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Haggay Ram
Mythology of Rage: Representations of the "Self"
and the "Other" inRevolutionary Iran*
Introduction
In a series of studies exploring the history of madness,
illness,
crime and sexuality, the French philosopher Michel
Foucault
engaged in historical critiques of the discourses of various modern
scientific disciplines. Discerning ways in which people participate
in their own assujettissement (subjectification) by exercising power
over themselves - "tying themselves to scientific or moral defi
nitions of who they are"1 - Foucault brought a historical indict
ment against modernity, specifically against such modern disci
plines as medicine, psychiatry, criminology, sociology, and so on.
showed that the prevalent definitions of rationality, perversion,
appropriate codes of sexual behavior, and delinquency were all
formulated through the subjugation of an "Other" - the "mad
He
man,"
the
"deviant,"
the
"born
criminal,"
the
"delinquent"
and
the "hermaphrodite"
is constituted
through which the "Self
and affirmed. "Discipline makes individuals," Foucault asserts; "it
is the specific technique of a power that regards individuals both
as objects and as instruments of its exercise."2
In part, themessage of the Islamic Republic of Iran too - beyond
the exposition of its revolutionary ideas - was the "message of
discontent,"
involving, as Hamid Dabashi pointedly argued, the
construction of a homogenized
hostile Other poised against an
as
Self.
"The
itwas collectively created, is the
injured
injured Self,
most compelling force in the contemporary Iranian
psyche; the
hostile Other is the visceral denial of The West'."3
Indeed, more than anything else, itwas these collective griev
ances against an imaginative construction called "the West"
that
movement
animated
the
in
Iran.
The
deeply
revolutionary
ideological foundation of the Islamic Revolution was nourished by
a repulsive rejection of "the West:"
Haggay Ram
"The West" became the epitome of moral corruption, of
of the
ethical bankruptcy, of illegitimate domination
of
and
the
and
other
of
wealth
world,
dignity
plundering
was
cause
all
nations.
"The
West"
the
of
ills, the
sovereign
mother of all corruptions, the condition of all despair, the
father of all tyrannies.4
68
perception
of one's
social
condition
... to a
program
of
alteration or transformation
collective action for themaintenance,
of society."6 When
arguments for the
supplying compelling
alteration or transformation of institutions, customs, rites and
beliefs, especially at moments of revolutionary crisis, mythology
elevates
communal
self-consciousness
in
sharp
and
radical
In thisway revolutionary
contradistinction to other-consciousness.7
movements seek to rejuvenate the communal self-identity by a new
set of enchantments. This mythology, itsmethod and manner of
persuasion, and the modes and modalities of public participation
in itwere central to the build-up of the revolutionary momentum
both before and after the 1979 ascendancy of the Iranian 'ulama
(religious scholars) to power.
The primary aim of this study is to examine the substance of
revolutionary Iran's "mythology of rage" which the Iranian regime
utilized in order to mobilize
society against the Other, thereby
the
and
identity of the injured Self. The
reinvigorating
reasserting
discussion will focus on one mythological construct: the "Karbala
that is, the martyrdom suffered by the third Imam
paradigm,"
Mythology
ofRage
Husayn ibn 'Ali and his followers on the tenth day ('Ashura) of the
Muslim month of Muharram, AD 680, at Karbala, in an extremely
uneven battle against the army of the Ummayad caliph Yazid ibn
no other single event in
Mu'awiya.8 As will be seen, perhaps
Islamic history has played so central a role in shaping sectarian
Shi'ite identity and communal sense as the martyrdom of Husayn
at Karbala.9 Equally meaningful
and his companions
in its
this
narrative
Iranian
(or mythological
contemporary
garb,
construct) portrays an exemplary revolutionary way of life, a
paradigm of revolutionaryIslamic self-identity,inwhich one sacrifices
one's life for a common cause: resisting an all-powerful enemy - with a view to
a homogenized
Other, "the West"
rescuing the
Shi'ite Iranian Self from contemporary obscurity, decadence
and
irrelevance.
