Starling

This article is about the bird family. For other uses, see
Starling (disambiguation).
Starlings are small to medium-sized passerine birds in
the family Sturnidae. The name Sturnidae comes from
the Latin word for starling, sturnus. Many Asian species,
particularly the larger ones, are called mynas, and many
African species are known as glossy starlings because
of their iridescent plumage. Starlings are native to the
Old World, from Europe, Asia and Africa, to northern
Australia and the islands of the tropical Pacic. Several European and Asian species have been introduced
to these areas as well as North America, Hawaii and New
Zealand, where they generally compete for habitat with
native birds and are considered to be invasive species.
The starling species familiar to most people in Europe
and North America is the common starling, and throughout much of Asia and the Pacic the common myna is
indeed common.

The common starling (Sturnus vulgaris) has iridescent plumage.

in domestication, can weigh up to 400 g (14 oz). Rivalling

the prior species in bulk if not dimensions, the mynas of
the genus Mino are also large, especially the yellow-faced
(M. dumontii) and long-tailed mynas (M. kreti). The
longest species in the family is the white-necked myna
(Streptocitta albicollis), which can measure up to 50 cm
(20 in), although around 60% in this magpie-like species
is comprised by its very long tail.[4]

Starlings have strong feet, their ight is strong and direct,

and they are very gregarious. Their preferred habitat is
fairly open country, and they eat insects and fruit. Several
species live around human habitation, and are eectively
omnivores. Many species search for prey such as grubs
by open-bill probing, that is, forcefully opening the bill
after inserting it into a crevice, thus expanding the hole
and exposing the prey; this behaviour is referred to by the
German verb zirkeln (pronounced [tskln]).[1]

There is less sexual dimorphism in plumage however,

with only 25 species showing such dierences between
the sexes. The plumage of the starling is often brightly
coloured due to iridescence; this colour is derived from
the structure of the feathers, not from any pigment. Some
species of Asian starling have crests or erectile feathers on the crest. Other ornamentation includes elongated
tail feathers and brightly coloured bare areas on the face.
These colours can be derived from pigments, or, as in the
Bali starling, structural colour, caused by light scattering
o parallel collagen bres. The irises of many species are
red and yellow, although those of younger birds are much
darker.[3]

Plumage of many species is typically dark with a metallic

sheen. Most species nest in holes, laying blue or white
eggs.
Starlings have diverse and complex vocalizations, and
have been known to embed sounds from their surroundings into their own calls, including car alarms and human
speech patterns. The birds can recognize particular individuals by their calls, and are currently the subject of
research into the evolution of human language.[2]

2 Distribution, habitat and movements

Description

Starlings are medium-sized passerines.[3] The shortestbodied species is Kenricks starling (Poeoptera kenricki),
at 15 centimetres (6 in), but the lightest-weight species is
Abbotts starling (Poeoptera femoralis), at 34 grams (1.2
oz). The largest starling, going on standard measurements
and perhaps weight, is the Nias hill myna (Gracula robusta). This species can measure up to 36 cm (14 in) and,

Starlings inhabit a wide range of habitats from the Arctic

Circle to the Equator, in fact the only habitat they do not
typically occupy is the driest sandy deserts. The family is naturally absent from the Americas and from large
parts of Australia, but is present over the majority of
Europe, Africa and Asia. The genus Aplonis has also
spread widely across the islands of the Pacic reaching
1

BEHAVIOUR

A murmuration of starlings preparing to roost, in Scotland

The chestnut-tailed starling is a partial migrant over much of the
east of its range, but its movements are poorly understood.

