Version

3
Updated 01/01/2015

CompTIA A+ Certification
220-801 Exam Notes
Featu res all exam -relevan t in fo rm atio n fro m th e Pro fesso r M esser vid eo s, th e M ike M eyers Co m p TIA A+ Certificatio n All-in -O n e Exam
G uide, 8th Ed., Skillsoft, W raysoft, Tran scen d er Test En gin e, Sim u latio n Exam s, an d Eli th e Co m p u ter G u y vid eo s.

Contents
HARDWARE ............................................................................................................................................................................ 3
BIOS ................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
Motherboards .................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Form Factors .................................................................................................................................................................. 4
Power Supplies .............................................................................................................................................................. 5
Expansion Slots .............................................................................................................................................................. 7
Busses & Chipsets .......................................................................................................................................................... 8
CPU .................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Types and Sockets ......................................................................................................................................................... 9
CPU Operation ............................................................................................................................................................. 12
RAM ................................................................................................................................................................................. 14
Storage Devices ............................................................................................................................................................... 16
Hard Disk Drive Operation ........................................................................................................................................... 16
PATA Drives ................................................................................................................................................................. 17
SATA Drives .................................................................................................................................................................. 18
SCSI Drives ................................................................................................................................................................... 19
Implementing RAID ...................................................................................................................................................... 20
Optical Formats ........................................................................................................................................................... 21
Flash Memory .............................................................................................................................................................. 22
External Connection Types .............................................................................................................................................. 23
Designing Custom Computer Systems ............................................................................................................................. 25
Display Devices and Connections .................................................................................................................................... 25
Display Devices ............................................................................................................................................................ 25
Display Connectors ...................................................................................................................................................... 29
Computer Peripherals ...................................................................................................................................................... 30
NETWORKING ...................................................................................................................................................................... 31
Network Connectors & Cabling ....................................................................................................................................... 31
TCP/IP .............................................................................................................................................................................. 34
IP .................................................................................................................................................................................. 35


TCP ................................................................................................................................................................................... 38
Wireless Networking ....................................................................................................................................................... 40
Wireless Standards ...................................................................................................................................................... 40
SOHO Configurations ................................................................................................................................................... 42
Internet Connection Types .............................................................................................................................................. 43
Network Types and Topologies ....................................................................................................................................... 45
Network Devices .............................................................................................................................................................. 46
Networking Tools ............................................................................................................................................................. 48
LAPTOPS .............................................................................................................................................................................. 49
Laptop Expansion Options ............................................................................................................................................... 49
Laptop Features ............................................................................................................................................................... 51
Laptop Displays ................................................................................................................................................................ 52
PRINTERS ............................................................................................................................................................................. 52
Laser Printers ................................................................................................................................................................... 52
Inkjet Printers .................................................................................................................................................................. 54
Thermal Printers .............................................................................................................................................................. 55
Impact Printers ................................................................................................................................................................ 56
Installing and Configuring Printers .................................................................................................................................. 56
OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES ............................................................................................................................................... 57
Computer Safety Procedures ........................................................................................................................................... 57
Environmental Controls ................................................................................................................................................... 58
Communication and Professionalism .............................................................................................................................. 58

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HARDWARE
BIOS

BIOS (Basic Input/Output Services)

o Lets the CPU understand the codebook for an attached device in order to communicate with it
o Usually 2MB in size
Option ROM = BIOS information stored on outside devices that are not part of the system
BIOS. Usually it is a chip on a piece of hardware.
Device drivers have largely replaced the Option ROM, with the exception of video cards
o Virtual machines are controlled by the BIOS
o The RTC (Real Time Clock) is a chip that stores BIOS clock information
CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor)
o Chip that stores system settings
o Battery is known as the clock battery
o Now built into the Southbridge
o Resetting is useful for hardware compatibility issues
Additionally, using a jumper or choosing the default configuration option in the setup utility
will reset the BIOS
o To overclock a CPU in CMOS setup utility, go to the CPUID value under Performance
Alternatively, some BIOS software offers M.I.T (MB Intelligent Tweaker) that is used to
overclock on some systems
o Disable writing to boot sector to prevent certain viruses from writing to it
POST (Power On Self-test)
o In POST:
1. BIOS is initialized and checked
2. CPU registers are verified
3. Size of RAM, and its integrity are checked
4. System devices are checked and initialized
5. Boot device with highest priority is selected and MBR is executed
o POST card is needed if BIOS POST doesnt work
TPM (Trusted Platform Module)
o Used for cryptographic acceleration (i.e. BitLocker Drive Encryption)
DRM (Digital Rights Management) for network access and control
ACPI Power States
o Full On = no power management
o ACPI Enabled = only the unused devices are shut down
o ACPI Standby = CPU is stopped
o ACPI Suspend = Hibernation mode
o GO (SO) = working state
o G1 (Sleeping state mode)
S1: computer is on, monitor is blank
S2: computer is on, processor is off
S3: computer is off, RAM is on (sleep mode)
S4: RAM contents are copied to hard drive, then computer is turned off
o G2 (Soft power mode)
o G3 (Mechanical off mode)
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Motherboards
Form Factors

AT
o 12 x 13
o Original motherboard, used throughout the 1980s and into the 1990s
o Only had a keyboard connector
o P8/P4 split power socket
o Includes Baby AT (BAT)
LPX (Low Profile Extended)
NLX
o Goes into a riser card
o Low end systems
o 8 x 10 to 9 x 13.6
o Largely replaced by microATX
ATX (Advanced Technology Extended)
o Improved cooling by placing the CPU and memory in-line with the PSU fan
o Standard ATX
12 x 9.6
20 or 24 pin power connector (24 pin for more graphics/high end processing)
Maximum of seven expansion slots
o microATX
6.75 x 6.75 to 9.6 x 9.6

Limited expansion slots
4 DIMM slots
Backwards compatible
Can possibly be used for an HTPC, but Mini-ITX is better due to low power requirements
o Mini-ATX = 5.9 x 5.9
o FlexATX
For customized systems
9 x 7.5
Has its own power supply, even though ATX ones work
SFX12V Standard power supply
ITX
o Mini-ITX: 6.7 x 6.7 (used in HTPCs)
2 DIMM slots
o Nano-ITX: 4.7 x 4.7
o Pico-ITX: 3.9 x 2.8
o Mobile-ITX: 2.4 x 2.4
o Low power, less fan noise
o For small form factor
o Less expandable
o Fits with ATX cases
BTX
o Made in 2004
o Cant fit in ATX case, but can use ATX power supply
o Designed to optimize airflow by placing the CPU at the front of the motherboard to receive
more cool air coming in from the front of the computer case
In nonintegrated motherboards, each component is in an expansion slot
Old motherboards used jumpers to determine the bus speed
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Case fans
o Motherboard layout must be efficient
o Fan sizes include 80mm, 120mm, and 200mm
Standouts are metal connectors that attack the motherboard to the case
NIC is integrated on the motherboard
o Contains a link light that indicates network status
Solid green = connectivity
Flashing green = intermittent connectivity
No green = no connectivity
Flashing amber = collisions on network

Power Supplies

A power supply converts AC (Alternating Current) from the wall to DC (Direct Current) that the PC can
use
o Provides three rails: 3.3V, 5V, and 12V
o Onboard electronics use 3.3V and 5V rails
o Hard drives and optical drives (or anything with a motor) use 12V rails
o AC = direction of current constantly reverses and distributes electricity efficiently over long
distances
Represented by squiggly line
A multimeter or circuit tester can be used to test AC output
Red = hot, black = ground
o DC = current moves in one direction with a constant voltage
Represented by solid black line over a dotted black line

Has polarity
o USA/Canada: 110 to 120 volts @ 60 Hz (~115V)
o Europe: 220 to 240 volts @ 50 Hz (~230V)
o Sag = when the voltage drops bellow 115/230
o Spike/Surge = when the voltage jumps above 115/230
o Some power supplies have cables built in, others just have the option to connect, but no cables
o Power supplies may have a 115V and 230V switch (switching power supply)
Electricity = the flow of negatively charged particles through matter
Ampere (A) = the rate of electron flow/current (1A = 6.242x1018 electrons per second)
Voltage (V) = electrical pressure pushing electrons (like a garden hose)
Watt (W) = measurement of real power usage
o Volts x Amps = Watts
o Also known as Work
Resistance = friction that resists the flow of electrons
Inverter = DC to AC
Rectifier = AC to DC
Transformer = ratio of voltage to current
Circuit Breaker = detects heat and is rated at a certain amperage. It stops flow of electricity if it gets too
hot
Power Conditioner = protects from RFI (Radio Frequency Interference) and EMI (Electromagnetic
Interference)
Surge Suppressor = protects from spikes/surges
o Spikes are diverted to ground
o Will also filter out line noise (high dB is better)
o Energy measured in Joules (200, 400 are good, but look for 600 as that is best)
o Higher amp ratings are better
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o
o

Complies with the UL 1449 standards
Ratings at 500, 400, and 330 volts (lower is better)

UPS (Uninterruptable Power Supply) = contains a battery and uses AVR (Automatic Voltage Regulation)
to protect against brownouts and blackouts
o Come in three different types:
Online: always powered by the battery
Standby: battery is only used when power sags below 80-90V
Line-interactive: contains special circuitry to handles sags without the use of the battery
Features of a UPS include auto shutdown, battery capacity, outlets, and phone line
suppression
Any outlet must be grounded in order to be suitable for PC use
The golden rule is to use 33% more power than required for a computer system
o Power supplies never run at 100% efficiency, but rather 80%
Power Supply Dimensions = 150mm x 140mm x 86mm
Power supplies usually come with the motherboard case
Power supplies are a FRU (Field Replaceable Unit)
o FRUs are what every technician should have that is immediately accessible
o Hard drives and RAM are also FRUs
Active PFC = Built into some PSUs, it is a method of including extra circuits to eliminate harmonics and
smooth overall electricity flow
o Harmonics = back pressure from electrical current that creates a humming noise
o Active PFC provides environmentally friendly power
Motherboard Power Supply
o Has a 20-pin or 24-pin P1 power connector
o Power supplies supply the motherboard 5V at all times
o AMD CPUs used Aux power connections while Intel used P4
o Uses Molex connectors
Molex makes the standard 4-pin power connector used to power peripherals
Red wires are 5V and yellow wires are 12V
Does not provide 3.3V
o ATX12V Standard
Included the P4 power connector to provide dedicated power to a high-end CPU
Included a 6-pin Aux connector to supply additional 3.3V to 5V to the motherboard
o ATX12V 2.0 Standard
Included a 24-pin power connector, but extra 4-pins detached for backwards
compatibility in v2.1 (v2.2 did not have the detachable feature)
Extra 4-pins gives an extra 12V
Included SATA power connectors
o EPS12V Standard
Used for servers
Provided a 24-pin power connection
Included an Aux, P4, and an 8-pin connector for the CPU
o TFX12V Standard was used for low profile ATX systems
o SFX12V Standard was used for Flex-ATX systems
o The 6/8-pin Aux PCIe power connector increases the power consumption limit for devices
6-pin increases to 75W
8-pin increases to 150W
o The 4/8-pin Aux power connecter is used to supply dedicated power for a high-end CPU
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Expansion Slots

PCI
Capable of running in sync with system clock
Uses parallel communication
Had a burst mode feature that allowed more efficient data transfers
2 IDE controllers on a standard motherboard
PCI Speeds:
133 MB/s (32-bit at 33 MHz): 5v
266 MB/s (32-bit at 66 MHz or 64-bit at 33 MHz)
533 MB/s (64-bit at 66 MHz): 3.3v
o 64-bit expansion slots are bigger but more rare than 32-bit ones
o If a PCI card has a 32-bit data transfer, there will equivalently be 32 wires to make the
connection
Mini-PCI = for laptops, not multipurpose like regular PCI
PCI-X (PCI eXtended)
o Designed for servers
o 4x clock speed of regular PCI (1064 MB/s)
o Mainly 64-bit slots, but 32-bit also exists
o PCI-X 2.0:
PCI-X 66 (66 MHz)
PCI-X 133 (133 MHz)
PCI-X 266 (266 MHz)
PCI-X 533 (533 MHz)
AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port)
o Graphics slot before PCIe
o Can be thought of as a PCI slot with a direct connection to the Northbridge
o Parallel communication
o Uses strobing
Increases signals 2, 4 and 8 times per clock cycle
o Uses Pipelining commands (just like the CPU)
o Uses sidebanding
A 2nd data bus that sends commands directly to the Northbridge while receiving other
commands at the same time
o Uses system memory access
If onboard VRAM is full, it is allowed to steal chunks from the system RAM
o Dark brown and shorter than PCI
o AGP Types:
AGP 1x (266 MB/s)
AGP 2x (522 MB/s)
AGP 1.0, 3.3v
AGP 4x (1.07 GB/s)
AGP 2.0, 1.5v
AGP 8x (2.1 GB/s)
AGP 3.0, 0.8v
PCI Express (PCIe)
o Has individual/unidirectional serial lanes so it doesn't slow down the system
o Point-to-point serial communication (instead of PCIs shared parallel)
Direct connection to the Northbridge
o Uses a 6-pin (75 watts) or 8-pin (150 watts) power connector
o Comes in different forms: x1, x2, x4, x8, x16, x32
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o
o
o
o
o

x1 is for general purpose
x16 is the most common and used for video cards
o Duplex lanes (two per "x[]")
One wire to send, one wire to receive
o Supports AGPs and system memory access
o Up to 16 GB/s
o Per lane throughput:
v1.x = 250 MB/s (2.5 Gbps)
v2.x = 500 MB/s (5 Gbps)
v3.0 = 1 GB/s (8 Gbps)
v4.0 = 2 GB/s 16 (Gbps)
o Yellow colored, vary in size depending on number of lanes
o PCIe Mini exists for mobile devices
Has a 52-pin card edge
ISA = legacy, black, 2 sections, up to 8 MB/s
AMR/CNR
o No longer in use (legacy)
o AMR was for AMD motherboards exclusively
o CNR was for Intel motherboards exclusively
o For modems, soundcards, and network cards
o Small yellow expansion slot
Riser cards are also known as daughterboards
o Usually dark brown
o 1/3 the size of a PCI slot
The expansion bus is not in sync with the system clock, but instead has a different speed that is set by
the expansion bus crystal
o Runs slower than the front side bus, so the chipset compensates for this with wait states and
buffering areas
Missing expansion slot covers can cause a PC to overhead because it disrupts the airflow inside the case
Steps for installing an expansion card:
1. Knowledge
Does it work with the PC and the operating system?
2. Physical Installation
Grab card at edges and do not touch the contacts
Wear an anti-static wrist strap
Cleaning is a bad idea
3. Device Drivers
Install the card first
Better idea to install the drives that came with the disk, rather than going through the
Add Hardware Wizard
64-bit drives must be approved by Microsoft in Vista and Windows 7
4. Verify
To ensure that the card is working, send it through a test run