As may have been gathered by now, for the present study I have
only concerned myself with the question of how Iranian self
(re) constructed and articulated from above
identity has been
without giving due attention to the equally
significant and
J.Hobsbawm's
piercing observation about nations and nationalism,
Iran's revolutionary ideology is "a dual phenomenon],
construc
ted essentially from above, but which cannot be understood unless
also analyzed from below, that is in terms of the assumptions,
hopes, needs, longings and interests of ordinary people...."10
The Karbala
Paradigm:
to a Conquering
Self
From
Vanquished
- the
supreme Shi'ite martyr, "the Lord of the
as he came to be
al-Shuhada)
Martyrs" (Sayyid
collectively known
- is the tormented hero of Twelver Shi'ism
par excellence.When
the
cosmic
of
the
Shi'a believe that
considering
problem
suffering,
Imam Husayn
69
Haggay Ram
of the Prophet Muhammad.11
Imam
against the household
of
Twelver
Husayn's martyrdom therefore became ^origin
myth
Shi'ism. Insofar as it lays the foundation for the "structure of
reality" and provides the "exemplary models of human behav
ior,"12 it "pulls together in a universal way anxieties and suffering
on
several dimensions
and
attempts to present acceptable
solutions."13
70
Karbala
Yet
the Other,
let alone change its own plight for the better. To
we need to turn to the "operative
this
phenomenon
explain
of the Husayn myth,
the
behavioral,"16
exemplary, dimension
the faithful with a practical
insofar as it has always provided
guideline for coming to grips with reality.
ofRage
Mythology
It is said that Napoleon
"at the period of his Eastern exploits ...
himself
with Alexander;
confounded
while after he
mythically
T am
turned his face westward he is said to have declared:
In
other
human
words,
beings, especially in the
Charlemagne'."17
most crucial hours of their lives, have recourse to mythological
constructs from which to draw inspiration for and justify theirmost
meaningful activities.18 The Shi4a had equally drawn on theHusayn
narrative to acquire the means - the paradigm - to come to grips
with their dire reality. Yet for the most part, the courageous
conduct of Imam Husayn, his exemplary ideals and values, were
far less important to the faithful than his actual defeat and brutal
death. Almost all Shi'ite sources - early and late ones - indicate
that:
At
last...
one
man
ran
and
dealt
him
a blow
with
his
71
Haggay Ram
72
to a dominant
tradition in the
otherworldlysalvation. According
Shi4 a, all the Imams had died martyrs (with the exception of the
twelfth in their line who, as stated, is to return from his occulted
state of being as the expected Messiah).21 Having borne witness to
faith by dying in God's way (giving themselves over to be slain in
to
witness of, or to uphold, the Truth), the Imams had ascended
the most sublime station in paradise - the one nearest to God's
throne and called dar al-shuhada ("the abode of the martyrs").22
In this station the Imams serve as intercessors (shufa'd), urging
as
supreme.23
Mythology ofRage
to truly overcome
genuine faith in the capacity of the Shi'ite Self
greater oppressive powers.
In 1968 a religious scholar from the holy city of Qom, Salihi
a book
entitled Shahid-e Javid
(The
Najaf-Abadi,
published
Immortal Martyr). The work at once triggered a heated debate
among religious circles as itwas the first serious, daring and semi
character of the
scholarly attempt to transform the quiescent
an
oriented
drama. A
into
Karbala
active, worldly
paradigm
than five hundred
detailed discussion of this volume of more
pages would take us far beyond our subject. It suffices to note that
the principal aim of the work was the politicization of an aspect of
the Shi'ite Imamology which "until recent times was generally
interpreted in mystical, lyrical and emotional terms";29 that is to
say, the author viewed Imam Husayn plainly as an exemplary hero
make
this
assumption."31
already discern
of the 'Ashura
the procession
image of Imam
Husayn:
The
73
Haggay Ram
the believers who mourn him, into an outraged
(not mournful)
birthday commemoration
by believers
united in communion with Husayn' s heroism and willing
ness to sacrifice.... [T]he believers [were] called upon not
to lament Husayn, but to emulate him by following in his
path and waging battle against the tyrannical Yazids of
their own time.32
redeems
74
The
oppressive
The
Other.
Karbala
Paradigm:
The
Self Subdues
the Other
Mythology
ofRage
With the approach of Muharram, we are about to begin
the month of epic heroism and self-sacrifice - the month
in which blood triumphed over the sword ... the month
that has taught successive generations throughout history
the path of victory over the bayonet... themonth inwhich
the forces of Yazid
and
the stratagems
of Satan
are
defeated.35
- the
contemporary "Yazid of the Age"
oppressive Other
against whom the injured Self had finally revolted by no means
comprised the royalist forces only. True, in the 1978/79 revolution
the key enemy was the royal dynasty, but thiswas a shah associated
with total westernization
and the undermining
of the practical
sense
culture
of
and
its
of
Islam
moral
religious
responsibility
cultural and political
toward social, economic,
conditions.36
Indeed, the Islamic Revolution was, in several respects, ignited by
a deep revulsion against what appeared to be the social and moral
breakdown engendered by unregulated rationalism and unbridled
37
The
progress.