3 Behaviour

The starlings are generally a highly social family. Most

species associate in ocks of varying sizes throughout the
year. A ock of starlings is called a murmuration. These
ocks may include other species of starlings and sometimes species from other families. This sociality is particularly evident in their roosting behaviour; in the nonPolynesia, Melanesia and Micronesia[3] (in addition one breeding season some roosts can number in the thousands
species in the genus Mino has reached the Solomon Is- of birds.[3]
lands[5] ), it is also a species of this genus that is the only
starling found in northern Australia.[3]
Asian species are most common in evergreen forests; 39
species found in Asia are predominately forest birds as
opposed to 24 found in more open or human modied
environments. In contrast to this African species are
more likely to be found in open woodlands and savannah; 33 species are open area specialists compared to 13
true forest species. The high diversity of species found
in Asia and Africa is not matched by Europe, which has
one widespread (and very common) species and two more
restricted species. The European starling is both highly
widespread and extremely catholic in its habitat, occupying most types of open habitat. Like many other starling species it has also adapted readily to human-modied
habitat, including farmland, orchards, plantations and urban areas.[3]
Some species of starling are migratory, either entirely,
like the Shelleys starling, which breeds in Ethiopia and
northern Somalia and migrates to Kenya and southern Somalia, or the white-shouldered starling, which is migratory in part of its range but is resident in others.[3]
The European starling was purposefully introduced to
North America in 18901891 by the American Acclimatization Society, an organization dedicated to introducing European ora and fauna into North America for cultural and economic reasons. Eugene Schieelin, chairman at the time, allegedly decided all birds mentioned by
William Shakespeare should be in North America. The
bird had been mentioned in Henry IV, Part 1, and a hundred of them were released from New Yorks Central
Park.[6]

3.1 Mimic
Starlings imitate a variety of avian species and have a
repertoire of about 1520 distinct imitations. They also
imitate a few sounds other than those of wild birds.
The calls of abundant species, calls that are simple in
frequency structure and calls that show little amplitude
modulation are preferentially imitated. There are local dialects of mimicked sounds.[3] Starlings have also
been known to imitate other, man-made environmental
sounds, such as phone boxes and cars.

3.2 Diet and feeding

The diets of the starlings are usually dominated by fruits
and insects. Many species are important dispersers of
seeds in Asia and Africa, for example white sandalwood,
Indian Banyan. In addition to trees they are also important dispersers of parasitic mistletoes. In South Africa
the red-winged starling is an important disperser of the
introduced Acacia cyclops. Starlings have been observed
feeding on fermenting over-ripe fruit, which led to the
speculation that they might become intoxicated by the
alcohol.[3] Laboratory experiments on European starlings
have found that they have disposal enzymes that allow
them to break down alcohol very quickly.[7] In addition to consuming fruits, many starlings will also consume nectar. The extent to which starlings are important
pollinators is unknown, but at least some are, such as the
slender-billed starling of alpine East Africa, which polli-

Micronesian starlings have been observed feeding on the eggs of

seabirds.

nates giant lobelias.[3]

Systematics

The starlings belong to the superfamily Muscicapoidea,

together with thrushes, ycatchers and chats, as well as
dippers which are quite distant and Mimidae (thrashers and mockingbirds). The latter are apparently the
Sturnidaes closest living relatives, replace them in the
Americas, and have a rather similar but more solitary
lifestyle. They are morphologically quite similar too
a partly albinistic specimen of a mimid, mislabelled as
to suggest an Old World origin, was for many decades
believed to represent an extinct starling (see Rodrigues
starling for details).

Adult feeding

here. Sibley & Monroe(1990) included the mimids in

the family and demoted the starlings to tribe rank, as
Sturnini. This treatment was used by Zuccon et al.
(2006). However, the grouping of Sibley & Monroe
(besides leaving the subfamily rank vacant) is overly
coarse due to methodological drawbacks of their DNADNA hybridization technique and most of their proposed revisions of taxonomic rank have not been accepted (see for example Ciconiiformes). The all-inclusive
Sturnidae grouping is all but noninformative as regards
biogeography, and obscures the evolutionary distinctness
of the three lineages. Establishing a valid name for
the clade consisting of Sibley/Monroes pan-Sturnidae
would nonetheless be desirable to contrast them with the
other major lineages of Muscicapoidea.

