F

Gluten-free foods

Concept, market and recent developments

by Ece Ozdemir1, Dilek Boyacolu1, Dilara Nilufer-Erdil1, M. Hikmet Boyacolu2

Food Engineering Department, Faculty of Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, Istanbul Technical
University, Istanbul, Turkey, 2Food Engineering Department, Okan University, Istanbul, Turkey

he consumption of gluten-free food

has being undergoing a remarkable
evolution for quite a long time. The
major reason is a genetic disorder
called celiac disease whose sufferers
need to adhere to a strict gluten-free
diet. Recent data shows that it occurs
in one out of every 100-300 individuals
all over the world. Media coverage of
the irritating symptoms such as weight loss, skin rashes, fatigue
and loss of concentration has increased, which makes gluten an
enemy of wellness. There have also been a considerable amount
of gluten-free consumers who are not diagnosed as celiac. They
describe themselves as having gluten sensitivity and withdraw
gluten from their diet.
A growing number of gluten-free brands were established and
gluten-free private label lines were introduced by retailers around
the World. This is thought to have made a great contribution to
the gluten-free trend. Thus, due to promotion by retailers, the
gluten-free diet as a medical issue has now become a health food
marketing concept.
In this article, current developments in gluten-free trends,
including new gluten-related disorders, and a gluten-free market
with labelling and regulatory issues will be examined.

Cereal proteins and toxicity of gluten

Proteins in the cereal endosperm can be divided into four major

groups: albumin, globulin, prolamin and glutelin based on their
solubilities in water, salt solution, alcohol and acidic or basic
solutions, respectively. Prolamin is available in wheat, barley,
maize and sorghum in relatively high amounts, while in rice and
oats it is present at low levels. Prolamin differs from other protein
fractions in its amino acid composition: it includes high amount
of glutamic acid and proline while it is deficient in essential
amino acids such as lysine.
In general, it is believed that the prolamin (gliadin) fraction of
gluten is the one which is responsible for celiac toxicity. Even
though it is still uncertain which amino acid sequence in wheat
gliadin causes celiac toxicity, two tetrapeptides have gained
considerable importance recently: proline-serine-glutamineglutamine and glutamine-glutamine-glutamine-proline. It
appears that the latter tetrapeptide is present in all three gliadin
48 | Milling and Grain

subfractions and some subunits of secalins, hordeins and avenins

found in rye, barley and oats, respectively.

Gluten-free products

Strict adherence to a gluten-free diet, characterised by

avoidance of the responsible proteins contained in certain
grains, is the only treatment for celiac disease. Grains which
should be avoided include wheat, rye, barley, kamut, spelt and
triticale. The gluten-free diet involves food products obtained
from gluten-free grains including corn, rice, buckwheat, millet,
sorghum, amaranth, teff, oats, wild rice and quinoa. A large
number of gluten-free cereal products have been produced
for celiac patients, including not only breads but also pasta
products, cookies, noodles, biscuits, snacks, beer and breakfast
cereals.
It is important to emphasise that there have been some
mechanical and sensorial challenges during production of glutenfree products, as dough lacking gluten is difficult to handle
technologically and results in a delicate dough structure and weak
mouthfeel. Thus, more research on gluten-free products enables
the use of a wide variety of ingredients, including starches, gums,
hydrocolloids and dairy products together with prebiotics, other
non-gluten proteins or a combination of these, in order to replace
the gluten that provides the necessary viscoelastic properties to
flour dough. In this way, improved structure and enhanced shelf
life, mouthfeel and acceptability of gluten-free products becomes
possible. Rice starch, corn starch, gums and thickeners such
as locust bean gum and guar gum or dairy ingredients such as
powders containing low lactose and high protein content (milk
protein isolate and sodium caseinate) are used to overcome
quality losses.

