Model Based Design and Performance Analysis of

Solar Absorption Cooling and Heating System

Ming Qu
Carnegie Mellon University
School of Architecture

Ph.D. Committee
Prof. Volker Hartkopf, Ph.D. (Chair)
Prof. David Archer, Ph.D.
Prof. Khee Poh Lam, Ph.D.

Copyright Declaration

I hereby declare that I am the sole author of this thesis.

I authorize Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania to lend this thesis to other
institutions or individuals for the purpose of scholarly research.
I authorize Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania to reproduce this thesis by
photo copying or by other means, in total or in part, at the request of other institutions or
individuals for the purpose of scholarly research.

Copyright 2008 by Ming Qu

Acknowledgement
I wish to express my gratitude to my advisor, Dr. Volker Hartkopf, for his invaluable vision,
support, and encouragement. His enthusiasm and inspiration were essential to the success of this
research. Surely, I would like to extend my sincere appreciation and profound gratitude to Dr.
David Archer who has played a pivotal role in this thesis. He has far exceeded his duty as an
advisor. He gave me a deep understanding of mechanical engineering; he taught me how to
develop critical thinking and work effectively. He has been an ever-present source of guidance
and encouragement throughout my doctoral program. It gives me great pleasure to thank Dr. Khee
Poh Lam for providing valuable suggestions and carefully reviewing and constructively critiquing
of my work.
I owe many thanks to my dear colleague and husband, Hongxi Yin, who gave me continuous
support and took care of our babies, Ryan and David, who fill us with joy every day. This thesis is
dedicated to my parents in their confidence, their high expectations, and their hearty blessing.

ii

Model Based Design and Performance Analysis of

Solar Absorption Cooling and Heating System

iii

Table of Contents

Introduction........................................................................................................................... 1
1.1
1.1.1

Solar receivers ........................................................................................................... 3

1.1.2

Absorption Cycle ....................................................................................................... 3

1.1.3

Solar collector coupled with absorption chillers........................................................ 5

1.2

Current studies on solar absorption cooling and heating systems.................................. 5

1.3

Research objective ......................................................................................................... 7

1.4

Research approach ......................................................................................................... 8

1.4.1

The planning of the test system ................................................................................. 9

1.4.2

The development of solar collector model ................................................................ 9

1.4.3

The development of annual system performance simulation .................................. 10

1.4.4

The installation of the test system ........................................................................... 11

1.4.5

The test program and experimental data gathering.................................................. 12

1.4.6

Data analyses, model validation and simulation evaluation .................................... 13

1.5
2

Background and motivation ........................................................................................... 2

Chapter overview ......................................................................................................... 13

Solar absorption cooling and heating test system and program..................................... 15

2.1

Parabolic trough solar collector ................................................................................... 15

2.1.1

Device description ................................................................................................... 15

2.1.2

Major components and characteristic ...................................................................... 17

2.2

Absorption chiller ........................................................................................................ 17

2.2.1

Device description ................................................................................................... 17

2.2.2

Major components and characteristics..................................................................... 18

2.3

Solar absorption cooling and heating test system ........................................................ 20

2.3.1

System description................................................................................................... 20

2.3.2

The solar collection loop ......................................................................................... 20

2.3.3

The load loop ........................................................................................................... 22

2.3.4

Instrumentation, control and data acquisition system.............................................. 23

2.4

The test program .......................................................................................................... 27

2.4.1

The results of PTSC test at the transient states ........................................................ 31

2.4.2

The results of PTSC test at a steady state ................................................................ 33

iv

2.4.3

The results of solar absorption cooling / heating daily test ..................................... 34

2.4.4

The results of solar heating daily test by using heat exchanger............................... 40

2.5
2.5.1

The energy balance of the PTSC ............................................................................. 42

2.5.2

The selection of experimental data .......................................................................... 44

2.5.3

PTSC performance predicted by statistic tool ......................................................... 44

2.6
3

Discussion of test program........................................................................................... 46

Solar collector performance model ................................................................................... 47

3.1

PTSC model assumption.............................................................................................. 47

3.2

Energy balance analysis ............................................................................................... 48

3.3

Heat transfer analysis ................................................................................................... 51

3.4

Calculation procedure .................................................................................................. 53

3.5

Solar irradiation absorption.......................................................................................... 55

3.5.1

Direct normal solar radiation ................................................................................... 56

3.5.2

Incident angle and incident modifier ....................................................................... 56

3.5.3

End-loss ................................................................................................................... 57

3.5.4

Shadow-loss............................................................................................................. 59

3.6
4

The interpretation of PTSC performance data ............................................................. 42

Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 60

Model-based experimental data analysis of PTSC........................................................... 61

4.1
4.1.1
4.2

Analytical method ........................................................................................................ 61

Model validation...................................................................................................... 61
Model-based PTSC performance analysis ................................................................... 65

4.2.1

Temperature distribution in the receiver pipe.......................................................... 65

4.2.2

Thermal losses ......................................................................................................... 66

4.2.3

PTSC efficiency and solar radiation ........................................................................ 67

4.2.4

PTSC efficiency and incident angle of solar beam.................................................. 68

4.2.5

PTSC efficiency and wind speed ............................................................................. 68

4.2.6

PTSC efficiency and fluid type................................................................................ 69

4.2.7

PTSC efficiency and flow rate................................................................................. 70

4.2.8

PTSC efficiency and air in the annular space .......................................................... 70

4.2.9

PTSC efficiency and glass envelope........................................................................ 72

4.3
4.3.1

Recommendations on the PTSCs design .................................................................... 73

Bellow design .......................................................................................................... 73
v

4.3.2

Glass cover .............................................................................................................. 73

4.3.3

Diameter of the glass envelope................................................................................ 74

4.3.4

Diameter of the absorber pipe.................................................................................. 74

Solar absorption cooling and heating system simulation ................................................ 75

5.1

Model approach............................................................................................................ 76

5.2

Model assumptions ...................................................................................................... 77

5.2.1

Weather.................................................................................................................... 77

5.2.2

Assumptions in the model of solar energy supply system....................................... 79

5.3

System components and operation controls................................................................. 82

5.3.1

Components in the solar heating base-case ............................................................. 82

5.3.2

Operational controls in the solar heating base-case................................................. 83

5.3.3

Components and operation controls in the solar cooling base-case ........................ 84

5.4

Simulation evaluation .................................................................................................. 85

5.5

Base-case result of solar cooling and heating simulation ............................................ 90

5.5.1

Building simulation results ...................................................................................... 90

5.5.2

Solar energy system simulation results.................................................................... 91

Simulation-based design and performance analysis on solar cooling and heating ....... 96
6.1

Orientation of PTSC..................................................................................................... 96

6.1.1

Orientation of the PTSC for increased, effective solar energy recovery ................. 97

6.1.2

Orientation, tracking limitation, and solar beam irradiation on the PTSC ............ 101

6.1.3

Orientation and overall system performance ......................................................... 102

6.2
6.2.1
6.3

System operation and control..................................................................................... 102

Constant-flow or constant-outlet temperature control of the PTSC ...................... 102
Storage tank requirements.......................................................................................... 105

6.3.1

The volume of the storage tank ............................................................................. 106

6.3.2

Storage used for shifting energy for later use in solar heating .............................. 107

6.3.3

Storage used for shifting energy for later use in solar cooling .............................. 108

6.3.4

Storage used for preheating ................................................................................... 110

6.4

Auxiliary heater for preheating in the solar collection loop....................................... 112

6.5

The length and diameter of collection loop pipe and solar system performance ....... 113

6.6

The area of solar collector and storage tank............................................................... 116

6.7

Guidelines for design and operation of solar cooling and heating system................. 117

vi

Contributions and areas of future research ................................................................... 120

7.1

Contributions.............................................................................................................. 120

7.2

Areas of future research ............................................................................................. 122

7.2.1

Improving the tracking system of the PTSC.......................................................... 122

7.2.2

Extending the operational controls of the PTSC, the absorption chiller, and the heat

recovery exchanger ............................................................................................................. 123

7.2.3

Integrate thermal storage in the cooling/heating system........................................ 124

7.2.4

Cost model............................................................................................................. 125

References.......................................................................................................................... 126

vii

List of Figures
Figure 1-1 Simplified system arrangement of solar absorption cooling and heating system .......... 2
Figure 1-2 Two types of solar collector .......................................................................................... 4
Figure 1-3 Electric chiller and absorption chiller............................................................................ 4
Figure 1-4 Solar collector efficiency and operating temperature required by absorption chiller.... 6
Figure 1-5 Research approach schematic chart ............................................................................. 10
Figure 1-6 Process and instrumentation diagram of the test solar absorption cooling and heating
system............................................................................................................................................ 11
Figure 2-1 The PTSCs installed on the IW .................................................................................. 16
Figure 2-2 Broad BJ16A parabolic trough solar collectors and the receiver tube......................... 16
Figure 2-3 Absorption chiller ........................................................................................................ 19
Figure 2-4 Absorption chiller in cooling cycle.............................................................................. 19
Figure 2-5 Absorption chiller in heating cycle.............................................................................. 19
Figure 2-6 Broad pump and control package ................................................................................ 22
Figure 2-7 Overall solar absorption cooling and heating test system............................................ 23
Figure 2-8 Structure of control system.......................................................................................... 24
Figure 2-9 Interface of the WebCTRL .......................................................................................... 25
Figure 2-10 PTSC test diagram at transient state .......................................................................... 28
Figure 2-11 Solar absorption cooling /heating system daily test................................................... 29
Figure 2-12 Solar heating daily test by using heat exchanger ....................................................... 29
Figure 2-13 Operating temperatures of the PTSC test at transient state on 29 March 07 ............. 31
Figure 2-14 Energy flows of the PTSC test at the transient state on 29 March 07........................ 32
Figure 2-15 Operating temperatures of the PTSC test at steady state on 22 April 07................... 34
Figure 2-16 Energy flows of the PTSC test at steady state on 22 April 07................................... 34
Figure 2-17 Operating temperatures of solar cooling test on 31 July 07....................................... 37
Figure 2-18 Operating temperatures of solar cooling test on 16 July 07....................................... 37
Figure 2-19 Cooling capacity of solar cooling system on 31 July 07 ........................................... 38
Figure 2-20 Cooling capacity of solar cooling system on 16 July 07 ........................................... 38
Figure 2-21 Operating temperatures of solar absorption heating test on 9 March 07 ................... 39
Figure 2-22 Heating capacity of solar absorption heating system on 9 March 07 ........................ 39
Figure 2-23 Operating temperatures of HX based solar heating system on 2 March 07............... 41
Figure 2-24 Heating Capacity of HX based solar heating system on 2 March 07 ........................ 41
Figure 2-25 Scatter plot of I*Aa*cos(theta) and m*(Cpo*To-Cpi*Ti)......................................... 45

viii

Figure 2-26 Scatter plot of average operation temperature and m*(Cpo*To-Cpi*Ti) .................. 45
Figure 3-1 Energy flow in the PTSC............................................................................................. 48
Figure 3-2 The thermal network.................................................................................................... 52
Figure 3-3 The connection between the PTSCs ............................................................................ 53
Figure 3-4 Incident angle of the PTSC.......................................................................................... 56
Figure 3-5 Incident angle modifier and incident angle.................................................................. 57
Figure 3-6 End-loss of the PTSC................................................................................................... 58
Figure 3-7 The length of the end-loss in the solar field................................................................. 58
Figure 3-8 Shadow loss from the adjacent solar collector array ................................................... 59
Figure 4-1 Measured temperature distribution of the glass envelope............................................ 62
Figure 4-2 Comparison between the measured data and calculation solutions ............................. 65
Figure 4-3 Temperature distribution in the receiver pipe.............................................................. 66
Figure 4-4 Thermal losses through the receiver pipe .................................................................... 67
Figure 4-5 PTSCs efficiency and direct normal solar radiation at 0 incident angle..................... 67
Figure 4-6 PTSCs efficiency and incident angle.......................................................................... 68
Figure 4-7 PTSCs efficiency and direct normal solar radiation at 15 incident angle................... 69
Figure 4-8 PTSCs efficiency and wind speed .............................................................................. 69
Figure 4-9 PTSCs efficiency and fluid type................................................................................. 70
Figure 4-10 PTSCs efficiency & flow rate................................................................................... 71
Figure 4-11 PTSCs efficiency and air in the annual space .......................................................... 71
Figure 4-12 Thermal losses with Sun or No-sun........................................................................... 72
Figure 4-13 PTSCs efficiency and glass cover ............................................................................ 72
Figure 4-14 New bellow design from SOLEL .............................................................................. 73
Figure 5-1 Information flow of TRNSYS simulation ................................................................... 77
Figure 5-2 Monthly average dry bulb temperature of Pittsburgh .................................................. 78
Figure 5-3 Direct normal solar radiation in Pittsburgh.................................................................. 78
Figure 5-4 Daily average solar radiation throughout a year in Pittsburgh .................................... 79
Figure 5-5 TRNSYS information flow diagram of solar cooling base case.................................. 80
Figure 5-6 TRNSYS information flow diagram of solar heating base case .................................. 80
Figure 5-7 Boiling temperature and pressure of aqueous propylene glycol solutions................... 81
Figure 5-8 BROAD PTSC tracking range..................................................................................... 82
Figure 5-9 Operation temperature comparison between solar heating evaluation simulation and
experiment ..................................................................................................................................... 86

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Figure 5-10 Energy flow comparison between solar heating evaluation simulation and experiment
....................................................................................................................................................... 87
Figure 5-11 Operating temperature comparison between cooling evaluation simulation and
experiement ................................................................................................................................... 88
Figure 5-12 Energy flow comparison between solar cooling evaluation simulation and experiment
....................................................................................................................................................... 89
Figure 5-13 IW building heating and cooling load estimated by building simulation .................. 90
Figure 5-14 Useful solar energy and IW sensible heating load in January ................................... 92
Figure 5-15 Useful solar energy and IW sensible cooling on 30 December ................................. 92
Figure 5-16 Useful solar energy, cooling load and energy provided by chiller in August............ 94
Figure 5-17 Useful solar energy, cooling load and energy provided by chiller on 09 August...... 94
Figure 6-1 Twelve orientations in the simulation.......................................................................... 97
Figure 6-2 Orientation and solar beam irradiation on a PTSC on 10 June in Pittsburgh .............. 98
Figure 6-3 Orientation and solar beam irradiation on a PTSC on 2 December in Pittsburgh ....... 98
Figure 6-4 Orientation and solar beam irradiation on a PTSC in summer of Pittsburgh .............. 99
Figure 6-5 Orientation and solar beam irradiation on a PTSC in winter of Pittsburgh ................. 99
Figure 6-6 Annual solar beam irradiation on PTSC with different orientations in Pittsburgh.... 100
Figure 6-7 Tracking angle and orientation of the PTSC on 21Jun .............................................. 100
Figure 6-8 Tracking angle and orientation of the PTSC on 21 Dec ............................................ 100
Figure 6-9 Solar beam irradiation and orientation of the PTSC in Pittsburgh ............................ 101
Figure 6-10 System performance comparison of alternate controls on 9 August 2007 .............. 104
Figure 6-11 System operating temperature comparison of alternate controls on 9 August 2007 104
Figure 6-12 Trnsys information flow diagram of solar heating system with storage.................. 107
Figure 6-13 Solar energy collected, heating load, and energy provided on 14, 15 November 2007
..................................................................................................................................................... 108
Figure 6-14 Trnsys information flow diagram of solar cooling system with storage for shifting
energy .......................................................................................................................................... 109
Figure 6-15 Operating temperature of solar cooling system with and without storage on 9 August
..................................................................................................................................................... 109
Figure 6-16 Trnsys information flow diagram for solar cooling with storage for preheating..... 111
Figure 6-17 Effect of a heater on energy flow for solar cooling on 09 August........................... 113
Figure 6-18 Effect of a heater on operating temperature for solar cooling on 9 August............. 113
Figure 6-19 Solar fraction and pipe size under two control strategies ........................................ 115
Figure 6-20 System energy performance and pipe size on 9 August .......................................... 115

Figure 6-21 Operating temperature and pipe size on 9 August ................................................... 116
Figure 6-22 Effect of PTSC area and storage volume on the solar fraction in IW cooling and
heating ......................................................................................................................................... 117
Figure 6-23 Idealized IW solar cooling/heating system performance and system sensitivity
analysis ........................................................................................................................................ 119

xi

List of Tables
Table 2-1 Specifications of the parabolic trough solar collector installed .................................... 18
Table 2-2 Specifications of the absorption chiller installed .......................................................... 21
Table 2-3 Instrumentation of IW solar cooling and heating system.............................................. 26
Table 2-4 Four types of tests conducted........................................................................................ 28
Table 2-5 Heat capacity of the solar collection loop ..................................................................... 33
Table 2-6 Operating condition in the PTSC performance tests..................................................... 33
Table 2-7 Heating system performance comparison between HX based and absorption chiller
based.............................................................................................................................................. 41
Table 3-1 Heat transfer correlations used in the PTSC model ...................................................... 54
Table 3-2 Parameters and values used in the PTSC model ........................................................... 55
Table 4-1 Glass temperature measurements in the test ................................................................. 62
Table 4-2 Comparison between measured values and model calculations.................................... 64
Table 5-1 Control mode in the base-case simulation of solar heating system............................... 83
Table 5-2 Control mode in the base-case simulation of solar cooling system .............................. 85
Table 5-3 System performance estimated by IW solar heating system base-case simulation....... 91
Table 5-4 System performance estimated by IW solar cooling system base-case simulation ...... 93
Table 6-1 Effect of PTSCs orientation on overall system performance..................................... 102
Table 6-2 Effect of flow controls on overall system performance .............................................. 103
Table 6-3 Effect of storage volume on solar heating system performance ................................. 108
Table 6-4 Effect of storage volume on solar cooling system performance ................................. 110
Table 6-5 Effect of Preheat storage tank volume on solar cooling performance..................... 111
Table 6-6 Effect of collection loop volume on solar heating system performance ..................... 114
Table 6-7 Effect of collection loop volume on solar cooling system performance..................... 114

xii

Abstract
The work presented in this thesis deals with the question of how solar energy might most
effectively and efficiently be used in supplying energy for the operation of a building. The
approach to dealing with this question has involved a specific building space, Carnegie Mellons
Intelligent Workplace; a specific solar system, parabolic trough solar thermal receivers, Parabolic
Trough Solar Collectors; and a specific building energy use, space cooling and heating. The
work has involved the design, installation, and test of a system incorporating PTSCs, an
absorption chiller, a heat recovery exchanger, auxiliary equipment, instrumentation and controls.
Mathematical models based on fundamental scientific and engineering principles have been
developed and programmed for both the PTSCs and the overall IW cooling and heating system,
These models have been improved and validated through comparisons of predicted and measured
PTSC and IW cooling and heating system performance. The work reported in this thesis has
developed suggestions and methods for the effective design and evaluation of PTSCs and also
for the optimized design and operation of solar absorption cooling and heating systems, so that
the system is able to reduce building energy consumption, and achieve environmental benefits in
the operation of buildings by the use of renewable, solar energy.

xiii

Introduction

HVAC systems are the major users of electricity in commercial buildings. In the United States,
commercial air conditioning makes up 40% of the summer time peak electrical demand (Kulkarni
1994). In recent years, the increasing power demand of building HVAC system, and the
increasing costs of energy have caused people to seek alternative cheaper, renewable energy
sources for building cooling and heating. In addition, the environmental issues such as global
warming, ozone depletion, and energy conservation, are other important factors, impelling people
to look for space cooling and heating without involving gas or electricity. The use of solar energy
for building cooling and heating can potentially provide the solution to these economic and
environmental problems.
An important motivation for research and development in solar cooling is the coincidence of
comfort cooling demand and the availability of solar radiation. Building cooling systems which
use solar thermal energy can make use of absorption cycles, desiccant cycles, on solar-mechanical
processes. Compared to solar desiccant cycles and solar-mechanical processes, solar absorption
cycle technology is more developed; solar thermally driven systems can provide reliable and
quiet cooling. In addition, combining solar heating and domestic hot water production with
cooling can improve economic performance of the system, compared to solar heating or solar
cooling alone.
Solar absorption cooling was a subject of significant research interest from 1970 to 1980, when a
number of demonstration projects were conducted in the United States. However, these systems
failed to establish a significant global market for cooling systems due to their high initial cost,
lack of commercial hot water driven absorption chillers, and scarcity of demonstrations and
impartial assessments by reputable institutions (Kulkarni 1994).
This thesis investigates the technical and energy efficient aspects of using high temperature solar
thermal receivers with a two stage absorption chiller to cool and heat a building space; it
reassesses the feasibility of commercializing solar absorption cooling technology by considering
the recent improvements in solar collection technologies, severe electric shortages, and the
environmental problems. This research contributes in depth knowledge and methods for the
design and operation of solar absorption cooling systems that reduce energy consumption,
decrease operational costs, and minimize air quality problems.

