NDT - 2 (Compatibility Mode) PDF

NON--DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
NON
ULTRASONIC INSPECTION
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Ali Ourdjini, UTM - 2006
NON
Ultrasonic inspection uses sound waves of short wavelength and high

frequency to detect surface and subsurface defects
It is also used to measure material thickness
thickness..
It is used on aircraft, power stations generating plants, or welds in
pressure vessels at an oil refinery or paper mill
UT involves the generation of ultrasonic waves
waves..
How are ultrasonic waves are generated?

Generation of ultrasonic waves involves the use of transducers
transducers..
A transducer is a device which converts energy from one form to
another
NON
In generating ultrasonic waves, ultrasonic transducers convert

electrical energy to mechanical energy, which in this case is acoustical
(vibrational) energy
energy..
piezo--electric
electric..
The most commonly used transducers are the piezo
Most piezopiezo-electric materials are based on ceramics
ceramics::
Barium Titanate (BaTi)
Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT)
Lead Metaniobate (PMN)
NON
A thin disk is the most common shape of piezo

piezo--electric ceramic that is used for
NDT applications
applications..
It works like this

this:: An electric field applied to the disk through lead soldered to
its faces (Figure below) will cause a change in the thickness of the disk
disk..
The disk will either contract or expand

expand.. This will generate a longitudinal wave
normal to the disk
disk..
In UT two transducers are used

used:: Transmitter & Receiver
Electrical current OFF

Electrical current ON
NON
Ultrasonic wave generation
NON
However, in most cases only one transducer is necessary and acts as
both transmitter and receiver
receiver..
Ultrasonic waves are transmitted as a series of pulses of short
duration and during the time interval between transmissions, the
crystal (transducer) can detect reflected signals
signals..
Waves types and Modes of Propagation
Ultrasonic waves are classified into four types (based on the mode of
vibration of the particles of the medium with respect to the direction of
the waves)
NON
Longitudinal (compression) (most widely used)

Particles displacement is in the direction of wave propagation
Easier to generate
Transverse (Shear)
Particles displacement is normal to the direction of wave propagation
Velocity is only ~ 50% of longitudinal waves
Surface (Rayleigh)
Generated near the surface
Follow complex curvatures (where defects can be difficult to be accessible by
longitudinal or transverse waves)
Lamb (Plate)
Generated in thin plates.
Generated when a surface wave is introduced into a material that has a thickness 3
wavelengths of the wave
NON
Sound waves at Interfaces

1. Reflection and Transmission
There are limits for sound propagation at an interface between two
media having different elastic properties.
When an incident wave reaches the interface between two materials,
part of the incident wave will be reflected back and a part will be
transmitted across the interface.
NON
The portion of sound waves transmitted and reflected is a function of

the acoustic properties of the materials
materials..
Impedance is frequently used to describe the waves transfer at
interfaces..
interfaces
Acoustic impedance (Z) is the resistance to the propagation of an
ultrasonic wave by a material
material..
Z = C
C is the wave speed, is the density of material
NON
Reflection of sound at an air / metal interface is 100
100%
% at the
frequency normally used in UT.
UT. Thus, sound cannot be transmitted
easily into a metal across an air gap
gap..
To overcome this, a fluid such as oil or water is used as a coupling
agent between the transducer and the metal to be tested
tested..
Use of coupling
NON
2. Reflection and Refraction
Incident
compression
wave
i
Wave transmission at some

angle to the interface is of
considerable importance in
UT.
The portion of the wave
which is transmitted across
the interface will be refracted
Reflected
compression
wave
i
Medium 1
Interface
Medium 2
Refracted
compression
wave
rc
rs
Refracted
shear wave
Reflection and refraction at an interface

between two mediums
NON
There may be two refracted waves: compression and shear

In UT the presence of two types of waves with different speeds will
give confusing results
Therefore, the angle of incidence, i, is adjusted to be greater than the
critical angle, i,
Probe Construction
Several types of probes are used in UT.
Normal Probes
Angle probes
NON
Each probe consists of a

