masters were concerned primarily about the former. Among the most
famous Chinese alchemists were Tsou Yen, who is credited with founding the discipline of alchemy in
the fourth century before Common Era. Other known alchemists included the imperial magician Li
Chao Kuin, Liu Hsiang the immortal and Pao Pu'tzu. While these masters did not preach and
practice worship of any gods, they claimed that physical and spiritual alchemical processes would
66 Hunt Janin, The Pursuit of Learning in the Islamic World, 610-2003, (McFarland 2005), p 53
67 Jonathan Chamberlain, Chinese Gods: An Introduction to Chinese Folk Religion, (Blacksmith Books, 2010), p 69
68 Fabrizio Pregadio, 'Elixirs and Alchemy' from Daoism Handbook, edited by Livia Kohn, (BRILL, 2000), p 165

32

allow a mortal 'to summon immortals and other divine beings,

from the most exalted gods like The Great One (Taiyi) to minor
deities like Ministers of the Mountains (shanqing) and the Officers
of the Moorlands (zewei), and from the gods of soil and grain
(Sheji), to the Count of the Wind (Fengbo) and the Master of Rain
(Yushi)...'69
An ancient set of alchemical texts, called the Three Sovereigns was
Liu Hsiang, a Taoist 'immortal'
[Image source: goldenelixir.com]

also said to have mystical powers. It was believed that he who

possessed or read these texts would be safe from demons and evil
forces, and could also summon the heavens70.

In the later stages, when Buddhism spread in China, syncretism led to the veneration of Buddha also
a historical personage in the context of alchemy. Eliade 71 quotes R Stein's writing from a relatively
modern view from a Chinese text: that is why the (Buddha) Jou-lai (Tathagata), in his great mercy, has
revealed to man the (alchemical) method of work with fire and has taught him to penetrate anew to
the matrix in order to refashion its (true) nature and (the plentitude of) his lot in life. The idea of sage
Nagarjuna also travelled to China from the Indian Buddhist tradition where he came to be worshipped
as Bodhisattva Nagarjuna, also known as Lung-Mng Phu-Sa.
We now turn our attention to some Biblical and Jewish myths about alchemy that developed as a
result of the craft reaching and developing in medieval Christian Europe. The motif of primal parents
in recognised in the Jewish myth of Jeh and Havah, who combined to make the androgynous
Jehovah72. In the Christian context, the Genesis myth is interpreted as the ultimate act of alchemy.
Adam: A Dominican friar of the 13th century was the first to suggest that Adam (another primal
parent) was the first teacher of alchemy. Further, the Book of Sidrach a medieval text of alchemy
69
70
71
72

Ibid., pp 128-129
Ibid., p 128
Eliade, op. cit., p 119
Gary Edson, Mysticism and Alchemy through the Ages: The Quest for Transformation, (McFarland, 2012), p 99

33

claimed that God taught Adam the art of smithy and how Noah took the implements made by Adam
on the ship73. In other texts, the theme is exhorted in saying how God handed over the 'Secret of
Secrets' to Adam or 'the Water of Life' or the 'Stone of Spirit and Truth' 74.
Therefore, the Biblical Adam or the Judaic Adam Kadmon were seen to be the founders of alchemy.
The third son of Adam, Seth, was believed to have been given the secrets of alchemy by his father.
Further, it has been suggested that the etymological origins of the word chemiya (from which alchemy
is derived) may lie in the name of Noah's son Cham (Ham), the first practitioner75.
Tubal-Cain: Tubal-Cain is a character mentioned in the Genesis (4:22), and is told to be a descendent
of Cain and the son of Zamech and Lilla. He is significant as he is described as the forger of every
cutting instrument of brass and iron. He is clearly the first master of the metallurgical craft, seen
through this account.
Moses: The Judea-Christian religious figure that
stands out most in alchemical lore is that of Moses.
He has been identified with the Greek god Musaeus
and has been called the master of several arts like
philosophy, medicine, instruments, utensils, the
hieroglyphic characters, etc76. The Egyptians also
identified him with Hermes. Moses was conceived
of as a magician more than a alchemist but his
associations with the tools of the craft were too
strong to overlook the alchemical connect. This

