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2.7.
INTRODUCT]ON
The various operation aspects of an electrical power system, the symmetrical steady state operatiori
the most important mode of operation. A knowledge of this mode of operation is essential to
supply of real and reactive powers demanded by various loads, with the fiequency and the various
voltages maintained rvithin specified tolerances and with optimum economy. Study of this mode
trperation is carried out to arrive at the most satisfactory layout at the planning stage and to mai
qualityand economy of power supply while the systems is in operation.
The rnathematical formulation ol the kjad flow study results in a system of non-linear eq
'fhese quantities can be written interms
of either the bus admittance matrix or bus impedance
'l'he former is more suitable
to digital computer analysis. because of the cases with which the
admittance matrix could be formed and modified for network changes in subsequent changes.
this approactr (adrnittance matrix) is the most economical from the point of view of computer
and memory requirement ,
n (n-+
l)
system.
l.
2.
3.
2.2
Load flow solution is a solution of the network under steady state operation subjected to
inequality constraints under which the system operates. These constraints can be in the tbrm of
node voltages, reactive power generation of the generators, the tap settings of the tap
transformers under load. etc.
Load tlow studies are conducted at the stage ofplanning, operation and control. They are used
determine the magnitude and phase angle of load buses and active and reactive power injected at
and also active and reactive power flows over transmission lines. This information is necessary for
following functions
66
Load.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
flow Studres 57
To keep the voltage level of certain buses within closed tolerances by proper reactive power
scheduling.
The total active power generation must be equal to the load demand plus losses. This should be
divided amongst the generators in a unique ratio for optimum economic operation. Load flow
studies are used to maintain the above ratio.
The effects of disturbances, which may result in systern failures, can be minimized by proper
(rv) To analyze the effectiveness of alternative plans for future system expansion to meet the increased.load demand or for designing a new system.
(v) To determine the best location for capacitors or voltage regulator for improvemenf Ofroltage
regulation.
(vi)
Load flow studies are required at various stages of transient or dynamic stability analysis.
Definition: The study, which gives steady state solution of power system network, for a specified
bus conditions, with certain unequal contraints, is known as load flow study or power flow study and
the solution obtained is known as load flow solution.
In general, a bus in an electrical power system is fed from generating units which inject active and
reactive powers into it and loads receive active and reactive pewers from it. In the load flow studies,
the generator and load (complex) powers are lumped into a net (complex) power. This net (complex)
power is called the bus injected power.
The net power injected in the bus is given by
where Po, Qc :
Pp, Qn :
P, Q :
S:
P *7Q
(pc_pD) +/(ec_eo).
ln addition to the above quantities, ryragnitude and phase angle of the voltage are also associated
with each bus of the four quantities at a bus, viz. , active bus power, reactive bus power, bus voltage
magnitude and bus voltage phase angle, two quantities are specified, the remaining two quantities to
be obtained through the load flow solution. When all the four quantities at every bus in the power
system are known. active and reactive power flows in all the transmission lines can be calculated.
Depending upon which quantities have been specified, the buses are classified
in
the following
three categories:
(i)
(ii)
Load Bus : Load bus is one at which the active and reactive powers are specified. It is desired
to determine the magnitude and phase angle of voltage through load flow study. It is required
to specify only Pp and Qp at such a bus voltage can be allowed to vary with in permissible
values i.e.,5%. Also bus voltage phase angle is not very important for the load.
Generator Bus or Voltage Controlled Bus : Generator bus or voltage controlled bus is one at
which the voltage magnitude corresponding to the generation voltage and active power (P6)
corresponding to its ratings are specified. It is required to determine the reactive power generation (Qc) and bus voltage phase angle.
il
(iii)
Slack or Swing or Reference Bus : This type of bus is distinguished from the other two
by the fact that active and reactive powers at this bus are not specified but voltage
and phase angle are specified. Normally there is only one bus of this type in a given
system.
In a load flow study active and reactive powers can't be fixed a priori at all the buses as the
complex power flow into the network is not known in advance, the system power loss being
till the load flow solution is completed. It is therefore necessary to have one bus (i.e., slack bus)
which complex power is unspecified so that it supplies the difference in the total system load
losses and the sum of the complex powers specified at the remaining buses. By the same reasoning
slack bus must be a generator bus.
The Table 2.1 summarized the above discussion.