Starlings probably originated in the general area of the

East Asia, perhaps towards the southwestern Pacic, as
evidenced by the number of plesiomorphic lineages to
occur there. Expansion into Africa appears to have occurred later, as most derived forms are found there. An
alternative scenario would be African origin for the entire
sturnoid (as per Zuccon et al. 2006) group, with the
European starling eggs
oxpeckers representing an ancient relict and the mimids
arriving in South America. This is contradicted by the
The oxpeckers are sometimes placed here as a subfamily, North American distribution of the most basal Mimibut the weight of evidence has shifted towards granting dae.(Cibois & Cracraft 2004, Zuccon et al. 2006)
them full family status as a more basal member of the As the fossil record is limited to quite Recent forms, the
Sturnidae-Mimidae group, derived from an early expan- proposed Early Miocene (about 2520 mya) divergence
sion into Africa.
dates for the sturnoids lineages must be considered exUsually the starlings are considered a family, as is done tremely tentative. Given the overall evidence for origin

4 SYSTEMATICS

of most Passeri families in the rst half of the Miocene,

it appears to be not too far o the mark however.(Zuccon
et al. 2006)
Recent studies (Cibois & Cracraft 2004, Zuccon et al.
2006) identied two major clades of this family, corresponding to the generally drab, often striped, largish
atypical mynas" and other mainly Asian-Pacic lineages,
and the often smaller, sometimes highly apomorphic taxa
which are most common in Africa and the Palearctic, usually have metallic coloration, and in a number of species
also bright carotinoid plumage colors on the underside.
Inside this latter group, there is a clade consisting of
species which, again, are usually not too brightly colored,
and which consists of the typical myna-Sturnus assemblage.
Interestingly, the Philippine creepers, a single genus of The Polynesian starling, Aplonis tabuensis, ranges from the
three species of treecreeper-like birds appear to be highly Solomon Islands to Tonga.
apomorphic members of the more initial radiation of the
Sturnidae (Zuccon et al. 2006). While this may seem
odd at rst glance, their placement has always been contentious. In addition, biogeography virtually rules out a
close relationship of Philippine creepers and treecreepers, as neither the latter nor their close relatives seem
have ever reached the Wallacea, let alone the Philippines.
Nonetheless, their inclusion in the Sturnidae is not entirely nal and eventually they may remain a separate family.
Genus sequence follows traditional treatments. This is
apparently not entirely correct, with Scissirostrum closer
to Aplonis than to Gracula for example, and Acridotheres
among the most advanced genera. Too few taxa have already been studied as regards their relationships however,
and thus a change in sequence has to wait.
The review by Lovette & Rubenstein (2008) is the most Hill mynas, Gracula species
recent work on the phylogeny of the group.[8]
Genus SarcopsColeto

4.1

Oriental-Australasian clade

Genus Streptocitta

Genus RhabdornisPhilippine creepers (three

species; placement here requires conrmation)
Genus AplonisPacic starlings (c.
species, 45 recently extinct)

20 living

Genus Mino
Yellow-faced myna, Mino dumontii

White-necked myna, Streptocitta albicollis

Bare-eyed myna, Streptocitta albertinae
Genus Enodesery-browed myna
Genus Scissirostrumnch-billed myna
Genus Ampelicepsgolden-crested myna

Golden myna, Mino anais

Genus Graculahill mynas (ve species)

Long-tailed myna, Mino kreti

Genus LeucopsarBali myna

Genus Basilornis
Sulawesi myna, Basilornis celebensis

4.2 Afrotropical-Palearctic clade

Helmeted myna, Basilornis galeatus

Genus Acridotherestypical mynas (eight species)

Long-crested myna, Basilornis corythaix

Genus Agropsar (sometimes included in Sturnus or

Sturnia) (2 species)

Apo myna, Basilornis mirandus

4.2

Afrotropical-Palearctic clade

African superb starling.