Busses & Chipsets

Front Side Bus (FSB) connects CPU and Northbridge

o Composed of the address bus and the external data bus
o Controlled by system clock, 66-333 MHz
o Connection between CPU and memory controller
o 1333 MHz or 1.33 GHz max speed
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Double pumping = sending instruction on rise and fall of clock signal, multiplying data
transfer rate by 2
Quad pumping = sending instruction on the rise, fall, and midway points, multiplying
data transfer rate by 2
CPU and MCC send 64-bits of data 2-4 times per clock cycle @ 400 MHz
Back Side Bus (BSB) connects CPU to CPU cache (usually L2)
o Same clock rate as the CPU
Bus Architecture
o Bus Width = 8 64 bits
o Address Bus sends commands to all motherboard-connected components (analogy: envelope)
o External Data Bus sends data to all the motherboard-connected components (analogy: contents)
o High-Speed Graphics Bus connects Northbridge to Graphics Adaptor Slot
o Memory Bus connects Northbridge to Memory Banks
o Internal Bus connects Northbridge to Southbridge
o PCI Bus connects Southbridge to Onboard Graphics Controller & also the PCI Expansion Slots
o Low Pin Count (LPC) Bus connects Southbridge to Flash BIOS ROM and Super I/O
Intel and NVIDA are the two biggest chipset manufactures
Northbridge = Memory Controller Chip (MMC)
o Needs heat sink, possibly fan
o Modern CPUs do the function of the Northbridge, so they are no longer found
Southbridge = I/O Controller Hub (ICH) for Intel or Fusion Controller Hub (FCH) for AMD
o Connects lower speed devices such as USB, FireWire, SATA, NIC, etc
o Onboard graphics controller has a Southbridge connection
Super I/O (Serial & Parallel Port Control, Floppy Drive Control, Keyboard & Mouse
o Separate chip from Southbridge
Jumpers
o Both pins covered = shorted
o Un-jumpered is both not covered
o Alt-jumped = more than two-pins and moving the cap to a different set of pins
o Cable Select (CS) = determines master and slave positions of drives
Common with ATA 66/100/133 cables
Needs a special cable with a pinhole through one wire
Clock Speed = how much data is passing per second
o Computer clock speed refers to the CPUs operating speed
o Clock/bus speed doesn't equal data transfer rates
o Local bus: in sync with system clock
The system crystal sets the data speed for the entire motherboard
Thus every chip that connects to the motherboard will have a CLK wire

CPU

Types and Sockets

CPU Types (not specifically listed in 220-801 exam objectives, but useful to know for socket questions)

History of Intel CPUs
History of AMD CPUs
Pentium K5

60 233 MHz Competitive with Pentium
64-bit data bus, 32-bit address bus 75-133MHz
246-pin PGA

Pentium Pro

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36-bit K6

150-200 MHz Competitive with Pentium II
166-550MHz
Pentium II 296-PGA
Used SECC instead of PGA Introduced 3D NOW

Slot 1
Celeron K7 (Athlon)

266 MHz 560 MHz to 1.4 GHz
Athlon XP (competitive with Pentium 4)

Pentium III

PGA

1.3-2.16 GHz
Duron (Celeron)
370-pin 600 MHz to 1.8 GHz
Up to 1.4 GHz

Fast FSB

PGA
423-pin or 478-pin
Up to 3.8 GHz

Pentium IV

K8 (Athlon 64)
Sempron (1.8 to 2.6 GHz w/ L2 cache of
250 KB)
Turion (1.8 to 2.4 GHz)

K10 (Athlon X2)

1.9-2.9 GHz
2MB L3 cache
For laptops Athlon II X2 (3 GHz)
Socket 479 Phenom (1.8-3.3 GHz 3-core)

Pentium M

Pentium D
Featured two cores
2.8 3.2 GHz per core

Pentium EE

Only worked with Intel 955x or

NVidaForce4

Intel Core

De-emphasized clock speed and focused

on speed of FSB, L2 Cache, and IPC
Featured Core and Core 2 (Duo, Quad, and
Extended)

Nehalem

256-bit L2 cache, 12 MB L3 cache

2, 4, or 6 cores (i3, i5, i7)

Sandy Bridge

i3 3MB L3 cache, turbo boost disabled

i5 6MB L3 cache

i7 15MB L3 cache, 3.3-3.9 GHz

Operated on LGA 1153

CPU Sockets

Intel

Also called Socket T
Used in Pentium 4, Intel Core 2 Duo,
Xeon, and Celeron processor

Supports DDR2/DDR3 memory

AMD
LGA 775 Socket 940
PGA, ZIF package
Used in Opteron and Athlon 64 FX
Designed for 64-bit servers
Support for DDR memory

LGA 1366 Socket AM2

940 pins
PGA, ZIF package
No backward compatibility with Socket 940
Used in Athlon 64 (FX, X2) and Phenom Xx
Supports DDR2 memory
Athlon 64 X2 will have limited
LGA 1156 capabilities if used with Socket 940
Also called Socket H1 or simply
Socket H

Also called Socket B

Replacement to LGA 775

Used in Intel Core i7 (Nehalem)
Supports DDR3 (triple-channel) memory

Socket F

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Also replaces LGA 775
Used in Core i3/i5/i7 (Nehalem)

First CPU types to integrate
Northbridge on the CPU
Supports DDR3 (dual-channel) memory

1,207 pins
LGA package
Designed for servers
Used in Athlon 64 FX
Supports DDR2 memory
Faster throughput to FSB

LGA 1155
Socket AM2+

Also called Socket H2
Used in Intel Sandy Bridge and Ivy
Bridge microprocessors (Core i3/i5/i7)

Not compatible with LGA 1156
Supports DDR3 (dual channel) memory

940 pins
PGA, ZIF package
Backwards compatible with Socket AM2 (may
need BIOS upgrade)
Faster communication than Socket AM2 and
better power management

Socket AM3
940 pins
PGA, ZIF package
Backwards compatible (with BIOS upgrade)
Used with Athlon II/Phenom II
Support for DDR2/DDR3 (dual channel)
memory

Socket AM3+
942 pins
PGA, ZIF package
AM3 processor can fit in socket, but not
the other way around
Used with Athlon II/Phenom II
Support for DDR2/DDR3 (dual channel)
memory

Socket FM1
905 pins
PGA, ZIF package
Used with A-Series processors/ Athlon II
Supports DDR3 (dual-channel) memory

Socket form factors

o DIP = Dual In-line Package
Intel 8088
Old, difficult to install
o SECC (Single Edge Contact Cartridge)
Intel Pentium II
Slot 1
Looks like an expansion card, easier to install
Took up a lot of room due to heat sinks
o PGA (Pin Grid Array) - pins on CPU
Intel Pentium III
Socket 370
o ZIF (Zero Insertion Force) socket
o LGA (Land Grid Array)
Reverse PGA (pins on motherboard, so easier to damage the motherboard)
Intel Pentium 4, AMD Opteron, Intel Sandy Bridge (i3, i5, i7), Ivy Bridge

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CPU Operation
How a CPU works:
There is an External Data Bus (EDB) that sends data all around the computer. The EDB meets the CPU at its pins and
goes into the CPU. Voltage is applied to certain pins to indicate if that pin is on (1) or off (0). This data of on/off wires
from the EDB is stored in the internal CPU Registers (Ax, Bx, Cx, Dx) where charges from EDB are stored. Once data
is in CPU registers, it is processed thanks to a thing called the Instruction Set, where these 8-bit (or more) lines of
code consisting of 1s and 0s are made into language that the CPU can understand. A Clock Wire (CLK Wire) has
voltage applied to which tells the CPU to process the next set of instructions. Voltage applied per second is
determined by the Clock Chip, which gives the CLK Wire voltage. The system crystal (quartz oscillator) is responsible
for sending out pluses of electricity in the first place. Thus the Clock Speed is the number of processes the CPU
makes per second, all determined by the amount of pulses sent by the Clock Chip. Then it can be understood that
Overclocking is simply manually setting the Clock Chip to send pulses faster than the designated CPU speed. Old
processors like the Intel 8088 required careful calculations to make sure the motherboard provides the correct Clock
Speed it needs, but todays CPU tells the motherboard the Clock Speed it needs, and the Clock Chip automatically
adjusts.

Reference signal, otherwise known as the bus speed or system speed, is the signal entering the CPU
o CPU speed is thus how many times faster it is than the reference signal
MMX and SSE are new CPU registers for streaming
Pipelining (CPU processing stages)
1. Fetch = CPU pulls data from the EDB
2. Decode = CPU finds a command to execute
3. Execute = CPU performs the calculation
4. Write = CPU sends the result of the calculation back to the EDM
o Sub processors to do different types of calculations
ALU (integer unit) handles basic math calculations and comparisons
FPU (floating point unit) handles complex numbers
Parallel Execution = executing multiple commands in parallel
o Useful when running many programs at once
o Dual core processors use third-level parallelism (TLP)
o The CPU will run multiple pipelines simultaneously
Cache memory
o Small amount of SRAM built into the CPU
System RAM is too slow, CPU needs RAM that is more accessible
Having CPU cache memory greatly reduces pipeline stalls
o Very fast
o Holds data, instructions, or results
o Cache Levels:
Level 1 = smallest and fastest
Data is stored as it waits to be processed, on the CPU
Level 2 = larger and slower
Located off the CPU
Level 3 = largest, slowest
Located off the CPU, between the L2 cache and system memory
Hyperthreadding (HTT)
o Takes one CPU and makes it look like two CPUs
o Doesn't work as fast as two, but performance increase is 15% to 30%
o Rule is two virtual cores for every physical core
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o OS must be written for HTT (Windows XP or later)
o Form of simultaneous multithreading (SMT)
Throttling = running CPU at a lower voltage to reduce heat and energy
o Demonstrated by Intels SpeedStep
CPU runs at low power until higher power is needed
Used in mobile processors often
Overclocking = running at a higher voltage and speed to improve performance
Virtualization = running more than one OS on a machine
o Introduced in Pentium 4s, used VT-X (Intels virtualization)
o AMDs Virtualization is AMD-V
o Page table virtualization with RVI
o Hypervisor is a software program designed to manage multiple operating systems on a single
computer
Math co-processor = used to perform additional complicated processes
Graphics processing Unit (GPU)
o Latest CPUs have the GPUs integrated on the chip
o Also called APU
o GPGPU = helps process algorithms in parallel with CPU
Only for non-graphics applications
Multicore processors requires less space and generate less heat than multi-processor systems
o Cache memory and RAM are shared
IRQ Codes = Lets a device interrupt the CPU from what it is currently processing to instead process what
that particular device is requesting
PIO (Programmable Input/Output)
o Programmed instructions guide data across the correct data path
o CPU talks to peripherals via BIOS to send/receive
o CPU must interpret these instructions, so it slows the system down considerably
DMA (Direct Memory Access) = Moves data directly to and from the RAM without any CPU intervention
by use of a controller.
o Third-party DMA = requires a controller (the third party) that is shared by multiple peripherals
and integrated into the chipset to move data between a device (first party) and the RAM (third
party).
Slowest mode of DMA
o First-party DMA (Bus Mastering) = improves speed by using only half the bus cycles of PIO or
third-party DMA. The DMA controller will take over the system bus and notify the CPU when the
data transfer is complete.
CPUs can now house processor cores, memory controller, and graphics processing unit (GPU)
CPU Cooling:
o Heat sink
Thermal grease is designed to keep a good connection between CPU and heat sink
o Liquid cooling
For high end systems, gaming PCS, and overclocked PCS
o Phase-change cooling
o Liquid immersion
o Heat Pipe
Hollow pipe where liquid coolant is in the pipe
No moving parts, but ineffective above certain temperatures