Table 2.1
Specified quantities
Bus rype
Can be determined
quantities
P,Q
P,
1,5
Load bus
Generator bus
Slack bus
2.3.2
lvl
vl,5
Q,5
P,Q
lv
flow study is an aspect of the symmetrical steady state operation. the three phase
is solved on per phase basis. Also, only positive sequence equivalent circuits of the system
Since the load
are considered.
The network model of a power system, it is sufficiently accurate to represent a short line by a
impedance and a long line by a nominal n model.
2.3.3
Representatlon of Transformels
buses
bus
a:t
Fig.
2.1
se*itg
v,
Tlrr:
and
l,o
...(2.r\
(Vr -Vq)Ypq
...(2.2)
'r:4:W"r,
...(2.3)
'aa
Y,:+
ad
...(2.4\
L
,,:(\-%l
' \4
',)
...(2.s',)
Similarly
I,r
(Vs
-Y)Yrn
: (Nq-U)+
'
ndel
as shown in
anid
'4'
busq
is represented by an equivalent n
Fig. 2.2.
bus P,
lo
Eig'
ftom Fig.
'p'
" '(2'6',)
2'2
2.2,
ln: (Yo-Vr)Yn
+ VpYB
lo= (Yr-Vr)Ye + V4Yc
...(2.7)
...(2.8)
"o: *,
YB
:(:
(' -i)'".:
!b mathematical model given in equation (2.9)
,)"...(2.e)
is used to represent a transformer with fixed tap
Iop thonging under lood tronslormer : In the case of a tap changing under load (TCUL)
, the tapping is changed i.e., the value of 'c'is varied to maintain the voltage magnitude
hr the specified tolerances. The load flow equationi are solved by numerical methods involving
rErlrin number of iterations. The value of 'a' is changed normally once in two iterations, with this
lq: of transformer also represented by an equivalent n model.
7A Elrctrical
Power
2.3.3.3 Phose:tiltirq lronelorners: It is used to advance the phase angle of the bus,voltage.
represented by an ideal transformer as in previous cases but wittr a turns ratio which is a
number. Let the turns ratio be (a, + 7br). The transformer is represented as shown in Fig. 2.3.
Fictitious
lro
Jtr
(a. +j
Fig.
2.3
Phose sbifting
*ansfonnn
lrn:
and
(V, -Y,)Yp,t
Substituting
l'o
(a, + ib')"
,:
'P
I., from
l,
a' - ib'
. - (v,-vr)Y,
'n--f,j4
:[#_",] #rv. :
:
(Vp
-(a, * ibr)Vq)
u,,,
as + Jos
from equation
dh
In a similar way
Io
= (Y, - V)
Ypq
:[', .ut ]t
:
[(a, +
jb)Vq-Vi&
For the convenience of nodal analysis, the phase shifting transformer is represented
lbllowing model
and
lr:YoYro*YoY*
lr=YrY*+YoY*
It
Load. Flow
Studies
71
Yro:
t3.4
Ib
1o*ur1,Ypq:
Y*
Ynn
- jb,)
(a,
:Y
*^rJ;:r-9'DrydYw
>
Esant
Loaa cunent
0.8
1'o
Eig.
2.4
----rl.'*n"
1'4
Retatiowhip between load curyent and nodc wbage for siwple had.
1.0
1.2
types
1.4
-->Voltage
for
vice-versa
if
Sr
Pr +7Q,
Il
V,
Sr
Pr *"/Qr
Vl + Yt2 V2 t
V1 (Y11
Y13 V3)*
: lvrlei6,,ly,,l e.r3r, I v1 | d6, + I Yrz fen lY2l d6, + I Y,r I eis" lYzl ru'): lVr2y11 lg-10,, + lvr Vzy,z lel(6,-62-6,,) + lVrV:y,: lel(6,-6:-E':) ...(z.zl)
I
fb
0,,
lVr Vz Yrzl
cos (6,
6z
cos (5,
- 6:-
0r:)
(2.22)
imaginary part is
lsin(61-62-0rz) +
lvrvrYr: lsin(6,-6r-0r:)]
]hilarlyrealandreactivepowerinjectedintobus2andbus3.