Nutritional quality of gluten-free products

Gluten-free cereal products may not offer the same nutritional

value as that of wheat-based foods, particularly whole grain or
enriched wheat-based foods. This can be attributed to the fact
that gluten-free cereals are not fortified and are always obtained
by refining flour and/or starch.
Since grain foods are a source of B vitamins, fibre and iron,
there are major concerns regarding how a gluten-free diet
influences the intake of these nutrients. It is still uncertain
whether a gluten-free diet is a nutritionally balanced diet or not,

F
as followed by patients suffering from celiac disease (Gallagher
et al., 2004).
In recent years, there have been studies to assess the nutritional
aspects of gluten-free products. It was found that most glutenfree cereal products contained considerably lower amounts of
riboflavin, thiamin and/or niacin than the enriched wheat products
they were intended to replace. In another study, levels of iron,
folate and dietary fibre provided by gluten-free cereals were
found to be lower than those offered by their enriched/fortified
counterparts containing gluten.
A study comparing the nutritional compositions of 206 glutenfree rendered products mostly consumed in Spain and 289 glutencontaining counterparts concluded that the analysed gluten-free
foods (including bread, dough, pastry, pizza and pasta products)
contained twice as much fat - apparently saturated fat - as their
gluten-containing counterparts. It is possible to attribute this
fact to the inclusion of lipid-rich ingredients such as animal and
vegetable oils or emulsifiers (mono- and diglycerides of fatty
acids) into formulations.
Due to the fact that gluten constitutes the primary protein of
wheat flour, the removal of gluten results in food with reduced
protein content. In this way, a gluten-free diet leads to a lower
dietary protein intake in women, together with lower levels of
dietary fibre in all patients.
To overcome such nutrient deficiencies, nutrient-dense
ingredients such as corn and rice should be used instead of
traditional grains. Buckwheat, quinoa and teff as gluten-free
cereals are rich in minerals, including copper, zinc, potassium,
magnesium, iron and phosphorus. Also quinoa, teff and amaranth
provide calcium in high quantities. In addition to grains, flours
obtained from legumes (for example, chickpea flour) can also

be used, so that nutritional quality is increased with regard to

protein, vitamin and fibre content while glycemic response and
sensory properties are enhanced (Ergin and Herken, 2012).

Safety concerns of gluten-free products

People adhering to a gluten-free diet could be exposed to higher

levels of mycotoxins in comparison with the general population
due to the consumption of large amounts of corn-based foods.
It is highly likely that corn is greatly affected by mycotoxin
contamination, especially fumonisins, owing to the high
occurrence of fungal infection both in the field and storage.

Gluten degradation by enzymatic treatments

In spite of the threshold level of 20 ppm for gluten-free

claims and the upper level of 100 ppm for low-gluten claim
set by the Codex Alimentarius along with European legislation,
celiac patients may be exposed to more gluten than the tolerable
level, due to either contamination or the hidden gluten found in
pudding, soups, thickened sauces and sausages. The removal of
gluten from raw materials such as wheat starch enables the use
of these materials as an ingredient in gluten-free formulations.
Recently, strategies with the aim of detoxifying gluten have
become an urgent priority, including degradation of gluten into
peptides containing a maximum of eight amino acids by means of
enzymes such as prolyl endopeptidases (PEP).

Labelling and packaging

The latest rules associated with the labelling of gluten-free

products were published by the Food and Drug Administration on
August 5, 2013. These rules cater particularly to people suffering
from celiac disease and enable them to distinguish gluten-free

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foods which are safe and suitable to consume. Based on these

rules, food products must contain no gluten and must follow
certain criteria in order to be termed gluten-free on the package
or include any term introduced by the FDA which makes a
similar gluten-free claim, such as free of gluten, no gluten or
without gluten. The criteria include:
Not to include an ingredient which is a grain containing gluten
(e.g. wheat)
Not to include an ingredient derived from a grain containing
gluten which has not been processed to eliminate gluten (e.g.
wheat flour)
Not to include an ingredient derived from a grain containing
gluten which has been processed to eliminate gluten (e.g. wheat
flour) giving a final product with 20 or more parts per million
(ppm) of gluten, obtained from that ingredient