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RAM

When a file is opened, it gets taken from the hard drive and copied to RAM, and then once it is finished,
the same data, now updated, gets copied back to the hard drive.
o RAM acts as a buffer for data between hard drives and CPU
RAM stores bytes in rows (8 bits per row) in which the MCC grabs and puts it on the EDB for the CPU to
process.
32-bit systems = 4GB max
64-bit systems = 17 billion GB max (128GB limit that Windows puts on machines)
Volatile = not permanent, requires electrical current
Better to use a larger stick than multiple smaller ones
Bandwidth = "width" of memory bus
o Bytes transferred per clock cycle
o Memory bandwidth = 8, 16, 32, 64 bits
Width of memory module
Virtual Memory = allows the use of hard drive space as memory
o A page file is stored on a block of cylinders on the hard drive to make this work
Page file size is always 1.5 times the amount of installed RAM
File is called PAGEFILE.SYS located in root directory C: and hidden
2 slots = 1 bank
RAM Types
o Read Only Memory (ROM)
PROM (Programmable ROM)
Write once
EPROM (Erasable PROM)
Write/Erase/Write Again
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable PROM)
Flash memory
o SIMM (Single In-line Memory Module)
30 & 72 Pin
Not all follow the standard/not swappable
o DIMM (Dual Inline Memory Module)
64 bit data width = more info per clock cycle
Include SDRAM, DDR, DDR2, and DDR3
o RIMM (Rambus Inline Memory Module)
16 bit (184 pins) and 32-bit (232 pins)
Holds RDRAM
Generates a lot of heat and is expensive
Every slot must be filled, even if you need to put blank modules such as:
32-bit: Continuity and Termination RIMMs (CT-RIMM)
16 bit: Continuity RIMMs (C-RIMM)
o SRAM (Static RAM)
Very fast, very expensive
Used in processor caches (L1, L2, L3)
Don't refresh, but still volatile
o DRAM (Dynamic RAM)
Dynamic = needs constant refreshing
Uses additional electricity which slows speed
o SDRAM (Synchronous DRAM)
168-pins
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Clock Speeds: 66, 100, or 133 MHz
Data Transfer Rates: 528 MB/s 1.1 GB/s
Synchronous with system clock
Labeled with same speed of memory clock bus: ( ie: 133 MHz = PC133)
3.3V
o RDRAM (Rambus DRAM)
189-pins
Clock Speeds: 300 800 MHz
Data Transfer Rates: 1.2 GB/s 6.4 GB/s
Introduced with the 400 MHz FSB Pentium 4
Expensive, third party, uncommon
o DDR SDRAM (Double Data Rate SDRAM)
184-pins
Clock Speeds: 100 250 MHz (double pumps)
Data Transfer Rates: 1.6 4 GB/s
NOT synchronous with system clock
2.5V
o DDR2 SDRAM
240-pins
Clock Speeds: 200 500 MHz
Data Transfer Rates: 3.2 8.3 GB/s
Buffers (4-bits) were added to increase I/O circuits on chips, effectively clock doubling
them
Latency was thus increased
1.8V
o DDR3 SDRAM
240-pins but wont fit into DDR2 slot (different notch locations)
Clock Speeds: 400 800 MHz
Data Transfer Rates: 6.4 12.8 GB/s
Twice the buffer size of DDR2 (8-bit)
Introduced a feature called XMP (Extreme Memory Profile) which allowed for
overclocking of RAM
Also is capable of triple-channel memory
Only supported by Intel LGA 1366
1.5V
CAS (Column Address Strobe/Select)
o CL (CAS Latency) = time it takes for electricity to charge wires/pins
Delay between when Northbridge requests data to when it is actually available on the
pins
Lower the CL number, faster the data transfer
Error checking:
o Parity memory
Additional parity bit, won't always detect, can't correct itself
Parity Checking = adds an extra bit to every bite
Odd parity = 1 if sum of bits in byte is even, 0 if odd
Even parity = 0 if sum of bits in byte is even, 1 if odd
o ECC (Error Correcting Code)
Detects errors and corrects them immediately, but operates slower because of this
72-bit RAM is 64-bit RAM with 8-bits for ECC
Only found in specialized systems, making it very rare
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RAM has a SPD (Serial Presence Detect) chip that tells the OS information about it
If the chip is bad the OS will not boot
Single-sided vs. Double-sided memory
o Ranks = groups of memory on a module that can be independently accessed
o RAM has 8, 16 or 32 chips per module
o Single-sided memory = all memory can be accessed at once
o Double-sided memory = only one bank at a time
Dual-channel
o Started with RDRAM and DDR RAM
o Filling up both RAM sockets of the same color with 64-bit RAM will achieve this if the
motherboard/OS supports dual-channel memory
o May improve performance, but doesnt make a huge difference over single-channel memory
Mixing RAM speeds is doable, but will certainly lead to system instability
o Not even possible if double pumping
o

Storage Devices

Hard Disk Drive Operation

Microscopic magnetized regions on the platter act as 1s and 0s in a sense. Because these regions are
polar, they sometimes switch magnetic fields in what is called a flux reversal. The read/write head is able
to identify locations of these flux reversals by identifying the electrical current they give off and thus
read data. This process, throughout history, has been done in two ways:
o RLL (Run Length Limited)
Any combination of 0s and 1s can be preset into 15 different runs in which the
read/write heads read as a group.
Max run length = 7
o PRML (Partial Response Maximum Likelihood)
Uses circuitry to make a best guess in determining locations of flux reversals
Max run length = 16-20
Perpendicular recording = a method of storing flux reversals vertically in order to increase storage
capacity.
Hard drive capacity is determined by the following equation:
o (# of cylinders) x (# of heads) x (sectors/track) x (bytes/sector)
Inside a hard disk drive:
o Platters several of them, each with their own ID and can be recorded on both sides
Middle of platter is called the spindle
Two read/write head per platter (plus a one or two for the drives own use)
o Tracks groups of circles on a platter
o Sector 512 bytes, slice-size groups on a platter
o Cluster multiple sectors
Smallest file sizes exist here (512 bytes of one sector is too small for a file)
o Cylinder tracks of the same diameter on both sides of all platters
One empty cylinder used to be dedicated to a landing zone in which the read/write head
would rest on when the drive is not in operation.
o Thus, cylinder on a track, cluster on a track, sector on a cluster
o Actuator controls the arm, the arm has the read/write head which reads the data off of the
platter
Read/write head doesnt actually rest on the platter, just a hairs thickness above it
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A stepper motor originally moved the actuator, but proved to misalign over time,
causing data transfer errors.
The voice coil currently moves the actuator in hard drives
Voice coils uses magnetic fields to move actuator
Seek time the time it takes for read/write head to move from one track to the other
HDDs have a cache size of 2-64MB
Spindle speed = 5400 RPM 15,000 RPM
o Bay fans fix overheating problems with high RPM drives.
Sector translation identifies locations of each block on HDD
o Provided a work around to the BIOS hard drive size limit of 1024/16/63 by having the hard drive
tell CMOS its physical geometry when it is really telling CMOS its the logical geometry
o LBA (Logical Block Addressing) for WesternDigital
o ECHS (Extended CHS) for Seagate
Master Boot Record (MBR)
o On the first sector of the hard drive (512 bytes)
o Contains table of primary partitions, disk signature, and directions for starting OS
DriveLock (ATA Security Mode Feature Set)
o Located in BIOS, it protects the hard drive from unwanted access
Microdrive (MD)
o A miniature 1-inch HDD designed to fit into a CF (Compact Flash) Type II slot
Also called a CF Card
Now obsolete

PATA Drives

PATA (Parallel AT Attachment)

o Dates back to PC/AT
o Built-in controller
o Initially intended for hard drives
o Blue connectors on the drive are used to set master/slave
o 18-inch length limit
o 4-pin Molex power connecter
o IDE controllers have the IRQ code of 9
o Originally called IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics)
2nd generation EIDE (Enhanced IDE)
o IDE, EIDE, and PATA are all interchangeable (they mean the same thing)
o Speeds range from 16 MB/s to 133 MB/s
Cable types:
o 40-wire
Device 0 = Master (closest to motherboard)
Device 1 = Slave
o 80-wire
Device 1 = Slave (closest to motherboard)
Device 0 = Master
Additional 40 wires on 80-wire cable are grounding wires, eliminating cross-talk
ATA Standards
o ATA-1: Introduced BIOS compatibility, offered no more that two devices per computer, and used
PIO and Single-word DMA speed methods
PIO:
Mode 0 = 3.3 MB/s
Mode 1 = 5.2 MB/s
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Mode 2 = 8.3 MB/s
Single-word DMA:
Mode 0 = 2.1 MB/s
Mode 1 = 4.8 MB/s
Mode 2 = 8.3 MB/s
ATA-2: Called EIDE, allowed non-hard drive devices using a primary and secondary controller
(thus introducing ATAPI), introduced sector translation (LBA) to obtain higher storage capacities
(up to 4 GB), allowed 4 devices per controller, and introduced new PIO modes and Multi-word
DMA.
ATAPI (ATA Packet Interface)
A standard which allows non-hard drive devices to be connected via PATA
Required OS to load drivers rather than communicate with the BIOS
PIO:
Mode 3 = 11.1 MB/s
Mode 4 = 16.6 MB/s
Multi-word DMA:
Mode 0 = 7.2 MB/s
Mode 1 = 13.3 MB/s
Mode 2 = 16.6 MB/s
ATA-3: Introduced S.M.A.R.T which prevents drive failure (was not widely implemented)
ATA-4: Uses Ultra DMA modes by using DMA bus mastering
Ultra DMA modes:
Mode 0 = 16.7 MB/s
Mode 1 = 25.0 MB/s
Mode 2 = 33.3 MB/s
o ATAPI-4: Ultra ATA/33
Features include 80 conductor cables and Cyclic Redundancy
Checking
ATA-5: Introduced two more UDMA modes and offered INT13 to replace LBA, bringing hard
drive storage capacity up to 137 GB.
Ultra DMA modes:
Mode 3 = 44.4 MB/s
Mode 4 = 66.6 MB/s (ATAPI-5)
o ATAPI-5: Ultra ATA/66
ATA-6: Introduced Big Drive to replace INT13 and allowed for maximum storage capacity.
Ultra DMA mode 5 = 100 MB/s
ATAPI-6: Ultra ATA/100
o Features include 48-bit LBA expansion and disk noise reduction
ATA-7: Introduced SATA and UDMA mode 6
Ultra DMA mode 6 = 133 MB/s
ATAPI-7: UDMA 6 (Ultra ATA/133)
o Features include multimedia streaming

o
o

SATA Drives

SATA (Serial AT Attachment)

o Point-to-point communication between devices and the HBA (Host Bus Adapter), or SATA
controller
o ATA-7 defines the SATA standard
o SATA gives you 20% encoding, and 80% pure bandwidth
SATA Revisions (all revisions have distance limitation of 1 meter):
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SATA I (Revision 1.x)
1.5 Gbps / 150 MB/s
o SATA II (Revision 2.x)
3 Gbps / 300 MB/s
o SATA III (Revision 3.x)
6 Gbps / 600 MB/s
Hard drive may or may not have 4-pin Molex power connector to backwards power compatibility
SATA data cable is 7-pin while power is 15-pin
AHCI (Advanced Host Controller Interface) is needed for Windows to automatically detect SATA drivers
NCQ (Native Command Queuing) is an extension of the SATA protocol that allows faster read/write
speeds for hard drives
o

SCSI Drives

SCSI (Small Computer Systems Interface)

o Designed to string many peripherals together
o Hot swappable
o Has an IRQ of 9
o Up to 15 devices in a SCSI chain using a wide bus (subtracting controller)
If it is a narrow bus, you are limited to 7 devices (subtracting controller)
o Last device must have terminator at the end of the chain
SCSI ID
o Every SCSI device on a single bus is assigned a separate ID number
o Jumpers on a SCSI device can be used to determine ID number
o LUN (Logical Unit Number) identifies each SCSI ID
o SCSI ID priority:
7 0 on an 8-bit
15 8 on a 16-bit
7 is the highest SCSI ID, 8 is the lowest
SAS (Serial Attached SCSI) have no jumpers, terminators, or settings
o Currently the newest SCSI standard
HVD (High Voltage Differential) reduces noise on SCSI bus circuits, but doesnt work with SE (single-link)
based SCSI
LVD (Low Voltage Differential) works with SE based SCSI for 12 meters of cable
o Any SCSI cable capable of SE and having LVD can have 12 meters of cable
SCSI Types:
o SCSI - 1
25-pins (used mainly for Apple computers)
6 meters max (thus longest cable length of all SCSI standards)
5 MB/s
Narrow bus (8-bit/7 devices)
o Fast SCSI (SCSI 2)
50-pins
3 meters max
10 MB/s
Narrow bus (8-bit/7 devices)
o Ultra SCSI (SCSI 3)
50-pins
1.5 meters max
20 MB/s
Narrow bus (8-bit/7 devices)
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Ultra 2 SCSI (SCSI 4)
50-pins
12 meters with LVD
40 MB/s
Narrow bus (8-bit/7 devices)
o Ultra 320 SCSI
68-pin
12 meters with LVD
320 MB/s (fastest of all SCSI standards)
Wide bus (16-bit/15 devices)
Formats of SCSI are all backwards compatible
SCSI drives use various types of connectors (25-pin, 50-pin, 68-pin)
Pin 1 on cable must go into pin 1 on the HBA

o

Implementing RAID

RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks)

o But not all RAID levels are redundant
Disk Duplexing = Each hard drive has its own controller
RAID Types
o RAID 0 (Striping)
File blocks are split between physical drives
High data performance
No redundancy, no way to recover data
2 drives minimum
o RAID 1 (Mirroring)
File blocks are duplicated between physical drives
High disk utilization (twice as much disk space required)
High redundancy, drive failure does not affect data availability
2 drives minimum
o RAID 2 (Striping with multiple parity drives)
Never implemented
o RAID 3 (bit level striping with dedicated parity)
o RAID 4 (block level striping with dedicated parity)
o RAID 5 (Striping with Parity)
File blocks are striped, along with a parity block
One block dedicated to parity will be applied to every drive
Efficient use of disk space
High redundancy, but parity calculation may affect performance
Minimum of 3 drives
o RAID 6 (striping with extra parity)
Requires 5 drives
o RAID 10 (RAID 1+0) (Stripe of Mirrors)
The speed of striping, the redundancy of mirroring
Needs at least 4 drives
Software vs. Hardware RAID
o Software RAID has lower performance than hardware based RAID
o Hardware based RAID allows for hot swapping
o Windows 2000 and above support software configuration for RAID 1 and RAID 5
o Windows XP and Vista only support software configuration for RAID 0
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o Windows 7 software can configure RAID 0 and RAID 1
Striping
o Bit-Level = splitting data into bits then distributing them to drives
o Block-Level = splitting data into blocks, then distributing across drives
RAID can be implemented using eSATA drives as well
SATA can now be used to connect RAID arrays
o SCSI used to be used, but it was very expensive