hgrneral. tbr 3 bus system
Pr:
I Yo'Yo, I cos0r,
IN,
Q=l
YrY*lcos(5r-Dq-ee,)
*p
: I lV, v, Yr,
q=l
cos (6,
- 6, -
opq), for
: 1,2,3
...(2.24)
...(2.25)
Ihilerly,
Qp
: IV,
q=l
1,2,
78
2.5.L
Yp:
I Vr 1
- l) complex unknowns
Ir: iv,
q=l
Yr, -vtYpp+
Luouo*p:2,3,...,n
n;;
(or)
Si
P,
* jQo: Yol,
P,
-iQr: v*rt,
I,
rather than
I|.
u,:
Substituting
I, from equation
*[,, arr,J
method
/
\
I
-J?,
v"**ro Y,, In, -frr,,u;l
*
I t"; t"
,,ri,'
'
The bus voltage equation (2.30) can also be solved by the Gauss-Seidel method. For this
*
the new calculated voltage Vr* t immediately replaces Vrt and is used in the solution of sut
calculations. For Gauss Seidel method the equation (2.30) can be modified as
I
v-,+,'P -'-[
tt+
tr,,
-ir,,v;*,- q=p+t
,;,0
"r"rl
prior to bus
The second term on the R.H.S. of the equation (2.31) is clear beeause the voltage
iteration.
the
current
should correspond to the value as calculated during
p'
many arithmetic
Computing time can be reduced to considerable extent by performing as
means that the
This
computation'
operations as possible before starting the repetitive iterative
P'6. :
Let
"lQn
Y"
"
forp = 2, 3, ...,
* l, slackbus
,*:?*,
v^r * r
'P
...(2.32)
tt
for
...(2.33')
2; 3, ..., n
as
ol,
- ir,
vk
+r
- Lrrrul
..,(2.34\
q=p+l
(vj). h
the acceleration
L5.l.t Acrelerolion lodor: The convergence Ii-. ,i*". be speeded up*by the .use .ofgiven
by
is
(/c
iEration
p;us,
+
l)th
the
the accelerated value of voltage at
r"r tfr.
;;
vj,l"'.,:vo*+cr(vpft*t-vr*)
"'(2'35)
rhere cr is a real number called the acceleration factor. Use of acceleration factor reduces the total
<
A
nmber of iterations required considerably. A generally recommended range is 1'3 cr S 1'6'
the
from
in
divergence
result
even
times
some
rrong choice of cr may indeed slower convergence or
olution. The Gauss-ieidel method with the use of acceleration factor is known as the method of
sccessive over relaxation.
15.1.2
l.
2. AssumeinitialbusvoltagesVro
Y"r.
1
+ 1, slackbus
:
e
AV.r*
Oand
3. Set iterationcountft
|
I
4. Compute A, and Br., from equations (2.32) and (2'33)
5. Set bus count P : I
If
(lii)
7.
E.
9.
lAvr*l)lAV,o,*l
..r.,yrr _ vro *
Checkconvergence
If I 4V,,,,* | 2 e, then increment iterationcount k
10. Calculate line power flows and slack bus power-
1, go to step 5 repeat'
80
2.5.1
.3
*1
Set iteration count k = 0, and lA
Compute
V^
V-,,
|=e
kk+1k
laV,
l=Vo
-Vp
BuscountP=P+1
into account
Iteration count
k=k+1
aVr", l<g
line power flows and slack bus power
2.5.2
Some of the buses in a 'n' bus power system are voltage controlled buses. where P and I
but Q and 6 are unknowns. Let the buses be numbered as
p: l, slackbus
p :2,3, ..., i, PQ buses
p : i + l, i + 2,..., n, PVbuses
I specified
must lie between these limits and also voltages at these buses are also specified.
<
i-e-.
Qp rnin
lvrl:lvpl,p"".
Qp
Qp
,nu^
Qr,
fnl
- m I vrZrorv, l, for P : i + l, i
lq=r
* 2, ..., n
The revised value of Q, is obtained from the abore equation by substituting most updated values
Qk+l:-Im
[ef
of
l)th iteration
Z",,vi*'
(uii,i,",
rr]
...(2.36)
for P:i+l,i+2,.'.,n
The revised value of 6, is obtained frorn equation (2.34) as
6r**'-zYr**'
6,t'* t : Angle
d{i!,t--
I "'
ao*t
p-l
,,, u;l
, - 2rrr vf *' - q=p+t
(vr)
o*=;
for P:i+I,i+2,
*!c
Th limits of reactive
Q,,o*
t:
k+r
....