The powerful figure of Moses is associated with alchemy

[Image source: gnosticteachings.org]

image of Moses as one of the earliest alchemists

with a divine lineage survived through the Middle
Ages.
73
74
75
76

Raphael Patai, The Jewish Alchemists: A History and Source Book, (Princeton University Press, 1994), p 19
Ibid.
Ibid., p 21
Ibid., p 34

34

Miriam/ Maria Prophetissa: The enigmatic character of Maria

Prophetissa has already been introduced in the history of
Hellentistic alchemy earlier in the paper (see p 9). Her's is a
confusing identity, because the historical Maria who lived in the 3 rd
century CE Alexandria is often identified with the Biblical Miriam,
sister of Moses77.
She was first referred to by Zosimos, a 4 th century CE Greek
alchemist. She is known by several names such as Miriam the
Jewess, Mary of Cleofa, Maria Prophetissima or Maria Hebraea. A
Engraving depicting Maria
Prophetissima from Michael Maier's
book Symbola Aurea Mensae
Duodecim Nationum (1617) [Image
source: Wikipedia]

later text titled The Dialogue of Mary and Aros on the Magistery of
Hermes attributes the formulation of several formulae notably
hydrochloric acid and the invention of many chemical apparatuses
to her. That her dialogue partner Aros is associated with Egyptian
god, Horus or the Biblical Aaron78 compounds the mystery more.

David: The Biblical David, King of Israel, is a fascinating character. But the Jewish version of him is far
more colourful than the Christian version. Apart from the very famous tale of David and Goliath, there
are a number of myths and tales associated with this mighty king, warrior, poet and musician. Literary
accounts of David having heaps of precious metals like gold and silver and some mysterious stones
(thought to be Philosopher's Stones), led later alchemists to believe in David's alchemical prowess 79.
Solomon: But more than David, it was his son, Solomon who was thought to be a powerful alchemist.
Soloman, the third king of Israel is said to have inherited some special stones from his father again
presumed to be Philosopher's Stones, which he then used to make the famous Temple. He had many
magical powers like being able to talk to animals, ride on flying carpets, control demons 80 and
possessed great wisdom which has been likened to knowing alchemical secrets and insights. Many
77
78
79
80

Anke Timmermann, Verse and Transmutation: A Corpus of Middle English Alchemical Poetry, (BRILL,2013), p 103
Ibid.
Patai, op. cit. pp 25-26
Geoffrey W. Dennis, The Encyclopedia of Jewish Myth, Magic and Mysticism, (Llewellyn Worldwide, 2007), p 245

35

later works by authors like Zosimos speak of the king's achievements in texts like The Testament of
Solomon, Key of Solomon and so on.
Mary Magdalene: Another Mary from the Abrahamic tradition
who is equally mysterious, and often controversial, is Mary
Magdalene. Sometimes purported to be simply Jesus' disciple and
sometimes his wife, Mary Magdalene's character is shrouded in
myths. Goddard says, Mary Magdelene, according to some
Christian Gnostic sects was the shakti or spiritual consort of
Jesus...81 She is usually depicted with some accoutrements which
suggest that she was seen as a wise woman and a healer. She
holds a skull/ cup/ chalice, which are 'rich symbols of sustenance,
A painting of Mary Magdalene and
Jesus [Image source: joyfulheart.com]

holy blood, and healing waters all intimately connected with

goddess energies.82' The belief in such powers of Mary made her
an important symbol for alchemists.

Jesus: Last but not the least is the figure of Jesus himself, who has been called the greatest alchemist,
most definitely in spiritual terms. In his book, Jesus Through Pagan Eyes: Bridging Neopagan
Perspectives with a Progressive Vision of Christ, Townsend says, For the Christian mystic, Jesus can be
seen as the philosophical gold, the perfected man who has found the secret of the Philosopher's
Stone. He has been elevated from the lead of the world into the gold of heaven. There are plenty of
metaphors of healing, rejuvenation and resurrection in the Bible that have been interpreted in terms
of alchemy. For example, the three-fold elements of salt, sulphur and mercury were identified with
the Trinity, and in some cases, the story of Jesus' birth, death and resurrection was considered an
alchemical process83!