The work reported in this thesis has developed, validated and applied a numerical performance
model, a parabolic trough solar collector (PTSC) model; this model provides a tool for the
analysis of performance data and for the design and operation of a solar absorption cooling and
heating system for a building. Additionally, the work developed a comprehensive simulation and
applied it to system optimization and sensitivity analyses. This thesis provides generic guidelines
on the design and operation of a solar absorption cooling and heating system in order to reduce
energy consumption and operation costs, as well as benefit the environment.

1.1 Background and motivation

Solar heating systems have been studied for almost 70 years since the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology began their studies in 1938 (Beckman 1980). Currently solar heating is relatively
mature. However, despite substantial research and development efforts on solar cooling, most
have focused on simulation and isolated experiments. Few involved the current state of hot water
driven, two stage absorption chillers and well designed solar chillers with effective control
systems. The requirements for effective operation and maintenance practices have not been
explored.
A typical solar absorption cooling and heating system is comprised primarily of the solar
receivers and the absorption chiller. The solar receivers convert solar radiation to thermal energy
in a heated fluid; the absorption chiller then uses this energy in summer to generate chilled water.
In the cooling cycle, the system acts as a heat pump; it gets the heat from chilled water and from
the sun and rejects heat by cooling water. In winter, instead of using cooling water, the system
directly transfer heat to the loop providing space heating. A simplified schematic of a solar
absorption cooling and heating system is illustrated in Figure 1-1.

rs
to
lec
l
co
lar
o
s

absorption
chiller
Hot water
building
Chilled water
heating cycle
cooling cycle

cooling water

Figure 1-1 Simplified system arrangement of solar absorption cooling and heating system

1.1.1

Solar receivers

Solar receivers are normally are classified in two groups: flat plate collectors and concentrating
collectors as shown in Figure 1-2. A flat plate collector can use both direct and diffuse solar
irradiation on a fixed receiving plate, while a concentrating device can only use the direct solar
irradiation since the diffuse solar irradiation from various directions focused by the reflector away
its focal line where the receiver pipe located. Concentrating collectors, with a relatively small
absorption area, can heat the heat transfer fluid to temperatures, far above those attainable by flat
plate collectors. Flat plate collectors are normally used in applications that require only low
temperatures, less than 100 C; and concentrating collectors are utilized in medium or high
temperature applications, up to 600C.

1.1.2

Absorption Cycle

Absorption chillers can be thermally driven by using heat from the sun, from engine exhaust
gases, or from other variety of sources, to provide reliable and quiet cooling. They do not use
atmosphere harming halogenated refrigerants, and they can be used to reduce summer electric
peak demand. To illustrate how an absorption chiller works, a comparison between an absorption
chiller and an electrically driven vapor compression chiller is shown in Figure 1-3.
In the electrically driven vapor compression chiller, on the left of Figure 1- 3, a refrigerant vapor
is compressed to a higher pressure by a compressor and condensed by rejecting heat to the
ambient in the condenser. The refrigerant liquid then flows through the expansion valve to an
evaporator maintained at a low pressure mixture of liquid and vapor. This liquid refrigerant initial
flushes into a mixture of vapor and liquid. The liquid then vaporizes in the evaporator as it
absorbs heat from the water to be cooled thermally producing the cooling effect.
Instead of using a compressor, an absorption chiller, on the right of Figure 1- 3, produces the
same compression effect, raising the pressure of water vapor by absorbing vapor at low pressure
in the absorber and consequently desorbing this vapor at a high pressure in the regenerator. The
water vapor is absorbed at a low pressure by the concentrated sorbent solution in the absorber. A
solution pump then pumps up the diluted solution to a higher pressure and temperature in the

Parabolic trough solar collector (PTSC)

(one axis tracking)

Flat-plate collector

Integrated compound parabolic collector

(fixed in a flat assembly)

Evacuated-tube collector

Flat-plate collector

Concentrating collector

Figure 1-2 Two types of solar collector

Rejected heat

Rejected heat

Heat input

Condenser

Condenser

Regenerator

Refrigerant
expansion valve

Refrigerant
expansion valve

Solution
pump

Work
Compressor

Solution
expansion valve

Evaporator

Absorber

Evaporator
Heat absorbed
from chilled water

Heat absorbed
from chilled water
T

Electric chiller

Rejected heat
T

Absorption chiller

Figure 1-3 Electric chiller and absorption chiller

regenerator. The water vapor is boiled off from the diluted sorbent solution in the regenerator by
adding thermal energy, and the water vapor is condensed by rejecting heat to cooling water in the
condenser. The other processes in the absorption chiller, the vaporization of the water refrigerant
and the removal of heat from the chilled water in the evaporator, operate similarly to the ones in
the electric chiller.
If the temperature of the refrigerant water vapor (steam) produced in the regenerator, is high
enough, then it can be used to produce more refrigerant vapor from the weak solution. In return,
this vapor is then used in a chiller, which then serves as a double effect absorption chiller.
From the thermodynamic point of view, the absorption chiller is a combination of a heat engine
and heat pump. The heat engine absorbs heat at a high temperature, rejects heat at a lower
temperature, and produces work. The work drives a heat pump that absorbs heat at a low
temperature and rejects it to the ambient at a higher temperature.

1.1.3

Solar collector coupled with absorption chillers

All the varieties of solar collectors can be used for cooling, given the broad operating temperature
ranges of absorption chillers. Figure 1- 4 plots the efficiency of the four types of solar collectors - flat plate, evacuated tube without (ET) and with concentration (CPC), and linear parabolic
trough (PTSC) depending on their operating temperature. Typically, a single effect LiBr/H2O
absorption chiller requires a 75-100 C heat source; and a double effect one requires a 150-180 C
heat source to generate chilled water. Normally flat plat solar collectors are coupled with single
effect chillers due to their relatively high efficiency at low operating temperature; and evacuated
tube and parabolic trough collectors are used to provide a high temperature heat source for double
effect absorption chillers.
This thesis is focused on the solar absorption cooling system, comprised of the PTSCs and the
double effect absorption chiller as indicated by the rectangular outline in Figure 1-4.

1.2 Current studies on solar absorption cooling and heating systems

Substantial research and development efforts on solar absorption cooling are in progress; and the
technology is evolving. Most of the research focuses on simulation analyses of solar driven single

effect absorption cooling systems. In general, it has been concluded that this approach is the most
economic configuration with the highest system performance.
Although theoretically ET or CPC collectors can heat fluid to 150~160 C, the required
temperature by the double effect absorption chiller, there are few successful studies showing that
these two types of solar receivers can be successfully incorporated with double effect absorption
chillers.
Duff (Duff 2004) has reported that 106.5 m2 of integrated compound parabolic concentrating
collectors (ICPC) have been operated at 90-130 C to serve a 70kW (20 ton) hot water driven
double effect McQuay/Sanyo chiller to serve a commercial building in Sacramento, California. At
the beginning of the operation in 1998, daily collection efficiencies were nearly 50% in the
operating range of 120-160 C. While later, the highest operating temperature was at 110 C with
55% daily collection efficiencies, due to the lower operating temperature with less heat loss.

Figure 1-4 Solar collector efficiency and operating temperature required by absorption chiller

At U.S. Armys Yuma Proving Ground in Arizona a 1245 m2 of Hexel PTSCs solar system
supplying heated water to a 160 ton LiBr/H2O double effect absorption cooling system has been
successfully operated for nearly 14 years since its installation in 1979 (Hewett 1995). Hewett
discussed the technical and economic performances of this project and drew the conclusion that
the economics of solar absorption cooling systems are unattractive compared to conventional
alternatives (in 1995). The primary rationale included the high capital and operating costs of solar
collectors with absorption chillers, compared to those of electrically driven vapor compression
chillers.
Supplementing experimental research, many simulation based studies have been performed on
solar driven double effect absorption cooling systems. Lokurlu carried out system simulation
analyses in TRNSYS (Lokurlu 2002). He concluded that the combination of PTSC and a double
effect absorption chiller is promising for cooling systems with a load of at least 100 kW; Since
the PTSCs were not available for the study, this work remained in the simulation and preliminary
design stage.
Wardono developed a computer model of the double effect LiBr/H2O absorption cooling system
coupled with tilted flat plate solar collectors for an application in Albuquerque, NM (Wardono
1996). He calculated that the total solar energy input depends upon the ambient temperature, sky
clearness index, and system design; and he indicated that the solar contribution for supplying
energy to the double effect LiBr/H2O cooling system did not significantly vary for various
latitudes.

1.3 Research objective

The primary purpose of this research program is the development of systems which reduce the
energy requirements for the operation of buildings by a factor of two or greater, and the provision
of techniques and tools for the design and evaluation of such systems. This thesis re-assesses the
technical aspect of a solar driven double effect absorption cooling system by means of
experimental equipment, modeling and system simulation.
The aim of this research is to develop methods and tools for the effective design and optimization
of a solar absorption cooling and heating system that reduces energy consumption, decreases

capital, operation, and maintenance costs, and also benefits the environment.

The special

objectives of this thesis are:

the establishment of a unique experimental set up and procedures for investing a solar
absorption cooling and heating system

the carrying out a test program on both a parabolic trough solar collector and an
absorption cooling and heating system

the construction of a computerized performance model of a parabolic trough solar

collector based on energy balances and heat transfer correlations and validation of the
model with data obtained from the test program

the development of annual overall solar cooling and heating system simulation, the use of
this simulation to design the system and to optimize its performance; and validation of
the simulation by data obtained from the test program

the analysis of the experimental data, refinement of the model, and improvement of the
design and operation on the basis of the simulations

The solar collector model and overall solar system simulations developed are now being used as
tools to adapt parabolic trough solar collectors and double effect absorption chillers to various
climate zones, building applications, and system configurations in order to provide optimized
design and operation guidelines. In both its practical and theoretical aspects, this study
contributes important knowledge for the application of the solar absorption cooling and heating
systems. The practical observation and operation of the particular solar cooling and heating
system has laid the groundwork for improvement of the control and integration of solar collectors
and double effect absorption chillers; thus the analytical methods provide a platform to analyze
and improve systems.

1.4 Research approach

To achieve the thesis objectives, this research is focused on solar collector model development,
system performance simulation, system installation and test of a high temperature based solar
absorption cooling and heating system as illustrated in Figure 1-5.

In this research, mathematical modeling, system simulation, equipment testing, system testing,
and data analyses were combined to provide a deeper understanding of the system, to discover the
possible improvements in the solar collector design, to optimize the system design and operation,
and to provide a framework to design and evaluate solar absorption cooling and heating systems.
The research has been carried out by the following steps.

1.4.1

The planning of the test system

Prior to the design and installation of the solar cooling and heating system, studies were
performed regarding the solar field location, the structure for supporting the solar collectors,
system energy balances, the piping, and other engineering issues. In the mean time, a
comprehensive parabolic trough solar collector model and annual system performance
simulations were developed to assist the system design and operation.

1.4.2

The development of solar collector model

The performance model of the solar collector is focused on a coated absorber pipe enclosed in an
evacuated glass envelope: the receiver of the parabolic trough solar collector (PTSC). This steady
state, single dimensional model is based on fundamental material and energy balances together
with heat transfer correlations programmed in the Engineering Equation Solver (EES).
Incident solar energy on the solar collector is distributed among useful energy gain, optical losses,
and thermal losses. To represent different optical losses, coefficients have been introduced in the
model. This model deals with the thermal losses resulting from conduction, convection and
radiation heat transfer to the surroundings, from the receiver. This PTSC model is based on
energy balance relations for the absorber pipe and the glass envelope together with heat transfer
correlations for the various the energy streams among them and the surroundings. It has 192
variables and 160 equations. This model predicts how the efficiency of the PTSC is influenced by
direct normal solar radiation, the incidence angle, collector dimensions, material properties, the
operating temperature, the presence of air in the annular space, the wind speed, the type of the
fluid, and the operating flow rate.
This model was used to select the proper operating conditions, to detect the possible problems in
the operation of the collectors such as incipient boiling at the tube surface, and to select a
circulation pump. Additionally the estimated performance of PTSC has been used to optimize
design parameters and operating conditions of the solar absorption cooling and heating system.

1.4.3

The development of annual system performance simulation

The system performance simulations were modeled in the TRNSYS transient simulation program
by two sections; the building simulation and the solar energy system simulation. The
sophisticated building simulation calculates the building heating and cooling loads based on the
inputs of the configuration of the building; weather conditions; the schedules for occupancy,
lighting, equipment; and set points for temperature and humidity in the test building space. The
thermal system simulations estimated the required energy input to meet the calculated building
loads, either as available solar radiation or as natural gas auxiliary fuel. The thermal system
simulation included all of major system components and operation strategies. Most of the major
components in the test solar energy supply system are available in the simulation library. Only
two new components, the solar receiver and the system controls, were written to integrate
controls for PTSC, chiller, pumps and fan coils.

Figure 1-5 Research approach schematic chart

10

The system simulation has been used as a generic system model to optimize system design and
operation, and to assess the impact of these parameters on the system performance: the
orientation of the PTSC; the location and volume of the storage tank; the piping diameter, length,
thickness, and the insulation; as well as the operating strategy.

1.4.4

The installation of the test system

The solar thermal system was designed to cool or heat the south zone of the Robert L. Preger
Intelligent Workplace (IW), an office space for multiple uses class rooms, laboratories, meeting
spaces, offices for faculty and students, at Carnegie Mellon University. To meet the cooling and
heating loads of this space, a 16 kW double effect absorption chiller was selected and installed.

Figure 1-6 Process and instrumentation diagram of the test solar absorption cooling and heating
system

This chiller is driven either by hot water or by natural gas to provide cooling in the summer and
heating in the winter. The chiller switches between the cooling mode and heating mode by
adjusting a two-position valve. This chiller incorporates a cooling tower to reject heat from its
operation as required in the cooling cycle. To satisfy the requirement of the double effect
absorption chiller, 52 m2 of linear parabolic trough solar thermal receivers, (PTSC) were
installed, including a circulating propylene glycol water mixture, instrumentation for flow,
temperature, pressure and direct normal solar radiation; circulation pumps, an expansion/pressure
tank; and a drain/ filling apparatus. A web-based automation system was also installed to operate

11

the solar collector, heat exchanger and the absorption chiller with their auxiliary system, monitor
the overall system status, and collect experimental data. In addition, there is a heat exchanger
installed parallel to the absorption chiller to compare the system performance between the solar
heating systems using an absorption chiller and the heat exchanger. The process instrumentation
diagram of the test solar absorption cooling and heating system is shown in Figure 1-6.

1.4.5

The test program and experimental data gathering

The experiments provided significant knowledge and understanding of the PTSCs and the solar
absorption cooling and heating system. The test program characterized the equipment and the
systems, validated the mathematic model of the solar collector, and the system simulation for
evaluating the annual system performance. The experiments in the test program are classified into
three groups:

Solar collector performance testing the solar collectors operated at a steady state, the
inlet temperature of heat transfer fluid (HTF) entering the solar collector receiver arrays
and the direct normal solar radiation are constant; testing the solar collection at a transient
state, when the operation temperature of the solar collectors increases with time until an
elevated temperature is researched.

Solar heating in the morning, circulating the heat transfer fluid through the bypass until
the desired temperature is reached, and then diverting the HTF to the absorption chiller/
heat exchanger to produce hot water for space heating. The building load, heat exchanger
HX-1 maintains the hot water from the chiller / HX-2 in the reasonable range by the
available flow of chilled water. Ultimately, when the solar energy is no longer adequate to
operate chiller / HX-2 due to the heat loss from the system and the reduction of the direct
normal solar radiation, the HTF is then diverted through the bypass.

Solar cooling in the morning, circulating the HTF through bypass until the temperature
required by the absorption chiller is reached, then diverting the HTF flow through the
absorption chiller to produce chilled water for space cooling. Ultimately, when the
amount of solar energy supply is no longer adequate to operate the absorption chiller, the
HTF is then diverted through the bypass.

During these tests, as indicated in Figure 1.6, data on temperature, pressure, flow, and direct
normal solar radiation were gathered by the data acquisition system for further data analyses.