We
have
been
unable
to
preserve
our
historico-cultural
machine
and its
routed. We have
in the face of this
not comprehend
the real essence, basis, and philosophy ofWestern civili
zation, only aping theWest outwardly and formally ...we
shall be like the ass going about in a lion's skin.We know
what became of him.38
What thus deeply animated the revolutionary movement were the
real and assumed grievances against the all-out westernization of
75
Haggay Ram
in turn, led to the imaginative construction of a
a wide assemblage of
hostile Other, "the West":
homogenized
individuals and ethnic
states, government agencies, organizations,
the deeply
groups, all of which were seen to be undermining
rooted Islamic values, norms, morality and behavior patterns of the
Iranian Self.39 As we shall see, the recurring nature of Imam
Husayn's mythical time would ensure the endurance, with great
force and fury, of the struggle between the "Yazid of the Age"
(the Self).
(the Other) and the "Husayn of the Age"
Since its establishment, the Islamic Republic of Iran has been
challenged by manifold internal and external crises that seriously
threatened to hinder the stability of the clerical regime. These
crises were invariably traced to what the Iranian regime itself
"alien
terms, "foreign hands,"
called, among other analogous
This
and
"servants
of
influence"
vocabulary, as
imperialism."
a
"treats
Iranian
Abrahamian
Ervand
contends,
politics as puppet
- local
the
marionettes
show in which foreign powers control
at
the
"The
West"
times
by invisible strings."40
politicians
Iranian
at
the
times
the
Iranian
other
United States,
opposition,
Kurdish minority, the Iraqi Ba'th party, the Saudi monarchy, Israel,
to overthrow the newly
Salman Rushdie, etc. - has reemerged
Self.
Shi'ite-Iranian
of
the
acquired victory
the Islamic government was
Repeatedly harassed by "the West,"
arouse the
to
the
Karbala
invoke
paradigm in its attempt to
quick
re-create
to
and
the
Islamic
the
heroism
revolutionary
public
identity of Imam Husayn. In this collective remembrance of things
Iran. These,
76
ofRage
Mythology
A most typical pattern discernible throughout the Iran-Iraq war
was the insistent call on Iranian combatants to display a "Husayn
like spirit of martyrdom" as the only means of gaining victory in
the war. The combatants were urged to exhibit an unflinching
were to be
aspiration to become martyrs. They
willing to be "slain
in the field of sacrifice and jihad" \ they
with no apprehension
should "gratuitously shed their own blood for the removal of the
and persist in their desire
curtains of darkness and oppression,"
to become martyrs "for the country of the revolution and for the
martyr,"
he
exclaims,
"because
martyr
has
an
exalted
and
be
"sweeter
than
77
Haggay Ram
martyr would not remain vacant."45 Implying that Iranian families
were indeed eager to make such sacrifices in the war, Hojjat al
Islam ("Proof of Islam" - a clerical rank below that of ayatollah)
'AliAkbar Hashemi Rafsanjani related to the congregation of the
Tehran Friday congregational prayers the following story about a
father who had come to claim the corpse of his son:
of the shahid (martyr) was severed ... [by] the
Saddams.... We brought his corpse to Isfahan. The father
came, wanting to see his child. At firstwe did not allow
him. Later he was told the corpse had no head. The
father replied: "It makes no difference." Approaching
and seeing the corpse, he placed his lips on the separated
head and kissed it.There was not even the slightest sign
of emotion on his face. He said: "My God! I thank my
child, my son, for becoming a martyr in the way of God.
The
78
head
was
He
in the
martyred
same
way
as
Imam
Husayn.46
both
pulling
war
Iran-Iraq
Thus,
often
and
"contemporary"
beginning
named
as
space barriers,
I,"
"Karbala
a result
As
battle
this
of Karbala.
II,"
of
the twentieth-century
the seventh-century
in the mid-1980s,
"Karbala
"primordial".