81 David Goddard, The Tower of Alchemy: An Advanced Guide to the Great Work, (Weiser Books, 1999)
82 Siobhan Houston, Invoking Mary Magdalene: Accessing the Wisdom of the Divine Feminine, (Sounds True, 2006), p 48
83 William E. Burns, The Scientific Revolution: An Encyclopedia, (ABC-CLIO, 2001), p 9

36

7. MYTHOLOGY OF METALS
The turning point of all great cultures of the world was the discovery of iron and metal technology.
The Iron Age marks the transition from primitiveness to civilization in all societies and is therefore one
of the most significant times in their respective histories. This importance is marked by the
development of a body of myths and stories about metals, their genesis, their presiding gods and the
first magical men who had the power to extract, smelt and master them. Not just metals but most
primary elements harvested from the earth have such myths associated with them. Alchemy was
intricately related to metallurgy and therefore these myths were adopted and circulated in alchemical
lore. In this section, we explore and compare some such myths about metals.
Birth, gender and the life of metals
One of the most famous notions about metals among alchemists was that they are born and mature
in the earth's womb until they've reached the stage of perfection, that is, turned into gold.
Thompson84 quotes an ancient Chinese alchemist called Liu An (122 CE) on this: ... gold grows in the
earth by a slow process and is evolved from the immaterial principle underlying the universe, passing
from one form to another up to silver, and then from silver to gold. Innate to this story was the belief
that metals were living objects, just like plants and animals. In a Chinese myth, one hears of gold that
assumes the shape of a cow and runs away when people try to mine it from a mountain 85. Metals
were born upon the union of the male and female principles in nature and it took thousands of years
to turn into gold. Alchemists deigned to accelerate this process in the lab and create gold in a matter
of days, where it took Nature eons.
Metals and chemicals were classified into male and female genders, and were 'married' accordingly
for the sake of alchemical creation. The Kitara people of Africa, for example, classified metallic ores as
male and female. For them, 'male' ores were hard, black and found on the surface, while 'female' ores
84 Thompson, op. cit. p 52
85 Robert James Forbes, Metallurgy in Antiquity: A Notebook for Archaeologists and Technologists, (Brill Archive, 1964),
p 85

37

were soft, red and found in the bowels of the earth86. The Arabs called soft iron feminine, and hard
iron masculine in the context of making blades for weapons 87. Such classification of ores, metals and
salts continued right down to the Middle Ages in Europe. But other fascinating metal myths had
started occurring much earlier in ancient Greece, as is seen next.
Plato's Myth of Metals
In his famous book titled Republic, Plato defends Socrates' idea of a Noble Lie, wherein it is considered
acceptable to lie for the benefit of the state under certain circumstances. The lie, in the form of a
Phoenician myth, is crafted to quell civil dissent and create a superficial sense of brotherhood and
unity. The myth says that all people are essentially equal because God created all men with metals. A
varying combination of metals like gold, silver, iron and bronze made up different kinds of people who
would form different sections in the society. Thus , the 'gold race' i.e. people with more gold would
constitute royalty and philosophers while people with more iron would make up workers and
agriculturists88.
Metal races The Greek myth of creation
This interesting myth isn't the only creation myth with regards to metals. Plato seemed to have
derived his story from the Greek myth of creation in which Zeus populates the earth with successive
races of people made with metals. First came the Golden Race, who lived in perfect peace and
harmony, and upon death, became the guardians of mankind. Then came the Silver Race of a people
so beautiful that they were terribly vain. Zeus did away with this race and sent them to the
underworld. The third race made of bronze turned out to be terribly violent and perished as a result of
inter-killings. The fourth race, which had no metallic component, comprised demigods and heroes.
The fifth and the final race was called the Iron Race and to this humans belonged. This race was born
with troubles and hard work, with a mix of good and bad and that of sorrow and hope 89.
86
87
88
89