Gluten-free market growth

Recently there have been a great deal of non-celiac people

avoiding gluten due to their belief that this cereal protein affects
their bodies in some way. They believe that some persistent
symptoms like weight gain, skin rashes, and gastrointestinal
complaints including irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), hormonal
disorders, persistent tiredness and poor memory are the result of
gluten sensitivity.
The gluten-free market reached US$2.6 billion in 2014 - a
growth of 63 percent since 2012. In the previous year, all glutenfree food types demonstrated an increase; however, the highest
increase was observed in snacks. Between 2012 and 2014
gluten-free snacks showed an increase of 163 percent, achieving
sales of US$2.8 billion. Meats or meat alternatives appeared as
the second-largest gluten-free food sector, with sales reaching
US$1.6 billion in 2014 - an increase of 14 percent from 2012.
The gluten-free market size for both the world and leading
countries from the years 2009 to 2014 are shown in Table 1.
North America and Western Europe constitute three-quarters of
the gluten-free packaged food market. The top three positions in
terms of total sales value are held by the US, Italy and Germany,
followed by Russia, the UK, Australia, Brazil, Sweden and
France. In this period Turkey was the fast growing market,
followed by Venezuela, Israel and New Zealand (Baroke, 2014).

Consumer perspective on gluten-free

People who suffer from celiac disease or gluten sensitivity pay

great attention to lists of ingredients and production methods
since gluten-free food products are not merely an option for them.
They are necessary to prevent adverse health effects.
According to a study, approximately 2.5 million Canadians
prefer consuming gluten-free products for medical reasons; celiac
disease accounts for one percent of this figure, while non-celiac
gluten sensitivity accounts for six percent. The majority of people
- more than seven million - consider gluten-free foods healthier
or have a family member who needs medical treatment. Reasons
why people prefer consuming gluten-free products are given in
detail in Figure 1.

Current debates about the gluten-free diet

There has been growing interest in the gluten-free diet (Gaesser

and Angadi, 2012). Several celebrities support a gluten-free
lifestyle and a wide range of books have also been published on
the subject. Also, there are a vast number of articles justifying
the benefits of a gluten-free diet. One of the leading reasons
why consumers tend to buy gluten-free products is that they
consider themselves healthier when they avoid gluten-containing
alternatives.
50 | Milling and Grain

Number of respondents

Figure 1. Reasons for prefering gluten-free foods (AAFC, 2014).

Table 1: Gluten-free food market sizes for the last 5 years (Euromonitor
International, 2015).
World (US $ mn)

2009

2014

1384.9

2580.7

Australia (AUD mn)

86.3

246.3

Western Europe (US $ mn)

800.7

1261.9

North America (US $ mn)

287.5

638.3

Canada

22.8

31.8

USA (US $ mn)

267.5

609.2

Germany ( mn)

101.7

141.8

France ( mn)

16.3

58.4

Italy ( mn)

175.6

240.3

Russia (RUB mn)

3788.9

6170.9

U.K. ( mn)

76.4

140.8

Australia (AUD mn)

86.3

246.3

Sweden (SEK mn)

377.5

425.3

Turkey (TRY mn)

0.4

31.4

Brazil (BRL mn)

140.9

The gluten-free diet and weight loss

It is not possible to say that gluten-free products are considered

fat-free or calorie-free. If a serving of regular pretzels and
gluten-free pretzels are compared, the regular ones contain one
gram of fat and 108 calories, whereas gluten-free pretzels contain
six grams of fat and 140 calories. Actually, based on the results
obtained by research it can be said that celiac patients gain weight
after starting a gluten-free diet.

Health claims of gluten-free

The gluten-free trend, together with a multibillion-dollar

market, may not only lead to weight gain and obesity but also
may result in a wide range of disorders from depression and
anxiety to autism and arthritis.
To sum up, the gluten-free market has demonstrated undeniable
growth over recent years. In addition to patients with diagnosed
celiac disease or non-celiac gluten sensitivity, a vast majority of
self-diagnosed people have started to participate in a gluten-free diet
without any medical advice. While these people consider gluten-free
to be beneficial for their health, in fact they are exposed to a poor
nutrient intake. Therefore, it is necessary to raise awareness in the
global community about the nutritional aspects of a gluten-free diet.
On the other hand, there are various types of gluten-free products
with various gluten-free ingredients, but most are not acceptable due
to their sensory quality. So improvements in their formulation by
means of using different ingredients or even different processing is
necessary to overcome such problems in quality.
References available on request

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