Pr_jQI,-'
...(2.38)
[Qr.,,
lQrmax,
...(2.37)
ir Ql*r ( Qr *i,
ifQ;.'
>Qp,"*
.'
loi.' , if Qp.in . Qf . Q^no*
(p
i+
l,i
+ 2, ..., n)
--.(2.39)
ffiany limit (either maximum or minimum) is violated, then that bus is treated as the PQ bus. But
*
subsequent computation iteration, Qro ' cornes within the limits then the bus is converted
to the PV bus.
ffir
E
82
l.
2.
Vro
1+
j0,
for
p : 2,3, ..., n
*
1 slack bus
0and I AV.r* | :
3. Setiterationcountk
e
4. Compute A, and B, fiom equations (2.32) and (2.33)
' 5. set bus count p : 2
6. If bus is PQ bus, then
(i) Comput" Vr* * 1 from equation (2.34)
(ii) Compute AVpft: Yoo *'-Yro
If
(iii)
lAVrol>lAv.,*l
i.e., Y ,k
Vro
(v)
'
i.e.,Yrk
8.
9.
Vro
: p*
10. Checkconvergence
IflAVmaxl2e,then
increment iteration count &
.1.
,1
Load. Flott,
,J'J..Z
'
3=1
*1.slack bus
IAV*
|=e
(2.33)
and Vohl=
buscount,p=p+
lVe
l"*" z6ro'
Studies 83
ilf
.flea*.ieel' Power
Analysls
powe,rur technique rt
quadratic rate of convergence, whereas
LlX,l""#X31^::.,::::::'i1:l'-1]'^PJ
the Gauss-s"iu.i rra"ttoffi
Consequently, for this method does not
necessitate the use or
factor and also
to the selection of slack bus.
"c".i.r"tion
N-R method can be appried to the load flow
sorution in a number
used (l) rectangular coordinates and (il) polar
coordinates.
2.6.1,
Pp-iQp: V;I/,
: vofv*v,
q=l
y): ro-tf,
Yq:eqtjfq
: Grr - iBn,
Y
ro
Consider
and
-iQp
.q*iio,
@p-tfp)
i(o,
,r:
2Vr("n
and the imaginary part of equation
e.a\ is
Pp
- .Ero)(ro * j.fn)
Q=l
o,
(2.40)
Gon
* frBnr)* fn(fo G*
rnBr)l
I[,
(ro G,o
Thus
8t
(e, J)
ll;';lr,T*l1Y,T*::::8,1i'f*
,,,,',,,; ;:1'1
diife;;f;#il:"riiilXlil[
fii
po*"rrio
change
^Pe:
and
in .e, and
,f,
takethe form as
i-*o,.f,* o,
^s:E**,.2**
l-pl
loal
rhere Jl, J2, J3 and
Ja
...(2.47)
L:;i:;lL^;l
are the elements of the Jacobian and are first order partial derivatives.
The elements of the Jacobian matrix can be derived from the equations (2.42) and (2.43'1.
The diagonal elements of J1 are
aP-:
fr
2e,
G*
rn + fn
*)
.Q.48)
*J'
Y: q=l
fv,nv,
: Yppr, * fronu,
,;i
rp:
co +
idp: (cpp-iBpp)(eo+if)
* i(o*
,=*,
iB*\(rn* ifn)
The reat
part,
...(2.4g)
o =*'o
rrd imaginary
part,
dp: foG*-
eoBo,
* fio
oo
- rrB*)
...(2.50)
*p
The equation (2.48) can be written
aP..
as
c,
...(2.51)
e*p
...(2.52)
eoGw--frBrr+
fr:
fr
,pG*-f,,Boo,
aP-:
d
(r
2frGo, *
7,(t,
+p
G,, - e,Bo,)
*:pBpp+fpcpp+dp
...(2.53)
86
Electrica.L Power
t:roB*+fpce(t,q*p
Similarly,
Diagonal elements of J, are
eoB* * frGoo- d,
*
Diagonal elements
: erB* * f
oGoq,
q* p
" :b:*
ff:f'Bon-enG*tc'
}:
-rpG*+fpBpq,q*p
fJipq: -Uqjpq
dP, _ _19"
i.e.,
and
dr,
Uzlpq :
Ilzlpq
aPe
:
of,t
i.e.,
fq
aQe
dro
This relationship reduces the efforts considerably as it is enough only to determine the
elements of any two sub-matrices.
off
2.6.1,2 When PV buses ore presenl: For a PV bus, the reactive power Q, is not specified but the
magnitude I V, I is specified.
