CIEG-306 Fluid Mechanics Laboratory

3. FLOW FROM A HOLE IN THE SIDE OF A TANK

OBJECTIVE AND APPARATUS
The purpose of this experiment is to test the validity of the Bernoulli equation and to introduce
empirical coefficients to correct for inaccuracies in the theory. The theory is applied to the flow
through a small orifice on the side of a tank. Figure 1 shows a schematic of the apparatus.
The equipment for this experiment consists of
1. A hydraulic bench, on which the apparatus is mounted and which provides water supply
for the experiment.
2. A jet apparatus (for tracking the shape of the jet, seen to the right in Figure 1)
3. Two orifice plates (Diameter of holes 3 mm & 6 mm.)
4. A ruler
5. A stopwatch
6. A measuring cylinder
The cross-sectional area of the tank is 160 cm2. In the experiment, the trajectory of the jet
flowing out of the orifice and the fall of the liquid surface in the tank are recorded and
compared with theory.
THEORY
The Bernoulli equation is obtained based on momentum conservation on a streamline for
steady, incompressible and invisid flow. Hence, any realistic flow that does not completely
follow these assumptions may cause discrepancies between theoretically predicted value and
measured value.
The exit velocity u
The steady state Bernoulli equation predicts that the horizontal jet velocity leaving the orifice at
the vena contracta is

where g is the gravitational acceleration and h is the water elevation above the center of the
orifice. With energy losses present, the discharge velocity is modified by a velocity coefficient
Cv:

If the jet drops as a body in free fall, elementary mechanics tells us that the jet will travel a
horizontal distance

at time t, and will over that time have fallen a vertical distance

Hence the trajectory is a parabola. Substituting Equation (2) for u and eliminating t, we get an
equation for Cv that may be arranged into the form

In the experiment, h and the trajectory (x, y) of the jet are measured (see Experimental
procedure). Hence, Equation (3) may be used to determine Cv from the experimental data.

Figure 1: Experimental set-up

Determination of the discharge volume Q

Right at the mouth of the orifice, the jet contracts slightly and the minimum cross section of the
jet is slightly downstream of the orifice. This section is called the vena contracta. Hence, the
cross-sectional area where jet velocity found in Equation (2) is in fact slightly smaller than the
cross-sectional area of the orifice. The discharge Q from the orifice is the product of the jet
velocity (using Equation (2)) and the area of the jet at the vena contracta. The area at the vena
contracta avc is written as Cc*a, where a is the area of the orifice and Cc=avc/a is the coefficient
of contraction. Therefore, the discharge Q can be calculated as:

It is customary to combine the two coefficients Cv and Cc into a discharge coefficient Cd, so that
we can write

The volume discharge Q is determined in two different ways (see Experimental Procedure). In
the experiment with constant head we measure Q and h and know a, and therefore can
determine Cd from the experimental data.
During the variable head experiment, the head is constantly changing (decreasing),
hence we have no easy way to measure Q. However, the conservation of water mass
(continuity eq.), or rather volume, yields

where A is the cross-sectional areas of the tank. Solving the above ordinary differential
equation with the given initial condition, h = h(0) at t = 0, gives

Equation (9) may be used to determine Cd by recording the change of h with respect to t in the tank.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
The experimental procedure consists of two parts.
1. To be able to determine the velocity u theoretically we need to find the velocity
coefficient Cv using Eq. (2).
Perform the following steps:
a. raise overflow pipe to a suitable level, release water into the tank and control
the flow until the water is just spilling into the overflow
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b. record the constant head h on the scale

c. assess the position of the vena contracta visually and note the horizontal
distance from the orifice
d. adjust each of the needles to determine the jet path, marking the position of the
tips of the needles on the sheet of paper on the backboard
Note: the datum for measurement of the horizontal distance x traveled by the
jet should be the plane of vena contracta
e. repeat (a) - (d) for at least three different values of h by moving the overflow
pipe
f. repeat (a) - (e) for the second orifice plate.
2. To be able to determine the discharge Q theoretically we need to find the coefficient Cd
using Equations (7) and (9).
For this purpose the following steps are performed:
(a) constant head
a. raise overflow pipe to a suitable level, let water into the tank and control the
flow until the water is just spilling into the overflow.
b. read the constant head h on the scale and record.
c. measure the flow rate by intercepting the jet with a measuring cylinder.
d. repeat (a) - (c) for at least five different water levels
(b) variable head
a. raise the overflow pipe to a maximum.
b. fill the tank to the overflow level and close the inlet
c. start a stopwatch when the water level reaches a convenient initial depth
h(0). (suggested measurement: for 3 mm orifice, use a 20-sec interval and
you can obtain about 8 readings. For 6 mm orifice, use a 10-sec interval and
you can get about 5-6 readings).
(c) repeat (a) and (b) using the second orifice plate
DATA ANALYSIS
1. In the first part of the experiment, plot x versus
and find Cv for each orifice from the
slope of this graph. Discuss the results. Re-evaluate the origin x = 0, which should be the
plane of vena contracta.
2. In the second part of the experiment, for each orifice
(a) compute and tabulate Q versus h; plot Q against
and obtain Cd from the
slope of this graph
(b) plot

versus time. As discussed in the lecture, the slope of this line (interception

with y-axis at 1.0) can be used to calculate Cd.

If the values of Cd obtained by the two methods differ, which method is more reliable and why?
Discuss which measurements may have caused large errors.

3. Compare the values of Cv and Cd with values reported in the textbook for an Orifice Meter
and discuss any difference (or look for web resources).
4. In the theory section of your lab report, complete the derivations of Equations (1) and (9).
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