crystal placed in contact with
the material under test
test..
1. Normal probes
probes::
This type of probe

transmit longitudinal
waves..
waves
2. Angle probes
Designed to transmit
shear and surface
waves..
waves
NON
Types of Display
The information obtained during an ultrasonic test can be displayed in
three different presentation styles:
A scan
B scan
Signal Amplitude
A scan
Time
NON
Types of Display
initial
pulse
back surface
echo
crack
echo
crack
plate
0
10
UT Instrument Screen
NON
Inspection Techniques
1. Normal Probe Transmission Method
Limitations
Specimen must have parallel sides
Two probes are required
The two probes must be exactly opposite one another
Gives no indication of the depth of the defect

NON
2. Normal Probe Reflection Method
Advantages
Specimen may be of any shape
Access to only one side of the test
test--piece is required
Only one coupling agent is required
The distance of the defect from the probe can be measured
NON
Post Graduate Professional Certificate FMS - MISC Programme
Reflective Techniques
NON
Thickness calibration standards
ASTM Distance/Area Amplitude
NAVSHIPS
NON
IIW
Calibration standards for angle probes
DSC
DC
Rhompas
SC
ASME Pipe Sec. XI
NON
RADIOGRAPHY
NON
Radiography uses differential absorption of radiation (X

(X--rays and -rays)
which penetrate a test
test--piece to produce a recording of an image on film
to detect features of the test
test--piece that show a different thickness or
density as compared to the surrounding material
material..
When passing through the specimen, a proportion of the radiation is
absorbed as function of thickness or density
density..
Radiography is capable of detecting any feature in a component
provided that there are sufficient differences in thickness or density
within the part
part..
NON
Features that exhibit a 1% or more difference in absorption compared to

the surrounding material can be detected.
Radiography is thus used to detect internal (subsurface) defects such as
porosity and inclusions.
NON
Principles of Radiography
Sample
Radiation penetrates
sample
Exposure
recording
device
NON
1.
What are X
X--rays?
X-rays are electromagnetic radiation of

wavelength about 1 (10-10 m), (about the same
size as an atom)
atom)..
They occur in that portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum between -rays and the ultraviolet
ultraviolet..
X-rays were discovered in 1895 by Rontgen and
are used for diffraction purposes to study the
crystal structure at the atomic level
level..
NON
NON
Characteristic Radiation
Continuous
Spectrum
Process of the emission of characteristic Xrays.
NON
The best results are obtained when the defect has an appreciable
thickness in a direction parallel to the radiation beam
Plane defects such as cracks are always detectable and the ability to
locate a crack will depend upon its orientation to the radiation beam
Radiographic inspection consists of three important elements:
Source of radiation (X
(X--rays or -rays)
Object to be inspected
Radiographic film
NON
X-rays and -rays are similar and the only difference between them is in the way
they are produced.
X-rays produced by high voltage x ray tubes when a stream of high electrons
strike a metal target
- rays are produced from radioactive isotopes such as Iridium 192

192.. They are
emitted from the nucleus as part of the decay (desintegration) process of
radioactive elements
elements..
The X-ray or -rays are placed close to the material to be inspected and they
pass through the material and are then captured on film.
film. This film is then
processed and the image is obtained as a series of gray shades between black
and white
white..
NON
The choice of which type of radiation is used (X

(X--ray or -rays) depends on the
thickness of the material to be tested
tested.. - sources have the advantage of portability
which makes them ideal for use in construction site working
working..
When X-ray and -rays pass through any medium they interact with the atoms of
this medium
medium.. During this process, they will be attenuated (absorbed) in some way
way..
The image of defects which projects onto the recording film is the results of
differences in the attenuation rates or absorption rates
rates..
The degree of attenuation is affected by several factors

factors::
Density
Structure of the medium (specimen)
Type, intensity and energy of radiation used
NON
The intensity of radiation which emerges from the specimen decreases
exponentially with its thickness:
Ix = Io e-t
The accurate reproduction of a recognizable image is a primary