Thus
lVul': ro'+fi
pv
bus
l^vpl,:u{;f a,e,*ry**,
The total number of equations considered in this case are fixed and equal to 2 (n
When PV bus is present the equation (2.47) can be modified as
- l\.
The elements of J1, Jr, J3 and Ja are given by equations (2.51) to (2.58). The elements of
can be determined from equation Q.6l).
J5
ry*:zp
...(2.64\
ulu,1,
_ .r,
{f,, :.,,
...(2.6s)
?lv,r' :o
:
ryr
duo
a!.,
...(2.66)
trfe
lrlS
l.
2.
3.
tl.
t:
yn*
t * j0, for p
: 2,3, ..., n
* 1, slack bus
I
5. Check type of bus. If bus is slack bus go to step 6.
Otherwise.
if
(i) Evaluate the active and reactive powers Prt and Qr& using equations (2.42)
(ii) Compute Lppk : pp rp." - ppt.r1
and
6.
4Qro
Qp rp..
9-
"ur
If
(i)
(ii)
-p
and
-o *liern
frr*t=1rk+Lfok
D.
!t-
12.
(2.43)
- erk
: p+I
t-
and,
srpp,;',
,i
+ I and go to step 5.
88
P, p = 2,3, ..., n
Pok
a Q^k=
P"ogq
Q-*-
Ppk
1@D
?nd
Q^k
apk+1 = lvol*cos 6,
fphl = lVrl*sin 6,
frk+6;rk
o*l';v
ttl.5
rffigrfur oodh*enetudur$y
l.
2.
Vro
bu, htrree.ilr
yru,
: I +7O, for p :
2,3, ...,
! ;'"""uut
Otherwise
(i) Compute Pre qnd ert using equilrions (2.42) and (2.43)
(ii) Compute A ppft pp.p". - pp*6 and
Check type ofbus. IfpV bus
(i) Check the limits ol ert and ser
6.
Qro
:
:
^u*(
a Q'o
'Jo"t
rf no rimit is violated *,;,*q:
If any limit is violated ser e1;. : I
Qp*"*
:
,
lI .- rncrement the bus count, p : p + I
I tt
I
epmin
- ept*r
check all buses are taken into accsunt.ltp <lz, then go to step 5 and repeat
Compute the largest of the absolure of the residue
rhe convergence
lI- Check
I If the residue > e
compute the elements of Jacobian marrix using equations (2.51) ro (2.5g)
I ,i, Cornpute
voltage increments L erk andA/rt using equation (2.47)and new bus
voltages
I t"l
,nft+leok+a,erkutd
1
I
I
I
I
comPute
II
IE
It-
*t:
I Vp
lsp"q
cos 6, and
(Xherwise if bus is
(l)
pe
bus. then
lvrol
I
I
,,,0
Compute ,;*.'=
(or)
sroo.
,ur*
90
il prerent
1 slack bus
APj
= P,
"o*-
Pko*,
buscountP=P+
Compute
I
ro
aej
ano
fp
=fp +Afp
= lVpl
min
6p
cos 6r
= lVol"*" cos
ej.l
l*1
= lvol
.",
cos
6p
= lVol"r"" sin 6p
6o
Ep
Pp-iQp:
ir;
Yn,Y,
...(2.67)
A=l
Ler
Q=l
P,
: t
-iep
lYryonyole-iP*+5,,
-6,)
...(2.68)
*,
: t
_n
dthe
imaginary part,
Qr,
: I
*rge.
Thus
q=l
...(2.6e)
lYrYrrv,lsin(or,
"lalro
*6, - 6r)
Po= gr (6, I v 11
Q,: gr (6, l v l)
...(2.7O)
Wl
Electrical Pouer
2.6.2.1 Wtcn PV hscs arc nol FiGnft For a given power system consisting
assuming bus 1 is a slack bus and all remaining buses are taken as load buses.
'n'
number of bu
The differential equations which relate the change in real and reactive power
magnitude and phase angle of bus voltage take the form as
#r^vq I
E*AE,
+,4
=
#,^vq I
EHA6,
+E
Ap, =
Aep
',
to
change
...(2
...(z
where AP, and AQ, represent the differenees between the specified and the calculatedvalue of P,
Q, respectively using equations (2.69) and (2.70).
in matrix form
Li;'i:;lLovrl'
L^el
The elements of the Jacobian matrix can be derived from the bus power equations.