Cape starling (Lamprotornis nitens)

Genus Notopholia (sometimes placed in Lamprotornis)

Black-bellied starling, Notopholia corrusca

Genus Sturnia (sometimes included in Sturnus)

White-shouldered starling, Sturnia sinensis

Genus Lamprotornistypical glossy-starlings (20

species; monophyly requires conrmation)

Chestnut-tailed starling, Sturnia malabarica

Genus Cinnyricinclusviolet-backed starling

White-headed starling, Sturnia erythropygia

Genus Poeoptera (formerly Pholia, sometimes included in Cinnyricinclus)

Malabar starling, Sturnia blythii

Brahminy starling, Sturnia pagodarum
Genus Sturnustypical starlings (about 4 species;
includes probably valid genera Spodiopsar and
Temenuchus; but highly paraphyletic)

Sharpes starling, Poeoptera sharpii

Abbotts starling, Poeoptera femoralis
Genus Saroglossa (possibly paraphyletic)
Spot-winged starling, Saroglossa spiloptera
Madagascan starling, Saroglossa aurata
Genus Spreo (paraphyletic with Lamprotornis and
might be included there)
Pied starling, Spreo bicolor
Fischers starling, Spreo scheri
White-crowned starling, Spreo albicapillus
Genus Onychognathus
Red-winged starling, Onychognathus morio

Brahminy starling, Sturnia pagodarum, with nesting material at

Pocharam lake, Andhra Pradesh, India.

Slender-billed
tenuirostris
Chestnut-winged
fulgidus

starling,
starling,

Onychognathus
Onychognathus

Wallers starling, Onychognathus walleri

Genus Pastor rosy starling

Somali starling, Onychognathus blythii

Genus Gracupica 2 species

Socotra starling, Onychognathus frater

Genus Sturnorniswhite-faced starling

Genus Creatophorawattled starling

Tristrams starling, Onychognathus tristramii

Pale-winged
nabouroup

starling,

Onychognathus

7 FURTHER READING
Bristle-crowned starling, Onychognathus salvadorii
White-billed starling,
birostris

Onychognathus al-

Neumanns starling, Onychognathus neumanni

Genus Poeoptera
Narrow-tailed starling, Poeoptera lugubris
Stuhlmanns starling, Poeoptera stuhlmanni
Kenricks starling, Poeoptera kenricki
Genus Grasiawhite-collared starling
Genus Speculipastormagpie starling
Genus Neocichlababbling starling

4.3

Unresolved

The extinct Mascarene starlings are of uncertain relationships. Only one species is known from specimens
taken while the bird was still extant; the other remains
only known from subfossil bones and apparently one early
travellers description. The supposed Leguats starling
("Necropsar leguati") was eventually determined to be a
mislabeled albino specimen of the Martinique trembler
(Cinclocerthia gutturalis), a mimid.
As the avifauna of the Mascarenes is predominantly of
Indian origin though as old as to be highly distinct, it is
not clear to which clade these starlings belongor even if
they are indeed starlings, as the Runion starling at least
was highly aberrant and there have always been lingering
doubts about whether they are correctly placed here.
Genus FregilupusRunion starling (extinct,
1850s)
Genus NecropsarRodrigues starling (extinct, late
18th century?)

Starlings in art
Birds of Hindustan: starlings, called pandval. Illustration from a late 16th-century copy of the
Baburnama.

References

[1] R. East and R. P. Pottinger (November 1975). "(Sturnus vulgaris L.) predation on grass grub (Costelytra
zealandica (White), Melolonthinae) populations in Canterbury. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research (The Royal Society of New Zealand) 18 (4):
417452. doi:10.1080/00288233.1975.10421071. ISSN
0028-8233. (See p. 429.)