requirement for radiography.
This is dependent on several factors but the most important is the
difference in radiation intensity on the various parts of the image
NON
The quality of a radiograph (image) depends on:

on:
Contrast
Definition (clearness and sharpness)
X-rays and gamma rays are very hazardous
hazardous.. Special precautions must
be taken when performing radiography
radiography..
Therefore the operator will use these inside a protective enclosure or
with appropriate barriers and warning signals to ensure there are no
hazards to personnel
NON
EDDY CURRENT TESTING
NON
Eddy current testing is an electromagnetic technique and can only be

used on conductive materials
Eddy current inspection can be sued to detect surface and internal
defects within components
components..
It can also determine thickness of surface coating, provide information
on grain size and heat treatment condition and also measure electrical
and magnetic conductivities
conductivities..
When an alternating current (AC) is passed through a coil (conducting
material) a magnetic field is generated
generated..
NON
If this coil is placed near a conductive material (specimen), the

flow.
magnetic field causes eddy currents to flow.
The induced eddy currents will produce a magnetic field in opposite
direction to the primary magnetic field surrounding the coil causing a
change in the impedance value of the coil
coil..
Eddy currents are affected by the physical and electrical properties of
the material
material..
An eddy current instrument senses the resulting changes in the coils
impedance and displays these changes in a manner that allows the
inspector to obtain information about the properties and condition of the
material
NON
If a material is uniform in composition and dimensions the impedance
same..
value of the coil close to the specimen surface will be the same
If the specimen contains a defect or there are material variations, the
eddy currents in the specimen will be distorted by these defects and the
impedance in the coil is changed
This change in impedance value is measured and displayed in a
manner that indicates the type of flaw or material condition
condition..
The factors that affect impedance value are mainly
mainly:: dimensions of test
test-piece, conductivity
conductivity,, magnetic permeability and presence of any defects
NON
Principles of Eddy Current:

Current
Presence of cracks can cause disruption in the circular flow pattern of the
eddy current, causing a change in properties
Magnetic Field
From Test Coil
Magnetic Field
From
Eddy Currents
Crack
Eddy Currents
NON
Post Graduate Professional Certificate FMS - MISC Programme
Inspection Probes
Single Coil Probe

Probe:: Detect surface defects such as cracks
cracks..
The probe should be held normal to the component surface
Twin Coil Probe
Probe:: Suitable for measurement of thickness of surface
coating or for conductivity measurement
NON
Phase Analysis
Phase analysis is used to represent the signals from eddy current
inspection..
inspection
When it is necessary to detect changes in one parameter affecting the
impedance value and all other factors are constant, then the
measurement of the change in impedance value will reflect a change in
this parameter
parameter..
However, there are cases where more than one parameter affect the
impedance value, and we need to separate the responses from all
these parameters
NON
Display Methods
There are two main methods used to display the impedance value on a
screen
1. Vector Method
A spot is projected onto the screen, representing the impedance Zo.
When the coil is placed near the test
test--piece the spot will move to correspond
with the impedance change Z1.
This position for a reference test block can be adjusted to be at centre for
example..
example
Any variation or presence of defect in the test
test--piece will cause a movement
of the spot and the direction of this movement will indicate the cause of
variation..
variation
NON
Vector Method
NON
2. Ellipse Method
This method is usually used when the twin coil probe is employed
employed..
When the probe coil in position with a reference block, the screen display
is a set as a horizontal line
line..
A variation in one variable can be denoted by a change in the angle of the
line and a second variable can be be denoted by the formation of an
ellipse..
ellipse
The values of both parameters can be determined by analysing both the
position and shape of the ellipse
NON
Ellipse Method
Reference line
Change in 1st parameter
Change in 2nd parameter