Eliade, op. cit., p 37

Ibid., p 38
Roger L. Huard, Plato's Political Philosophy: The Cave, (Algora Publishing, 2007), p 90
Howard J Sherman, Mythology for Storytellers: Themes and Tales from Around the World, (Routledge, 2014), p 36

38

Origin of metals in Hindu mythology

Among genesis myths, the Hindu myth of Hiranyagarbha, where the world is created from the Cosmic
Golden Egg, has been recounted earlier in the paper (see p 15). While it is not explicitly mentioned
that the golden egg is made of gold, the suggestion is clear. Incidentally, in Zoroastrian mythology,
which shares close connections with Hindu lore, one finds mention of Ahura Mazda's first material
creation, which is a heaven made out of a shining metal egg90!

The Hiranyagarbha is the golden cosmic egg of creation floating in

the primeval waters in Hindu mythology [Image source:
exoticindia.com]

In Hinduism, gold is equated with Agni and is a symbol of purity and immortality. The sacredness
follows from the myth of creation of gold, silver and the other metals. In the Shatapatha Brahmana,
we find the story of the divine origins of gold. Gold comes from the seed of Vishvarupa or the
primeval man. In another version, gold is generated from the tapas of Prajapati's body. In the
Ramayana, gold and silver are formed from the embryo that is formed as a result of Agni and Earth's
union. From this embryo, the god Skanda-Kartikeya is born and from his effulgence, other metals like
copper, iron, tin and lead are generated91.

90 M. L. West, The East Face of Helicon : West Asiatic Elements in Greek Poetry and Myth: West Asiatic Elements in Greek
Poetry and Myth, (Oxford university Press, 1997), p 140
91 David Gordon White, The Alchemical Body: Siddha Traditions in Medieval India, (University of Chicago Press, 1998),
p 189

39

Metals in Hindu mythology also find representation in the concept of ages or yugas much like Zeus'
creation of races discussed above. Here, gold stands for Satya/Krita Yuga, silver for Dvapara Yuga,
bronze for Treta Yuga, and iron for Kali Yuga92.
Myths of metals
All primary metals and chemicals in an alchemist's lab have a myth or two associated with them.
Divine or supernatural origins are attributed to most of them. From iron to mercury, from gold to
copper, from silver to sulfur, there are interesting myths about them all and some of them shall be
explored below.
Iron: Eliade devotes a whole chapter to the mythology of iron (age) in
his classic, The Forge and the Crucible. He rightly points out how iron
was considered a celestial metal since man first came upon it from
meteors. He says how Iron still retains its extraordinary magicoreligious prestige even among peoples, which have a fairly advanced
and complex history.
In Egypt, iron was believed to be the 'bones of Seth', while magnetic
iron oxide was what the 'bones of Horus' were made of 93. A medieval
Indian text, Rasakamadhenu, suggests that iron comes from Yama, the
god of death94, while the planet-god Mars is associated with iron in the
Western tradition95. Further, the iron hammer becomes a symbol of
divinity and power as with the Mjlnir, Thor's hammer in Norse
mythology.

92
93
94
95

Iron was considered to be the

bones of the god Seth in Egyptian
mythology. [Image source:
psuvanguard.com]

James G. Lochtefeld, The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M, (The Rosen Publishing Group, 2002), p 156
Forbes, op. cit. p 427
White, op. cit., p 191
Georg Luck, Arcana Mundi: Magic and the Occult in the Greek and Roman Worlds: A Collection of Ancient Texts, (JHU
Press, 2006), p 442

40

Mercury: Quicksilver or mercury has been the single most important element in the tradition of
alchemy across all cultures. It has various mythological associations and a mysterious image, thanks to
its ambivalent yet powerful nature. The 'watery' metal is often associated with its namesake planet,
Mercury in the Western tradition96. In Hindu mythology, it is called Harabija or Shivadhatu and
considered the semen of Shiva97. Mercury was sometimes considered the 'soul of all metals' 98,
sometimes the 'King of metals99' and at some other times, a hermaphrodite100. Among Oriental
traditions, mercury was considered the 'child of cinnabar' in China101.