12

1.4.6

Data analyses, model validation and simulation evaluation

After the data were collected, they were analyzed using the basic steady state heat balance of the
receiver and the balance of the system to determine fundamental characteristics of the system
such as the solar collector efficiency, the collector and system heat capacities, and the heat losses
from the system making use of statistical and other mathematical tools. The data then were used
to validate the PTSC model and to evaluate system simulation by comparisons with the solutions
of the solar collector model or system simulations.
There were two observations from the comparison. First, the initial collector model predicted
higher collector efficiency than the measurements. This discrepancy proved to be due to the
absorptivity of the glass envelope, a significant parameter impacting on the collector efficiency.
This absorptivity was apparently much higher than the value given by Broad, the equipment
manufacturer. After the properties of the glass envelope in the initial collector model were
adjusted, the deviation between the experimental data and the model solution was minimized.
Second, initial system performance simulation estimated much shorter preheat time than those
observed at the beginning of each day. This discrepancy proved to be due to the pipe component
in the TRNSYS modeled as an empty pipe without the heat capacity. A small storage tank,
inserted in the system simulation, added appropriate heat capacity to the piping. As a
consequence, the experimental data and the system simulation solution came into agreement.

1.5 Chapter overview

This thesis contains seven chapters followed by references, appendixes, and nomenclature.
Chapter 1, Introduction introduces the background and motivation of this dissertation and
summarizes the research objectives and approach.
Chapter 2, Solar absorption cooling and heating test system and program introduces the
overall experimental system setups of solar absorption cooling and heating test system. It presents
detailed information on the system devices, instrumentation and control. The test program and
data acquisition are introduced. The experimental data are analyzed.
Chapter 3, Solar collector performance model addresses the model assumptions, energy balance
and heat transfer and calculation procedure. It also introduces the facts of the absorption of solar
irradiation impact on the solar collector efficiency.

13

Chapter 4, Experimental data analysis on PTSC model assesses and validates the solar model
by using experimental data. The model is used to analyze the PTSC performance under various
weather and operational condition.
Chapter 5, Solar absorption cooling and heating system simulation introduces the simulation
assumptions and in depth description of operation and control in the base case of the solar cooling
and heating simulation. This chapter also includes the assessment and evaluation of the system
performance model by using the experimental daily data.
Chapter 6, Simulation-based design and performance analysis on absorption cooling and
heating system presents the system optimization and system sensitivity analysis by serial system
comparison simulations. The guidelines of design and operation for solar cooling and heating
system are provided.
Chapter 7, Conclusions and recommendations summarizes the finding and contributions of this
thesis and suggests future areas for research and the issues involved, including: the thermal
storage equipment, an advanced control system, and the integration of cooling and heating
devices.

14

Solar absorption cooling and heating test system and program

A solar absorption cooling and heating test system has been designed, installed, and tested in the
IW at Carnegie Mellon University of Pittsburgh. As shown in Figure 1-6, the system consists of
52 m2 of parabolic trough solar collectors, PTSCs; a 16 kW double effect absorption chiller; a
heat recovery exchanger; and a variable, simulated building load exchanger to measure the
performance of the solar collector and the overall solar cooling and heating system. A web-based
data acquisition and control system was developed and installed to operate the solar system while
storing and displaying the test measurement data. The PTSC was tested at various operating
conditions: direct solar irradiation, wind load, heat transfer fluid, flow rate, and temperature.
Daily tests on the solar cooling and heating were conducted at various weather conditions: clear
day, mostly sunny day, mostly cloudy and overcast in winter and summer, respectively. In the
future, this solar absorption cooling and heating test system will be integrated with the cooling
and heating units of the IW and incorporated in the campus cooling and heating grids.

2.1 Parabolic trough solar collector

2.1.1

Device description

The solar collectors installed in the IW are single axis tracking solar concentrators: parabolic
trough solar collectors (PTSCs). They track the altitude of the sun as it travels from east to west
during the day to ensure that the radiation from the sun is continuously focused on the linear
receiver. These PTSCs, provided by Broad Air Conditioning Co., have a 52m2 aperture surface,
which is the total open cross sectional area of four modules of parabolic reflectors.
Figure 2-1 shows two arrays of PTSCs installed in series in the two valleys of the IW saw-tooth
roof. They are connected by the supply and return lines of the heat transfer fluid (HTF), an
aqueous solution containing 50% propylene glycol, with the absorption chiller installed on the
southeast platform adjacent to the IW. The tracking axes of the PTSCs are oriented 15 east of
true north because this orientation minimizes the collector height, wind loading, and structural
requirements of the installation.

15

The PTSCs
The IW

Pipelines

Figure 2-1 The PTSCs installed on the IW

(Stine 1987)

Parabolic trough
reflector
Support
structure

Receiver tube

Tracking
mechanism

Figure 2-2 Broad BJ16A parabolic trough solar collectors and the receiver tube

16

2.1.2

Major components and characteristic

The installed PTSC, shown in Figure 2-2, comprises a parabolic trough reflector mirror; a
receiver tube, a surface treated absorber pipe at its focal line surrounded by an evacuated
transparent tube; supporting structure; and a tracking mechanism.
A module of the Broad PTSC receiver weighs 200 kg. It is designed to withstand a 31 m/sec
wind load. The 13.34 m2 aperture area and 0.68 m2 receiver area corresponds to a 19.6
concentration ratio. The parabolic reflector trough, according to Broad, has a reflectance of 0.8.
Most of solar radiation on the reflector is focused on the receiver tube, after it impinges on this
mirror. The receiver tube consists of an absorber pipe at its center surrounded by a glass envelope
as shown in the right bottom of Figure 2-2. The absorber pipe is coated with selective blackened
nickel, which has a high absorptivity of 0.96 for short wave length solar radiation and a low
emissivity of 0.14 at 100C for long wave length heat radiation. The glass envelope plays an
important role in reducing convective and the radiative losses from the receiver tube to the
atmosphere. Its surface temperature is much lower than that of the absorber pipe, and it is opaque
to thermal radiation from that tube. In addition, the annular space between the absorber pipe and
the glass envelope is evacuated in order to decrease the conduction and convection between them.
The Broad PTSC tracking drive is a large semi circular gear engaged with a small gear powered
by a 24V servo motor. PTSCs typically have a higher efficiency than plate solar collectors such
as a flat solar collector or an evacuated-tube collector when the operation temperature is high.
The characteristics of the PTSC installed in the IW are addressed in Table 2-1.

2.2 Absorption chiller

2.2.1

Device description

The absorption chiller installed in IW is a dual fired two-stage, water-LiBr chiller with a cooling
tower. This chiller, also fabricated by Broad Air Conditioning Co., has a 16 kW rated cooling /
heating capacity driven by either hot water or natural gas. Figure 2-3 is the absorption chiller
installed on the southeast platform of the IW. It is connected with solar collection loop, and its
chilled / hot water supply and return lines. Its working schematic flow diagrams1 are illustrated in
Figure 2-4 and Figure 2-5.

From the absorption chiller brochure of Broad Air Conditioning Co.

17

Table 2-1 Specifications of the parabolic trough solar collector installed

Parabolic trough solar collector features (BJ16A)
Manufacturer:

Broad Air Conditioning

Broad Town, Chang Sha, Hu Nan, CHINA

Operating temperature:

60-180C

Module size:

2.3 * 5.75 m; 13.225 m2

Module operating weight:

200 kg

Drive group size:

2 modules; 26.45 m2

Delta-T loop size:

2 drive groups; 52.9 m2

Rim angle, 2:

73

Reflectors:

Typical reflectance 0.8

Focal length:

81.8 cm

Receiver:

Absorber OD: 3.8 cm

Base material: Stainless steel 304L
Coating: Black nickel
Typical absorptivity: 0.96
Typical emittance: 0.14@100C
Pyrex glass cover OD: 10.2 cm
Transmissivity: 0.91
Vacuum in the annular space

Sun tracking

Single-axis elevation tracking based on the calculated sun position

Tracking drive System

24 V powered
Servo motor
Small gear, big gear.

Wind loads

16 m/sec (tracking)
31 m/sec (stowed)

2.2.2

Major components and characteristics

The absorption chiller consists of five major and minor heat transfer components, three pumps, a
cooling tower, and other associated valves and pipe fittings in Figure 2-4.
The five major components include: an evaporator (marked 4), an absorber (marked 5), a hightemperature regenerator (marked 2), a low-temperature regenerator (marked 1), and a condenser
(marked 3). The three minor heat transfer components are: a high temperature heat interchanger

Rim angle is the angle between the line from vertex to focus and the line from focus to the parabola ridge
point.

18

(marked 6), a low-temperature heat interchanger (marked 7), and a refrigerant by-pass heat
exchanger (marked 7a).

The three pumps are: a solution pump (marked 8), a

chilled / hot water pump (marked 12), and a
refrigerant pump (marked 9).Table 2-2 lists the chiller
specifications from the manufacturer; these were the
commissioning data before the chiller sent out. The
chiller specification data are useful in evaluating the
experiment data of the chiller.
Both of these two flow diagrams intend to address the
general working principle; they do not include the
heating coils inside the regenerator. In the cooling
cycle, the water vapor is absorbed into concentrated
LiBr solution in the Absorber shown in Figure 2-4. A
solution pump then pumps up the dilute LiBr solution
Figure 2-3 Absorption chiller

Figure 2-5 Absorption chiller in heating cycle

Figure 2-4 Absorption chiller in cooling cycle

19

to the Regenerator that operates at a higher pressure and a higher temperature to vaporize water
from the solution making use of thermal energy from the solar collectors or from the natural gas
burner. The water vapor is condensed by rejecting heat to cooling water in the Condenser. Next,
condensate water is passed through an expansion nozzle into the Evaporator. The water is
vaporized there at a low pressure, absorbing heat transferred from chilled water flow.
The installed double effect absorption chiller has a coefficient of performance of 1.2 when
operated in cooling mode, driven by either fluid heated in solar receivers or by natural gas. A
single valve, marked 24 on both Figures 2-4 and Figure 2-5, can be opened to switch the chiller
from the cooling to heating mode. In the heating mode, the water vaporized from the LiBr
solution in the Regenerator, directly flows into the Evaporator, as shown in Figure 2-5. The
Evaporator now acts as a Condenser and heats a second water stream that is used for heating the
IW. At the design operating conditions in the cooling mode, the chiller cools 9 gpm of 14C
return chilled water to 7C and rejects the heat to cooling water at 30C from its integral cooling
tower. In the heating mode, the chiller heats 9 gpm of 50C return hot water to 57C by
condensing vapor from the Regenerator in its Evaporator.

2.3 Solar absorption cooling and heating test system

2.3.1

System description

A solar absorption cooling and heating test system in the IW was set up to test the parabolic
trough solar collector and system performance. This test system, shown in Figure 1-6, consists of
two loops: the solar collection loop and the variable load loop. The absorption chiller / the heat
exchanger are in the middle. It is connected with the HTF supply system on the left and the
cooling / heating load system on the right. The necessary instrumentation and control for the
system have been installed to operate the system and to process the experimental data.

2.3.2

The solar collection loop

The solar collection loop comprises two main circulation pumps, an expansion tank, and threeway valve in addition to the PTSCs, the absorption chiller, and heat exchanger HX-2. One of two
pumps, marked S1 in Figure 1-6, was provided by Broad to circulate the HTF in the solar loop
including the absorption chiller. It is packed with three-way valve, Broad instrumentation, supply
and return lines, and the PTSC control panel together in a metal cabinet, shown in Figure 2-6. To

20

reduce the difficulties of the system integration and control, another pump, marked as S4, and a
heat exchanger, HX-2, were selected and installed in the solar loop. The three-way valve was
installed in Broad pump & control package for adjusting the amount of the HTF flowing though
by-pass and the absorption chiller. Its control will be discussed in the control section of the test
system.
The volume of the HTF varies with the temperature changes in a closed system due to thermal
expansion and contraction. An expansion / compression tank is required to accommodate the
varying quantity of liquid and operate the HTF within a selected pressure range. Since the
operation temperature of the absorption solar cooling and heating test system is between -20C to
180C, an expansion tank, provided by Zilmet in Italy, was installed in the mechanical room to
maintain a controlled pressure and to prevent vaporization in the closed solar collection loop. It is
located at near the point of lowest pressure in the system and shared by the two solar collection
loops (solar absorption chiller loop and solar heat exchanger loop). Its maximum working
pressure is 10 bars and its pre-charge is 36 to 44 psi (2.5 to 3 bar).

Unit

Cooling capacity

15.212

kW

Chilled water return temperature

14.17

Chilled water supply temperature

7.63

m3/h

Heating capacity

4.5

kW

Heating water return temperature

50

Heating water supply temperature

52

Heating water flow rate

m3/h

12.629

kW

2.366

m3/h

Power voltage

220

Power

Name

Power frequency

60

HZ

1.749

kW

Water-LiBr sorbent solution mass

70

kg

Water-LiBr sorbent concentration

56

Heating water

Cooling water

Quantity

Solution

Table 2-2 Specifications of the absorption chiller installed

Chilled water flow rate

Hot source consumptions

Maximum power consumption

21

The heat exchanger, HX-2, was installed in the solar collection loop parallel to the absorption
chiller to compare the solar heating system performance of two configures by the absorption
chiller and by a heat exchanger. This heat exchanger from Bell and Gossett is a brazed plate heat
exchanger, which offers the highest level of thermal efficiency and durability in a compact, low
cost unit.

Broad pump S-1

Control panel
back view

Threeway valve
Temperature and
pressure sensors

Supply and
return lines

Figure 2-6 Broad pump and control package

According to the specification sheet of the provider, the overall heat transfer coefficient is 359
Btu/hr-ft2-F (2.05 kW/m2-C) and the total heat transfer surface area is 11.31 ft2 (1.05 m2). The
Maximum temperature is around 232C, and the maximum pressure is 435 psi (30 bar).
At the design conditions, the expansion tank sets the initial pressure in the system. The HTF
circulates through the three way valve into the by-pass line back to the solar collection loop.
When the temperature of the HTF meets the requirements of the absorption chiller, the HTF flows
through the absorption chiller and solar energy is then used to cool / heat the space.

2.3.3

The load loop

Systematic testing, of the PTSC and solar cooling and heating system, requires a load that can
readily be adjusted. This load is provided by a shell-and-tube heat exchanger HX-1 fed with
chilled water or hot water from the campus grids for heating or cooling tests, respectively. The

22

flow of the chilled / heated water is controlled by a valve to achieve a desired set point
temperature and cooling / heating load. Figure 2-7 shows the pictures of the overall system.

The solar collection loop

The load loop

Figure 2-7 Overall solar absorption cooling and heating test system

2.3.4

Instrumentation, control and data acquisition system

For operation of IW solar cooling and heating system, an instrumentation, control and data
acquisition systems has been provided by the Automated Logical Co. (ALC). The ALC control
system collects the measurement data from the operation of the solar collector, the absorption
chiller, heat exchangers and variable load heat exchanger to evaluate the device and the system
performance. The ALC control system is a web-based, BACnet as protocol, control and data
display system. The system can be operated and observed in anywhere of the world through a
standard web browser, without the need for special software on the workstation. This system
works together with two individual control systems from Broad, which are used to operate the
PTSCs and the absorption chiller, respectively as indicated in Figure 2-8. The PTSC control
system and the chiller control system, provided by Broad, are used to operate the devices
separately by different portable control panels and also to communicate and corporate with each

23

other in the solar driven cooling or heating operation. The data collected in both of the Broad
control systems are in a local domain; it is necessary to copy them to a working computer in order
to analyze the data. In addition to operating devices other than the PTSC and the absorption
chiller in the system, the ALC control system also serves as the major data acquisition and data
analysis system.

2.3.4.1 Data acquisition and display

The ALC control software, called the Web Control Server (WebCTRL), is used to program the
system operation control logic, set or change control parameters, and display the system
operation. Figure 2-9 is the graphic interface of WebCTRL designed for the solar thermal system.
The WebCTRL plots and presents historical data in various forms, such as graphics, trends, and
reports. The measurement data can be sampled in any time step from a second to a year.

2.3.4.2 Instrumentation in ALC system

Figure 1-6 shows the process and instrumentation diagram for the solar absorption cooling and
heating system. This figure includes all of components and instrumentation installed in the
system. There were a total of 21 sensors installed in ALC control system including flow rate
sensors, RTD temperature sensors, pressure sensors, and pyrheliometer for direct normal solar
radiation, as listed in Table 2-3.

Figure 2-8 Structure of control system

24

2.3.4.3 Controls for the solar cooling and heating test system
There are three control systems in the test system as addressed before. To integrate two Broad
control systems into the ALC system, third-party integration has to be used so that the PTSC
control and the chiller control can directly communicate with ALC control system through a
standard communication part. However, since this integration requires that Broad open their
private communication protocol to ALC, the control system integration was not implemented.
Therefore an educated operator is required to integrate the operation of the overall system. None
the less, in all of these individual control systems, the control is electronic based, not like
traditional pneumatic or electric controls, with advanced control algorithms making the individual
system operation efficient and reliable.
The control elements for the PTSC system include

Tracking the sun

Startup and shutdown the circulation pump

Startup and shutdown automatically tracking the sun

Defocusing to prevent any hazards

The details of the PTSC control principles are discussed in Appendix 1.

Figure 2-9 Interface of the WebCTRL

25

Others

Temperature
Temperature
flow

The load loop

Pressure

flow

The solar collection loop

Table 2-3 Instrumentation of IW solar cooling and heating system

Label

Sensor location

Range

PTSCs inlet

Mediu
m
HTF

T1

Manufacturer accuracy

T1b

PTSCs inlet

HTF

(-45.5 C) to 260 C

T2

PTSCs outlet

HTF

(-45.5 C) to 260 C

T2b

PTSCs outlet

HTF

(-45.5 C) to 260 C

T17

middle PTSCs

HTF

(-45.5 C) to 260 C

T3

Chiller inlet

HTF

(-45.5 C) to 260 C

T4

Chiller outlet

HTF

(-45.5 C) to 260 C

T15

HX2 inlet

HTF

(-45.5 C) to 260 C

T16

HX2 outlet

HTF

(-45.5 C) to 260 C

F1

PTSCs inlet

HTF

0 to 10 gpm

F2

Chiller inlet

HTF

0 to 10 gpm

P1

middle PTSCs

HTF

0 to 250 psi

P2

PTSCs outlet

HTF

0 to 250 psi

T5

Chiller CHW/HW inlet

water

(-10 C) to 110 C

T6

Chiller CHW/HW outlet

water

(-10 C) to 110 C

T7

HX1 outlet to grids

water

(-45.5 C) to 260 C

T8

HX1 inlet from grids

water

(-45.5 C) to 260 C

F3

Chiller CHW/HW inlet

water

0 to 10 gpm

F4

HX1 outlet to grids

water

0 to 10 gpm

0.2% at 100% flow, 0.1%

at 40% flow

pyrheliometer

IW roof

Irrad.