"Karbala
III,"
and
were
so on,
as rahiyan-e Karbala
Iranian recruits were branded
or
on
are
to
their
embark
who
about
("those
journey to Karbala")
karavan-e Karbala ("the caravan of Karbala").47 That the Iran-Iraq
war was to become the Karbala episode itself- the very same battle
that had taken place on 'Ashura thirteen centuries ago - is attested
in
by the following words of Hojjat al-Islam Sayyid 'Ali Khamenehi
which he totally identified between the two occurrences. Note how
he shifts so naturally from past to present and how the two
while
new
events
separate
eventually
become
one.
Ashura,
Khamenehi
announced,
of our
soil of
Mythology ofRage
the day when ... the eternally kindled torch of
martyrdom was trampled under the boots of the brutal
Yazidi animals.... And the [tenth] of our Muharram,
that
Karbala,
is
... Iran's
Ashura
and
... Iran's
Karbala,
is similar
to
the
Ashura
is today.48
elevated
consciousness,
In
such
in a
a manner
sharp
and
rejuvenating
the
Iranian
was
self-consciousness
radical
contradistinction
Iranian
communal
identity.
to other
Conse
'Abd-Allah [i.e.
... the decisive
in the words of
another Iranian leader, "today the sons of Husayn [i.e. the Iranian
... have
people]
brought [Husayn's] presence to the arena. This
79
Haggay Ram
80
martyrdom-seeking.54
Conclusion
Does the Karbala paradigm confirm the proposition that Shi'ite
in a perpetual to-and-fro, in
Iranian history has been developing
an endless repetition of the same pattern? Does
this collective
remembrance of things past as things present, this extension of the
reconstructed
"sacred
history"
into
contemporary
Iranian
realities,
of Iranian history? By
testimony to the cyclical movement
have
successive generations
the
Husayn drama,
constantly invoking
of the Shi'a been captivated by images and expressions from the
on the basis of pregiven
past, acting out their historical roles
in a repeated cycle,
In
locked
themselves
have
short,
they
scripts?
in an "eternal return" of their own past makings and their own
bear
past experiences?55
An affirmative answer to these questions would verifyKarl Marx's
of history as a story of defeat and dis
view of the movement
and
of
ideology as a system of (symbolic) represen
appointment;
tations which "serves to sustain existing relations of class domina
tion by orienting individuals towards the past rather than the
future, or towards images and ideals which conceal class relations
Mythology ofRage
and detract from the collective pursuit of social change."56 Yet, the
active and militant representations of the Husayn drama which
- in and
emerged in the course of the 1960s
by themselves a
radical break from mainstream Shi'a thought and praxis until that
time - render the Marxian dictum untrue, at least in its Iranian
context. The new image of Husayn,
the Shi'a with
endowing
a
Islamic
and
vision
of
the
future, clearly
revolutionary
self-identity
shows that events are not caught up in images from the past,
ensnared by traditions which persist in spite of the continuing
transformation of what Marx would call thematerial conditions of
life.
The revolutionary account of the Karbala paradigm
is by no
means determined by - nor is it tantamount to a return to - the
The movement
of the wheel is admittedly repetitive in
relation to the wheel's own axle, but ... the fact that the
81
Haggay Ram
vehicle, which is the wheel's raison d'etre, can only move in
virtue of the wheel's circular movement
round its axle
does not compel the vehicle to travel like a merry-go
round
in a circular
track.62
82
action
revolutionary
in stark
in
"fundamentalism"
Iran
to
contrast
- illuminates
and
past,
passive-accommoda
and
elsewhere,
of Islamic
its "archaic"
nature.
the recon
During the struggle against the Pahlavi monarchy,
of
version
the
'Ashura
narrative
structed, revolutionary
helped
unite disparate
interest groups into a mass movement
against
entrenched
tyranny.
Once
in power,
the
'ulama
harnessed
the
was
thus
required,
one
that
sanctified
a more
"positive"
rather than de
for construction and rehabilitation
approach
struction and injury. For that, as Michael Fischer has noted, "one
Mythology ofRage
had to shift to earlier portions of the paradigm of the family of the
Prophet and to the principles of social justice associated with the
name of [the first Shi'i Imam/fourth Muslim Caliph]
'Ali."66
Since the late 1980s, then, the Karbala paradigm has lostmuch
of its relevance and has been, to a large extent, locked back in the
or
otherwise,
the
qualitative
themes
of
these
versions
to debate.
are
83
Haggay Ram
Notes
84
to
I wish
thank
Israel
to read
schedule
for
Gershoni
the manuscript
and
of a very
comments
time out
taking
offer helpful
busy
and
criticisms.