In Hindu mythology, scented sulfur is said to have arisen

from the menstrual blood of the Mother Goddess or
Shakti. [Image source: shestirs.wordpress.com]

Sulfur: Thanks to its fiery nature and yellow colour, sulfur came to be associated with gold. In the
alchemist's lab, it was the fundamental opposite of mercury and was therefore often combined with it
in the quest for gold. In Hindu alchemy, sulfur is the female counterpart of the male mercury and is
96 Ibid.
97 Prem P. Bhalla, Hindu Rites, Rituals, Customs and Traditions, (Pustak Mahal, 2006), p 36
98 Herbert Silberer, Hidden Symbolism of Alchemy and the Occult Arts, (Courier Corporation, 1917), p 114
99 Karen Pinkus, Alchemical Mercury: A Theory of Ambivalence, (Stanford University Press, 2009), p 84
100 Kathleen P. Long, Hermaphrodites in Renaissance Europe, (Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2006), p 117
101 Fabrizio Pregadio, Great Clarity: Daoism And Alchemy In Early Medieval China, (Stanford University Press, 2006), p 172

41

said to be the sexual essence of the goddess. Also called gandhaka for its wonderful scent, sulfur was
considered to be the divine feminine's menstrual blood 102. Sulphur also formed one of the Three
Essentials of Western alchemy, the other two being Mercury and Salt. It was considered to embody
the volatile principles of fire and air103, which led to magical combustion.
Gold: The purest and most precious of metals held the highest place of pride for alchemists whether
in the exoteric or in the esoteric traditions. La Niece elaborates how gold has traditionally been related
to myth and magic. She says: Gold has been inextricably linked to myth and magic throughout
history. The dangers of mining perhaps gave rise to many legends of fire-breathing dragons guarding
piles of treasure deep inside mountain caverns, of a land of a one-eyed man and gold-guarding
griffins, (and) of huge hairy gold-digging ants... 104
Gold stood for perfection in nature and the soul and was often equated with the the sun 105. As noted
above (see p 38), gold was also compared to Agni in Hindu mythology. Agni or Vishwarupa were
considered to be its sources.
Silver: Next in line of preciousness was silver, which was considered
only one step lower than gold in terms of 'metallic evolution'. Pure
and 'cool', this metal contrasted with the fiery 'heat' of gold. It has
been associated often with the moon, who in turn is called the
'Archetypal Queen of Alchemy106'.
The moon was almost used synonymously for silver by alchemists,
whether as Chandra in the Hindu context, Hathor in the Egyptian
context, or Artemis/Diana in the Graeco-Roman context107.

Diana, the goddess of moon and

hunting by Guillaume Seignac [Image
source: lexicolatry.com]

102 White, op. cit., pp 192-193

103 Robert Allen Bartlett, Real Alchemy: A Primer of Practical Alchemy , (Nicolas-Hays, Inc., 2009)
104 Susan La Niece, Gold, (Harvard University Press, 2009), p 19
105 A.W. Sylvester, The First Mythology: A Book, (Trafford Publishing, 2008), p 18
106 Hauck, op. cit., p 124

42

Copper: The metal copper one of the seven noble metals of

antiquity is most commonly associated with the Roman
goddess, Venus108. The goddess of love and beauty aptly
represented this amenable metal, which easily combined with
other metals. In fact, the association was so strong the metal
was called 'copper Venus'.
In the Indian tradition, the sun god, Surya was associated with
copper, as he was with gold and rubies109. The redness of the
metal made such an identification natural. Interestingly, copper
sulfate is known an nilakantha in Tamil a recognition of its
Venus was the goddess associated with
copper. [Image source: Wikipedia]

poisonous nature via the myth of Shiva who drank the poison,
halahal that emerged during the churning of the ocean110.