Optical Formats

CD (Compact Disk)
o Uses the file format ISO-9660 (CDFS)
o Data is stored just beneath the top layer in the form of lands and pits, which a laser reads and
translates to binary
o One laser is designed just to read the disk, but a second laser that writes the disk is 10x as
powerful
o Goes at speeds that are multiples of 150 KB/s (x2 = 300 KB/s, x4 = 600 KB/s)
o CD-ROM = cant write, only read
o CD-R = write once
o CD-RW = write multiple times (10,000 maximum)
Three speeds = Write, Rewrite, and Read
DVD (Digital Versatile Disk)
o Uses UDF (Universal Disk Format) that replaces ISO-9660
o Uses a 650nm red laser to read
o Common DVD Formats:
Single-side/Single layer (DVD-5) = 4.7 GB
Single-side/Dual layer (DVD-9) = 7.95 GB
Double-side/Single layer (DVD-10) = 8.74 GB
Double-side/Dual layer (DVD-18) = 15.9 GB
o DVD-RAM = special rewritable disk contained within a proprietary cartridge
Need a special disk drive to read
o DVDRW = Universally compatible rewritable DVD
DVD+RW is Sony/Phillips proprietary
DVD-RW is used by other manufactures
o DVD region codes:
Region 0 = Anywhere
Region 1 = United States and Canada
Region 2 = Europe, Middle East, South Africa, Japan and Greenland
Region 3 = Southeast Asia, South Korea, Taiwan and Hong Kong
Region 4 = South America, Central America, Mexico, New Zealand and Australia
Region 5 = India, Nepal, Afghanistan, Russia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Pakistan and Africa
Region 6 = China
Region 7 = Reserved for future use
Region 8 = For cruise ships and aircraft
o Video codecs:
MPEG-1 = 352 x 240 @ 30fps
MPEG-2 = 720 x 480 or 1280 x 720 @ 60fps
MPEG-4 = Good for multimedia and Blu Ray
Contained IPMP (Intellectual Property Management and Protection)
MPEG-7 = Multimedia content searching tool
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MPEG-21 = Protects from illegal file sharing
Contained REL (Rights Expression Language) and Rights Data Dictionary

Blu-ray
o Uses a 405nm blue laser to read
o 25 GB single-layer / 50 GB dual-layer
o Mini Blu-ray = 7.8 GB single-layer / 15.6 GB dual-layer
Only optical format that is 8cm instead of 12cm
o BD-RE = Rewritable Blu-ray
o Highest quality optical format
o Beat HD DVD as the optimal optical format
o Specifications for burning Blu-ray disk
1 GB of RAM (Windows XP) or 2 GB of RAM (Windows Vista and Windows 7)
Processor must be Pentium 4 or newer
OS must be HDCP compliant
o All disks are 12cm besides where noted
o When we burn them, photosensitive dye creates the usual bumps you would find
o If you insert a disk and AutoRun does not start, launch it in the disks root folder as autorun.inf
o If a CD or DVD burn fails, it is likely that buffer underrun is the problem

Flash Memory

SSD drives
o Flash memory
o No moving parts, but cost more than HDDs
o Use NAND to retain data
o Never defragment an SSD
o Can be either 1.8, 2.5, or 3.5
o Can be either:
MLC (Multi-Level Cell)
Cheaper, low write rates, poor performance
SLC (Single-Level Cell)
More expensive, but extremely reliable
Flash Drives
o ReadyBoost in Windows allows flash drives to act as virtual memory
Compact Flash (CF)
Other types of storage devices:
o PCMCIA bus
o CF1 = 3.3mm

Floppy Drives
o Use 34-pin cable to connect
o CF2 = 5mm (not backwards compatible with
to motherboard
CF1)
o A twist in the wires is used to
Smart Media
identify drives on the cable
o For cameras
o Connect with drive letters A
or B
SD (Secure Digital)
o Uses the 4-pin M ini power
o Have a physical write protection switch
connector
o Evolved from MMC (Multimedia Card)
o Drives use a stepper motor
o Mini SD
o 3.5 inch (1.44 MB storage)
o 5.25 inch (360 KB to 1.2 MB)
o Micro SD
o 8-inch
o Standard SD (4 MB to 4 GB)

Tape Drives
o SDHC (32 GB)
o 20 GB to 1.3 TB
o SDXC (32 GB to 2 TB)
o Cost effective

Formats are DDS-1, DDS-4,

DAT72, DDS-5, LTO, 22
Ultrium2,
| P a g
LTO Ultrium4, DLT, IV, DLT-4
Lomega Zip
o 100 250MB
o

Memory Stick
o A proprietary format for Sony
o Standard
o Pro
o Duo
o Pro Duo
o Micro
xD (Extreme Digital)
o Proprietary picture cards that were mainly used in Olympus and Fujifilm cameras
o Standard (Type M)
o Hi Speed (Type H)

External Connection Types

USB (Universal Serial Bus)
o 127 devices per controller
o USB A and B ports have 4-pins, the rest have 5-pins
o Always install drives before you plug the USB device in
o USB ports lead to the root hub (bus) to the host controller
o USB 1.1
Low speed:
1.5 Mbit/s
3 meters max
Full speed:
12 Mbit/s
5 meters max
Most common USB 1.1 mode (1.5 MB/s)
Uses the Standard Open HCD Host Controller
o USB 2.0 (full speed)
480 Mbit/s
5 meters max
Usually 60 MB/s
Uses the Standard Enhanced Host Controller
o USB 3.0 (SuperSpeed)
4.8 Gbit/s
3 meters max
Usually 625 MB/s
Sometimes connection is colored blue
An 11-pin version that supplies extra power exists
Backwards compatability with USB 2.0
Uses the Extendable Host Controller (xHCI)
o USB Form Factors
Type A (regular type)
Type B (square type at the device end)
Micro-B (mobile devices)

Mini-B (larger than micro)
Cameras use Alternate Mini-B
FireWire (IEEE 1394)

o Also called i.LINK or Lynx
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o
o
o
o
o

Uses more power than USB
Supports bus mastering
Can daisy-chain, tree, or peer-to-peer up to 63 different devices
4.5 meter distance limitation period for all FireWire standards
FireWire 400 (Alpha mode) / IEEE1394a
100, 200, or 400 Mbit/s (half-duplex)
6-pin or 4-pin
4.5 meter distance limitation, 72 meters max (for the entire configuration)
FireWire 800 (Beta mode) / IEEE1394b
800 Mbit/s (full-duplex)
4, 6, or 9-pins
Grey input
Optical connections can support 100 meters max
FireWire pin characteristics
4-pin is non-powered and is used for cameras
6-pin is powered and used on desktop PCs
9-pin is powered, high speed, but uncommon

eSATA
o
o
o
o

Provides throughput of 3 Gbit/s

2 meters distance limitation
Hot-swappable
eSATAp = a port allows connection with an internal-style drive without an enclosure
Fits both eSATA and USB connections
Ethernet (RJ-45)
IrDA
o 4 Mbit/s per second speed
o Half-duplex
Can be configured for full-duplex emulation, but will never actually be full-duplex
o Line-of-sight only
o Operates in ad hoc mode
o 1 meter distance limitation
Bluetooth
o 3Mb/s max
o Uses ad hoc mode for device-to-device communication
o Uses infrastructure mode when connection to a WAP (Wireless Access Point)
o Uses 79 different frequencies via the FHSS broadcast method
o Defined by 802.15 (WPAN standard)
o Version 1.1 and 1.2
1 Mb/s
o Version 2.0
Added EDR (Enhanced Data Range)
3 Mbit/s per second
10 meters max for Class 2 devices
1 meter max for Class 3 devices
o Class A = 100m / 100mW
o Class B = 10m / 2.5mW
o Class C = 1m / 1mW
PC 99 Standard
o Defined colors for audio inputs
o These were 1/8 jacks usually found on soundcards
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o Pink = microphone
o Green = front left/right speaker or headphone
o Blue = line level audio input
o Orange = subwoofer
o Black = surround sound
o Grey = mid left/right + surround
o Gold = S-Video
Hot Swappable = add and remove while system is running
Serial ports data only goes in one direction
o One wire to send, one wire to receive
o Windows calls the COM ports
o Contained a UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter) chip that coverts between
parallel and serial devices
o 9-pins
o Defined by the RS-232 standard
Two serial devices must talk to each other in 8-bit chunks of data
Flexible in speed and error checking
RS-232 itself is manually configured
Parallel ports data goes in both directions at the same time

Designing Custom Computer Systems

Graphics Technologies = OpenGL, Pixel Shader, DirectX, and Direct3D

CAD/CAM Systems need a powerful processor, maximum amount of RAM, and a high-end video card
Audio/Video Editing Workstations need high-end audio/video cards, large, fast SSD hard drives, and
possibly dual-monitors
Virtualization Workstations need maximum RAM, and maximum CPU cores
Gaming PCs need a powerful processor, high-end video card, better sound card, and high-end cooling
methods
o 500-700W PSU needed
o SLI (Scalable Link Interface) = Improves graphics performance on a computer
Links two or move video cards together into a single output
Home Theater PCs need surround sound audio, HDMI output, HTPC compact form factor and a TV tuner
Thick Clients need to support desktop applications and recommended requirements for running
Windows
Thin Clients need to only support basic application usage
Applications are actually run on a remote server (VDI)
Home Server PCs have media streaming, file sharing, print sharing, and needs gigabit NIC for high speed
transfers and RAID arrays for redundant storage

Display Devices and Connections

Display Devices

CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)

o 4:3 aspect ratio
o Uses analog signals
o Electron guns shoot through a yoke which touches electrons on a screen with phosphor coating
These phosphors are RBG dots
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Shadow mask = sits behind the phosphors and only allows the designated Red, Green, or Blue
electron guns to light up the corresponding phosphor
o Horizontal Refresh Rate = the rate at which the electron guns move across the screen
o Vertical Refresh Rate = the time it takes for the electron guns to fill the entire screen and return
to the upper left corner
If this is set too low, flickering will occur
If this is set too high distortion can occur (will potentially destroy the screen)
o Raster lines = the horizontal sweeps across the screen (left to right) made my the electron guns
o One pixel must contain one red, one blue, and one green phosphor
CRT pixel size changes with resolution
o Sizes include 15", 19", and 21"
All displays are measured diagonally
o Resolution modes include:
VGA (640 x 480)
SVGA (800 x 600)
XGA (1024 x 768)
SXGA (1280 x 1024)
UXGA (1600 x 1200)
o Has a refresh rate rated in Hz
o Convergence = horizontal and vertical alignment of colors on a screen
o Dot pitch = predefined measurement in mm between pixels
Typical is 0.27mm
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)
o Uses electronic signals to light up rectangular pixels
o Pixels are fixed and wont change with resolution
o Use a CCFL (Cold Cathode Fluorescent Lamp) backlight
Backlight is always on, and background transistor polarizes the light, that is why the
backlight is never pitch black
Most LCD monitors have two backlights
Needs AC power, so an inverter is needed to convert the DC power used by all the other
electronics built into the screen
A transformer is used to convert this AC power back to DC
o Viewing angle is less
o No electron beam
o Refreshes screen at a 60 Hz frame rate
o Fixed native resolution
o Opaque crystals produce black
o Passive matrix
Vertical and horizontal circuits pass through every row and column of subpixels to
create matrices
These circuits intersect one another and single LCD element enables light to pass
through
Poor image quality: blurry due to pixel overlap
Dual-scan passive matrix fixed this, but was not a permanent solution
o Active matrix
Uses TFT (Thin Film Display)
The most common TFTs use twisted nematic (TN) panels
The best TFTs use IPS (In-Plane Switching) which provide wider viewing angles
and better color than TN panels
Transistors behind each pixel stimulate electrodes that rearrange liquid crystals
o