Change in both parameters
NON
Examples of Eddy Current Applications
Eddy current use to detect corrosion and

erosion in aerospace and power generation
www.ndt-ed.org
NON
Eddy Current Instrumentation
NON
NON
NON
Inspection Method
Flaw Type
Visual
Inspection
LPI
MPI
UT
(Straight probe)
UT
(Angle probe)
EC
RAD
Surface breaking
linear
Surface breaking,
volumetric
Near surface, linear &

normal to surface
Near surface linear &

normal to surface
Near surface,
volumetric
Subsurface, linear &

normal to surface
Subsurface, linear &

parallel to surface
Subsurface, volumetric
(0) will not detect, (1) not well suited, (2) fairly well suited, (3) ideal application
NON
LPI
MPI
UT
Radiography
EC
Principles
Penetrant is applied to the
surface of a pre-cleaned
component. The liquid is
pulled into surface-breaking
defects by capillary action.
Excess penetrant material
is removed from the
surface. A developer is
applied to pull the trapped
penetrant back to the
surface where it is spread
out and forms an indication.
The indication is much
easier to see than the
actual defect.
A component made from

ferromagnetic material is
magnetised. The magnetic
lines of force travel through
the material, and exit and reenter the material at the
poles. Defects such as crack
or voids cannot support as
much flux, and force some of
the flux outside of the part.
Magnetic particles distributed
over the component will be
attracted to areas of flux
leakage and produce a
visible indication.
http://www.nde-ed.org/
High frequency sound

waves are sent into a
material by use of a
transducer. The sound
waves travel through the
material and are received
by the same transducer or
a second transducer. The
amount of energy
transmitted or received
and the time the energy is
received are analyzed to
determine the presence of
flaws.
AC current is passed through

a coil producing a magnetic
field. When the coil is placed
near a conductive material,
the changing magnetic field
induces current flow in the
material. These currents
travel in closed loops and are
called eddy currents. Eddy
currents produce their own
magnetic field that can be
measured and used to find
flaws and characterize
conductivity, permeability,
and dimensional features.
X-rays are used to produce

images of objects using a
film or other detector that is
sensitive to radiation. The
component is placed b/w the
radiation source and
detector. Thickness and
density of the material that Xrays must penetrate affects
the amount of radiation
reaching the detector. This
variation in radiation
produces an image on the
detector that shows internal
features of the component
NON
LPI
MPI
UT
EC
Radiography
Main Uses
Used to locate cracks,
porosity, and other defects
that break the surface of a
material and have enough
volume to trap and hold the
penetrant material.
Liquid penetrant testing is
used to inspect large areas
very efficiently and will work
on most non-porous
materials
Used to inspect
ferromagnetic materials
(those that can be
magnetized) for defects that
result in a transition in the
magnetic permeability of a
material.
Magnetic particle inspection
can detect surface and near
surface defects.
Used to locate surface

and subsurface defects in
many materials including
metals, plastics, and
wood.
Used to detect surface and

near-surface flaws in
conductive materials, such
as the metals.
Ultrasonic inspection is
also used to measure the
thickness of materials and
otherwise characterize
properties of material
based on sound velocity
and attenuation
measurements.
Eddy current inspection is

also used to sort materials
based on electrical
conductivity and magnetic
permeability, and measures
the thickness of thin sheets
of metal and nonconductive
coatings such as paint.
Used to inspect almost any

material for surface and
subsurface defects.
X-rays can also be used to
locates and measures
internal features, confirm the
location of hidden parts in an
assembly, and to measure
thickness of materials.
NON
LPI
MPI
UT
EC
Radiography
Advantages
Large surface areas or
large volumes of
parts/materials can be
inspected rapidly and at low
cost.
Parts with complex
geometry are routinely
inspected.
Indications are produced
directly on surface of the
part providing a visual
image of the discontinuity.
Equipment investment is
minimal.
Large surface areas of

complex parts can be
inspected rapidly.
Can detect surface and
subsurface flaws.
Surface preparation is less
critical than it is in penetrant
inspection.
Magnetic particle indications
are produced directly on the
surface of the part and form
an image of the discontinuity.
Equipment costs are
relatively low.
Depth of penetration for