Tin: Tin is yet another of the noble metals and in Western

alchemy is associated with the Roman god, Jupiter 111.
Nobility, malleability, and incorruptibility were perhaps
the attributes of the metal that associated it with the
mighty god. The shiny lustre of the metal was also
perhaps reminiscent of Jupiter's thunderbolt.
A very similar template is observed in the Hindu deity,
Indra's association with the metal112. Indra, like Jupiter,
carries a thunderbolt or a vajra and is also the god of skyThe Hindu god, Indra, is associated with the metal,
tin. [Image source: harekrsna.com]

and thunder.

107 Ibid.
108 Lewis Spence, The Occult Sciences in Atlantis, (Health Research Books, 1976), p 82
109 Frances Kozlowski and Chris Jackson, Driven by the Divine, (Balboa Press, 2013), p 213
110 White, op. cit. p 447
111 Luck, op. cit., p 442
112 Hauck, op. cit., p 120

43

Lead: The darkest, basest and heaviest of metals also has several myths around it and was primarily
attached to the planet-god, Saturn. Ortony quotes Cavendish on this: Lead, the darkest and heaviest
of metals, was naturally assigned to Saturn, the dimmest and slowest moving planet, which trudges
heavily through its slow path round the sun. In the old cosmology, Saturn is the farthest planet from
the sun, the ruler or life, and is the lord of death 113. The association of lead with blackness and death
also reflects in Egyptian mythology, where Osiris is related to lead 114, whereas in Hindu mythology, the
snake Vasuki represents the metal115.
Bronze: Though not a popular metal alloy in alchemical lore, Bronze is occasionally associated with the
goddess, Athena. In the Spartan tradition, she is known as Chalkioikos, which literally means 'she of
the bronze dwelling116'. Big bronze temples dedicated to Athena were common on ancient Sparta and
the thus the association.

113 Andrew Ortony, Metaphor and Thought, (Cambridge University Press, 1993), p 470
114 Silberer, op. cit., p 114
115 White, op. cit. p 215
116 Susan Deacy, Athena, (Routledge, 2008), p 128

44

CONCLUSION
All civilizations have needed the building blocks of metal to progress. The power of metals in changing
the human condition has long been recognised. From prehistory to the present day, man has been
tinkering with metal first in crude workshops, then in alchemists' lairs and now in high-tech
laboratories. The quest is to harness nature's incredible creation in order to attain perfection.
Today, we understand the structural compositions of metals, their properties and their potential. But
the road to reach this point was long and the path was paved by alchemists. In the hoary past, when
nature was largely a mystery, man tried to understand its forces through myths. When man came
across phenomenons of fires and meteor showers, he made stories about them. As he tried to tame
and use these fantastic forces of nature, he tried to fit them in his world view. With destructive and
creative powers, fire was surely divine and so was metal with its strength and indestructibility.
Combining metal and fire changed things and more tales came to be concocted to make sense of
them. A compendium of incredible myths got woven around metallurgy and allied sciences.
The alchemical craft took off from this point, where man's quest for perfection began. Man wanted to
create and be like the pure, lustrous, eternal and incorruptible gold. He wanted to imbibe the
immortality of the noblest of metals and went on the formulate theories and practices that would
further this golden quest. A review of several alchemical myths in this paper shows how
fundamentally similar these paradigms were across all cultures, despite their apparent differences.
Having started from ancient Egypt or China, the alchemical arts spread to the Arab world, India, China,
and Hellenistic Europe. Each region adopted the craft and created its gods and goddesses that would
help them in this mighty mission.
Soon, alchemy came to be associated with magic, occultism, ritualism, mysticism and religion. The aim
to forge gold from other baser materials metamorphosed into a spiritual quest to forge highest
consciousness from man's base nature. In the history and mythology of alchemy, one finds man's
natural progression from the low to the lofty, from matter to spirit, from prima materia to gold. The
Golden Quest was all about exploring and understanding this noble and golden aspect of humankind.

45