[2] Zimmer, Carl. Starlings Listening Skills May Shed

Light on Language Evolution. The New York Times, May
2, 2006. Accessed 14 January 2009.
[3] Craig, Adrian; Feare, Chris (2009). Family Sturnidae
(Starlings)". In del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Christie,
David. Handbook of the Birds of the World. Volume 14:
Bush-shrikes to Old World Sparrows. Barcelona: Lynx
Edicions. pp. 654709. ISBN 978-84-96553-50-7.
[4] Starlings & Mynas (Helm Identication Guide) by Chris
Feare. A&C Black (1998). ISBN 978-0713639612.
[5] Doughty, Chris; Day, Nicholas & Andrew Plant (1999).
Birds of The Solomons, Vanuatu & New Caledonia. London: Christopher Helm. ISBN 0-7136-4690-X.
[6] Mirsky, Steve (May 23, 2008). Shakespeare to Blame
for Introduction of European Starlings to U.S. Scientic
American Magazine. Retrieved November 14, 2012.
[7] Prinzinger, R.; Hakimi G.A. (1996). Alcohol resorption
and alcohol degradation in the European Starling Sturnus
vulgaris". Journal fur Ornithologie 137 (3): 319327.
doi:10.1007/BF01651072.
[8] Lovette, I., McCleery, B., Talaba, A., & Rubenstein,
D. (2008). A complete species-level molecular phylogeny for the Eurasian starlings (Sturnidae: Sturnus, Acridotheres, and allies): Recent diversication
in a highly social and dispersive avian group (PDF).
Molecular Phylogenetics & Evolution 47 (1): 251260.
doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2008.01.020. PMID 18321732.

7 Further reading
Cibois, A.; Cracraft, J. (2004). Assessing the
passerine 'tapestry': phylogenetic relationships of
the Muscicapoidea inferred from nuclear DNA sequences. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 32
(1): 264273. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2003.12.002.
PMID 15186812.
Lovette, I.J.; Rubenstein, D.R. A comprehensive molecular phylogeny of the starlings (Aves:
Sturnidae)" (PDF). Molecular Phylogenetics and
Evolution. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2007.03.017.
National Geographic Society (2002): Field Guide to
the Birds of North America. National Geographic,
Washington D.C. ISBN 0-7922-6877-6
Sibley, Charles Gald & Monroe, Burt L. Jr. (1990):
Distribution and taxonomy of the birds of the world:
A Study in Molecular Evolution. Yale University
Press, New Haven, CT. ISBN 0-300-04969-2
Zuccon, Dario; Cibois, Alice; Pasquet, Eric &
Ericson, Per G.P. (2006): Nuclear and mitochondrial sequence data reveal the major lineages
of starlings, mynas and related taxa. Molecular
Phylogenetics and Evolution 41(2): 333344.
doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2006.05.007

(HTML abstract)

PMID

16806992

7
Hindmarsh, Andrew M; et al. (1984): Vocal
Mimicry in Starlings (HTML abstract)

External links
Videos, photos and sounds - Internet Bird Collection
A murmuration of starlings (video)
How bird ocks are like liquid helium
Dylan Winter and the starling Murmurations (video)
Murmuration of Starlings - A Documentary Page on
the Web

9 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

9.1

Text

Starling Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starling?oldid=662940314 Contributors: William Avery, Youandme, Shyamal, Tannin,