The real power equation (2.69) can be written as
P,
=|
Yt,l2
\..
lsin(orr+6r-6r)
1,tri,
lYrY*V, lsin(0rot6r-60),e*p
IalVpl= z tI ypy*
t' P't'I cos sro* flyorYrlcos(0r, +6, - 6r)
o=*r,
aP-
-1"r1
'
l,
are
(2.7q
can be written as
n
Qp:
lv, l'lY*
* 6,- 6)' 4* P
| sinor,
q-l
*p
I
The diagonal elements of
J, are
":'rrrr*l
*ffi
sin(or,
* 6r-
6i)it'
...t2.80(r)I
q*p
6),4*p
"'(2'sl)
...(2.83)
+/
I
I
I
I
[fi]
equation (2.77)
II
I
I
]
I
From equation
e84,
6e-6q)
*r, =
From equation (2.81)
:t
..
DQo
ffi
#,
v, | : lYpywvo
,--: EQ'
t'o:
at =- - lv'Y'oY'
Hpq:
Nr,
I cos
(opr*6e-64)
lcos(0" + 6'-6')
,.requation (2.76),
equation
...(2.s7)
"'(2'88)
...(z.Bg)
Hm:B: lvolrBor-eo
(z.lsl, Npp :
...(2.86)
Lpq
:-'-lo,
r-*
...(2.8s)
- n.
terms ai.e,
aP^
(2.83)
t':
Lrr:
tt
I uoobservedthat
tnat
'Dserveo
Ifl+l
Hpq,:5d
I
[I
:[?
.#,
I V, |
: I v,l, cpp + pp
.p.so)
...(z.gt)
94
From equation
(2.80), rr,
Fromequarion(2.82),
t,:
#l
pn-Gpe
V, I
lvp
e, +
12
ypf Bpe
Thus with slight modification in equation (2J4), we can get the symmetry property
Jacobian, which is observed in the case ofexpressing Jacobian in rectangular coordinates.
2.6.2.2 When PV buses ore presenl: Now consider when PV buses are included in 'n' bus power
For a PV bus, the reactive power Q, is not specified and I v, I is fixed i.a., specified; A e,
appear on the left hand side of equation
'
(2.84)*O
v, :
lllil
lvrl
4ftbur
pth PQ bus
rtl' PV bus
p'h bus
rth bus
and sth
sthbu,
H,,
lu,
N,,
H,,
L,,,
J,,,
H,,
N,,
H,,
A6
qth Pq bus
Alvql
lv,
sth PV bus
A6.,
where.
Hrn
aP,.
aP_
55;'NP,:
r Ipq -dQr
aS., 'uP'l
a 1-v,1
v,
ffir,,r
l.
2.
Assume initial bus voltage magnirudes I vr, I ano phase angles 610
Y"r.
*l'slackbus
3. setiterationcountk:0andconvergencecriteria:e
4. Set bus countp : I
5. Check rype of bus, if bus is slack bus go to step 6. Otherrvise, if bus is PQ bus, then
(i) Evaluate the active and reactive powers prft and ert using equations (2.69) and, (2.70'11
(ii) Computg A ppt : pp.p... - Fp.ur
and AQrt : Qprp"" -Qpk*r
6. Increment the bus countp : p + I
7. check all buses are taken into account.lt p < n, then go to step 5 and repeat.
8. Compute the largest of the absolute of the residue.
9. Check convergence. If the residue > e
(i) Compute the elements of Jacobian matrix using equations (2.76) ro (2.83) using the
mated I V,, I and 6, from step 2.
I-ood
(ii)
(iii)
Prous
Studres 95
Compute A 6rk and A I Vrt I using equation (2.74)Compute new bus voltage magnitude and phase angle of all load buses
t.e.,
and
6ro*t:6r*+a6r*
t
Ivro* I: Ivet|+AIvroI
Otherwise go to steP 9.
u.2.4
lV,
16o0;
O,
for p = 2, 3, ...n,
land6randgotostep5'
=k+
96
Ebctncal power
2.6.2.5
Algorithm lor
Sgrstem
l{-I
1.