0 to 1400 W/m2

0.5% of full span

gas meter

Chiller gas inlet

gas

1.4 cfh to 200 cfh

0.8% of full span

(-45.5 C) to 260 C

Sensor: 0.3C at 0 C;
0.8C at 100 C;
1.3 C at 200 C;
Transmitter: 0.1% of span

0.2% at 100% flow, 0.1%

at 40% flow

0.25% of full span

26

0.10% at 25% of span

0.40% others
Sensor: 0.3C at 0 C;
0.8C at 100 C;
1.3 C at 200 C;
Transmitter: 0.1% of span

The control elements for the chiller system are

Startup and shutdown

Chilled water / Hot water temperature control

Cooling water control

Natural gas volume control

Hot source flow control

Three-way valve control

Vacuum maintenance

Crystallization judgment and de-crystallization

Safety and alarm

The details of the chiller control principles can be found in Appendix 2.A. of Hongxi Yins thesis
An Absorption Chiller in a Micro BCHP Application: Model based Design and Performance
Analysis (Yin 2006).
In addition to the controls by above control system, controls in ALC are follows:

Startup and shutdown the circulation pump S-4, S-5

Switch the operation operations: ALC solar collection loop only, Broad solar collection
loop only, Broad solar cooling and heating system, ALC solar heating system

Adjust variable load

Safety and alarm

With the control, instrumentation, and data acquisition systems, the solar absorption cooling and
heating system can be operated to complete various test programs. The performance of the PTSC
and solar thermal system has been investigated, and the results and approaches are addressed in
the following sections.

2.4 The test program

The test program was planned, and then conducted in 37 days from February to September of
2007. The weather conditions for the tests included clear days, mostly sunny days, mostly cloudy
and overcast days in both winter and summer. There were four varieties of tests used to evaluate
the PTSC and the system performance: PTSC tests at transient states, PTSC tests at a steady state,

27

solar absorption cooling/heating tests using the absorption chiller, and solar heating tests using
heat recovery exchanger, HX-2. The operating temperature, operating system, and the number of
days for these tests are listed in Table 2-4.
Table 2-4 Four types of tests conducted
days

Operated
system

HTF temperature
operated ( C)

PTSC test at transient states

10

Solar + HX
Solar + Chiller

10 -180

PTSC test at a steady state

17

Solar + HX
Solar + Chiller

0 - 98 ; 19 - 162

Solar absorption cooling / heating

daily test

16

Solar + Chiller

0 - 164

Solar heating daily test by using heat

exchanger

Solar + HX

0 - 93

Test name

PTSC test at transient states

In this type of the test, the HTF was heated in the PTSCs and circulated through the by pass or
the heat exchanger, HX-2, in the solar collection loop as shown in Figure 2-10. The PTSCs were
operated in a transient state in which the operating temperature of the solar increased with time
due to the solar heat gain. The operation ceased when a critical temperature, the maximum
operating temperature specified by Broad, was reached. The data from this type of test was used
in the determination of the optical efficiency, the heat capacity, and the heat and pressure losses of
the PTSCs and the balance of the system.

Solar
collectors

Solar
collectors

HX2

S5
S1

Figure 2-10 PTSC test diagram at transient state

PTSC test at a steady state

In these tests, as in the transient state tests, the HTF was heated in the PTSCs and circulated
through the by pass or HX-2 at the beginning of test, until the desired elevated temperature was

28

reached. Then the HTF was switched to flow through the absorption chiller or through the heat
recovery exchanger HX-2 and the pump S5.

A building load was simulated by the load

exchanger HX-1 and was adjusted to maintain the solar loop at a near constant operating
temperature, a quasi-steady state. The quasi-steady state refers to the condition of the collector
when the flow rate and inlet fluid temperature are constant, but the exit temperature changes
slightly due to the normal variations in solar irradiance that occur with time for clear sky
conditions. If the steady state became difficult to maintain due to the heat loss of system and the
reduction of solar radiation, the operation was halted. This type of the test, as illustrated in
Figures 2-11 and 2-12, is used to determine the performance of solar collector. The experimental
data collected are presented in Table 2:1 of Appendix 2.

Solar
collectors

HX1

Absorp.
Chiller

S1

Figure 2-11 Solar absorption cooling /heating system daily test

Solar
collectors

HX2

HX1

S5
S4

Figure 2-12 Solar heating daily test by using heat exchanger

Solar absorption cooling / heating daily test

In these tests, when the desired HTF temperature was reached, the HTF was diverted to
absorption chiller to produce chilled water or heated water for space cooling or heating. The

29

simulated building load was modified to maintain the temperature of the chilled water or heated
water from the chiller within a reasonable range by regulating the flow of heated water or chilled
water from the grids of the building flowing through the load exchanger, HX-1, as indicated in
Figure 2-11. Finally, when amount of solar energy supply was no longer adequate to operate the
chiller due to the heat loss of system and the reduction of the direct normal solar radiation, the
HTF was switched back through the by pass.

Solar heating daily test by using heat exchanger

In these tests, the HTF was circulated and heated through HX-2 without running the load pump,
S4 on the cold side of the exchanger until the desired operating temperature was reached. Then
HX-2 was used to provide heat to the load exchanger, HX-1 by operating the load pump, S4. The
simulated building load was modified to maintain the hot water from HX-2 within a reasonable
range by regulating the flow of chilled water flowing on the cold side of the HX-1, as shown in
Figure 2-12. Finally, when amount of solar energy supply was no longer adequate to operate HX2 due to the heat loss of system and the reduction of the direct normal solar radiation, the system
operation was halted.
Overall, the purpose of the solar thermal building cooling/heating test program is to determine

operating conditions such as temperature, flow rate and pressure of the HTF in the
PTSCs and the system in various situations.

the characteristics of the PTSCs: their optical and overall efficiencies, heat capacity, heat
and pressure losses over a range of operating conditions.

the performance of the absorption chiller: its capacity and COP for both cooling and
heating, depending on the operating conditions.

the time required for the PTSCs and the system to reach a desired operating temperature.

the characteristics of system, such as heat capacity and heat and pressure losses

the potential of solar thermal energy for space cooling/heating in a building.

the choice between the chiller and the heat recovery exchanger HX-2 as representing the
most effective system for heating.

possible design and operational measures for improving the performance of the PTSCs,
the chiller, and the overall solar thermal cooling/heating system.

techniques for the design of such systems for optimal, economic performance.

30

The data acquisition system gathered the data of direct normal solar radiation, temperature,
pressure, and flow rate throughout the system. Samples of the gathered data for use in analyzing
the performance of the PTSCs and the solar building cooling/heating system follow.

2.4.1

The results of PTSC test at the transient states

The PTSC tests at transient conditions were conducted by focusing the PTSCs, heating the HTF
to a desired temperature without rejecting heat, and then defocusing the PTSC allowing the HTF
temperature to drop. This process has been repeated under various flow rates, starting times
during a day, and ambient temperatures.
Experimental data from a test on 29 March 07, typical T-t and Q-t charts, are shown in Figure 213 and 2-14. These charts show that the HTF temperature was nearly uniform in the solar
collection loop during the heating period. In addition, after the PTSC was defocused, the HTF at
the outlet of the PTSC was lower than one at the inlet due to the heat losses from the receiver to
the surroundings.
In Figure 2-14, the fluctuated solar energy flow impinging on the solar collector indicated effects
of clouds. The energy collected by solar receivers is about 10% of solar energy impinging on the
solar collector because under transient state operation, significant of solar energy is transferred to
HTF, piping and fittings and what delivered is small.
180.00
160.00

Temperature in C

140.00
120.00
100.00
T_sr_in

80.00
60.00

T_sr_out

40.00
20.00

9:
30
9:
50
10
:1
0
10
:3
0
10
:5
0
11
:1
0
11
:3
0
11
:5
0
12
:1
0
12
:3
0
12
:5
0
13
:1
0
13
:3
0
13
:5
0
14
:1
0
14
:3
0
14
:5
0
15
:1
0
15
:3
0
15
:5
0
16
:1
0
16
:3
0
16
:5
0
17
:1
0
17
:3
0

0.00

Local time on Mar.29, 2007

Figure 2-13 Operating temperatures of the PTSC test at transient state on 29 March 07

31

55.00
50.00

Idn*Aa*cos(theta)

45.00

Power rate in kW

40.00
35.00
30.00
25.00
20.00
15.00
10.00

Q_solar_delivery

5.00
0.00
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
9:3 9:5 10:1 10:3 10:5 11:1 11:3 11:5 12:1 12:3 12:5 13:1 13:3 13:5 14:1 14:3 14:5 15:1 15:3 15:5 16:1 16:3 16:5 17:1 17:3

Time on Mar.29,2007

Figure 2-14 Energy flows of the PTSC test at the transient state on 29 March 07

2.4.1.1 System heat capacity test

The PTSCs heat capacity determines the amount of energy and thus the time required to raise the
temperature of the HTF circulating through the system to a desired operating value during the
system warm up. Since thermal losses can confound measurements of the PTSCs thermal
capacity, a special test was performed under conditions that minimize such losses.
The test used chilled water and heated water from campus grids: the PTSCs are not focused.
First, the HTF was circulated through the heat recovery exchanger, HX-2, in the solar collection
loop and cooled by rejecting heat to chilled water from grid through the cold side of the test load
exchanger, HX-1, until its temperature was lowered to a value 5 - 15 C below the ambient
temperature. Next, a stream through of heated water from the building grid replaced the chilled
water circulating through HX-1. The HTF was heated by this source until its temperature reached
a value 5 - 15 C higher than ambient temperature. The test was then halted. It was assumed that
the net exchange of heat between the system and the ambient surroundings in these two process
steps was nil.

The heat capacity of the system was calculated by dividing the total heat

transferred from and to the HTF in HX-2 in these two process cooling and heating steps by the
difference between the maximum and minimum HTF temperatures. The test basically included
two processes: cooling and heating. The system heat capacity was also calculated from the
masses and specific heats of the PTSCs, the exchanger, the pipe, and the HTF fluid they contain.

32

Table 2-5 shows good agreement between the measured and the calculated values of the total heat
capacity of the system.
Table 2-5 Heat capacity of the solar collection loop
Test #

Tambient
( C)

Measured heat
capacity (kJ/C)

25.5

697

24

711

28

576

25

611

2.4.2

Calculated heat
capacity (kJ/C)

576~629

The results of PTSC test at a steady state

The PTSC tests were performed only on clear days when the direct normal solar radiation was
greater than 630 W/m2, and its variability was less than 4% throughout the tests. Since wind
velocity greatly impacts the convective heat loss from the PTSCs, all of performance tests were
performed with wind speed less than 4.5 m/s. Turbulent flow was maintained within the absorber
pipe to ensure good heat transfer between the fluid and the pipe. In the various tests, either the
absorption chiller or the heat recovery exchanger, HX-2, were involved. The operating
temperatures of HX-2; the pump, S4; and the temperature sensors T5 and T6 are limited to those
lower than 107 C. To test higher operating temperature in the PTSCs, the absorption chiller was
used. The PTSC tests have been conducted in 17 clear days in the period February to July 2007.
The ranges of operation conditions are listed in Table 2-6.
Figure 2-15 and 2-16 are the experimental temperature-time, and energy rate-time data from a
typical PTSC performance test at a steady state on 22 April 07. The plots show the temperatures
at the inlet and outlet of the PTSCs and the two heat exchangers, HX-2 and HX-1. The time step
for the measurements was 1.0 minute. During the test period, three quasi steady states were
established for which the PTSC performance was calculated.
Table 2-6 Operating condition in the PTSC performance tests
Tambient
( C)

Wind
(m/s)

Tinlet
( C)

FRsolarloop
(gpm)

Reynolds
Number

Incident
angle

Direct Normal solar

irradiation (W/m2)

-2.5 ~ 29.28

0.42 ~ 3.23

41.5 ~ 151.2

5.6 ~ 8.4

6541~49979

3 ~56

651 ~ 997

33

110.00
100.00
90.00
T_sr_out

Temperature in C

80.00

T_HX2_cs_

70.00

T_sr_in

60.00

T_HX2_cs_

50.00
T_HX1_cs_ou

40.00
30.00
20.00

T_HX1_cs_

10.00

0
:1

:3
17

17

16

:5

:3
16

0
:5

:1
16

15

15

:3

:1
15

0
:3

:5
14

14

0
:1

14

13

:5

:3

:1
13

13

0
:5

12

:3
12

:1
12

0
:3

:5
11

11

0
:1

11

:5
10

:3
10

50

:1

10

9:

9:

30

0.00

Local time on Apr.22, 2007

Figure 2-15 Operating temperatures of the PTSC test at steady state on 22 April 07
60.00
55.00
50.00

Power rate in kW

45.00
Idn*Aa*cos(theta)

40.00
35.00
30.00
Q_HX2_hs

25.00

Q_useful_solar

20.00
15.00
Q_HX2_cs

10.00
5.00
0.00

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
9:3 9:5 10:1 10:3 10:5 11:1 11:3 11:5 12:1 12:3 12:5 13:1 13:3 13:5 14:1 14:3 14:5 15:1 15:3 15:5 16:1 16:3 16:5 17:1 17:3

Time on Apr.22 ,2007

Figure 2-16 Energy flows of the PTSC test at steady state on 22 April 07

2.4.3

The results of solar absorption cooling / heating daily test

Solar tests with the absorption chiller, cooling/heating, were conducted during clear or mostly
clear days in Pittsburgh throughout a year. The operation proceeded normally from morning
startup to shutdown in the evening or until terminated by the appearance of clouds. The
experimental data from these cooling/heating tests were used to characterize the PTSCs, the
absorption chiller, and the overall system.

This performance information is the key in

34

determining the overall effectiveness of the solar system in providing cooling and heating for the
building throughout a year.

2.4.3.1 Solar absorption cooling daily test

Solar cooling tests with the absorption chiller have been performed in thirteen days from June to
August 2007. The weather conditions changed rapidly during this period, and it was difficult to
achieve stable direct normal solar radiation throughout a day. The HTF, 50% propylene glycol
water solution, was heated through the by-pass in the solar receives and circulated through the
Regenerator of the absorption chiller to produce the chilled water that is, in turn, circulated to the
load test heat exchanger.
In the solar absorption cooling tests, following procedures were used to operate the system:
1. Start up the PTSC by operating it in linkage operation mode; the PTSC automatically
tracks the sun
2. Start up the absorption chiller driven by natural gas
3. Heat the HTF and circulate it through by-pass in the solar collection loop
4. Transfer the chiller operation from gas to HTF, when the HTF reaches the operating
temperature required by the chiller. Shut down the gas burner; open the three-valve, so
the HTF flows through the Regenerator of the chiller to produce the chilled water
5.

Defocused the PTSCs by adjusting the initial angle to reduce the amount of the collected
solar energy, if the solar energy is in excess. If the solar energy is not adequate for
requirement to operate the chiller at full capacity, adjust the flow rate of cold side of heat
exchanger HX-1, so that the hot source from solar can still be sufficient to support the
partial capacity operation of the chiller.

6. If the solar energy is not enough for the chillers requirement, turn on the gas burner and
stop the HTF flow through the chiller and by pass it through the three way valve back to
the solar collection loop.
7. Shut down the PTSCs and the absorption chiller
The experimental data show that it take about three hours or more to heat the system and its HTF
from the ambient temperature to 160 C, the temperature at which the absorption chiller is
programmed to switch from natural gas to solar energy. The absorption chiller operated about
four hours a day on the available solar energy during a sunny day in Pittsburgh. After 16:30, the
solar collector could not provide HTF at a temperature high enough to operate absorption chiller

35

efficiently. The HTF loop from the solar field then bypassed the absorption chiller, and the natural
gas burner would be used to drive the chiller.
Experiments in three of thirteen days provided reasonable data on system performance for solar
cooling. Figure 2-17 through 2-18 show system temperatures and heat quantities for cooling
operation throughout two days in July 2007. They indicate the operational process: the HTF was
heated up from time to time; when the temperature desired by the chiller is reached, the HTF was
diverted through chiller; adjust the heated water flow in the cold side of HX-1 to remove heat.
Figure 2-17 and 2-18 show throughout a day, the measured temperatures of the HTF at the exit of
the PTSCs and at the inlet and outlet of the chiller and also of the chilled water at the inlet and
outlet of the chiller. The rapid rise of the temperatures of the HTF at the chiller inlet and outlet
was the result of the three way valve opening to admit the HTF to the chiller when its temperature
exceeds 160C. Prior to this time, the chiller was heated by the flow of natural gas to the
regenerator.
Figure 2-19 and 2-20 show the corresponding calculated heat quantities:

the solar input; the product of direct normal solar irradiation from pyrheliometer
measurements, actual aperture surface area, and the cosine of the incident angle

the delivered thermal energy to the chiller: the product of the HTF flow and the
temperature difference over the chiller.

the cooling capacity provided by the chiller: the product of the chilled water flow and the
temperature difference over the chiller.