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Sharper image quality and higher refresh rates
o 17 screens are 1280 x 1024 (SXGA) or higher
o 20 screens are 1920 x 1080 (HD 1080) or higher
o LCDs that run lower than the native resolution must use an anti-aliasing filer to blur the edges of
pixels
o The refresh rate for an LCD monitor is the time it takes for subpixels to go from pure black to
pure white and back again
Measured in milliseconds, lower is better
o Have a contrast ratio of 250:1 to 1000:1
o Brightness ranges from 100 to 1000 nits
LED (Light Emitting Diode)
o LEDs are simply LCD monitors with LED backlights instead of CCFL
LEDs may be around the edge of the screen or behind the screen
This makes for thinner screens and lower power consumption
Also no AC power is used, so an inverter is not necessary
o Backlight provides better image at any viewing angle
OLED (Organic Light Emitting Diode)
o Organic compound emits light when receiving electrical current
o High cost, power efficient, wider viewing angles, and fast response time
Plasma
o A display of tiny cells filled with noble gas and mercury
o Mercury sheds energy as UV light
o UV light strikes colored phosphor
o Deep blacks, fast response time
o High power, shimmering, doesnt work in high altitudes, lots of radio interference
o Wider viewing angles than any other display
o Not optimal for computer usage due to burn-in problems where the image gets burnt onto the
screen
o Overscan is another problem with plasma displays
Image is cropped at the edge of the screen
LCD screens have this problem as well
Projectors
o Can be DLP (which uses DMD/thousands of mirrors) or LCoS (combination of LCD and DLP)
o Not always an LCD projector, CRT projectors provide the best image quality, but are really bulky
and expensive
o Throw = the distance needed from the screen to create the best image
o Lamps = the most important part of a projector
Very bright and hot light, so fans are built in to cool it down
Very expensive to replace when broken
Refresh Rates = measured in Hz
o Large displays need to be set at 72 Hz or higher to prevent flickering
o 60 Hz is the standard refresh rate for all screens
o A 120 Hz refresh rate requires a video card capable of supporting dual-link DVI
Resolution = number of pixels on a display
o Width x Height (Row x Column) or Horizontal Pixels x Vertical Pixels
o Video settings must match a display's native resolution
Brightness
o Usually measured in nits (cd/m2) or luminance
o Lumens (ANSI test, 3000 for dim room, 6000 for sunlit)
Used for projectors
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Contrast Ratio = ratio between black and white
o A wider range is better
o Dynamic contrast ratios are much larger than regular ones, but not that important
Analog Video = transmitted as continuous signal
Digital Video = transmitted as discrete values
Display Filters
o Privacy filter
o Fade the screen to black or gold when viewed at an angle
o Placed on the front of a display
o Anti-glare filter
Video Cards
o Have a RAMDAC chip that takes digital signals from video and convert it to analog when needed
o Any monitor, such as an LCD, with a VGA input will use the RAMDAC chip in the video card to
convert the LCDs natively digital signal to analog for VGA use
o Types of video card RAM include:
VRAM, WRAM, SGRAM, DDR SDRAM, DDR2 SDRAM, GDDR3 SDRAM, GDDR4 SDRAM,
and GDDR5 SDRAM
o Video card color depth:
2 colors = 1 bit
4 colors = 2 bits
16 colors = 4 bits
256 colors = 8 bits
64,000 colors = 16 bits
16.7 million colors = 24 bits
Monitors that meet the VESA standard for DPMS (Digital Power Management Signaling) can reduce
power consumption to up to 75%
Table of Common Resolution Modes:
Mode
Resolution
Aspect Ratio
Common Uses
VGA
640 x 480
4:3

SVGA
800 x 600
4:3
Small monitors
HDTV 720p
1280 x 720
16:9

XGA
SXGA

1024 x 768
1280 x 1024

4:3
5:4

WXGA

1366 x 768

4:3

WSXGA

1440 x 900

16:10

SXGA+

1400 x 1050

4:3

UXGA

1600 x 1200

4:3

HDTV 1080p

1920 x 1080

16:9

Native
resolution for
LCD monitors
Widescreen
laptops
Widescreen
laptops
Large CRT
projectors
Large CRT
projectors

WUXGA
QWXGA
WQXGA
WQUXGA

1920 x 1200
2048 x 1152
2560 x 1600
3840 x 2400

16:10
16:9
16:10
16:10

24 Widescreen

27: Widescreen
Newer monitors
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Display Connectors

DVI (Digital Visual Interface)

o Single-link (3.7 Gbit/s, HDTV at 60 fps)
Resolutions of 1920 x 1080 and 1280 x 1028
o Dual-link (7.4 Gbit/s, HDTV at 85 fps)
Resolutions of 2048 x 1536
o DVI-A: analog
o DVI-D: digital
o DVI-I: integrated (digital and analog in same connector)
o DVI-D and DVI-I come in both single-link and dual-link varieties
DisplayPort
o Video and audio in one cable
o Follows the VESA standard
o Royalty-free
o 20 pins
o 17.28 Gb/s
o Data is sent in packets (like Ethernet and PCIe)
o Compatible with HDMI and DVI with a passive adaptor
HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface)
o Video and audio in one cable
o 19 pin (Type A) connector
o miniHDMI (Type C) for smaller form factors
o microHDMI (Type D)
VGA (Video Graphics Array)
o Goes by the names DE-15, DB-15 or HD-15
o 15-pins
o PC System Design Guide makes it so it's always blue
o Analog signal
RCA connectors (Composite Cables)
o Known as a phono connector, Cinch connector, and A/V jack
o Combines luminance and chrominance into one signal
o Red/White = left/right audio
o Yellow = analog (SD) video


PbPrPy (Component Cables)
o 3 RCA connectors
o Create separate signal for luminance
BNC connectors (Bayonet Neill-Concelman)
o Used with higher-end video
o Connector has a twisting lock
o Has both:
RGBGV (red, green, blue, horizontal, sync, vertical sync)
Component video (VPbPr)
miniDIN
o S-Video (Separate Video)
S-Video can have either 4, 7, or 9 pins
o Analog signals
o 2 channels (intensity and color)
Thunderbolt
29 | P a g e

o up to 20 GB/s and 7 daisy chained

RS-232
o 50ft (15.25m)
o Old 9-pin serial cable

Computer Peripherals

Input Devices
o Mouse
o Connects from USB, PS/2, or serial ports
Green colored PS/2 port
Most mice are using optics now
Glass may cause a problem
o Keyboard
Connects from USB or PS/2
Purple colored PS/2 port
May require drivers for extra features
Configuration may include repeat rate, repeat delay, or cursor blink rate
o PS/2 devices are not hot swappable
o Touch Screen
Needs connection to video adapter and USB ports to function properly
o Scanner
The 5 important scanner values:
1. Resolution
2. Color Depth
3. Grayscale Depth
4. Connection
5. Speed
Scanners have color depth of 24-bits, 36-bits, or 48-bits (most common)
The grayscale depth can be 8-bits, 12-bits, or 16-bits (most common)
TWAIN is the default scanner driver
Some come with OCR (Optical Character Recognition) to turn image into text
Types:
All-in-one (prints, scans, copies)
Flatbed (only scans)
o Barcode Reader
Connects from USB, PS/2, or serial ports
If it doesn't work, just replace it
o KVM (Keyboard, Video, and Mouse)
Allows you to use many computers with a single keyboard, video display, and mouse
Uses peripheral emulation to communicate with all system connections
o Microphone
Integrated into most new laptops and multimedia devices
External microphones connect from analog (TRS) or digital (USB)
o Biometric Devices
Use biological features such as your retina, fingerprint, or keystroke dynamics
o Gaming Input
Like the joystick
o Digitizer
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Output Devices
o Printers
o Speakers
o Monitors
Multimedia Devices
o Digital Cameras
May need drivers
o Microphone
o Webcam
Connects with USB but may be 802.11 wireless
o Camcorder
Stores data in built in hard drive or flash memory (CF, SD)
Connects with FireWire, HDMI, or USB
o MIDI
Can connect with RJ-45, USB or DIN connectors

NETWORKING
Network Connectors & Cabling

Structured Cabling
o A cabling standard with the flexibility to allow a network to grow according to its needs and then
to upgrade when needed.
o Built on the basis that a work area will need to connect to a main server room, or
telecommunications room via horizontal cabling to achieve a network connection.
o Telecommunications Room
Acts as the server room where all cables in a network connect
Has large equipment racks
19 inches wide
Height is measured in Us (1U = 1.75in)
o Horizontal Cabling
Defines the runs of cabling that go to the computers
Requires CAT 5e or better
Must be solid core cables
o Work Area
Where all the PCs reside
PCs connect via sockets in the wall
Use stranded cabling
o Crosstalk (XT) = concept of structured cabling which refers to the interference between signals
over adjacent wires
POTS (Plain Old Telephone System)
o Uses an RJ-11 connection
o 6P2C connection
o Standard telephone connection
Twisted Pair
o Uses an RJ-45 connection
8P8C connection
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o
o
o
o

Modular cable
Contains two wires with equal and opposite signals
Twisting eliminates interference across wires
Each cable is twisted differently
UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair)
Most common
No additional shielding
Come in solid core and stranded core varieties
Solid Core
o Wires are in one pair
o Better conductor, but stiff and fragile
Stranded Core
o Wires are made up of smaller wires
o Easier to work with than solid core
STP (Shielded Twisted Pair)
Additional shielding against EMI (Electromagnetic Interference)
Requires an electrical ground
Plenum = Cables that will not emit toxic chemicals when burned
Required for cables that run between floors in a building
Low Smoke PVC or FEP may exist in plenum cables
Note that PVC alone without the Low Smoke prefix emits toxic fumes when
burned
May not be as flexible
Ethernet types that use twisted pair:
10BASET = 10 Mb/s, 100m
100BASETX = 100 Mb/s, 100m
1000BASET = 1 Gb/s, 100m
EIA/TIA-568 Cabling Standards:
CAT 3 = 10 Mb/s
Configurable up to 100 Mb/s if four pairs of wires are used
CAT 5 = 100 Mb/s
CAT 5e = 1 Gb/s (Gigabit Ethernet)
CAT 6 = 10 Gb/s (fire resistant)
CAT 6e = many Gb/s, greater lengths supported
CAT 7 = LAN Cabling
Uses a GG45 connector
T568A and T568B Termination
Part of the EIA/TIA-568-B standards
For 8 conductor, 100-ohm balanced twisted-pair cabling
T568A and T568B have different pin assignments
T568B is the most common
Pin 1 = white/green (T568A) or white/orange (T568B)
Pin 2 = green (T568A) or orange (T568B)
Pin 3 = Reverse of Pin 1
Pin 4 = blue (T568A/B)
Pin 5 = white/blue (T568A/B)
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Pin 6 = Reverse of Pin 2
Pin 7 = white/brown
Pin 8 = brown
Crossover Cable = Linking two computers (NICs) with one end being T568A and the other
being T568B

Fiber Optic

o
o
o
o
o

o
o

ST Connector (Straight Tip Connector)

Bayonet connector
Push and turn to lock
Less susceptible to damage
Half-duplex, two cables are needed
SC Connector (Square/Standard/Subscriber Connector)
Square shape
Have locking mechanism
Push/Pull connector
Commonly used in networks
Half-duplex, two cables are needed
LC Connector (Lucent/Local/Little Connector)
Smallest form factor
Used for high end applications
Have caps on the end
Have locking mechanism
Used for high density networks
Will fit into the smallest form factor
Looks like SC, but larger and not as wide
MJ-45 is another fiber connector
High end
No RFI (Radio Frequency Interference) because data is transmitted by light
Light degrades slower than electrical signal on a copper connection
Fiber transmits the longest distances
Two types of communications in fiber:
Single-mode fiber = high bandwidths and used for long distances (not for small
networks)
Up to 100 Gb/s and 20 miles
Use laser light
Multi-mode fiber = most common implementation (used for smaller networks)
Up to 10 Gb/s and 600m
Use LED light
WDM (Wavelength-Division Multiplexing) = fiber cable that carries more than two signals at a
time
DWDM (Dense WDM) = 200 or more signals at a time
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SONET (Synchronous Optical Networking) = fiber standard for North American
SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy) = fiber standard for the rest of the world
Types of overhead in fiber networks:
Section = for links between repeaters
Line = for connecting devices
Path = for disassembling frames (like routers and switches)
o Attenuation = signal loss in fiber over long distances
o Microbending = signal loss if cable is bent slightly
o Macrobending = signal loss if cable is bent too much
o Fiber based Ethernet networks include:
1000BASESX
10GBASESR
Coaxial
o Used for high bandwidth and broadband Internet
o Usually these cables do not exceed 50 Mb/s
o Two or more forms sharing a common axis
o Used in older Ethernet networks in a bus topology
10BASE2 (Thinnet) uses RG-58 (185m, 10Mb/s)
10BASE5 (Thicknet) uses RG-8 (500m, 10Mb/s)
o RG-59
75-ohm impedance
Thinner than RG-6
Not used for long distances
Often packed with VCRs and other electronic equipment due to its short distance
limitation
o RG-6
75 ohm impedance
Used for satellite dish into home
Connects with an F-Connector or a BNC (Bayonet Neil-Concelman) connector
F-Connectors
o Used for cable television (CATV) and security camera applications
o Screws in
o Has a pin in the middle
BNC
o Used for 10Base2 Ethernet connections along with various radio and
video applications
o 50-75 ohms
o Rigid and bulky
o Pin in the middle, but not as emphasized as the F-Connector
AutoMDIX = automatically detects and configures cable connection types
o
o
o

TCP/IP

o
The entire basis surrounding the TCP/IP protocol is that it is really two different protocols: the TCP
(Transmission Control Protocol) and the IP (Internet Protocol) that are used in order to allow two given
computers in a network to identify each other and then send data to each other. IP is used so two
34 | P a g e

computers can establish a connection with each other across a large and vast network and TCP is used
to ensure that the data they send over this network will not be lost.
The OSI Model (Not explicitly listed in the exam objectives, but very useful to know)
o Describes network operations using different layers in order to explain the fundamentals of how
a network works.
o Layer 7: Application = User driven applications such as HTTP, FTP, SMTP, etc.
o Layer 6: Presentation = Files that are the basis of the transfer like JPG, MPEG, OGG, DOCX, etc.
o Layer 5: Session = Coordinates a connection and logical ports between different groups of data
and manages the direction of data flow
o Layer 4: Transport = Ensures reliability of data transfer (TCP)
o Layer 3: Network = Routes data across a network of different nodes (Router and IP)
o Layer 2: Data Link = Transfers data between network nodes (Switch and Bridge)
o Layer 1: Physical = Sends data across the physical medium and translates it (Hub and Repeater)
The DOD Model (Also not in exam objectives, but is worth mentioning due to the similarity with OSI)
o Process: OSI Model Layer 7, Layer 6, and Layer 5
o Host-to-Host: OSI Model Layer 4
o Internet: OSI Model Layer 3
o Network: OSI Model Layer 2 and Layer 1