1 Jon
and
Foucault
Simons,
thePolitical
and New
(London
York,
2.
1995),
Prison (NewYork,
2 Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the
1979), 170.
3 Hamid Dabashi, TheologyofDiscontent: The IdeologicalFoundation of the
Islamic
in Iran
Revolution
(New
York
and
London,
1993),
5.
507.
Ibid.,
5 Ibid.
6 William
A. Mullins,
The American
7
Paul
Lectures
Ricoeur,
The
term
in Political
of Ideology
the Concept
510.
Science Review 66 (1972):
"On
Political
is borrowed
on
Ideology
and Utopia,
from Michael
toRevolution
MA,
and
ed. George
H.
Science,"
J. Fisher,
London,
1980).
(Cambridge,
to Trace
"An
9 Yitzhak
Nakash,
Attempt
Die Welt des Islams 33 (1993):
'Ashura',"
Nations
10 Eric J. Hobsbawm,
and Nationalism
of
the Origin
(New
Taylor
Dispute
the Rituals
of
161.
since 1780:
Programme,
Myth,
61-69.
Sermon
D.C.,
1994),
(Washington,
the Encounter
Dreams
and Mysteries:
Myths,
15.
Faiths
and Archaic Realities
(New York,
1979),
Congregational
between
Eliade,
Contemporary
13
Fischer,
14
Branislaw
Iran,
175.
Malinowski,
Magic,
Science
and
Religion
and
of Iranian
Culture,
Views
10
(Spring
Other
Image
1989):
Essays
in the
8.
Mann,
"Freud
and
the Future,"
in Henry
A. Murray,
ed., Myth
Mythology ofRage
20
in Twelver Shi'ism
Aspects of Ashura'
Abdulhussein
Abdulaziz
Sachedina,
Mahdi
21
The
Idea
of the
Roger
118-19.
(The Hague,
1978),
Islamic Messianism:
Ideological
of Ithna Ashari
Export
in David Menashri,
"The
Savory,
Background,"
Shi'ism:
Historical
The
ed.,
Iranian
and
Revolu
tionand the
Muslim World (Boulder, CO, 1990), 36.
22 W.
The Encyclopaedia
"Shahid,"
Bjorkman,
1st edition
of Islam,
(Leiden,
1960).
23
The
meant
what Husayn's
death
investigated
Hegland
in
which
reflected
both
their
villagers,
large part
were
and what
told by the ulama.
Before
the
they
being
was
on
as an interceder
for people
placed
Husayn
emphasis
:
See her article "Two
Accommodation
and
Images of Husain
Mary
anthropologist
to Iranian
experiences
revolution
with God.
in an
Revolution
in Iran:
Politics
Iranian
Shi'ism
in Nikki
Village,"
R. Keddie,
to Revolution
from Quietism
and
ed., Religion
(New Haven,
1983),
218-35.
24
Frye, "New
116.
Mythmaking,
Directions
On
structure
Northrop
from Old,"
in Murray,
ed. Myth
and
the development,
see Peter
(ta'ziyeh),
and
subject
matter
Ritual
Chelkowski,
of the passion
play
and Drama
in Iran
ed., Ta'ziyeh:
of Ta'zieh
and Literary Aspects
York,
idem, "Dramatic
1979);
Passion
Khani
Iranian
Review
Literatures
2 (Spring
Play,"
ofNational
"A Full Arena:
and William
O. Beeman,
The Develop
121-37;
1971):
ment
and Meaning
of Popular
in Iran,"
Performances
in Michael
E.
(New
Bonine
Nikki
and
R.
Keddie,
eds.,
Modern
Iran:
The
Dialectics
of
28
Hamid
Enayat,
Jurisconsult',"
"Khumayni's
Concept
in James Piscatori,
ed.,
Hamid
Modern
of
the
of the
'Guardianship
in thePolitical Process
(New
Islam
Enayat,
Islamic
Political
Texas,
(Austin,
Thought
1982),
194.
Persian).
31
Gustav
Thaiss,
of Husain,"
"Religious
Symbolism
in Nikki R. Keddie,
ed.,
and
Social
Scholars,
Change:
and
Saints,
The
Drama
Sufis: Muslim
(emphasis
Emmanuel
Iranian
in the
original).