As indicated by these figures, energy delivered by solar receiver was larger than the energy used
by chiller at the beginning of the chiller operation while the relation between them was reversed
in the later afternoon. When the HTF was operated at 150 ~ 160 C, the overall solar efficiency of
the PTSCs was approximately 33% to 37%. The COP of the installed absorption chiller was in
the range 1.0 to 1.2. The solar COP of the overall installed solar cooling system, the product of
the COP of absorption chiller and the solar collector efficiency, was therefore about 0.33 to 0.44.
The maximum capacity of the absorption chiller was 12 kW. One of the reasons for this capacity,
significantly lower than the chillers design capacity of 16 kW, was related to rate of heat transfer
between HTF and LiBr solution. Rate of heat transfer depends on the temperature of HTF and
heat transfer coefficient of area. Chiller capacity was limited by the operating temperature of
HTF, which was about 150 ~ 160 C. To get full chiller capacity, higher temperature of HTF is

36

required. Another reason is the weather conditions in Pittsburgh. Since it was very humid, the
direct normal solar radiation was not high, typically about 600~900 W/m2.
170.00
T_chiller_HTF_in

160.00
150.00
140.00

T_chiller_HTF_out

130.00

Temperature in C

120.00
110.00
100.00
90.00

T_sr_out

80.00
70.00
60.00
50.00
40.00
30.00

T_chiller_CHW_return

20.00
10.00

T_chiller_CHW_supply

40
10
:0
0
10
:2
0
10
:4
0
11
:0
0
11
:2
0
11
:4
0
12
:0
0
12
:2
0
12
:4
0
13
:0
0
13
:2
0
13
:4
0
14
:0
0
14
:2
0
14
:4
0
15
:0
0
15
:2
0
15
:4
0
16
:0
0
16
:2
0
16
:4
0
17
:0
0

9:
20

9:

40
8:

9:

00

0.00

Local time on Jul.31, 2007

Figure 2-17 Operating temperatures of solar cooling test on 31 July 07

170.00
T_chiller_HTF_in

160.00
150.00
140.00
130.00

T_chiller_HTF_out

110.00
100.00

T_sr_out

90.00
80.00
70.00
60.00
50.00
40.00
30.00

T_chiller_CHW_return

20.00
10.00

T_chiller_CHW_supply

10
:0
0
10
:2
0
10
:4
0
11
:0
0
11
:2
0
11
:4
0
12
:0
0
12
:2
0
12
:4
0
13
:0
0
13
:2
0
13
:4
0
14
:0
0
14
:2
0
14
:4
0
15
:0
0
15
:2
0
15
:4
0
16
:0
0
16
:2
0
16
:4
0
17
:0
0
17
:2
0

0
9:
4

0.00
9:
2

Temperature in C

120.00

Local time on Jul.16, 2007

Figure 2-18 Operating temperatures of solar cooling test on 16 July 07

37

55.00
50.00
45.00

Power rate in kW

40.00

IDN*Aa*cos()

35.00
30.00
25.00
20.00
15.00

Q_chiller_cooling

10.00

Q_solar_delivered

5.00
Q_chiller_solarinput

0.00
8:4

9:0

9: 2

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
9:4 10:0 10:2 10:4 11:0 11:2 11:4 12:0 12:2 12:4 13:0 13:2 13:4 14:0 14:2 14:4 15:0 15:2 15:4 16:0 16:2 16:4 17:0

Local time on Jul.31, 2007

Figure 2-19 Cooling capacity of solar cooling system on 31 July 07

55.00
50.00
Idn*Aa*cos()

45.00

Power rate in kW

40.00
35.00
30.00
25.00
20.00
15.00

Q_chiller_cooling

10.00
Q_solar_delivered

5.00

Q_chiller_solarinput

0.00
9: 2

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
9:4 10:0 10:2 10:4 11:0 11:2 11:4 12:0 12:2 12:4 13:0 13:2 13:4 14:0 14:2 14:4 15:0 15:2 15:4 16:0 16:2 16:4 17:0 17:2

Local time on Jul.16, 2007

Figure 2-20 Cooling capacity of solar cooling system on 16 July 07

2.4.3.2 Solar absorption heating daily test

Solar heating tests using the absorption chiller have been carried out in three sunny cold days
from February to April 2007, during which weather was still cold, about 0 C. Following the
procedure outlined for the solar absorption cooling tests, the HTF, the propylene glycol solution,
was heated in the PTSCs, circulated through the Regenerator of absorption chiller and then
returned to the PTSCs.

38

150.00
T_chiller_HTF_in

140.00
130.00

T_chiller_HFT_out

120.00

Temperature in C

110.00
100.00

T_sr_out

90.00
80.00
70.00
60.00
50.00

T_chiller_HW_supply

40.00
30.00

T_chiller_HW_return

20.00
10.00

9:
40
10
:0
0
10
:2
0
10
:4
0
11
:0
0
11
:2
0
11
:4
0
12
:0
0
12
:2
0
12
:4
0
13
:0
0
13
:2
0
13
:4
0
14
:0
0
14
:2
0
14
:4
0
15
:0
0
15
:2
0
15
:4
0
16
:0
0
16
:2
0
16
:4
0

9:
2

9:
0

8:
4

0.00

Local time on Mar.09, 2007

Figure 2-21 Operating temperatures of solar absorption heating test on 9 March 07

55.00
50.00

IDN*Aa*cos()

45.00

Power rate in kW

40.00
35.00
30.00
25.00
20.00

Q_chiller_heating

15.00
10.00
Q_solar_delivered

5.00
0.00

Q_chiller_solarinput

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
8:4 9:0 9:2 9:4 10:0 10:2 10:4 11:0 11:2 11:4 12:0 12:2 12:4 13:0 13:2 13:4 14:0 14:2 14:4 15:0 15:2 15:4 16:0 16:2 16:4

Local time on Mar.09, 2007

Figure 2-22 Heating capacity of solar absorption heating system on 9 March 07

The heated water produced in the Evaporator of the chiller was circulated to the load test heat
exchanger, HX-1.
In order to ensure good heat transfer in the solar collectors, especially during the cold weather,
calculations were carried out to determine the flow rate to achieve turbulent flow; the results are
presented in Table 2:2 of Appendix 2. Similar to the curves presented above for cooling with the
solar absorption chiller, Figure 2-21 and 2-22 show the measured temperature and heat flow
quantities throughout the day for 9 March 2007. Figure 2-21 indicated that there is large
temperature difference between HTF source and hot water generated by chiller. That is more loses
during heat transfer from HTF to LiBr solution. This high temperature difference is due to the
boiling point elevation of LiBr solution. The charts show that the heat delivered by the system

39

was about 12 kW, when the hot water was produced by the chiller at 37 oC, some 20 C lower
than the rated supply temperature, 57 C. If hot water was produced at 52 oC by increasing the
entering temperature to 50 oC, some 15-18 kW energy input was required; the heating efficiency
was significantly reduced, about 0.38. Reasons for this reduced heat efficiency of the absorption
chiller may be the increased thermal losses to the surroundings during the condensation process in
the Evaporator and direct absorption of water vapor produced in the Regenerator by LiBr solution
in the Evaporator.

2.4.4

The results of solar heating daily test by using heat exchanger

Solar heating tests making use of the heat recovery exchanger HX-2 have been carried out in
three sunny, cold days from February to April 2007. Experimental data have been obtained to
compare the system performance in solar heating using either the absorption chiller with the HTF
at 140oC, as reported above, or the heat recovery exchanger with the HTF at 68 oC
The operation process of solar heating daily tests by using HX was as follows:
1. Start up the PTSC by operating it in the automated operation mode; the PTSC
automatically tracks the sun.
2. Heat and circulate the HTF through HX-2 in the solar collection loop without running the
load loop pump.
3. When the HTF reaches the temperature required by heating demands, turn on the load
loop pump, so that the heat exchanger starts to generate hot water for load.
4. Reject heat from HX-2 through hot water circulated to HX-1; the flow rate of chilled
water at the cold side of HX-1 is adjusted to insure the hot water generated by HX-2
balance the solar energy captured.
5. When the solar energy is not adequate for heating devices requirement, defocus the
PTSC shut down the load loop pump S-4.
Figure 2-23 and 2-24 are the experimental results of a solar heating daily test using HX-2 on 2
March 2007. As shown in Figure 2-23, HTF flow through the heat exchanger was initiated when
the outlet temperature of the collectors reached 90C; this temperature dropped to 68C and
remained stable as heat was delivered to the water streams flowing through the heat exchangers;
The temperature difference between HTF source and hot water generated by chiller is much less,
so that less heat lost during heat transfer between the HTF and LiBr solution.

40

100.00
90.00
80.00

Temperature in C

70.00
60.00

T_HTF_HX_i
n
T_sr_out

T_HX_HW_out

50.00

T_HTF_HX_out

40.00

T_HX_HW_in

30.00
20.00
10.00

9:
30
9:
50
10
:1
0
10
:3
0
10
:5
0
11
:1
0
11
:3
0
11
:5
0
12
:1
0
12
:3
0
12
:5
0
13
:1
0
13
:3
0
13
:5
0
14
:1
0
14
:3
0
14
:5
0
15
:1
0
15
:3
0
15
:5
0
16
:1
0
16
:3
0
16
:5
0
17
:1
0
17
:3
0

0.00

Local time on Mar.02, 2007

Figure 2-23 Operating temperatures of HX based solar heating system on 2 March 07

55.00
50.00

Idn*Aa*cos()

45.00

Power rate in kW

40.00
35.00
30.00
25.00
20.00

Q_solar_delivered
Q_HX_solarinput
Q_HX_heating

15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
9:3 9:5 10:1 10:3 10:5 11:1 11:3 11:5 12:1 12:3 12:5 13:1 13:3 13:5 14:1 14:3 14:5 15:1 15:3 15:5 16:1 16:3 16:5 17:1 17:3

Local time on Mar.02,2007

Figure 2-24 Heating Capacity of HX based solar heating system on 2 March 07

A comparison of solar heating using an absorption chiller or a heat recovery exchanger, based on
the tests, presented in Table 2-7, shows clearly that a heat recovery exchanger is more effective.
Table 2-7 Heating system performance comparison between HX based and absorption chiller based

Q_useful (kW)
Operation hours (hrs/day) in March
Storage is possible

Solar + HX heating

Solar + absorption chiller heating

16 ~29

15~19

yes

not quite

41

Use of the exchanger avoids the large temperature difference between the HTF and the heated
water in the absorption chiller. And it allows the collectors to be operated at a lower temperature,
thus reducing heat losses from the system.

2.5 The interpretation of PTSC performance data

The experimental data obtained from the Broad PTSCs were analyzed by inserting them in the
overall energy balance equation for these receivers. Statistical regressions were performed to
identify their constant optical efficiency, their heat loss dependent on the operating temperature,
and their heat capacity based on measurements obtained during periods of changing temperature.

2.5.1

The energy balance of the PTSC

Due to the losses in the transmission and reflection of radiation and in the conduction,
convection, and radiation of heat, the PTSCs are not able to convert all of the incident solar
radiation into the thermal energy of the flowing medium. If the PTSC is selected as a control
volume, the energy balance of the PTSC is indicated in Equation 2-1. The first term in the
equation is the total solar energy absorbed by the receiver tube of the PTSC; the second term is
the useful energy delivered by the HTF to outside of the PTSC; the third term is the thermal loss
from the PTSC to the surroundings; the right side of the equal sign is the energy used to heat the
receiver pipe of the PTSC and the HTF inside of the receiver pipe.

I DN * Aa * cos( ) * IAM * + m& * (C p _ inTin C p _ outTout ) Qloss _ PTSC = M _ cv1C p _ cv1

(Tin + Tout )
2
dt

Equation 2-1

Where,
IDN = direct normal solar radiation
Aa = aperture area of the solar trough
= incident angle, degree
IAM= incident angle modifier, addressed in Chapter 3
= optical efficiency, the fraction of the incident solar energy absorbed by the receiver tube
of the PTC; this fraction is related to the reflectance of the reflector mirror, the absorptivity

42

and transmittance of the glass envelope, the absorptivity of the coating of the absorber pipe,
the tracking error, and other optical errors

m& = HTF flow rate through the PTSCs

C p _ out , C p _ in = specific heat of HTF at the outlet, inlet of the PTSCs

Tout , Tin = HTF temperature at the outlet, inlet of the PTSCs
M _ cv1 = mass of the fluid, receiver pipe, and fitting in the PTSCs
C p _ cv1 = specific heat of the fluid, receiver pipe, and fitting in the PTSCs
d

(Tin + Tout )
2
= the average rate of temperature change of the HTF, receiver pipe, and fitting in
dt

the PTSCs
Qloss_PTSC = thermal losses from the PTSCs to the surroundings
When the PTSC is operated at a steady state, no heat is stored in the control volume; the right side
of the equal sign of Equation 2-1 is equal to zero. Solar collector efficiency can be defined by the
Equation 2-2.

m& * (C p _ out Tout C p _ in Tin )

Equation 2-2

I DN * Aa * cos( ) * IAM
T
= *
I DN

Equation 2-3

T
T 2
= *
*
I DN
I DN

Equation 2-4

where,
= optical efficiency
= coefficient of the first order

43

 = coefficient of the second order

T = average operating temperature above the ambient temperature
Empirical relations are frequently provided for the of PTSCs based on their optical efficiency,
, and their heat loss dependent on their operating temperature. Such equations are shown in
Equations 2-3, based on a linear relation of heat loss with temperature, on Equation 2-4 using a
second order relation. Actually the heat losses by conduction and convection from the PTSCs are
expected to be linear with the operating temperature; but the heat loss by radiation to the
surroundings, proportional to the fourth power of the operating temperature.

2.5.2

The selection of experimental data

Based on the experimental data from the PTSC tests at steady state conditions, the statistical
method was used to correlate the performance of the PTSCs. First, 55 steady state data sets were
selected from the 1800 collected during the 15 day tests. Second, the mean values of the
experimental data were calculated based on all of single data collected per minute in each of these
steady state sets. Third, the system energy balances were checked by using the calculated 55
steady state data sets. The results showed that the measurements were in reasonable agreement
with the energy balances, taking into account the sensor accuracy and the impacts on energy of
other devices such as the pumps. Fourth, the mean values of experimental data were introduced
into the statistical tool to generate the correlation of the calculated values by using multiple
regressions.

2.5.3

PTSC performance predicted by statistic tool

According to the rule of thumb for multiple regressions, the size of the data sample must be at
least 20 times as many cases as independent variables. In the PTSC efficiency multiple regression
of Equation 2-3, there are two independent variables: I DN * cos( ) and (Tin + Tout )/2 - Tam , so 55
data sets are sufficient to determine the performance of the PTSC. The data were analyzed and
performed the multiple-regression in MINITAB commercial statistics software. Figure

2-25

shows that the energy transferred to the HTF has a good linear relation with the total solar energy
impinging on the reflector trough. In addition, Figure 2-26 shows that the solar energy transferred
to the HTF also can be represented by a linear relation with the average operation temperature
above the ambient. Two clouds in Figure 2-26 are due to the limitation of two system
configurations: absorption chiller system and heat exchanger system. The heat exchanger system

44

only permits the HTF operated under 100C due to the requirement of instrumentation and
equipment. The absorption chiller can insure a steady state operation of solar receiver only when
the HTF is greater than 125C. Combination of these two linear relationships, the PTSC
efficiency was determined by a multiple regression as indicated in Equation 2-5. The optical
efficiency, , is 0.634 and the linear coefficient of thermal losses, , is 1.4 W/oC m2.

= 0.634 - 1.4

(Tin + Tout )/2 - Tam

I DN * cos( )

Equation 2-5

Scatterplot of mcp(Tout-Tin) vs I*Aa*cos()*IAM (kW)

35

mcp(Tout-Tin)

30
25
20
15
10
5
25

30

35
40
45
I*Aa*cos()*IAM (kW)

50

55

Figure 2-25 Scatter plot of I*Aa*cos(theta) and m*(Cpo*To-Cpi*Ti)

Scatterplot of mcp(Tout-Tin) vs Average Operated temp. [C]

35

mcp(Tout-Tin)

30
25
20
15
10
5
50

75
100
Average Operated temp. [C]

125

150

Figure 2-26 Scatter plot of average operation temperature and m*(Cpo*To-Cpi*Ti)

45

In addition, multiple-regression was also implemented to consider the second order solar collector
efficiency Equation 2-4; however, the results showed considerable experimental scatter. The
major reason for this scatter may be the fact that the actual thermal loss from radiation is
proportional to the fourth power differences of the operation temperature and the sky temperature
rather than the second power.

2.6 Discussion of test program

The solar PTSC - absorption chiller based cooling and heating system has been evaluated in four
types of test as shown in Table 2-4. The system heat capacity was determined by tests at a trsiant
state. The PTSC performance was determined by tests at a steady state. The simplified solar
collector efficiency equation was defined in the form of a linear relation with the operation
temperature of the PTSC. The optical efficiency, , was estimated by data to be 0.64. This optical
efficiency is related to the reflectance and cleanliness of the reflector, optical error, tracking error,
transmittance and absorptivity of glass, and the absorptivity of the absorber pipe coating. The
coefficient, , in the empirical equation for the PTSC overall efficiency, Equation 2-5, was
estimated by data to be 1.4 W/oC m2.
Experimental data shows that the solar thermal system normally takes about three to four hours to
heat the system to 160 oC, the nominal operating temperature of the absorption chiller. The
overall system has a high heat capacity. This heat capacity consumes much useful solar energy
and prolongs the warm up period before solar energy is available to be used by the absorption
chiller or the heat recovery exchanger. Design approaches and operational methods for reducing
the heat capacity of the system and the warm up period have been devised and are discussed in
later chapters.
The basic performance of the installed absorption chiller has been studied. In the cooling cycle,
the full rated capacity of the absorption chiller is about 12 kW with a COP of 1.0 1.2. Its
heating capacity, however, is low, about 4 5 kW: and the heating efficiency is about 0.38. Solar
heating using a heat recovery exchanger, rather than an absorption chiller, is recommended
because it has higher solar energy utilization, a shorter solar time for warm up, and a greater
efficiency.

46

Solar collector performance model

In the previous chapter, the solar collector performance tests, measurements, and calculation were
described. This chapter deals with the overall modeling of the extent to which solar energy is
captured and delivered as thermal energy to the flow of a HTF in a PTSC. This overall
comprehensive performance model will refine the understanding of the principles of the PTSC,
analyze the experimental data from the test program, assist in the PTSC design, and evaluate the
system performance of the solar cooling and heating system.
The first element of the PTSC model in front section of this chapter deals with the solar energy
that reaches the PTSCs reflector, that is directed to the absorber pipe and that is transferred to the
HTF. This PTSC model is based on the basic energy balance relations for the absorber pipe and
the glass envelope together with heat transfer correlations among them and the surroundings. This
PTSC model considers the effects of direct normal solar radiation, incident angle, receiver
configuration, fluid thermodynamic properties, ambient conditions and operating conditions on
the performance of the collector. The model has already been used to size system devices, to
choose proper operating conditions, and to detect possible operating problems. For the
manufacturer of the solar collector, it can be used to improve design of the PTSC; and it can be
used to optimize system operation and control for the solar cooling and heating system.
The second section of this chapter deals with the extent to which the available solar energy
reaches the PTSC reflector and is directed to the absorber pipe. It is useful in the design and
installation of the PTSCs.

3.1 PTSC model assumption

In modeling the PTSC, a number of assumptions have been made to provide a foundation without
obscuring the physical situation. These important assumptions are:

the PTSC is operated at steady-state condition (SS); there is no net heat stored in control
volume.

there is a negligible temperature increase along the length of the PTSC: a one
dimensional model.

the sky is a blackbody for long wave length radiation at an equivalent sky temperature.

the temperature gradients around the absorber pipe and the glass envelope are negligible.

the shading effect of the absorber pipe on the reflector is negligible.

47

the dust and dirt on the PTSC are negligible.