IP

NetBIOS/NetBEUI
o Came before TCP/IP when there were less computers
o Assigned each computer a unique name that could be any combination of letters or numbers
o Each computer broadcasted frames to every other computer in the entire network
o This worked for LANs, but when the world network expanded into WANs, each computer
broadcasting frames to every computer would not be practice.
IP (Internet Protocol) = consists of a 32-bit address which allows different computers to communicate
with each other, then uses a router (having its own IP address) to communicate outside the network
when needed.
Every device needs a unique IP address and subnet mask
IP Address Classes
o Class A: 0.0.0.0 126.255.255.255
16,777,216 addresses allowed
Allocated to huge companies and enterprises
Default subnet mask: 255.0.0.0
127.x.x.x is classless and reserved for network testing and loopback operation
Called the local host address
o Class B: 128.0.0.0 191.255.255.255
65,536 addresses allowed
Allocated to medium size businesses
Default subnet mask: 255.255.0.0
o Class C: 192.0.0.0 223.255.255.255
254 addresses allowed
Allocated to LANs
Default subnet mask: 255.255.255.0
o Class D (multicast): 224.0.0.0 239.255.255.255
o Class E (reserved): 240.0.0.0 255.255.255.255
Reserved for research purposes
Private Addresses:
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RFC 1918 makes the standard allowing private addresses
When designing private addresses:
Class A: 10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255
Default subnet mask: 255.0.0.0
Single Class A
Largest CIDR block = 10.0.0/8
Host ID is 24 bits
Class B: 172.16.0.0 - 172.31.255.255
Default subnet mask: 255.240.0.0
16 contiguous Class Bs
Largest CIDR block = 172.16.0.0/12,
Host ID is 20 bits
Class C: 192.168.0.0 - 196.168.255.255
Default subnet mask: 255.255.0.0
256 contiguous Class Cs
Largest CIDR block = 192.168.0.0/16
Host ID is 16 bits
Number of addresses allowed in a network is defined by the formula: 2n-2; where n = hosts per network
You can never have an IP address that ends in a 0 or a 255 because the one that ends with the 0 is the
network address and the one that ends in 255 is the broadcast address
Subnet Mask = a secondary 32-bit address that goes along with the IP address to identify the network ID
and the host ID in the IP address
o The amount of octets occupied by a 255 corresponds to the amount of octets in the IP address
that consist of the network ID. The amounts of 0s in the subnet mask, thus, correspond with the
host ID within the IP address.
o For example, an IP address of 192.168.1.4 with a subnet mask of 255.255.255.0 has a network ID
of 192.168.1 and a host ID of 4.
CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing)
o Useful for further dividing subnets beyond their preconfigured Class A, B, or C standards to
make more efficient use of allocated subnets and to perhaps have more control over the exact
amount of hosts you need in a network without wasting a ton of IP addresses in the process.
o For example:
192.168.1.1/24 is the CIDR notation for really saying that your IP address is 192.168.1.1
and your subnet mask is 255.255.255.0 because the three octets of 255 equal 24-bits
(8x3=24), so thus you can just say 192.168.1.1 to mean the same thing.
So to further divide beyond the preconfigured subnets of Class A, you will use the IP
address of 10.1.0.1/26. This really means you have an IP address of 10.1.0.1 with a
corresponding subnet mask of 255.255.255.192. The 26 means that, starting from the
left, there are 26 bits that make up the network ID and the remaining 6 bits make up the
host ID. This means that the first three octets of 255 were used along (8x3=24) along
with two additional bits from the last octet are part of the network ID. The octet of 192
in the subnet mask comes from the fact that the two additional bits taken from the last
octet of the IP address have the binary definitions of 128 and 64 respectively. 128 + 64 =
192, thus forming the last octet.
The number of octets that are common for all computers on a broadcast domain is the network ID
Static IP = an IP address that remains the same
o Typing in an address manually on a device is giving that device a static IP address
o For servers and network devices such as printers
Dynamic IP = an IP address that changes
o
o

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o Used for clients in a network
o Usually leased by DHCP for a finite amount of time
IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority) distributes public IP addresses
BOOTP (Bootstrap Protocol)
o Made all IP configuration automatic in 1993 before DHCP
o Didn't have a built in mechanism to see what IP addresses have lost their lease
o Some manual configuration required
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)
o Configures IP Addresses, subnet masts, default gateways, DNS servers, NTP servers, etc.
o Network administrator will preconfigure the DHCP server to only give out IP addresses within
the networks range.
o Four stages:
1. Discover = NIC uses UDP to located DHCP server
2. Offer = DHCP offers IP, gateway, and lease
3. Request = accepts first one it receives
4. Acknowledgement = resends with info that client requested
o Use IPCONFIG /RELEASE to view info about what DHCP gave to the PC
APIPA (Automatic Private IP Addressing) = used to automatically assign an IP address to a machine
when DHCP is not available.
o Link-local addresses
Can't communicate to other routers, but you can locally
o IETF reserved 169.254.1.0 through 169.254.254.255
Last 256 addresses are reserved
IPv6 reserves fe80::/10 (assigned as fe80::/64)
o These addresses are automatically assigned by the OS
Uses ARP to confirm the addresses aren't taken
IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4)
o OSI Layer 3 address
o Consists of four 8 bit octets for a total of 32 bits
o 256 is the highest each byte or octet can get (192.168.1.131, each cluster being a byte or octet
with 8 individual bits)
o Needs a server IP address, server application port number, client IP address, and client port
number
IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6)
o Improvements over IPv4:
Address size increase from 32 to 128 bits
Some header fields have been dropped
Less rigid length limits and ability to introduce more options
Packets will indicate traffic type
Data integrity and confidentiality
Header is 40 fixed bytes and has 8 fields of information
o NOT in a decimal format: it uses a hexadecimal format
o One letter equals four bits
o Windows makes the last 64-bits of each address random
o DNS becomes very important with IPv6
o Example IPv6 address:
fe80:0000:0000:0000:5d18:0652:cffd:8f52
Notice it has 2 bytes per group, making a 128-bit address
o Shortcuts include removing leading zeros and abbreviate two or more groups of zeros with
double colons (::) once per address:
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fe80:0000:0000:0000:cabc:c800:00a7:08d5
fe80:0:0:0:cabc:c800:a7:8d5
fe80::cabc:c800:a7:8d5
Notice that in step two, the leading zeros were removed in each group, including groups
of only zeros leaving just one zero.
The three groups of zeros after fe80 were replaced with a double colon
o Does not broadcast, only multicasts
o IPv6s link-local IP address is the same as APIPA for IPv4, but IPv6 will always have a link-local
address
o The NIC will have three IPv6 addresses: one link-local and two global addresses (one temporary
and one static)
o Computers using IPv6 need a global address given to them by their router/default gateway to
access the internet
o Steps in getting a global address:
1. The computer boots up and sends a router solicitation message (FF02::2)
2. The router sends an RA (Router Advertisement) with prefix and DNS
3. The computer adds the random 64-bits (EUI-64) to the end of the prefix forming a global
address
4. A global address will always start with a 2
o IPv6 loopback address = ::1
Unicast = communication from one node to the other
Multicast = communication from one node to a select group of nodes
Anycast = communication from one node to the nearest node
Default Gateway used by the router to allow you to communicate outside your local subnet
o The router is usually referred to as the default gateway
o Must be an IP Address on a local subnet
o Email, Internet, LAN, Voice and Data, and Firewall are all types of gateways
Half-duplex analogy = Two people having a conversation via walkie-talkies. When one person is
speaking, the other must wait till that person is finished speaking before talking back.
Full-duplex analogy = Two people having a conversation via a telephone. Both people can speak at the
same time and their voice will get to the other end
o Modern NICs use full-duplex, but have an auto-sensing feature to accommodate old, half-duplex
NICs
Wake-On-LAN = turns on a sleeping PC that is not physically close by sending magic packets which
repeat the destination MAC address many times
o Found in Power Management
1.
2.
3.

TCP

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)

o Connection oriented
Both parties need to synchronize with each other
o Reliable delivery (will always know if something went wrong)
o Keeps track of out of order or duplicate messages sent
o Analogy: loads and unloads moving truck and checks for missing cargo
o Good in unicast communications
UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
o Opposite of TCP, but performs much better
o Acts as an interface between IP and upper layer protocols
o Connectionless
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Good for multicast and broadcast communication
Analogy: loads and unloads moving truck, but doesn't check for missing cargo
Very unreliable
No confirmation that information was received
No way to manage retransmissions
UDP has no idea how many packets went through the network
Non-ephemeral ports = permanent port numbers
o Found on servers
Ephemeral ports = temporary port numbers
o Determined in real-time by client workstation
TCP and UDP ports can be any number between 0 and 65,535
Port numbers are only used for communications, not security
Service port numbers need to be well known
o For example: port 80 for connecting to the Internet
TCP Ports and Protocols:
o Port 20/21 = FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
o Port 22 = SSH (Secure Shell)
Encrypted communication link
Uses tunneling
Looks and acts the same as Telnet, but is used for the entire Internet, not just LANs
Used to encrypt data when working at the command line of a computer
Also used to connect securely to another computer
SFTP (SSH File Transfer Protocol)
FTP using SSH so its more secure
Data is encrypted
Provides file system functionality (remote file removal, resuming interrupted
transfers, directory listings, etc.)
o Port 23 = Telnet
Used to connect remotely to servers
Should only be used in LANs
o Port 25 = SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
Used to send mail only
o Port 53 = DNS (Domain Name Services) [zone transfers]
FQDN (Fully Qualified Domain Names) are resolved into IP addresses that the computer
can understand
Very important to get anywhere on a network
ICANN maintains DNS names by mapping host names to IP addresses
The HOSTS file in Windows stores static DNS mappings
o Port 80 = HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
o Port 110 = POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3)
Handles incoming mail
More popular than IMAP4, but IMAP4 is the better choice
o Port 137/139 = SMB (Server Message Block)
Used for file and printer sharing
Allows reading and writing files on a server
For windows only
However, SAMBA is used to emulate SMB when it is not available
Also called CIFS (Common Internet File System)
Originally sent using NetBIOS over TCP/IP
Couldn't communicate outside of subnet
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o
o
o


Can go directly over TCP Port 445
Referred to as Direct Host SMB
o Port 143 = IMAP4 (Internet Transfer Protocol Secure version 4)
Handles incoming mail
Better than POP3
o Port 161/162 = SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)
Monitors health and availability of networks
Monitors/queries network devices
v1 = structured tables, unencrypted
v2 = data type enhancements, bulk transfers, unencrypted
v3 = message integrity, authentication, encrypted
Very detailed, so access should be very limited
Every SNMP device uses MIB (Management Information Base) to monitor activity based
on predefined standards
o Port 389 = LDAP (Lightweight Directory Access Protocol)
Protocol for reading and writing directories over an IP network
Allows clients to access information form a server
Similar to a phone directory
Part of the ITU-T X.500 standard created by the ITU (International Telecommunications
Union)
Originated from DAP which ran on OSI protocol stack and was not lightweight
LDAP now runs on the TCP/IP protocol stack
Found on enterprise sized networks
Used in Windows Active Directory, Apple OpenDirectory, and Novell eDirectory
Windows Active Directory uses Kerberos Authentication Protocol
Objects are listed in a hierarchical structure
Most specific attribute (value pair) is listed first
Container objects (country, organization, organizational units)
Leaf objects (printers, computers, files, users)
o Port 443 = HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure)
o Port 1723 = PPTP (Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol)
Foundation of VPN (Virtual Private Network)
o Port 3389 = RDP (Remote Desktop Protocol)
Accessed via mstsc.exe
o Port 5060 = SIP (Session Initiation Protocol)
Commonly known as VoIP
UDP Ports and Protocols:
o Port 53 = DNS [queries]
o Port 67 & 68 = DHCP
o Port 137/138 = SMB
o Port 389 LDAP
Proxy Server = software that enables multiple Internet connections to go through one protected PC
Internet Appliance = old term used to describe various TCP/IP controlled appliances that were popular
in the 1990s

Wireless Networking

Wireless Standards

Wireless devices use the CSMA/CA networking scheme

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Wireless nodes may use RTS/CTS where a transmitting node sends an RTS frame and the receiving node
responds with a CTS frame saying its okay to transmit. Then the transmitting node waits for an ACK until
sending another packet
802.11 Wireless Networking Standard
o 802.11a
5 GHz range
54 Mbit/s
Indoor distance: 35 meters/115 feet
Outdoor distance: 120 meters/390 feet
Special licensing permits use at 3.7 GHz at 5000m at higher power
8 available channels
o 802.11b
2.4 GHz range
11 Mbit/s
Indoor distance: 35 meters/115 feet
Outdoor distance: 140 meters/460 feet
More frequency conflict
14 available channels
Found in 10BASET wireless setups
o 802.11g
2.4 GHz range
54 Mbit/s
Indoor distance: 38 meters/125 feet
Outdoor distance: 140 meters/460 feet
Backwards compatibility with 802.11b
Same frequency conflict problems as 802.11b
14 available channels
o 802.11n
Operates at 5 GHz and/or 2.4 GHz
600 Mbit/s
Indoor distance: 70 meters/230 feet
Outdoor distance: 250 meters/820 feet
Uses MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output) to increase range and speed
4 allowable streams
4 antennas provide transmit beamforming which are used to eliminate dead
spots
19 available channels
o In the 2.4 GHz range, channels 1, 6, or 11 are good in the US
o In other parts of the world, channels 1, 5, 9, or 13 are good
Ad hoc mode = peer-to-peer
o Forms an IBSS (Independent Basic Service Set) in a decentralized free-for-all
o Good for temporary networks
Infrastructure mode
o Uses one or more WAPs (Wireless Access Points) to connect wireless network nodes to a wired
network segment in BSS or EBSS (for more than one WAP)
Wireless Security Protocols
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WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy)
Uses the RC4 cipher
Different levels of encryption (64-bit or 128-bit)
You actually get 40-bit or 104-bit encryption
Does not provide end-to-end encryption
Deemed unsecure as of 2001
Usage should be avoided
WPA (WiFi Protected Access)
Uses TKIP (Temporal Key Integrity Protocol) encryption types
TKIP provides a 128-bit encryption key
Uses EAP to offer improved security
Unique encryption keys
Temporary until WPA2
WPA2 (WiFi Protected Access 2)
Called the 802.11i standard
AES (Advanced Encryption Standard) encryption
Provides 128-bit, 192-bit or 256-bit encryption keys
Can use TKIP if less processing power is requested
CCMP (Counter Mode with Cypher Block Chaining Message Authentication Code
Protocol) replaced TKIP
WPA2-Enterprise