2.
v}
6! for all pe
3.
o
Slffr*t
5'
:
6 Qr* :
A Prt
a[ pe buses
Pprp".
the residue
(ii)
(iii)
Ppk.r1
a[ pv
rlld
Qrr*" - Qrt"ur
(i)
Prt and Qrt fo, all PQ buses and prt for alt pv
,(2.69)
buses using equations
If
buses and
of the residue
!'
+iusing
marix
equation (2.84)
pe
buses and
.6r**r-6r*+a6pr
and lyoo* t_l : lvrol *A lVprl
Otherwise go to step 9.
If not,
set
Qrt
e,oin
ep*
ep
r.*. If
Qp,rtn
10.
nssume
and
6f
burr
ora present
for p = 2, 3, ..., n
V^ for p = 2,3,
2, 3, ...,
for P = 2, 3, ...,
for p = 2, 3, ...,
PVbusp>m
Joo,forq=2,3,...
lncrement bus
countP=P+1
and#,
Compute
6o
k+1
Vo
for p = 2, 3, ...,n
tor p =
2,2, ...,^
9! pkrrrlvr,
L7
fuuser Sustem
is very
.1?Irtrix
sr
T,,
v)) ' so, all the elements of J, of the Jacobian Matrix can also
be negtected and to
* ,t -
taken as zero.
:lt;ll^iiJ
till
,,,
AP:JrA6
and
AQ:JaAlvl
...(2.
The solution of these equations is less time
consuming ind the computer memory requiren
would be less since the.-elements of J, u.ilJ;
are zero and need not be stored. rurttreriimptincal
can be obtained by rewriting equatioi
e.qil as follows :
=rlr[ffi]
where
as
ao"
L--:
r
,'r'ffi:Qp*lvel2Bpp
-pp rv
andLrn from equation (2.g6)
Lnr: lu, |
Dep
ffi
H,
from
equation,rffi;jfle rlwrtten
H--:
andHorrromequation
,ri;;:
DP'
#:
Hpq:*:
It can be seen
that
L*:
as
: lvP l'Bo'-Q'
,
Hrcfor q * p, q
and
p: 2,3, ..., n
* l, slackbus
...(2.101)
Laad. Ftotu
Studies 99
Br, I V,l'
(rr) I 6, - 6, I is very small
(D
QP
11
6r) = 1'0
(rrr) G,
and in view
..'(2.102)
of assumprions (ii) and (iii), the equation (2.99) (or) equation (2.101) can be written
:lvpv, l{Bp./+o}
: lVpYolBr*forq*p
as
cosOrnsin(6'-6')l
"'(2'103)
Computation of the elements of [H] and [L] using the above approximate expressions would be
faster. Hence. this method is called fast decoupled load flow method.
2.9
N-R Method
G-S Method
4.
5.
6.
it is
is affected by
unreliable.
7.
It
z.LO
It
It
Decoupled Load FIow Method : It is simple and computationally efficient than the NewtonRaphson's method. The main advantage of this method compared to the N-R method is it reduces
l.fi,
Electricat power
;ffi::
;;;l"lir,,"
lr[:tli#l*:t
**-r;;;r
li:1,,?::lT.T:,::::::y:i f:,":*",",fr*
storage requirement,
a"*upt"ito"a'n"*
[ffit]:i::t-1t1fl]jY"|o.fl}h1
optimization
problems and conting"rr.y
the
ffi:"l[Xt;lh:::"'pute
for
l"'oti*"n'au"tion
matrix i,
"r";il'J:;;.illJ:fff"[*:i
*",t"il
inis me*roa is also usetul to so
ry;r",,;;xi;X#ffi:il:"ff*ff:
"r".v
ii*Joo
",
s matrix i,
"orri*t "r",
,ltpq
lpso
Fig.2.lO Pon
Power
zr lroflstnissinn
lroflstnitsian
:
r_ 'pq
V, and Vo :
spq
lpo
Ipq=Ipqt*Ipqo
rhe comprex power ,or.","oi,,lu,*
I3.kl
J:J;T.bus
Soq:Prq+iQpq
= yrlnro
Substituting the
l,
in
.llf I-"*.".loss
th"p*
bus to 4,h bqs
i-e.,
4 is
tt",p"fl,
Y, [(V*,n-Y")!*ro
- V*,) y*
busp is
y*n!*,
1rr"'rtt*.'i*;ff.l lr:J"g:l
the power flows in the p _ q, line
PLpq: Sr, * s*
a,