3.2 Energy balance analysis

Incident solar energy on the solar collector is distributed among useful energy gain, optical losses,
and thermal losses. The optical losses are caused by the shadows, the reflector reflectance, the
reflectance and the absorption of the glass envelope, the reflectance and the emission of the
absorber pipe, errors from tracking, errors from focusing, and errors from the alignment as well.
Coefficients are introduced in the model to represent each of these optical losses. The thermal
losses are the result of conduction, convection and radiation heat transfer to the surroundings. The
PTSC model that has been developed is based on energy balance relations for the absorber pipe
and the glass envelope together with heat transfer correlations for the various the energy streams
among them and the surroundings, as shown in Figure 3-1.

Conduction,
convection &
radiation between
absorber pipe and
the glass envelope

Heat conducted to
supporting bracket

q& a' _ connection

Heat radiated
from the glass
envelope to the
sky q& '

Heat
transferred to
the fluid &

Heat convected from

the glass envelope to
the ambient air
'
q&conv
_ g _ air

qconv _ f

Absorbed by
absorber
pipe q& '

rad _ g _ sky

Reflected by
absorber pipe

Abs _ a

Transmitted
q& 'Tra _ g
Reflected by glass
envelope q& '

Absorbed by glass
tube q& '

ref _ g

Abs _ g

Focused direct normal

solar radiation q'
&
Focs

Figure 3-1 Energy flow in the PTSC

As the PTSC tracks the altitude of the sun, only direct normal solar radiation is focused to the
PTSC by the parabolic trough mirror. The diffuse solar radiation is reflected away from the focal
line by the parabolic mirror and lost in the sky.
The direct normal solar radiation reflected and focused by the parabolic trough reflector impinges
on the outer glass envelope surface. This direct solar radiation is attenuated by the reflectance, r,

48

of the parabolic trough mirror and by the absorber pipe interception factor, R, due to optical
errors in tracking, focusing, and alignment, so not all of solar energy reaches the absorber pipe.
Only a small portion of the direct solar radiation is absorbed by the glass envelope, q& 'abs _ g of
Equation 3-2; a small portion is reflected by the glass envelope, q& 'ref _ g of Equation 3-3; the larger
portion is transmitted through the glass envelope, q& 'tra _ g in Equation 3-4 and Figure 3-1. After
the transmitted solar radiation impinges on the absorber pipe, most of it is absorbed, q& 'abs _ a , of
Equation 3-5. Little of it is reflected back to the glass envelope. This reflected radiation is
considered negligible. As the solar radiation continues, the absorber pipe is heated at an elevated
temperature. This temperature induces heat transfer to the fluid flowing in the pipe, to the glass
envelope, and in turn to the surrounding environment. Figure 3-1 also indicates three major
thermal losses of the PTSC to the surrounding environment: conduction from the absorber pipe to
the supporting structure, convection from the glass envelope to the ambient air, and radiation
from the glass envelope to the sky.
There are two independent control volumes in the PTSC: the glass envelope and the absorber
pipe. For the control volume of the glass envelope, the energy balance is presented in Equation 36, and for the control volume of the absorber pipe, the energy balance is presented in Equation 37.
I DN * r * R * IAM * Aa
L

q& ' focs =

Equation 3-1

q& 'abs _ g = q& ' focs * g

Equation 3-2

q& 'ref _ g = q& ' focs *Rg

Equation 3-3

q& 'tra _ g = q& ' focs * g

Equation 3-4

q& 'abs _ a = q& 'tra _ g * a

Equation 3-5

'
&'
&'
&'
&'
q& abs
_ g + q rad _ a _ g + qconv _ a _ g = q rad _ g _ sky + qconv _ g _ air

Equation 3-6

'
&'
&'
&'
&'
q& abs
_ a = q rad _ a _ g + q conv _ a _ g + q conv _ a _ fluid + q a _ connection

Equation 3-7

q& ' *L * dt
A I dt

Equation 3-8

dn

49

q& 'u = q& ' Abs q& 'thermoloss

Equation 3-9

q& ' Abs = q& 'abs _ a + q& 'abs _ g

Equation 3-10

'
'
&'
&'
q&Thermoloss
= q&rad
_ g _ sky + qconv _ g _ air + qa _ connection

Equation 3-11

Where,
Idn = direct normal solar radiation, [W/m2]
r = reflector mirrors reflectance, dimensionless
R = absorber interception factor, dimensionless
IAM = incident angle modifier, addressed in late text, dimension less
Aa = aperture surface of the PTSC, m2
L = length of the PTSC, m

= glass envelope absorptivity, dimensionless

= glass envelope transmittance, dimensionless

Rg = glass envelope reflectance, dimensionless

a = absorber pipe absorptivity, dimensionless

& focs
q'

= direct solar radiation hit on the outer glass envelope surface, [W/m]

q& 'abs _ g = solar radiation absorbed by glass envelope, [W/m]

q& 'ref _ g = solar radiation reflected by glass envelope, [W/m]

q& 'tra _ g = solar radiation transmitted through glass envelope, [W/m]

50

q& 'abs _ a = solar radiation absorbed by absorber pipe, [W/m]

'
= radiation heat transfer between the absorber pipe and the glass envelope, [W/m]
q& rad
_a_g

'
q&conv
_a_g

= convection heat transfer between the absorber pipe and the glass envelope, [W/m]

'
= radiation heat transfer from the glass envelope to the sky, [W/m]
q& rad
_ g _ sky

'
= convection heat transfer from the glass envelope to the ambient air, [W/m]
q&conv
_ g _ air

'
= convection heat transfer from the absorber pipe to the fluid, [W/m]
q&conv
_ a _ fluid

q&a' _ connection = heat transfer through the connection structure, [W/m]

& Abs =
q'

direct solar radiation absorbed by the PTSC, [W/m]

& u = useful solar energy delivered by the PTSC, [W/m]

q'

& Thermoloss = heat losses from the to the surrounding environment, [W/m]
q'

The efficiency of the PTSC is the ratio between the useful solar gain and the direct normal
incident solar energy on the aperture area over a given time period, as indicated in Equation 3-8.
The useful solar gain equals the captured solar energy less the total thermal losses, as indicated in
Equation 3-9. The captured solar energy q'
& abs can be calculated on Equation by 3-10; and the total
thermal loss, q'& thermoloss , is calculated by Equation 3-11.

3.3 Heat transfer analysis

Although a comprehensive heat transfer analysis on the PTSC is a complicated problem, a
relatively simple heat transfer analyses can yield very useful results. The simplified heat transfer
network of the PTSC employed in the model is illustrated in Figure 3-2.

51

Ra_connection
Rconv
Rconv

R cond

Ta

Tf
Fluid

Tair,sky
Rcond_g

a g

Rconv_g_air
Tair

Ta

Tg_i
Rrad

Absorber pipe

Tg_o

a g

Tsky
Rrad_g_sky

Glass envelope

Figure 3-2 The thermal network

Where,
Rconv_f =Convective resistance in the fluid,[C. m2/W]
Rcond_a =Conductive resistance of the absorber pipe, [C. m2/W]
Ra_connection =Heat transfer resistance of from the connection to the surroundings, [C.
m2/W]
Rconv_a_g =Convective resistance of the outer absorber pipe surface to the inner glass
envelope surface, [C. m2/W]
Rrad_a_g =Radiation resistance from the outer absorber pipe surface to the inner glass
envelope surface, [C. m2/W]
Rcond_g =Conductive resistance of the glass envelope, [C. m2/W]
Rconv_g_air =Convective resistance of the outer glass envelope surface to the ambient air,
[C. m2/W]
Rrad_g_sky =Radiation resistance from the outer glass envelope surface to the sky, [C.
m2/W]
From the left to the right are the heat transfer fluid, the absorber pipe, the glass envelope, and the
surrounding environment (the sky and ambient air). Heat is transferred from the absorber pipe to
the fluid by convection from internal flow of heat transfer fluid, HTF, in the absorber pipe. This
heat conducted through the absorber pipe. There are two stream of heat transferred from the outer

52

surface of the absorber pipe to the inner surface of the glass envelope: the convection and
radiation. Since the annual space between them is evacuated, the convection is very small. This
heat delivered to the inner surface of the glass envelope plus the heat absorbed in the envelope is
conducted to the outer surface of the envelope, and then delivered to the surroundings by
convection to the ambient air and radiation to the sky. At the connection between two PTSCs as
shown in Figure 3-3, heat is directly lost to the surroundings by convection and radiation of heat
conducted through the supporting structure.

the connection between two PTSCs in one module

the connection between two modules

Figure 3-3 The connection between the PTSCs

Table 3-1 summarizes heat transfer correlations for each of components of the PTSC. In addition
to calculation of heat transfer and energy balance in the PTSC, the model also provides the
pressure drop calculation in the solar field and the thermal loss through piping in the solar loop.
The performance model of the PTSC has been validated by comparisons between the model
solutions and the test data. Experimental data has been used to adjust/ correct certain model
parameters, principally the absorptivity of the glass envelope, to achieve agreement among
predicted and measured collector operating data.

3.4 Calculation procedure

A performance model has been programmed for a solar thermal collector based on the PTSC.
This steady state, single dimensional model is a set of nonlinear algebraic equations programmed
in the Engineering Equation Solver (EES). EES, developed by the University of Wisconsin
Madison, is different from other existing numerical equation solving programs in two respects.

53

Table 3-1 Heat transfer correlations used in the PTSC model

Object

Heat transfer

Reference

Equation

comment

convection
of internal flow

Holman 1997;
Incorpera 1990

_ f = hcov_ f * Dh (Taverage T f _ b )
q& conv

A high level of
accuracy is desired
for smooth tubes.

h = Nu * k f / Dh

For turbulent flow

HTF

Nu =

( f / 8)(Re 1000) Pr f

2
where, f = (0.79 * ln(Re) 1.64)

1 + 12.7( f / 8)1 / 2 (Pr 2 / 3 1)

For laminar flow

Nu = 3.66 +

Absorber pipe

conduction
through the
absorber pipe

Holman 1997

convection
between absorber
pipe and glass
envelope

Holman 1997;
Dudley 1994;
Incorpera 1990

_a =
q& cond

When 100<Rac<10

where,
k
2 a 9 5
b=
[
]
ri ln(ro / ri ) + b ( ri / ro + 1)
a 2( + 1)

the temperature of
absorber surface is
uniform

= 2.331(10 20 )((T3 + T4 ) / 2) / P 2

If Rayleigh number Rac < 100, if Rac* =<100,keff = k, else

heat transfer equations are follows.
2k eff
q=

(Ti To )
ln( Do / Di )
where, k eff
Pr
= 0.386(
)1 / 4 ( Rac *)1 / 4
k
0.861 + Pr

Rac * =

radiation
between absorber
pipe and glass
envelope

Holman 1997;

Conduction
through glass
envelope
Convection from
the glass outer
surface to the
ambient air

Holman 1997;

Radiation from
the glass outer
surface to the sky
Conductionconvection from
the connection to
the ambient air
(fin)
Conductionconvection from
Supporting
bracket to the
ambient air as fin

3
[ln( Do / Di )]4
,
Ra L Ra L = g * * (Ti To ) L
L ( Di3 / 5 + Do3 / 5 ) 5
vf f

_a_g =
q& rad

The glass is
opaque to infrared
radiation.

Dao (Tao4 T gi4 )

1

ao

D
1
+ ao (
1)
D gi gi

gi = 0.86

Holman 1997;

_a =
q& cond

2k (Ti To )
ln(ro / ri )

_ g _ air = D go h(Tgo T )
q& conv
For natural convection
for 10-5<Ra<1012
Nu1 / 2 = 0.6 + 0.387(

Glass envelope
&
surroundings

Connection &
surroundings

2k (Ti To )
ln(ro / ri )

_ a _ g = Dao h(Tao Tgi )

q& conv

h=

Absorber pipe
& glass
envelope

Glass envelope

0.0668 * (d / L) * Re* Pr f
1 + 0.04 * [(d / L ) Re Pr f ]2 / 3

Holman 1997;
Duffie 1980
Holman 1997;

Ra

[1 + (0.559 / Pr) ]

9 / 16 16 / 9

)1 / 6

For forced convection

Nu = C (Re)n Pr1 / 3
4
_ g _ sky = * Ago * go * (Tgo4 Tsky
q& rad
)
Tsky = 0.0552T1.5

q& max = 2 (r22c r12 ) * h * (To T ) / L

Where, h can be calculated as same equations in convection

from glass to ambient air.

q& connection
= f * q& max
Holman 1997;

_ breaket = h PAk (Tbase T ) / L

q& cond

54

Uniform
temperature
distributed around
the glass envelope

First, it can automatically identify and group equations that must be solved simultaneously.
Second, it can provide many built in mathematical and thermo physical property functions useful
for engineering calculations. The EES equations of the PTSC, including mass and energy balance,
heat transfer equations, thermal property functions and the assumptions are annotated in
Appendix 3.1. The interface of the developed model is also shown in Figure 3:1 of Appendix 3.
The procedure for the EES calculation is straightforward: first the algebraic equations are entered
into EES. The total number of the parameters is equal to the sum of the number of equation and
the number of the known parameters based on the given conditions and properties. Reasonable
estimates are entered for all unknown parameters. EES uses the embedded or entered lookup
tables to find the thermo physical properties of the fluid and other materials of the PTSC. The
EES then automatically identifies and groups equations that must be solved simultaneously.
Finally it solves the equations by adjusting the estimate values of the variable parameters to
minimize the square of the residuals from the equations. In the developed model, there are some
important properties of the material in the PTSC impacting on the PTSCs efficiency. Table 3-2
show these import parameters with the values used.
Table 3-2 Parameters and values used in the PTSC model
Parameter

Nomenclature

Value used in the model

glass envelope absorptivity

glass envelope transmittance

Initially assumed to be 0.03 (given by

BROAD), 0.1~0.15 by experiment
0.82

Rg

glass envelope reflectance

0.07

glass envelope emissivity

0.86

absorber tube absorptivity

0.96

absorber tube transmittance

0.01

Ra

absorber tube reflectance

0.03

absorber tube emissivity

0.43

reflector mirrors reflectance

0.8

3.5 Solar irradiation absorption

The developed PTSC performance model does not include analysis of optical losses resulting
from the parabolic trough reflector and its focus of the solar rays on the absorber pipe of the
PTSC. However, about 30% to 40% of the incident solar energy lost due to the optical losses.

55

Such losses normally are caused by the position of collector, the properties of the material used in
the reflector, the focusing errors, tracking errors and errors in the formation and alignment of the
reflector surface. So at the beginning of this section, solar irradiation analysis is first introduced
in order to achieve an understanding of the optical losses.

3.5.1

Direct normal solar radiation

On the earths surface, the sum of the incident solar irradiation from all directions is called the
global radiation. It mainly comprises the direct normal solar radiation from sun, and the diffuse
radiation from all directions except directly from sun. Typically mid to high-temperature solar
collectors employ reflectors to concentrate the solar irradiation onto a receiver of reduced area.
For collectors with geometric concentration ratio of 10 or greater, the ratio of the reflector
aperture surface to the receiver surface area, typically, only direct radiation can be used since the
light must strike the reflector at a precise angle in order to be reflected to a predetermined point,
the focus point [Stine 1985]. The installed solar system from the PTSC study has a pyrheliometer
to measure the direct normal radiation. This pyrheliometer is mounted on a solar tracker, which
ensures that the sun's beam is always instantaneously directed into the instrument's 5.7 field of
view and that the sensors are always located on the plane perpendicular to the sun rays.

3.5.2

Incident angle and incident modifier

For the solar collector designed to operate with tracking rotation about only one axis, a tracking
drive system rotates the collector about its axis until the sun central ray and the aperture normal
are coplanar. The solar rays impinge on the aperture at an angle with its perpendicular. The
intensity of solar radiation on the surface is reduced by a factor equal to the cosine of this angle.
For the PTSC, the angle between the sun rays and the normal direction of the aperture surface is
the incident angle as shown in Figure 3-4.

Normal to the
aperture surface
Sun ray

Tracking axis
Aperture surface

Figure 3-4 Incident angle of the PTSC

56

In addition to reducing the solar intensity, the incident angle also can cause other losses due to
additional reflection and absorption by the glass envelope when the angle of incident angle is not
equal to zero. The incident angle modifier (IAM) is the coefficient used to correct for these
additional reflection and absorption losses. Normally, the IAM is achieved by means of empirical
experimental data fitting. The PTSC, fabricated by Industrial Solar Technology (IST), has the
same materials for coating and glass as Broad PTSC. Based on the IAM value given by the IST,
the IAM value of the installed PTSC in the IW is estimated as shown in Equation 3-12.
IAM = 1 + 0.0003178( ) 0.00003985( ) 2

Equation 3-12

Figure 3-5 shows the comparison of the incident angle modifier, cosine value of the incident
angle and the products of them. It indicates that the incident angle modifier does not greatly
impact the overall solar irradiation intensity compared with the cosine factor of incident angle
based on the IAM value.

3.5.3

End-loss

In addition, a nonzero incident angle is also the cause of no solar radiation, reflected from the
reflector mirror, on the absorber pipe of the PTSC over a certain length. This loss is normally
called end-loss. Figure 3-6 depicts the occurrence of end losses on the PTSC when a nonzero
incident angle. The endloss is related to the focal length of the parabolic trough and the incident
angle. Its length for a given PTSCs array can be determined by Equation 3-13. The length of the
installed solar array is 12 meter and focal length of the parabola is 0.818 m. Figure 3-7 indicates
that the length of the end-loss in the installed solar field in IW. It shows when the incident angle
Incident angle modifier and incident angle
1.2

IAM

0.8
cos()

0.6

0.4

IAM*cos()

0.2

0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

incident angle

Figure 3-5 Incident angle modifier and incident angle

57

no sun ray reflected on the right

end of the receiver pipe

the reflected sun rays

lost at the left end

the incident
angle

Lendloss

Lendloss

Figure 3-6 End-loss of the PTSC

5.00
4.50

The end-loss length (m)

4.00
3.50
3.00
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

incident angle

Figure 3-7 The length of the end-loss in the solar field

is 80, almost 40% of total solar irradiation lost due to the effect of the end loss.

Lendloss = f * tan

Equation 3-13

Where,
Lendloss = length of the end-loss, m
f = parabola focal length, m

58

3.5.4

Shadow-loss

The configuration of solar collector installation may introduce further losses due to the shading
from the adjacent parallel row when solar angle is low. The upper part of Figure 3-9 shows how

Wr

Sr

Wr

Sr

Figure 3-8 Shadow loss from the adjacent solar collector array

to find the shadow angle, , which can be calculated by Equation 3-14 [15]. The shadow angle is
referred to the threshold angle in the shadow loss.
= arcsin(

Wr
)
Sr

Equation 3-14

Where,
Wr = the aperture opening of solar collector, m
Sr = the horizontal distance between two adjacent solar collector arrays, m
The width of collector shadow on the aperture surface of the PTSC can be calculated according to
Equation 3-15.