"Sunni
Sivan,
Revolution,"
(1989): 16-17.
Radicalism
International
in
Journal
the Middle
of Middle
East
East
and
the
Studies
21
85
Haggay Ram
33
Fischer,
34
Ervand
Iran,
183.
Iran
Abrahamian,
between Two
Revolutions
(Princeton,
1982),
522.
35
Rouhallah
M.
Islam
Khomeini,
and Revolution:
and Declarations
Writings
The Iranian
eds.,
Revolution
and
86
37
the anti-Western,
On
of
Representations
of
Beeman,
the United
and Politics
in Iran, 191-217.
ed., Religion
A Plague from theWest,
Occidentosis:
Jalal Al-e Ahmad,
the
Islamic
the Great
"Images
in the Iranian
States
of
sentiment
anti-American,
mainly
see William
O.
Revolution,
rev.
Satan:
in
Revolution,"
Keddie,
38
39
40
41
... is
categorized
and
'the
'The West'
'the noble'
pure,'
final
as
D.
Anthony
redemption."
must
realize
Smith,
Nations
Ervand
Khomeinism:
Abrahamian,
al-Islam
Hojjat
Sayyid
'Ali Khamenehi
Tehran
Khotbe-ye Nemaz-efom'e-ye
of the sermons
of the Friday
on
Essays
(In
prayers
to which
in relation
the Other
elect'
trans. R.
Campbell,
their
43
44
in ibid.,
Khamenehi
10 Oct.
Ibid.,
vol.
29 Jan. 1982,
Keyhan,
in Khotbe,
Khamenehi
ibid., vol.
3, 9 Jan.
2, 3 Oct.
340-41.
1980,
and
See
the Islamic
Ettela'at,
vol.
2, 17 Oct.
in a
of Iran
Republic
in Dar Maktab-efome:
the ideology
of Friday:
of Tehran)
(hereafter
Majmu'a-ye
collection
Khotbe),
vol.
329-30.
1980,
also
and
and Nationalism
42
'the
true worth
the Tehran
1 Nov.
1980,
daily
newspapers
1980.
351.
See
also Khamenehi
in
52-53.
1981,
vol.
Ibid.,
Oct.
1980,
3, 14 Aug.
351-52.
1981,
354.
See
also Khamenehi
in ibid., vol.
2, 17
47 See Majid Khadduri, The Gulf War: The Origins and Implications of the
Iran-IraqWar Conflict (New York and Oxford, 1988), 112; Ettela'at, 16
Nov. 1985 and 4 Jan. 1986; and Keyhan, 29 Mar. 1986.
48
Khotbe,
49
See,
vol.
2, 21 Nov.
for example,
1980,
Khamenehi
4, 30 Oct.
1981, 72.
50
Rafsanjani
in ibid.,
51
15 June
1985.
Ettela'at,
1981,
Khotbe, vol. 4, 30 Oct.
52
vol.
395-96.
in ibid., 26 Sep.
4, 30 Oct.
1981,
1980,
72.
70.
315,
and
ibid., vol.
Mythology ofRage
53
Khamenehi
in ibid.,
vol.
2,
14 Nov.
1980,
386.
54
Khamenehi
in ibid.,
vol.
3, 20 Mar.
1981,
138-40.
57
58
Cf.
Eric
Karl
and
Terence
Ranger,
eds.,
Mullins,
"The
of Louis
Brumaire
Eighteenth
A
Karl
Marx:
Reader
ed.,
1986),
(Cambridge,
of
"On
the
505.
Ideology,"
Concept
Marx,
"The
Marx,
Elster,
59
J. Hobsbawm
The
Invention
of
in J.
Bonaparte,"
277.
87
Eighteenth
Brumaire,"
277.
comment
that "The whole
1988). Cf. Fred Halliday's
proposi
tion of an unchanging
and determinant
that is the
dogma
enduring
of so much
of the Orientalist
literature
is, in any comparative
premise
absurd."
"Orientalism
and
Its
British Journal
Critics,"
perspective,
of
London,
65
David
66
67
Fischer,
Hegland,
Iran:
Menashri,
London,
A Decade
1990), 392.
Iran,
"Two
of War
and Revolution
(New
York
183.
Images
of Husain,"
232,
230.
and