Adds 802.11x (users will be required to authenticate before gaining access to the
network)
RADIUS server authentication
No preshared key like the others

SOHO Configurations

SOHO (Small Office Home Office)

MAC Address Filtering
o MAC address = 48-bit address that serves the purpose of identifying a particular device
o Built into the NIC by the manufacturer
o Limits access to a network by only allowing access by a designated list of MAC addresses
o Easy to find MAC addresses through a wireless LAN analysis
o IPCONFIG /ALL is a way to view a computers MAC address
Configure the highest possible encryption (WPA2-AES)
NAT (Network Address Translation)
o All computers on a LAN have a single public IP address provided by the ISP, and any request
made outside the LAN is under the IP address of the corresponding router. When the
information requested by the computer returns to the router, NAT is built into the router to
allow the router to return that information back to the computer that requested it.
In other words, all internal devices are translated into a single external address
Changes the internal IP addresses of network devices to external IP addresses to
protect, share, and provide more security for external IP addresses
o SOHO devices will configure this automatically
o Also, rarely, called PAT
Port filtering
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o Controls when ports are open and closed
Port forwarding
o External IP/port number maps to internal IP/port number
o Makes IP address accessible outside of network
o Provides 24/7 access to a service hosted internally
o For a web server or gaming server, for example
o Also called Destination NAT or Static NAT
Port triggering
o One port is automatically opened when communication occurs on another port
o Provides dynamic access to a service, triggering when a service is made
o A reverse port forward is automatically created
o Basically, port triggering is a way to automate port forwarding
o Internal client communicates externally on a particular port
o Only one person can use a trigger at a time
o Ensures ports are not open at unnecessary times
o Reduces chance of security threats from a port
Port filtering, forwarding, and triggering require a static IP address
SSID (Service Set Identification)
o Uniquely identifies a wireless network
o Makes a recognizable name
o BSSID is the MAC address of the access point
Not normally seen by the end user
o SSID is usually configured to broadcast
Can be disabled so it doesn't show up on other people's computers as a security
measure
o WPS (WiFi Protected Setup)
Makes it easy to add setup and add new devices to a network
Automatically generates an SSID for network
Avoids the complexity of encryption technologies
Security issue: brute force PIN
Can be fixed by disabling the use of that PIN or WPS entirely
o QoS (Quality of Service)
Sets different priorities of traffic on a network
For example: VoIP would be high and Sim City would be low
Prioritizes applications, ports, and MAC addresses
Optimizes allocation of resources
o DMZ (Demilitarized Zone)
Zone between internal and external network that can be publically accessed without
allowing access to the internal network
Resides between server and firewall

Internet Connection Types

Cable Modem
o Data on the cable network
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o Built on existing TV cables
o Operates according to the DOCSIS standard
o High speed networking (4 Mbps to 100 Mbps)
o Multiple services like data and voice
o Uses the RG-6 or the RG-59
DSL (Digital Subscriber Line)
o ADSL (Asymmetric DSL)
Most common
Offers different download and upload speeds
Uses telephone line
18,000 foot limitation from central office
24 Mbps downstream / 3.5 Mbps upstream
o ADSL 2 = 12 Mbps downstream / 2 Mbps upstream
o ADSL 2+ = 24 Mbps downstream / 2 Mbps upstream
o SDSL (Symmetric DSL)
Never standardized
o VSDL (Very High Bitrate DSL)
4 Mbps to 100 Mbps
Dialup
o Network with voice telephone lines
o Analog lines with limited frequency response
o Runs at 56 Kbps but can get compressed to work at 320 Kbps
o Slow throughput of any internet connection type
o PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) is the standard for dialup modems for PCs
Fiber
o High speed networking
o Configurations include FTTN (Fiber-to-the-node) or FTTP (Fiber-to-the-premises)
o All services are made possible
o Cloud storage allowed

o Up to 150 Mbps
Satellite
o For remote sites where other Internet connection options are not available
o High cost
o 5 Mbps downstream / 1 Mbps upstream
o High latency
250ms upstream, 250 ms downstream
o Real-time functions can't be done
o 2Ghz range
o Line of sight required
o RJ-45 connection
ISDN (Integrated Service Digital Network)
o Provides telephone transmission over fully digital cables
o Must be within 18,000 feet from central office
o BRI (Basic Rate Interface) or (2B + D)
Two 64 Kbps bearer (B) channels (for data and voice)
One 16 Kbps signaling (D) channel (for setup and configuration information)
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128 Kbps max
o PRI (Primary Rate Interface)
Delivered over a T1 or E1 line
T1 = 23B + D
E1 = 30B + D + alarm channel
o Commonly used
o 1.5 Mbps max
Cellular Networks
o For mobile phones
o Antennas all over the country side create "cells" of signal around the country
o CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
o GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications)
Poor data support
o LTE (Long Term Evolution)
Based on GSM/EDGE
Download rate of 300 Mbit/s, upload 75 Mbit/s
o HSPA+ (Evolved High Speed Packet Access)
Based on CDMA
Download rates of 84 Mbit/s, upload of 22 Mbit/s
o 3GPP/LTE = 50 Mbps @ 20 MHz
o LTE advanced uses multiplexing
o WiMax
30 mile radius, 3000 square miles for towers
Fixed WiMax (Line of Sight)
66 GHz
IEEE 802.16 Standard
37 Mbps downstream / 17 Mbps upstream
Runs on a T3 line
Mobile WiMax
IEEE 802.16e-2005 Standard
Theoretical throughput of 1 Gbps for fixed stations
Mobile station throughput of 100 Mbps

Network Types and Topologies

Network Types
o LAN (Local Area Network)
Usually high speed connectivity
Ethernet and 802.11 wireless connection types found
Referred to as a broadcast domain = a group of computers connected to a switch
o WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network)
Same as LAN, just wireless
o WAN (Wide Area Network)
Spanning the globe or neighborhood
Slower than a LAN
Point-to-point, MPLS, terrestrial, and non-terrestrial connections found
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PAN (Personal Area Network)
Created when a personal device connects to the internet via Bluetooth or WiFi
Integrated with phones
o MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
Larger than a LAN, smaller than a WAN
Everyone's moving to Metro Ethernet
Government owned
Network Topologies
o Network topologies are used in planning a network
o Mesh
Multiple links to the same place
Redundancy and fault-tolerance built in
Load balancing available
Found in WANs
o Ring
Used in many popular topologies
Computers are connected to each other in a chain
Still used in MAN and WANs
Built in fault tolerance
o Bus
Central cable connects entire network
Early LANs
Cheapest and easiest
Coaxial cable was the bus
Simple, but prone to errors
One break in link will disable entire network
o Star
Used in most large and small networks
All devices are connected to a central device
Common to see in switched Ethernet networks
o Hybrid
Combination of two or more physical topologies
Allows a lot of flexibility
o

Network Devices

Hub
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Multi-port repeater
Traffic going in one port is repeated to every other port
Operate at OSI layer 1
Early centralized network, but not very efficient
10 - 100 Mbit/s connection
All devices share a collision domain and total bandwidth
Operate in half-duplex mode
Types of hubs:
Passive = receives signal and simply broadcasts it
Intelligent = processes data and transmits that info
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Standalone = can be passive or intelligent
Stackable = can connect multiple hubs to it

Switch
o Multi-port bridge
o Application specific
o Operate at OSI layer 2
o Can use MAC addresses to send personalized signals
o Forward traffic based on data link address in point-to-point mode
o Many ports
o High bandwidth (many simultaneous packets)
o Operates in full-duplex mode
o Two modes of operation:
Cut-through mode = only reads the first 14 bytes of a frame before sending, based on
MAC addresses
Store-and-forward mode = stores the entire packet and checks it
Router
o Connects LANs together using TCP/IP, or two separate networks
o Each port is a separate broadcast domain, meaning each port is for a different network
The ports get the first IP address of the corresponding network and is thus that
networks default gateway
o Must be at least two different connections
o Routes traffic between IP subnets
o Operate at OSI layer 3
o Connects diverse network types
o Types of routers:
Dynamic = failures and problems are solved for ports
Static = manual configuration for each
Modular = many inputs
SOHO = simple for home
Interior = autonomous LAN forwards packets between subnets
Exterior = directs data between nodes outside of an autonomous LAN
Wireless Access Point (WAP)
o Not a wireless router in a SOHO configuration
o Many switches and routers act as WAPs
o PoE (Power Over Ethernet) is commonly used in these
o Bridges a wired network to a wireless network
o OSI layer 2 device
o Operate in infrastructure mode
Bridge
o Connects different networks together at OSI layer 2
o Usually only two ports
o Will have different types of connections/ports for different kinds of network connections
o Can connect different topologies
o Distributes traffic based on MAC addresses
o Most bridges are wireless today
Modem
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Converts analog sounds to digital signals
The internal modem is responsible for converting these digital/serial communications to parallel
communication that the CPU can understand with the UART chip
o A network needs a modem on both sides of the connection
o Used in standard phone lines
o Types of modems:
POTS = connects through existing telephone lines (2400 baud max)
DSL = connects telephone circuits configured with DSL services
Cable = through existing TV infrastructure
Network Attached Storage (NAS)
o One internal server, special disk capacity, and OS
o Optimized for file transfer and plug-and-play features
o Storage connected to the network
o No monitor, mouse, or keyboard is needed
o Requires only a network name and a network type (domain or a workgroup)
o Preconfigured and non-upgradable
o Self-configuring
o High speed connectivity
o Large scalability and designed to grow
o Redundancy built-in
Firewalls
o Filters traffic by port number
o Operate at OSI layer 4
Some can filter through OSI layer 7
o Can encrypt traffic into/out of the network
o Can proxy traffic
o Can operate as a router
o Software firewalls are useful for individual clients while hardware firewalls are for an entire
network
o Packet filtering = packets that do not meet firewalls criteria get rejected
o State table = monitors communication between dynamic state list hosts and wont allow packets
if communication is no longer current
VoIP Phones
o Normal phone, but has data integration, built in browser, multimedia, etc.
o All of these things can be built into a single device
o
o

Networking Tools

Crimpers
o Pinch the connector onto a wire
Millimeters
o Consists of two probes and an analog or digital meter
o Measures voltage, current, resistance, and continuity (electron flow from one end to the other)
o Also called a VOM (Volt-Ohm Meter) and a digital multimeter (DMM)
Toner Probe
o Generates a tone and sends it through the wire
o Tracks where a wire is going
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Includes two things: a tone generator and a tone probe
Tone Generator = sends an electrical signal down a cable
Tone Probe = emits a sound when placed near the cable
o Called Fox and Hound
Cable Testers
o Detects Near End Crosstalk (NEXT)
Interference measured at the transmitting end
o Detects Far End Crosstalk (FEXT)
Interference measured at away from the transmitter
o Detects Alien Crosstalk (AXT)
Interference from other cables
o Detects Attenuation to Crosstalk Ratio (ACR)
Difference between insertion loss and NEXT
o Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)
o Time-domain reflectometer (TDA) measures impedance in network cabling
Loopback Plugs
o Tests physical ports
o Good for testing a NICs circuitry
o Validates a link or connection
o Good for performing hardware diagnostics of a network interface
o Works with serial / RS-232
o Good for diagnosing network connections
o Not crossover cables
o Don't need it unless there is a nasty problem
o Need the right kind of plug depending on the type of Internet connection you are using
Punch-Down Tool
o Punches wires into a wire block
o Forces wires into grooves
o Trims wires during the process
o Good for working with 110 blocks (patch panel connector)
o

LAPTOPS

Laptop Expansion Options

PCMCIA (Personal Computer Memory Card International Association)

o Type I = 3.3mm, used for flash memory (not common)
Can hold one Type I card
o Type II = 5mm, used for modems, SCSI controllers and I/O various ports
Can hold one Type II card or two Type I cards
o Type III = 10.5mm = adding storage/hard drives
Can hold one Type III card or a Type I and Type II card
o Now called PC Card
o All have 68-pins and are 85.6mm x 54.0mm
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o Both 5V and 3.3V cards exist
o 3.3V cards have a key that prevents them from going into a 5V slot
o 16-bits at 8 MHz
o Each card could perform up to two different functions
o Analogous to ISA slots in desktops
o All PCMCIA standards are hot-swappable
Card Bus
o Extension of the PCMCIA standard
o Higher throughput (32-bits at 33 MHz)
o Each card could perform up to 8 functions
o 1066 Mbps shared bandwidth
o Older PCMCIA could not accept Card Bus interfaces
o Must eject with Safely Remove Hardware button
o Analogous to PCI slots in desktops
o Both CardBus and PC Card require the PCMCIA Host Controller
ExpressCard
o 2.5 times faster than PCMCIA
o Less expensive
o Replaces PC Card and Card Bus, and thus eliminating the need for the PCMCIA Host Controller
o Two form factors:
o ExpressCard/34 = 26-pin
34mm x 75mm x 5mm
o ExpressCard/54 = 26-pin
L-shape
54mm x 75mm x 5mm
o 480 Mbps in USB 2.0 mode
o 1056 Mbps in PCI mode
o 2.5 Gbps in PCI Express x1 mode
o Provides a direct connection to the system bus, greatly increasing speeds
Docking Stations
o Can expand the features of a laptop
o Cold dock = laptop is shut down completely before being removed
o Hot dock = laptop remains on
o Standby dock = laptop must be in sleep mode
Port Replicators are docking stations with no expansion slots or peripherals
Both docking stations and port replicators use a proprietary connection to laptop
Wireless Cards
o Usually will have cover on them
o Connected through Mini PCI or Mini PCIe
Laptop security options include a cable lock and installing LoJack
o LoJack will not prevent from physical theft, but allows laptop to be tracked and deletes any
sensitive information from hard drive
o Also features remote device lock, which prevent unauthorized users from logging in
o Laptops may have LoJack installed in the BIOS