W_shadow_collector = Wr - Sr * sin( ) Equation 3-15

Where,
= tracking angle of the PTSC, from the horizon to the normal direction of the
aperture surface.

59

3.6 Conclusion
This chapter presents detail PTSC model along with adjustments due to endloss and shadow loss
that comprises an overall model of a PTSC solar system. The next chapter presents the measured
performance of the PTSC and the results of model calculations, after the model has been adjusted
and validated.

60

Model-based experimental data analysis of PTSC

The model developed for the PTSC has been used to analyze the experimental data from the test
program. The computational model used a number of measurements as inputs to calculate all
working conditions. The discrepancies between the measurements and the model calculations
have been found and minimized by adjusting the model assumptions and input parameters. The
largest discrepancy between experiment measurements and model calculations has been resolved
by an adjustment in the absorptivity of the glass envelope. With the adjustment the model has
been validated and has been used to analyze the PTSCs performance under the various operating
and weather conditions. Some recommendations on the PTSCs design are then addressed.

4.1 Analytical method

First, the experimental data from the test program and equipment parameters from Broad, the
PTSC suppler, have been used as PTSC model inputs to solve the model. The data used include
ambient temperature, wind velocity, direct normal solar radiation, incident angle, the inlet
temperature of fluid, the flow rate of the fluid, the effective aperture surface of the trough. The
model calculated the outlet temperature of fluid, the surface temperatures of absorber pipe and
glass envelope, the heat transfer in the receiver pipe, and the efficiency of the PTSC.
Second, the measured data and model solutions were compared. The model assumptions and
input parameters were checked and adjusted to reduce the discrepancies between the calculated
and measured data.
Third, the validated model was used to analyze the performance of the PTSC under the influence
of the various weather conditions and operating parameters.

4.1.1

Model validation

The experimental data from 55 steady states, described in Chapter 2, were selected to validate the
developed PTSC model. The model was used to calculate the temperatures throughout the PTSC
and the heat transfer in the receiver pipe. It was found that the collector efficiency estimated by
the model was higher than the experimental data, especially when the system was operated at a
high temperature. In addition, the model calculation indicates that the temperature of glass
envelope was low, from 20 to 28C, and changed little while the operation temperature of fluid
increased from ambient to an elevated high temperature. Regarding to this observations, three
questions were raised:

61

Does the glass temperature greatly impact on the PTSC efficiency?

Is the temperature of glass envelope really so low?

Is the temperature around glass envelope uniform?

To answer these questions, additional experiments were designed and conducted to measure the
temperature and distribution on glass envelope surface under various fluid operation
temperatures. Five spots around the glass envelope and one spot marked as 6 on exposed
absorber pipe between PTSC sections were measured by the infrared temperature sensor and
contact surface temperature sensors, as shown in Figure 4-1. The noncontact infrared temperature
sensor was used to measure the temperature of the PTSC while it was operating since the
concentrated solar radiation significantly affects contact sensors. The range of the infrared sensor
is -18 to 315C and accuracy range is 2% of full range. The contact surface temperature sensors
were used only when the PTSC was defocused. During the experiments, the PTSC tracked the
sun and the HTF was circulated through by-pass and heated in the solar collection loop. Six spots
were measured by both the infrared and the contact sensors at various HTF temperatures from
ambient temperature to 150 C. There are total five sets of measurements. Figure 4-1 shows one
set of measured data by the infrared sensor when the PTSC was focusing and defocusing,
respectively. The experimental condition and temperature measurements at six spots are shown in
Table 4-1.
42.50 C

Time:
14:31

Focusing
Bare tube

118.61 C

14:36

defocused

3
4

TFluid= 122.85 C

43.33 C

Time:
45.56 C
39.17 C

Bare tube

48.61 C

120.56 C

43.89 C

5
3

TFluid= 126.97 C

45.00 C
48.33 C

53.33 C

50.00 C

Figure 4-1 Measured temperature distribution of the glass envelope

Table 4-1 Glass temperature measurements in the test
Type

Focusing

Defocused

Time

TAmbient ( C )

T_PTSC_in ( C)

T_PTSC_out ( C)

F-1 (gpm)

F-1 (kg/H)

NIP (w/m2)

wind (m/s)

T_node 1 ( T_node 2 ( T_node 3 ( T_node 4 ( T_node 5 ( T_node 6 (

C)
C)
C)
C)
C)
C)

10:58~11:01
11:52~11:58
13:42~13:48
14:27~14:31
14:55~15:00

23.00
23.36
24.58
24.78
25.14

37.30
81.40
83.20
118.90
134.65

41.70
86.33
89.65
122.85
137.63

7.30
7.70
7.70
7.90
7.95

1728.08
1767.50
1767.50
1756.14
1747.03

916.20
942.75
944.80
953.00
936.60

0.90
0.90
0.90
0.90
0.90

49.72
48.61
47.22
53.33
56.39

44.44
41.67
48.06
42.50
46.67

37.78
36.11
40.56
39.17
44.17

39.17
40.56
46.11
48.61
48.33

36.67
43.06
41.67
45.56
41.94

42.22
86.67
87.50
118.61
132.22

0.46
0.50
0.58
0.61
0.63

22.94
23.67
24.78
25.00
25.22

41.40
85.30
89.90
124.50
137.00

45.30
88.95
91.40
128.20
137.65

7.40
7.70
7.70
7.90
7.90

1746.64
1763.73
1763.73
1746.38
1736.04

920.20
940.70
953.00
940.70
932.50

0.90
0.90
0.90
0.90
0.90

36.67
45.56
46.11
50.00
48.89

28.89
36.67
38.89
43.33
43.89

17.22
38.33
39.44
45.00
41.67

21.11
37.22
40.00
48.33
45.56

20.00
32.78
37.78
43.89
41.67

30.56
78.33
89.44
120.56
129.44

62

There are moderate differences between the temperatures at bottom, at the top, and on the left
side on Figure 4-1; but in general the temperatures around the glass envelope are uniformly
distributed. The assumption of the uniform temperature distribution of glass envelope appears
justified. In addition, the measurements show that the glass envelops temperature is much higher
than the model calculate values of 20 to 28 C, around 35 to 50 C. The higher glass temperature
will induce greater thermal loss from the glass envelope to the surroundings by means of
convection and radiation, so that the overall solar collector efficiency will be reduced. This
explains why the calculations estimated a higher efficiency of the solar collector.

The

experimental data indicated that the calculated glass temperature was not correct. The glass
envelope actually absorbs more solar energy than the model predicted and transmits it to the
surroundings by convection and radiation as a result of its increased temperature.
The analyses of the relationship between the glass temperature and the properties of glass and
coating on the absorber pipe showed that the absorptivity of glass is the most critical property
impacting on the glass temperature compared to other properties such as transmittance,
reflectance, emissivity of glass; and the transmittance, absorptance, reflectance, and emissitivity
of absorber pipe. The original value of absorptivity of glass in the model was 0.03, a constant
based on the information from the manufacture. As Bouhuers law states, the absorbed radiation
is proportional to the local intensity in the medium and the distance the radiation travels in the
medium; the absorptivity, transmittance and reflectance of the medium can be approximately
calculated by given the extinction coefficient and the index of refraction of the glass envelope for
the solar spectrum, when an unpolarized radiation passes through the receiver pipe [Beckman
1980]. The equations are presented that used to adjust the PTSC model in Appendix 4.1. The
adjustment of the absorptivity of glass minimizes the discrepancy between the experimental data
and model calculations.
Comparison among the solutions calculated by the validated model and experimental data are
shown both in Figure 4-2 and Table 4-2. In the Table, the values under the experiment columns
are measured data at 55 steady states and the values under the model columns are the calculated
values at the corresponding steady states. Tout deviation is the difference between the measured
outlet temperature of solar field and calculated outlet temperature value by the model and error
% is the ratio of Tout deviation to the difference between measurements of the solar array inlet
and outlet and inlet temperature. The table shows that the calculated values are reasonably close
to the measured values although error seems higher when the HTF at a high temperature. One of
the reasons is that the temperature sensor of solar array inlet or outlet is located before or after the

63

flexible hose connections rather than the beginning or the end of the PTSC solar arrays. Energy is
lost through the piping connections of two arrays and the four flexible hoses. When the HTF is
operated at higher temperature, this thermal loss will increase. In addition, sensor accuracy
contributes to the deviation between the measured data and model solutions. Also the accuracy of
the heat transfer equations used in the model is about 6%~10%. Taking all of these inaccuracies
into account, it is reasonable to say that the calculated quantities are in reasonable agreement with
the measured data.
Table 4-2 Comparison between measured values and model calculations
Experiment

Model

Comparison

SS #

T_amb ( C )

Wind_speed
(m/s)

NIP (W/m^2)

incident
angle

Aa (m^2)

solar loop
flow F1
(kg/hr)

Tin (C)

Tout (C)

Tout-Tin

Eta

Eta

Q_delivered(k
W)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55

19.12

1.30

974.06

11.10

51.65

1568.42

44.03

60.05

16.02

0.528

45.090

60.20

0.517

26.050

0.010

19.71

1.42

971.90

18.50

51.13

1568.42

44.68

59.08

14.40

0.498

44.160

60.09

0.494

24.820

0.005

22.36

0.80

958.90

10.00

51.73

1910.14

61.53

78.27

16.74

0.535

53.680

74.43

0.515

25.500

0.020

22.99

0.80

959.90

17.40

51.21

1909.34

63.50

78.09

14.59

0.513

53.830

75.85

0.493

24.440

0.020

25.83

2.05

931.84

1.48

52.30

1911.61

63.22

78.13

14.91

0.534

47.640

75.70

0.514

24.720

26.01

2.03

925.68

7.80

51.87

1900.65

63.84

78.63

14.79

0.529

47.680

76.16

0.508

24.270

0.021

26.73

2.22

914.59

19.77

51.03

1899.26

65.49

76.86

11.37

0.492

46.750

76.78

0.471

22.240

0.021

26.93

1.96

904.85

27.20

50.44

1902.91

68.28

77.79

9.51

0.447

47.180

78.53

0.434

20.260

0.013

26.91

1.90

883.11

34.88

49.74

1902.91

68.95

77.13

8.18

0.398

45.820

77.79

0.383

17.450

0.015

26.99

2.38

864.20

39.88

49.20

1902.91

69.18

76.13

6.95

0.345

43.000

76.85

0.340

15.120

0.005

-2.93

0.60

887.87

13.00

51.54

1291.64

41.79

57.48

15.68

0.510

31.520

59.20

0.503

23.040

0.007

-2.19

0.80

864.54

9.50

51.77

1291.64

41.30

57.40

16.10

0.515

28.380

58.42

0.507

22.640

0.008

-1.45

0.31

922.61

5.32

52.06

1291.64

41.30

59.98

18.68

0.531

39.890

60.18

0.525

25.000

T_glass_
outer (C) Tout (C)

Eta_deviation

0.021

0.006

-1.08

0.59

891.84

11.40

51.65

1291.64

43.39

62.27

18.89

0.516

33.570

61.02

0.507

23.340

0.009

10.98

6.20

1000.10

3.65

52.15

1324.45

47.44

66.19

18.76

0.506

25.650

66.10

0.492

25.400

0.014

11.42

4.66

995.81

2.80

52.24

1323.44

47.13

66.66

19.53

0.511

27.550

65.95

0.498

25.610

0.014

11.75

6.33

992.45

10.10

51.75

1328.16

47.85

67.88

20.03

0.497

26.150

66.00

0.483

24.780

0.014

12.37

6.42

979.06

17.28

51.25

1328.69

48.04

66.94

18.90

0.478

26.240

65.20

0.464

23.440

0.014

20.10

2.51

898.21

10.61

51.71

1700.00

73.35

85.70

12.35

0.496

40.340

84.67

0.482

22.310

0.014

20.75

2.97

905.81

3.53

52.19

1894.20

74.58

87.57

12.99

0.501

39.940

86.12

0.487

22.750

21.22

2.59

902.18

4.52

52.09

1885.48

77.52

90.97

13.45

0.502

41.740

89.04

0.487

22.640

0.015

21.50

2.89

901.03

11.80

51.60

1885.48

78.30

91.39

13.09

0.487

40.850

89.45

0.472

21.900

0.015

22.21

2.43

890.01

21.90

50.87

1885.48

79.44

92.80

13.36

0.455

42.200

89.70

0.440

20.160

0.016

22.50

2.45

880.86

25.00

50.27

1885.48

79.81

91.34

11.53

0.440

41.940

89.60

0.424

19.220

0.017

15.05

3.25

961.90

2.10

52.26

1898.90

56.47

69.63

13.16

0.512

33.580

69.22

0.502

24.950

0.010

15.85

2.77

963.17

9.10

51.79

1904.28

57.66

70.27

12.62

0.508

35.680

70.27

0.498

24.760

0.010

16.30

3.04

956.54

18.00

51.16

1911.61

60.40

73.94

13.54

0.481

34.850

72.13

0.469

23.140

0.012

16.82

2.20

950.27

25.27

50.60

1911.61

62.01

74.48

12.47

0.453

37.410

72.96

0.441

21.630

0.012

17.23

2.70

931.18

31.00

49.36

1902.91

68.42

79.50

11.07

0.410

35.430

78.06

0.396

19.020

0.013

17.67

2.12

914.66

31.00

48.46

1902.91

69.84

79.61

9.77

0.414

37.640

79.39

0.400

18.840

15.99

1.76

791.85

3.00

51.85

1457.59

151.17

158.43

7.26

0.399

47.560

161.30

0.391

15.740

0.008

16.40

2.03

876.97

19.92

51.02

1465.58

150.34

158.05

7.71

0.370

47.170

160.70

0.363

16.190

0.007

16.40

2.17

861.62

22.33

50.83

1465.58

150.29

157.59

7.30

0.357

45.760

160.10

0.347

15.190

0.010

16.40

2.81

881.98

28.71

50.31

1401.85

148.84

155.46

6.61

0.323

42.210

158.00

0.305

13.610

0.019

16.85

2.28

840.97

31.85

50.03

1401.85

147.18

152.46

5.28

0.306

43.280

153.70

0.295

12.550

0.011

28.45

2.46

819.13

1.21

52.32

1407.71

146.81

154.83

8.01

0.421

55.090

158.00

0.400

16.710

28.80

2.14

778.51

6.75

51.92

1401.85

148.35

157.40

9.06

0.415

56.200

158.80

0.394

15.630

0.020

29.13

1.97

730.40

14.16

51.41

1401.85

149.33

157.59

8.26

0.381

56.160

158.60

0.372

13.780

0.010

29.44

1.81

689.84

21.37

50.88

1401.85

148.05

155.82

7.76

0.367

55.720

156.10

0.342

11.960

0.025

29.59

1.77

667.00

25.80

50.40

1401.85

146.42

153.64

7.22

0.330

54.920

153.70

0.319

10.760

0.012

29.76

1.93

635.33

26.00

49.87

1408.20

143.85

149.70

5.85

0.324

53.150

150.60

0.311

9.973

0.013

13.07

1.35

886.56

20.05

51.01

1490.81

129.53

138.90

9.37

0.418

46.350

141.00

0.400

18.100

0.018

13.45

1.59

877.53

24.78

50.65

1486.88

128.74

137.97

9.22

0.393

43.780

139.40

0.373

16.700

13.68

1.65

839.52

30.55

50.15

1492.50

127.32

135.88

8.56

0.342

41.610

136.40

0.335

14.340

0.007

23.76

1.55

825.25

47.54

48.22

1436.05

138.57

142.59

4.02

0.194

49.050

144.00

0.195

8.090

-0.001

3.90

1.20

832.98

28.62

50.39

1437.23

127.70

137.61

9.91

0.354

37.040

137.40

0.347

14.730

0.006

4.12

1.20

829.27

31.48

50.13

1449.24

125.70

135.17

9.47

0.352

36.290

134.90

0.332

13.990

0.020

8.46

2.19

861.55

21.32

50.91

1512.74

127.72

136.35

8.64

0.381

35.380

138.00

0.372

16.360

0.009

8.40

1.84

713.84

28.73

50.31

1513.41

126.62

135.42

8.80

0.344

32.920

133.90

0.318

11.490

0.026

7.75

1.58

648.14

34.35

49.79

1512.86

126.11

134.75

8.64

0.302

31.490

131.80

0.273

8.910

8.31

1.20

668.30

38.90

49.32

1505.48

125.20

133.31

8.11

0.283

34.250

130.70

0.255

8.592

0.028

10.30

3.10

923.67

18.12

51.17

1470.87

126.68

135.96

9.28

0.386

34.570

138.20

0.380

17.930

0.006

10.33

3.36

918.98

24.31

50.70

1470.87

126.88

136.33

9.45

0.355

33.110

137.40

0.348

16.310

0.007

10.79

2.41

913.13

31.00

50.13

1470.87

126.34

135.59

9.25

0.343

36.160

136.10

0.326

15.190

0.017

10.76

2.69

903.42

35.47

49.71

1470.87

124.86

133.36

8.50

0.309

33.850

133.50

0.291

13.380

0.018

64

0.014

0.014

0.021

0.020

0.029

0.80

0.70

Measured data
Calculation

PTSC's efficiency

0.60

0.50

0.40

0.30

0.20

0.10

0.00
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

Average operating temperature of fluid above the ambinet temperature (C)

Figure 4-2 Comparison between the measured data and calculation solutions

4.2 Model-based PTSC performance analysis

The PTSCs performance has been analyzed under the various weather and operating conditions.
Efficiency plots are addressed in following subsections showing the effects of those parameters:
direct normal solar radiation, the incidence angle, the operating temperature, the presence of air in
the annular space, flow type, flow rate, the presence of glass cover, and the wind speed.

4.2.1

Temperature distribution in the receiver pipe

The PTSC performance model calculates all of temperatures in the glass envelope and the
absorber pipe. It is helpful to visualize these temperatures in order to understand the transfer of
heat in the PTSC. The temperature distribution in a cross section of the receiver pipe, when the
HTF is operated at 140 C, is shown in Figure 4-3. In the Figure, the abscissa is the distance in
the radial direction and the ordinate is the temperature. The highest temperature occurs at the
outer surface of the absorber pipe. The lowest temperature is that of the ambient air and the sky.
The direct normal solar radiation is primarily absorbed at outer surface of absorber pipe. The
absorbed solar radiation, as heat, is then conducted through the absorber pipe and convected into
the flowing HTF that delivers the thermal energy for use outside of the PTSC. The glass envelope
remains at a lower temperature and reduces heat transfer from the absorber pipe, so that it

65

improves the solar collector efficiency. Along the length of absorber pipe, the heat transfer to the

180
160

T (in C)

fluid slowly increases its temperature as indicated in Figure 4-3.