flaw detection or
measurement is superior
to other methods.
Only single sided access
is required.
Provides distance
information.
Minimum part preparation
is required.
Method can be used for
much more than just flaw
detection.
Detects surface and near

surface defects.
Test probe does not need to
contact the part.
Method can be used for
more than flaw detection.
Minimum part preparation is
required.
Can be used to inspect

virtually all materials.
Detects surface and
subsurface defects.
Ability to inspect complex
shapes and multi-layered
structures without
disassembly.
Minimum part preparation is
required.
NON
LPI
MPI
UT
EC
Radiography
Limitations
Detects only surface
breaking defects.
Surface preparation is
critical as contaminants can
mask defects.
Requires a relatively smooth
and nonporous surface.
Post cleaning is necessary
to remove chemicals.
Requires multiple
operations under controlled
conditions.
Chemical handling
precautions are necessary
(toxicity, fire, waste).
Only ferromagnetic
materials can be inspected.
Proper alignment of
magnetic field and defect is
critical.
Large currents are needed
for very large parts.
Requires relatively smooth
surface.
Paint or other nonmagnetic
coverings adversely affect
sensitivity.
Demagnetization and post
cleaning is usually
necessary.
Surface must be accessible

to probe and couplant
Skill and training required is
more extensive than other
technique
Surface finish and
roughness can interfere with
inspection
Thin parts may be difficult to
inspect.
Linear defects oriented
parallel to the sound beam
can go undetected.
Reference standards are
often needed.
Only conductive materials

can be inspected.
Ferromagnetic materials
require special treatment to
address magnetic
permeability.
Depth of penetration is
limited.
Flaws that lie parallel to the
inspection probe coil winding
direction can go undetected.
Skill and training required is
more extensive than other
techniques.
Surface finish and
roughness may interfere..
Extensive operator training

and skill required.
Access to both sides of the
structure is usually required.
Orientation of the radiation
beam to non-volumetric
defects is critical.
Field inspection of thick
section can be time
consuming.
Relatively expensive
equipment investment is
required.
Possible radiation hazard for
personnel.

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NON--DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

Ali Ourdjini, UTM - 2006

Ultrasonic inspection uses sound waves of short wavelength and high

How are ultrasonic waves are generated?

Ali Ourdjini, UTM - 2006

In generating ultrasonic waves, ultrasonic transducers convert

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

Ali Ourdjini, UTM - 2006

A thin disk is the most common shape of piezo

It works like this

The disk will either contract or expand

In UT two transducers are used

Electrical current OFF

Ultrasonic wave generation

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

Ali Ourdjini, UTM - 2006

Ali Ourdjini, UTM - 2006

Longitudinal (compression) (most widely used)

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

Ali Ourdjini, UTM - 2006

Sound waves at Interfaces

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

Ali Ourdjini, UTM - 2006

The portion of sound waves transmitted and reflected is a function of

Ali Ourdjini, UTM - 2006

Ali Ourdjini, UTM - 2006

2. Reflection and Refraction

Wave transmission at some

Reflection and refraction at an interface

Ali Ourdjini, UTM - 2006

There may be two refracted waves: compression and shear

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

Ali Ourdjini, UTM - 2006

Each probe consists of a

This type of probe

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

Ali Ourdjini, UTM - 2006

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

Ali Ourdjini, UTM - 2006

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

Ali Ourdjini, UTM - 2006

Specimen must have parallel sides

Two probes are required

The two probes must be exactly opposite one another

Gives no indication of the depth of the defect

Ali Ourdjini, UTM - 2006

2. Normal Probe Reflection Method

Ali Ourdjini, UTM - 2006

Ali Ourdjini, UTM - 2006

ASTM Distance/Area Amplitude

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

Ali Ourdjini, UTM - 2006

Calibration standards for angle probes

ASME Pipe Sec. XI

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

Ali Ourdjini, UTM - 2006

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

Ali Ourdjini, UTM - 2006

Radiography uses differential absorption of radiation (X

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

Ali Ourdjini, UTM - 2006

Features that exhibit a 1% or more difference in absorption compared to