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Laptop Features

Laptops are more susceptible to ESD than desktops are

Laptop Keyboard
o Smaller than a desktop keyboard
o Doubles up the capability of several buttons
o Sometimes includes a trackpoint which is that blue rubber thing which allows you to move the
mouse
Power supplies are usually 110 or 220 volts
o Amp = amount of current sent to laptop
o Volt = force of electricity sent to laptop
Universal power adapters range from 100 to 240 volts
Batteries:
o Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd)
Handles deep discharges
Looses charge really fast
Expensive
Rarely used today
o Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH)
Problems when over-discharged
o Lithium Ion (Li-ion)
Most common
Have built in circuitry to prevent overheating
Longest charge
LiPD batteries are found in mobile devices
o Batteries store DC
o To keep batteries in optimal condition, never let them run bellow 70-80%
Speakers
o Will usually be stereo (L/R) but many have subwoofer
No standardized motherboard for all laptops (proprietary)
Laptop CPUs
o Generate less heat
o Have integrated features such as a memory controller or a video controller
o Not very upgradable, but can be replaceable
o Modern laptop CPUs have SMM (System Management Mode) which enables CPUs to slow down
or stop their clock without loosing register information
ACPI was intended to be compatible with this
Laptop Memory
o SO-DIMM
68mm x 32mm
72-pin, 100-pin, 144-pin, 200-pin and 204-pin versions found
72-pin, 100-pin, and 144-pin are SDRAM
200-pin and 204-pin are usually DDR, DDR2 or DDR3 SDRAM
100-pin = 2 notches
144-pin = single notch near middle
200-pin = notch near left or right
204-pin = single notch closer to the middle than 144-pin
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ReadyBoost
Adding up to 256 GB of additional memory via flash drive
Works with Windows Vista, Windows 7 and Windows 8

Laptop Displays

Most laptop displays are LCD

o 10 to 20 are the typical laptop screen sizes
o Low power, lightweight, inexpensive
o Black levels are difficult, requires a separate backlight
Plasma would take too much power to use on a laptop
Screens house antennas for WiFi and Bluetooth
o Matte = wide viewing angle, rich colors, not visible in bright light
o High Gloss = better than matte, but more glare
o High end laptops use IPS panels for better viewing angle and color quality
Backlights can be LED, ELP, CCFL, or HCFL
Resolutions include:
o XGA = 1024 x 768
o HD 720p = 1200 x 720
o WXGA = 1366 x 768 (16:9) or 1280 x 800 (16:10)
Found in 14 to 15 models
o SXGA = 1280 x 1024
o SXGA+ = 1400 x 1050
o HD 900p = 1600 x 900
o WSXGA+ = 1680 x 1050
o UXGA = 1600 x 1200
o HD 1080p = 1920 x 1080
Found in 17.3 models
o WUXGA = 1920 x 1200
Dual View = a feature on laptops where two ports are built into the video card

PRINTERS

Printing speed is measured in PPM (Pages Per Minute)

Printing resolution (density of ink that affects print quality) is measured in DPI (Dots Per Inch)

Laser Printers

Uses electro-photographic imaging, which relies on photoconductive compounds

Raster images are sent to the printer to be produced
o RIP (Raster Image Processor) is used to translate the raster image into commands that the
printer can understand
Combines a laser, high voltage wires, charged ions, powdered ink, heat, and paper to create an image
o Some low quality laser printers may use LED light instead of a laser
High quality output
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Ideal for spot color, which is things like headings and lines
o RET (Resolution Enhancement Technology) is used to smooth out jagged edges
Fast printing speeds
Very complex, many moving parts, and requires on-printer memory
Toner
o Made up of carbon particles and polyester resin
o Toner gets charged by the toner cylinder with -200V to -500V
o Color laser printers will have four separate toner cartridges (C, M, Y, and K)
Photosensitive Drum (Imagining Drum)
o Has that blue bar on it
o Laser in the laser imaging unit hits the blue bar, which allows pickup of toner to place on paper
Primary Corona/Charge Roller
o Gives the photosensitive drum a uniform -600V to -1000V charge, but the particles on the drum
end up with a -100V charge for writing
Transfer Corona/Roller
o Applies a positive charge to the paper
A static charge eliminator prevents the paper from sticking to the roller
Fuser Assembly
o The top element provides heat and the bottom element provides pressure to the paper in order
to permanently fuse the toner to the paper
Transfer Belt
o For color printers
o Responsible for taking all the different colors and putting them onto the belt, then onto the
paper
Pickup Rollers
o Picks up the paper and pulls it into the printer
Registration Roller
o Used to feed the paper underneath the photosensitive drum where toner will be applied to the
paper
Separation Pad
o Exists inside of paper tray and makes it so the printer only picks up one piece of paper at a time
Duplexing Assembly
o Makes it possible to print on both sides of paper
o Turns the paper over inside of the printer
Page Description Languages
o PS (Adobe Postscript)
o PCL (HP Printer Command Language)
o XPS (XML Pages Specification)
Windows XP used GDI
o ASCII provided plain text characters
Laser Printing Process:
1. Cleaning (Some sources list this as the last step, so expect to see Cleaning as Step 1 or Step 7)
Cleans photosensitive drum of excess toner
Sweeper blade removes any residual toner and a the erase lamp uses a fluorescent light
to remove any electrical charge on the photosensitive drum, giving it a uniform neutral
charge.
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2. Processing
Processes the entire page into memory with its internal memory
3. Charging/Conditioning
Primary corona/charge roller charges photosensitive drum with negative electrostatic
charge
4. Exposing/Writing
Laser writes image onto photosensitive drum, making a positive charge on parts on
which toner will be applied
5. Developing
Photosensitive drum contacts the toner now that it is positively charged and the toner is
thus transferred to the photosensitive drum
6. Transferring
Toner is applied to paper
The controller blade controls amount of toner transferred
7. Fusing
Permanently melts toner onto the page with heat and pressure
Steps 7, 2, 3, and 4 are done in the image drum cartridge
Laser Printer Maintenance
o Replacing the toner cartridge
Toner contains the OPC drum (sensitive to light)
Power down the printer
Perform calibration after changing to ensure everything is properly configured
o Laser printer maintenance kit
Includes replacement feed rollers and new fuser units
o Cleaning
Use water or isopropyl alcohol
Use cold water outside of the printer
Use an antistatic vacuum cleaner when cleaning inside
Take the toner cartridge out first

Printers

Inexpensive technology
Vertical and horizontal plates in between ink fountains have positive and negative charges that serve to
control direction of inkjet spray
Most use heat to move the ink
Lower quality than laser, but still pretty good
Prints up to 4800 x 3600 dpi
Quiet
High-resolution
Ink is expensive
Ink will fade on paper over time
Clogs easily
Black, cyan, magenta, and yellow inks
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Print Head
o Connected to the cartridge that contains the ink
o Contains nozzles that spray ink
o This is to eliminate problems with print heads clogging
o The stabilizer bar is used to make sure the print head is at its precise location
Feed Roller
o Feeds paper into the paper
o Powered by the stepper motor
Duplexing Assembly
o Could be an external add in
Carriage and Belt
o Ink cartridges go in it and it moves them back and forth
o Calibration is important
o Found on external applications
Bubble Jet = a type of inkjet printer that uses tubes of ink with resistors
o Ink boils and sprays on paper
o 64 128 nozzles are used to accomplish this
Solid Ink Printers = complete a print job in a single pass and use ink sticks to produce really vibrant
colors, more vibrant than any printer can provide
o Also, operates really fast

Thermal Printers

Two methods of thermal printing:

o Direct Thermal Printing = contains a heating element which burns dots into the paper
o Thermal Wax Transfer = operates like dye-sublimation, but film is coated with colored wax
o Uses color dithering
White paper turns black when heated
Very quiet
Used for receipt printing
Image is sensitive to light and heat
Consists of:
o Controller board
o Platen
o Feed assembly
Takes the thermal paper off the roll, through the printer, to the outside
o Spring
Applies pressure to thermal head
o Thermal head
Heating element
Heats only particular areas of paper
Uses a special type of thermal paper
o Treated with chemicals so when exposed to heat, it changes color
Thermal Printer Maintenance
o Paper is inexpensive
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o When cleaning the heating element, use isopropyl alcohol or cleaning pen/cleaning card
Dye-Sublimation Printers = turns solid ink into a vapor, then turns it back into a solid
o Ink is vaporized on glossy paper
o Needed for prints that require fine detail
o Requires one page-pass per color (CMYK)

Impact Printers

Dot-Matrix Printers = uses a tractor feed and is good for printing multi-part forms
o Also called Line Printers
o 9-pin printers = draft quality prints
o 24-pin printers = letter quality / near-letter quality (NLQ)
Daisy-Wheel = strikes an inked ribbon with embossed character
The pins are actually called solenoids
Good for multi-part forms
Low cost per page
Noisy
Poor graphics
Print Head
o Rounded, tiny pins in the middle create the information output
o Heat can damage it
Printer Ribbon
o Saturated with ink
o Rotates through the printer multiple times
Tractor Feed
o Paper will have holes in the side to take advantage of this feature
Impact Printer Maintenance
o Replacing the ribbon is good when ink starts getting lighter. Easy to replace
o Replacing the print head is also easy
o To replace paper, line holes up properly
o Continuous feed, make sure nothing is in the way

Installing and Configuring Printers

Old printers connected with parallel ports, which abide by the IEEE 1284 standard
o The IEEE 1284 standard has five modes of operation:
1. Compatibility mode
2. Nibble mode
3. Byte mode
4. EPP (Enhanced Parallel Port)
For non-printer peripherals
5. ECP (Enhanced Capability Port)
For printers and scanners
The first three modes are for mono-directional printing while EPP and ECP are for
bidirectional printing
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EPP and ECP must have DMA and operating system support to take full
advantage of their capabilities
Parallel printer cables will have DB-25 connector at the PC end, and a 36-pin Centronics connector at the
printer end
o A legacy parallel printer port is often referred to as an LPT
o Will transfer at 150 KB/s at distances less than 6 feet
Cables that are IEEE 1284 compliant can stretch out to 32 feet max
Some printers connected via serial port, but this is less common
Most of today's printers connect via USB
Wireless printers use:
o Infrared (IrDa)
o Bluetooth (Operate at 1-3 Mbps)
o 802.11x wireless
Printers can be calibrated through ICC or CITE color profiles
A local printer is usually attached via a parallel cable
All printers connected to a homegroup are shared automatically
Need specific printer drivers
o Drivers determine all of the information the printer will receive
o Some printers use printer emulation in which a different print driver is used for a particular
printer that is different from its native driver
Printers can use serial or parallel ports if they need to plug in
Printer calibration refers to the alignment of internal components in the printer to print on the correct
part of the page, not the colors on the screen verses the colors on the paper
To share on Windows XP: Control Panel -> Printers and Faxes -> Right-click (Properties) -> Sharing Tab
To share on Windows 7: Control Panel -> Devices and Printers -> Right-click (Printer Properties) ->
Sharing Tab
To add a printer on Windows XP: Navigate to Printers and Faxes
To add a printer on Windows Vista: Navigate to Printers
To add a printer on Windows 7: Navigate to Devices and Printers

OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES

Computer Safety Procedures

Managing Electrostatic Discharge

o Static electricity itself isn't harmful to computers, but its discharge is
o ESD (Electrostatic Discharge) is very damaging to computer components
o All you need is 100 volts or less to damage computer components
o To control ESD:
Humidity should be kept at 60%
Touch the metal chassis before touching a component
Never touch components directly
o Use anti-static pads as they have resistors inside them
o Use anti-static bags for transferring components
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o A ground mat is also a tool for preventing ESD
o When repairing a computer, remove jewelry
Computer Safety Procedures
o Replace the entire power supply than try to repair the individual components
o Power supplies, displays, and laser printers all have high voltages
o Equipment grounding:

o Most computers connect to ground and being grounded divert electrical faults away from
people
o Equipment racks are also grounded
o Lift with your legs, keep your back straight
Fires
o Don't use water or foam
o Use CO2, FM-200, and other dry chemicals
o Remove the power source of fire
o Use a Class A fire extinguisher for fires dealing with solid combustibles
o Use a Class B fire extinguisher for fires dealing with ordinary flammable liquids
o Use a Class C fire extinguisher for electrical fires
Cable Management
o Use cable ties or Velcro
o Be aware of government regulations, building codes, and environmental regulation

Environmental Controls

Managing Your Computing Environment

o Read a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) for disposal procedures
o Sometimes abbreviated as Safety Data Sheet (SDS)
o Keep track of temperature, humidity (50%), and proper ventilation in rooms where computers
are
o Keep the computer as cool as possible by having a good airflow going through
o Cleaning tools include detergents. Do not use ammonia-based cleaning liquids or isopropyl
alcohol

Communication and Professionalism

Communication
o Avoid jargon
o Avoid interrupting
o Clarify customer statements
o Set expectations and options for your customer
o If a password is needed to complete the work, as the user to type it in themselves
If the password is needed several times, ask the users permission to change the
password after the work is completed.
Professionalism
o Maintain positive attitude
o Avoid being judgmental
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Be on time and avoid distractions
Learn how to deal with difficult situations
Don't minimize problems
Maintain confidentiality

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