Ronz, Jimfbleak, Muriel Gottrop~enwiki, Julesd, Glenn, Mxn, Hike395, JohnCastle, Smallweed, Henrygb, UtherSRG, Lupo, Dbenbenn, DocWatson42, MPF, Abigail-II, Everyking, Tagishsimon, Yath, JoJan, Kusunose, MINT, Mike Rosoft, DanielCD, Mwng, Hapsiainen, Evice, Kwamikagami, Aaronbrick, Dennis Valeev, Irishpunktom, Guy Harris, Sabines Sunbird, Hohum, Cromwellt, Cburnett,
LOL, Bkkbrad, Pol098, Dodiad, Sengkang, Isnow, BD2412, Vberger~enwiki, Rjwilmsi, Vary, Amire80, Opiax, SchuminWeb, Eubot,
Roarjo, Kelpi, Gdrbot, Wavelength, TFoxton, Rtkat3, Pigman, Thane, NawlinWiki, Dysmorodrepanis~enwiki, Lijealso, Melly42, Closedmouth, SmackBot, Elonka, Moeron, KnowledgeOfSelf, McGeddon, Vald, Cazort, Amatulic, Chris the speller, Mr. Wood, Goldnger820, J. Spencer, OrphanBot, Snowmanradio, Cunners, Flyguy649, Barney Stratford, Zeamays, Pilotguy, Lambiam, Harryboyles, IronGargoyle, Hu12, Iridescent, Dixonsej, Urutapu, Veggie26, Gogo Dodo, Jzburdge, Calvero JP, Casliber, Gam1n, Lajsikonik, Escarbot,
Motis, WinBot, Alanobrien, JAnDbot, PhilKnight, TheAllSeeingEye, Pvmoutside, Thehalfone, MartinBot, XRiRax, J.delanoy, 5Q5,
Callophylla, Extransit, Idioma-bot, Lights, VolkovBot, Sandhillcrane, Greensheep, Hey jude, don't let me down, Omonoid, Deargan, VanBuren, Alcmaeonid, PGWG, Shandy5, Williesnow, SieBot, Tresiden, Brazzouk, Caltas, DixonD, Rabo3, ClueBot, Jmgarg1, The Thing
That Should Not Be, Sting au, Harland1, CohesionBot, Sisterdetestai, Mihaiam~enwiki, Nicols10~enwiki, 7&6=thirteen, Tnxman307,
Panellet, SchreiberBike, ChrisHodgesUK, Gik, ZooFari, Addbot, Vchorozopoulos, CanadianLinuxUser, FCSundae, Quercus solaris,
Numbo3-bot, Lightbot, , Luckas-bot, Yobot, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Meotrangden, AnakngAraw, Citation bot, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Auralgo, Brambleshire, Amaury, LordNatonstan, Aberta, Basharh, Primenumbergirl, Fortdj33, Pepper, Gouerouz, Ihatestarlings, Citation
bot 1, Tmichealyn, Pinethicket, HRoestBot, Kathleen5454, AndrewvdBK, Dgreenheck, Greebobeck, EmausBot, Wikipelli, Brandmeister,
Jbergste, Teapeat, ClueBot NG, Gareth Grith-Jones, Emma dusepo, Theopolisme, Helpful Pixie Bot, Crucible6, Ornithodiez, Bekah
rchr, Littleboy58, Bigunit123, IjonTichyIjonTichy, Harrypotteros, Tillydad, Yogwi21, Klaaschwotzer, Shadout mapes, Easyaim, SwoperS,
Orcamania22, Monkbot, Filedelinkerbot, Atomic unicorn, Line 8 the Pink, Sourabh B06 and Anonymous: 130

9.2

Images

File:Aplonis_opaca.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Aplonis_opaca.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Sali Original artist: Peter
File:Beo.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/Beo.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Selfphotographed Original artist: Memset
File:Brahminy_Starling_(Sturnus_pagodarum)_W_IMG_0481.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/
Brahminy_Starling_%28Sturnus_pagodarum%29_W_IMG_0481.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist:
J.M.Garg
File:CIMG0623.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/CIMG0623.JPG License: CC0 Contributors: Own
work Original artist: Emma dusepo
File:Chestnut-tailed_Starling_I_IMG_2508.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Chestnut-tailed_
Starling_I_IMG_2508.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: J.M.Garg
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artist: ?
File:Lamprotornis_hildebrandti_-Tanzania-8-2c.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/Lamprotornis_
hildebrandti_-Tanzania-8-2c.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors:
Lamprotornis hildebrandti -Tanzania-8.jpg Original artist: Lamprotornis hildebrandti -Tanzania-8.jpg: Noel Feans
File:Lamprotornis_nitens,_Kruger.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Lamprotornis_nitens%2C_
Kruger.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Polynesian_Starling.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Polynesian_Starling.jpg License: CC BYSA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Duncan Wright
File:Starling_(5503763150).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/Starling_%285503763150%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Starling Original artist: Tim Felce (Airwolfhound)
File:Starling_eggs.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Starling_eggs.jpeg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Starling_murmuration.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Starling_murmuration.jpg License:
CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: From geograph.org.uk Original artist: Walter Baxter
File:Sturnus_vulgaris_vulgaris_2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Sturnus_vulgaris_vulgaris_2.
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9.3

Content license

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