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Locomotion in Grasshopper
Some of the explanation for grasshopper is also applicable for frogs
Grasshopper have an exoskeleton
Muscles are attached to the inside of the exoskeleton, across the joints
They exist in antagonistic pairs known as flexor and extensor muscles
(Grasshoppers have three pairs of legs)
During walking movements:
body is supported on a tripod of three legs //the other three legs pull or push the body forward
The rear legs are bigger and longer, (adapted for jumping)
The extensor muscles attached to tendons
During a jump, the flexor muscles relaxed, extensor muscles contracts suddenly
Causing the rear legs to straighten
Energy stored in tendon propels the grasshopper into the air.
During flight, the wings moved forwards and backwards // upwards and downwards through the air
Owing to the contractions of the flight muscles
Which produces a lift ( by driving the air downwards which in turn )enables the grasshopper to( lift
off and) fly.
Locomotion in fish
Fish ~ Endoskeleton
* Water provides buoyancy and support for the fish
* The fish faces the problem of water resistance as water is denser than air
* To overcome this,
i. it has streamlined and slimy body
ii. and scales which face backwards
The fish has strong myotome muscles and fins adapted for swimming.
~Contraction and relaxation of the myotome muscles causes the body and the caudal fin to move from
side to side, producing a forward thrust to push the fish forward.
of the vertebral
column.
The muscles act antagonistically.
Contraction of myotomes on one side of the vertebral column and relaxation on the other side
Causes the body to bend in a direction of the contraction
Alternate contractions of the right and left myotome blocks causes body to bend side to side and the
tail to bend accordingly.
This produce a forward thrust which propels the fish forward
Presence of fins i.e. dorsal and ventral fins, paired pectoral and pelvic fins.--- for stability
across
4. The bones of the skeleton to which the muscles are attached operate as levers.
5. Skeletal muscles produce movements by exerting the force to pull on the tendons which are attached to
bones.
relax.
8. Example: The movement of forelimb is brought about by the contraction and relaxation of a pair of
antagonistic muscles, which is called the biceps and triceps.
TENDONS:
9. Tendons are tough, strong and inelastic strands of dense connective tissues made up of fibres.
10. Tendons join skeletal muscles to the bone
LIGAMENTS:
11. Ligaments held the bones together at the joints.
12. Ligaments are connective tissues which are flexible,
strong and elastic.
14. Permits limited movement but at the same time, ensures that bones do not become dislocated.
15. Since muscles can only contract, at least two muscles must be used to move a bone in a position and
back again.
16. Movements of the body are brought about by the contraction of a pair of antagonistic muscles.
17. All muscles have two primary proteins : i. Actin ii. Myosin
Together they form ACTOMYOSIN complex that, in presence of ATP, will contract.
18. Energy for this contraction comes from ATP produced by the mitochondria in the muscles.
19. Muscles which contract when receiving impulses from the brain are voluntary muscles.
Task 2 Explain how the bones, skeletal muscles, tendons and joints bring out movement in the arm or leg.
(10 marks)
Muscle Cramp
those of
contract
Muscles
WHO ?
Cramps are extremely common.
Almost everyone (one estimate is about 95%)
experiences a cramp at some time in their life.
common in adults and become increasingly
aging.
However, children also experience cramps.
Any of the muscles that are under our voluntary control
(skeletal muscles) can cramp.
Cramps are
frequent with
Cramps of the extremities, especially the legs and feet, and most particularly the calf (the classic "charley
vigorous
Such cramps may come during the activity or later, sometimes many
hours later.
Likewise, muscle fatigue from sitting or lying for an extended
period in an awkward position or any repetitive use can cause cramps.
Older adults are at risk for cramps when performing vigorous or strenuous physical activities.
Rest cramps: Cramps at rest are very common, especially in older adults, but may be experienced at any
age, including childhood. Rest cramps often occur during the night. While not life-threatening, night
cramps (commonly known as nocturnal cramps) can be painful, disruptive of sleep, and they can recur
frequently (that is, many times a night, and/or many nights each week).
The actual cause of night cramps is unknown. Sometimes, such cramps are initiated by making a
movement that shortens the muscle. An example is pointing the toe down while lying in bed, which
shortens the calf muscle, a common site of cramps.
Dehydration: Sports and other vigorous activities can cause excessive fluid loss from perspiration. This
kind of dehydration increases the likelihood of true cramps. These cramps are more likely to occur in
warm weather and can be an early sign of heat stroke.
Chronic volume depletion of body fluids from diuretics (medicine that promote urination) and poor fluid
intake may act similarly to predispose to cramps in seniors.
HOW?
How can muscle cramps be prevented?
Activity: Authorities recommend stretching before and after exercise or sports, along with an adequate
warm-up and cooldown, to prevent cramps that are caused by vigorous physical activity.
Good hydration before, during, and after the activity is important, especially if the duration exceeds one
hour, and replacement of lost electrolytes (especially sodium and potassium, which are major components
of perspiration) can also be helpful.
Excessive fatigue, especially in warm weather, should be avoided.
Rest cramps: Night cramps and other rest cramps can often be prevented by regular stretching exercises,
particularly if done before going to bed.
Even the simple calf-stretching maneuver (described in the first
paragraph of the section on treatment), if held for 10 to 15
seconds and repeated two or three times just before going to
bed, can be a great help in preventing cramps.
Another important aspect of prevention of night cramps is
adequate calcium and magnesium. . Calcium intake of at least 1
gram daily is reasonable, and 1.5 grams may be appropriate,
particularly for women with osteoporosis.
An extra dose of calcium at bedtime may help prevent cramps.
Muscle cramps and Nutrition
Muscle cramps usually occur in the legs but sometimes in other parts of the body. They hurt a lot and are
inconvenient when you're out socializing or even just sleeping. However, you may be able to treat your
cramps through nutrition alone.
1. Drink plenty of fluids to prevent dehydration, which often leads to muscle cramps. Water is the most
nutritional substance humans can take and its always available--and we'll never run out of it. If you
exercise, you may also want to consume some fitness beverages to replace valuable electrolytes during or
after your workout.
2. Stock up on minerals because when minerals become unbalanced in your body, you can experience
muscle cramps. Focus on the big ones--calcium, magnesium, vitamin E, vitamin C and potassium. You
can take supplements or plan your diet so you're getting all the minerals you need from food.
3. Take it easy on the salt intake. Diets high in salt and low in fruits and vegetables can cause muscle
cramps.
Support in Aquatic Plants
Submerged plants
Eg. Hydrilla or Elodea sp
Fact : Thin, narrow, flexible leaves .
Explanation : provides little resistance to water flow.
Fact: Air sacs/ air spaces inside leaves and stems .
Explanation : which keep the plants afloat close to the surface to obtain maximum sunlight
Floating plants
Eg. Eichornia crassipes (water hyacinth)
Fact:Aerenchyma tissues in the stems and leaves //Aerenchyma are spongy tissues with large air spaces
between the cells.
Explanation:They provide buoyancy so that plants can float on the water surface