At a fixed Y

140
Y

At a fixed X

120
X
100
Y

80

Absorber pipe length

60
40
20

-250

-200

-150

sky

-100

-50

0
fluid
0
absorber tube

50

ambient air

100
ambient air

150

200

250
X (mm)

sky

glass envelope

Figure 4-3 Temperature distribution in the receiver pipe

4.2.2

Thermal losses

The thermal losses from the PTSC to the surroundings include three parts:

conduction, convection and radiation from the connections of absorber pipe to the
surroundings.

convection from the glass envelope to the ambient air.

radiation from glass envelope to the sky.

Both conduction and convection are proportional to the difference between the average operating
temperature and the ambient temperature; and radiation is proportional to the difference in the
fourth powers of the temperature. Model calculations, Figure 4-4, project the losses in recovered
solar energy by the PTSC due to conduction, radiation, convection and optical factors. The Figure
shows that three parts of heat transfer are almost equal. In addition, the calculations also predict
that both the efficiency of the PTSC drops and the thermal loss to the surroundings as the

66

difference between the average operating temperature and ambient temperature increases as
shown in Figure 4-5,4-5 and 4-7.
0.70

0.60

Percent of energy to total collected

Convection from
glass to ambient air
0.50

0.40

Radiation from glass

to sky

SYLTHERM 800
Idn = 900 W/m^2
Incident angle =0

0.30

Losses due to optical reasons

Convection, radiation,
and conduction from
connection structure

Loss due to convection from glass to ambient air

0.20

Loss due to radiation from glass to sky

Loss from connection structure between receiver pipes

0.10

0.00
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

Average operating temperature of fluid above the ambinet temperature (C)

Figure 4-4 Thermal losses through the receiver pipe

0.6

0.5

PTSC's efficiency

0.4

Syltherm 800
Incident angle =0
0.3

insolation 1100 W/m^2

insolation 1000 W/m^2
insolation 900 W/m^2
insolation 800 W/m^2

0.2

insolation 700 W/m^2

insolation 600 W/m^2
0.1

0
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

Average operation temeprature of fluid above the ambient temperature (C)

Figure 4-5 PTSCs efficiency and direct normal solar radiation at 0 incident angle

4.2.3

PTSC efficiency and solar radiation

The model predicts that the useful solar gain from the PTSC will increase with solar radiation
increasing as indicated in Figure 4-5. For the same operating temperature of HTF, although there

67

is no change in the thermal loss from the receiver pipe, the total solar energy impinging on the
receiver pipe is enhanced due to the increase of the solar radiation intensity.

4.2.4

PTSC efficiency and incident angle of solar beam

The incident angle plays a significant role on solar collector efficiency. The incident angle is
defined as an angle between the sun ray and the normal direction of collector aperture surface.
This angle causes foreshortening of the collector aperture as well as other effects such as these on
transmittance of the glass envelope or the absorption of the selective surface, so that a larger
incident angle can greatly reduce the solar collector performance. The end effect of the incident
angle is to reduce solar radiation arriving at the receiver pipe. The efficiency of the PTSC is
basically proportional to the cosine of the incident angle. For a PTSC operated at the same
temperature, it will have the highest efficiency when the incident angle is zero and a relative
lower efficiency when the solar incident angle is large, as illustrated in Figure 4-6. The
calculation, for instance, predicts that the efficiency of the PTSC will drop 15~20% when the
incident angle increases from 0 to 45, as illustrated in Figures 4-5 and 4-7.
0.6

Syltherm 800
Idn =900W/m^2

0.5

Incident angle = 0
Incident angle = 10
Incident angle = 20
Incident angle = 30
Incident angle = 40
Incident angle = 50

PTSC's efficiency

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

Average operation temeprature of fluid above the ambient temperature (C)

Figure 4-6 PTSCs efficiency and incident angle

4.2.5

PTSC efficiency and wind speed

Since the PTSC is exposed to the surroundings, wind is one of important factors influencing
convection heat transfer from the glass envelope or the PTSC connections to the surroundings.
The model indicates that the efficiency of the PTSC decreases with the increasing of the wind

68

velocity as shown in Figure 4-8; the effect of wind on reducing collector performance is greater
when the operation temperature of HTF is high.
0.6
Syltherm 800
Incident Angle =45

0.5

insolation 1100 W/m^2

insolation 1000 W/m^2
insolation 900 W/m^2

PTSC's Efficiency

0.4

insolation 800 W/m^2

insolation 700 W/m^2
insolation 600 W/m^2

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

Average operation temeprature of fluid above the ambient temperature (C)

Figure 4-7 PTSCs efficiency and direct normal solar radiation at 15 incident angle

0.6
Syltherm 800
Incident Angle =0
I_dn=900 W/m^2
0.5
Wind speed = 0 m/s
Wind speed = 2 m/s
Wind speed = 4 m/s
Wind speed = 6 m/s
Wind speed =8 m/s
Wind speed =10 m/s
Wind speed = 12 m/s

PTSC's efficiency

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

Average operation temeprature of fluid above the ambient temperature (C)

Figure 4-8 PTSCs efficiency and wind speed

4.2.6

PTSC efficiency and fluid type

In order to explore the impact of the fluid type impacts on the PTSC performance, six heat
transfer fluids -- Syltherm 800, Dowtherm Q, Therminol 59, Therminol 66, Therminol XP, and

69

water -- were selected to analyze the PTSC performance. All of fluids have almost same
performance curve at the same operating conditions as shown in Figure 4-9. The fluid type is not
a significant factor in determining PTSC efficiency.
0.6

0.5

PTSC's efficiency

0.4

Incident Angle =0
I_dn=900 W/m^2
0.3

SYLTHERM 800
DOWTHERM Q
THERMINOL 59

0.2

THERMINOL 66
THERMINOL XP
WATER

0.1

0
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

Average operating temperature of fluid above the ambinet temperature (C)

Figure 4-9 PTSCs efficiency and fluid type

4.2.7

PTSC efficiency and flow rate

Turbulent flow of the heat transfer fluid must be sustained during operation of the PTSC to ensure
good heat transfer. Once the requirement of turbulent flow is satisfied, the results of calculations,
shown in Figure 4-10, indicate that flow rate does not influence PTSC performance.

4.2.8

PTSC efficiency and air in the annular space

The installed PTSC has an evacuated annular space between the absorber pipe and the glass
envelope in order to reduce conduction and convection between them; however, air may leak into
the annular space. Thermal losses will increase because of the increasing of conduction and
convection in the annular space. The results of the model calculations indicate that air at
atmospheric pressure in the annular space results in a 2% decrease in the efficiency of the PTSC,
at 160 C, as indicated in Figure 4-11. If there is a difference between the average operating
temperature and the ambient temperature, thermal losses from the PTSC to the surroundings
always exist whether solar radiation is present or not. Figure 4-12 illustrates that thermal losses
of the PTSC have a similar shaped curve under sun or no sun condition; thermal losses with the
sun are higher than with no sun. When solar radiation impinges on the PTSC, the glass envelope

70

and the absorber pipe absorb solar radiation and have higher temperatures, so that the heat
transferred from them to the surroundings increases.
0.6

0.5

PTSC's efficiency

0.4

Syltherm 800
Incident Angle =0
I_dn=900 W/m^2
0.3

Flow rate = 4 m3/H

Flow rate= 6 m3/H
Flow rate = 8 m3/H

0.2

Flow rate = 10 m3/H

Flow rate = 12 m3/H

0.1

0
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

Average operating temperature of fluid above the ambinet temperature (C)

Figure 4-10 PTSCs efficiency & flow rate

0.70

0.60

PTSC's efficiency

0.50

0.40

Syltherm 800
Incident Angle =0
I_dn=900 W/m^2

0.30

Optical losses
vacuum
Air

0.20

0.10

0.00
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

Average operating temperature of fluid above the ambinet temperature (C)

Figure 4-11 PTSCs efficiency and air in the annual space

71

1200

1000

Syltherm 800
Incident angle = 0 with sun

Heat loss, W/m

800
NO SUN _ VACUUM
NO SUN _ AIR
SUN (900W/m^2) _ VACUUM

600

SUN (900W/m^2) _ AIR

400

200

0
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

Average operating temperature of fluid above the ambinet temperature (C)

Figure 4-12 Thermal losses with Sun or No-sun

4.2.9

PTSC efficiency and glass envelope

The outer glass envelope is significantly cooler than the absorber pipe. If the glass envelope of
the PTSC is removed, thermal losses of convection and radiation from the receiver pipe to the
surroundings will be greatly increased. Figure 4-13 shows that the solar collector with glass
cover has lower optical efficiency than one without glass cover due to the absorptivity of the
glass; however, the thermal losses of the PTSC without glass cover are much higher.
0.80

0.70

PTSC's efficiency

0.60

Syltherm 800
Incident Angle =0
I_dn=900 W/m^2

0.50

Optical losses wth glass cover

0.40

Optical losses without glass cover

With glass cover

0.30

Without glass cover

0.20

0.10

0.00
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

Average operating temperature of fluid above the ambinet temperature (C)

Figure 4-13 PTSCs efficiency and glass cover

72

In the Figure, the efficiency of solar collector without glass cover drops rapidly along with the
increasing of fluid operation temperature; when the fluid operation temperature is above 200 C,
the efficiency of the solar collector without glass cover is less than 10%. With such low
efficiency, the solar collector basically cannot collect any energy. Therefore, the glass cover plays
a significant role in improving the solar collector efficiency.

4.3 Recommendations on the PTSCs design

4.3.1

Bellow design

According to the experimental data and analyses of heat transfer in the PTSC, the thermal loss
from the bellows, which include flanges, bare flexible absorber pipe and the bracket as shown in
Figure 3-3, is approximately one third of total losses from the PTSC to the surroundings. In order
to improve the performance of solar collector, measures in the bellow design could be adopted as
follows:

reduce the exposed area of the bellow

reduce the dimension of the bellow

contain the expansion piece inside of glass cover

Figure 4-14 is an example of the bellow design from SOLEL.

Figure 4-14 New bellow design from SOLEL3

4.3.2

Glass cover

In the model validation process, it was found that the absorptance of the glass envelope of solar
collector was apparently not as represented. The absorptance, transmittance, and reflectance of

http://www.nrel.gov/csp/troughnet/pdfs/2007/kearney_collector_technology.pdf

73

the glass envelope play important roles in the collector performance. To improve the solar
collector efficiency, the glass envelope material should have following features:

high transmittance, at least greater than 0.9.

low absorptivity, less than 0.08.

small thickness.

4.3.3

Diameter of the glass envelope

The glass envelope should be designed with as small diameter as possible since the thermal losses
from glass envelope increase with heat transfer surface area.

4.3.4

Diameter of the absorber pipe

A perfect parabolic trough reflector and a well aligned absorber pipe ensure that the reflected
solar rays impinge on the absorber pipes; however actual installations may not meet the
requirement of accurate focusing. A large diameter of absorber pipe may compensate for
inaccurate focus. On the other hand, the convection and radiation between the absorber pipe with
larger size and the glass envelope will be greater; therefore the diameter of the absorber pipe
should be determined by a tradeoff between solar radiation received by the absorber pipe and its
thermal losses.

74

Solar absorption cooling and heating system simulation

An overall solar building cooling / heating system performance simulation has been developed to
assist in the installed system design: to evaluate the system performance, to optimize the system
configuration, and to test guidelines for the design and operation of a variety of similar solar
applications. The developed model is able to calculate the detailed system operating conditions
under various weather and output conditions and to search for an optimized system, which has the
lowest life cycle cost.
The objective of modeling the solar driven cooling and heating system is to

investigate the effectiveness of the solar driven cooling and heating system for a building:
its ability to maintain comfort conditions in a building over the range of weather and
occupancy conditions given the system configuration and equipment capabilities

validate the system operating rules and control to adjust properly the system depending
on the weather conditions and the building loads

quantify the performance of the solar thermal system: the useful energy provided by the
solar receivers

explore the effects on performance of key system design parameters (receiver area,
storage tank volume, and pipe size) and of key operating parameters (operational
strategies)

develop a tool and a technique for the synthesis and analysis of energy supply systems for
buildings: selecting and optimizing systems configurations, equipment selection and
sizing, and operations specifications

The developed system simulations are based on the configuration of the solar system installed in
the IW. The base case models have been evaluated by the experimental data. The annual
performance of the solar cooling and heating system was calculated to estimate what fraction of
the energy required operating the system could be provided by solar energy. Based on the base
case, the system optimization and sensitivity analysis have been carried out, so that an optimized
system was defined and system guidelines in design and operation were found for the similar
applications.

75

5.1 Model approach

The software selected to model the solar thermal system is Trnsys, developed by Solar Energy
Laboratory of the University Wisconsin. It is a flexible tool designed to simulate the transient
performance of thermal energy systems. Trnsys supports detailed simulations of multi zone
buildings and their energy supply systems. It has the capability of modeling and interconnecting
system components, of solving the corresponding differential equations, and of facilitating
information output. The entire problem of the system simulation reduces to a problem of
identifying all the components that comprise the particular system and formulating a general
mathematical description of each. To supplement the available components in the Trnsys library,
users also can use a basic component format to model their own new components either as a
performance table or as a FORTRAN program.
The approach used for the simulation was the predictive method, which first calculates the
building cooling and heating loads and then calculates the required energy input to the cooling
and heating system to meet the loads, either from available solar radiation or from other energy
sources. So the developed system simulation includes two major parts: the building simulation
and energy supply system (ESS) simulation. The information flow of annual system simulation is
shown in Figure 5-1. The building simulation considers the configuration of the building; weather
conditions; the schedules for occupancy, lighting, equipment; set points for temperature and
humidity; and its conditioned fresh air, which is provided by a ventilation unit the Semco. (The
solar cooling and heating system does not provide energy to condition fresh air by the Semco
unit.) The output quantifies building thermal condition and building sensible loads. The energy
supply system simulation consists of two loops as also shown in Figure 5-1: solar collection loop
and load loop. Most of the major equipment components in the solar system are available in the
Trnsys component library. The PTSC component has been represented by a modified linear
parabolic concentrator component available in the library of Trnsys. In addition, one new
component, the overall system control, was written to integrate controls for the PTSC, absorption
chiller, pumps, and other devices.

76

Figure 5-1 Information flow of TRNSYS simulation

5.2 Model assumptions

5.2.1

Weather

The developed overall system simulation uses the typical meteorological year (TMY2) data to
obtain the weather condition and geographic information for Pittsburgh (latitude 40.26 N,
longitude -79.56). The TMY2 data sets were values of solar radiation and meteorological
elements for a one-year period derived from the 1961-1990 National Solar Radiation Data Base
(NSRDB). They represent typical rather than extreme conditions [22]. Figure 5-2 shows the
monthly outside air temperature in Pittsburgh. Figure 5-3, 5-4 are the solar radiation conditions in
Pittsburgh. Figure 5-4 shows that the direct normal solar radiation has relative stable intensity
throughout a year. Comparing solar radiation in January and July, as shown in Figure 5-3, the
direct normal solar radiation is higher in the winter than in summer. The cause of the low direct

77

normal solar radiation in summer is the humidity of the Pittsburgh summer; a large amount of
direct normal solar radiation is diffused before it reaches the earth. In the winter, it is dry and
chilled so that the intensity of direct normal solar radiation is relatively higher, sometimes up to
1000 W/m2. Overall, the daily average solar radiation throughout a year in Pittsburgh is not
higher than 420 W/m2. Pittsburgh is not an ideal place for a PTSC based application.
35.00
30.00
25.00

Dry bulb temperature in C

20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
Month
-5.00
-10.00
-15.00
-20.00

10

11

12

Mean_Temp.

-3.27

-2.44

6.17

8.65

15.99

20.96

21.52

21.81

17.51

10.94

5.25

0.83

Min_Temp.

-18.90

-13.90

-10.85

-5.30

0.60

6.10

6.40

8.60

4.15

-3.70

-5.30

-10.85

Max_Temp.

15.30

10.85

23.30

23.90

28.05

33.05

32.20

31.10

28.90

26.00

18.90

16.65

Figure 5-2 Monthly average dry bulb temperature of Pittsburgh

1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0

Figure 5-3 Direct normal solar radiation in Pittsburgh

78

1.20
Global solar radiation on ground
Direct normal solar radiation
1.00

Solar flux in kW/m2

0.80

0.60

0.40

0.20

0.00

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Figure 5-4 Daily average solar radiation throughout a year in Pittsburgh

5.2.2

Assumptions in the model of solar energy supply system

Based on the IW solar cooling and heating system, the simulated energy supply system primarily
consists of PTSCs and a double effect absorption chiller. An aqueous solution containing 50%
propylene glycol is the heat transfer fluid in the solar collection loop. Figure 5-5 and 5-6 are the
Trnsys information flow diagram of the base cases for solar cooling and heating system modeling,
respectively.
Since installed absorption chiller is dual fired, two absorption chillers were applied in the solar
cooling simulation: hot water driven absorption chiller and direct fired absorption chiller. These
two chillers have been configured in parallel, and either of them provides the chilled water for the
space cooling at a given instant.
The solar heating base case uses the heat exchanger as heating device since the experimental data
indicates that the heat exchanger based solar heating has better system performance than the
absorption chiller based solar heating, as discussed in Chapter 2. When solar energy is not
available or adequate, an auxiliary electrical heater is used in the solar heating system.
In the Trnsys solar energy system model, the heating and cooling devices were simplified by
using LOAD component, which imposes a user specified load on a flow stream and calculates the
resultant outlet fluid conditions. This simplification does not impact on the overall solar system

79

performance computations. In the collection loop we watch solar input with load by defocus at
95C.

Type 709
Return pipe

Type 11
Flow mixer

Type 11
Flow diverter

Type 230
BROAD PTSC

Hot-water
abs. chiller

Type 678
DF abs. chiller

Type 677
HW abs. chiller

Type 60
Storage tank for
heat capacity

Type 709
Supply pipe

Type 114
Pump S-1

Type 11
Flow mixer

Type 682
Heating load

Direct fired
abs. chiller

Type 11
Flow diverter

Type 114
Pump S-4

Type 709
Load pipe

The load loop

The solar collection loop

Figure 5-5 TRNSYS information flow diagram of solar cooling base case

Type 709
Return pipe

Type 11
Flow mixer

Type 6
Heater

Type 230
BROAD PTSC

Type 5
Heat exchanger

Type 709
Supply pipe

Type 60
Storage tank for
heat capacity

Type 682
Heating load

HX-2

Type 11
Flow diverter

Type 114
Pump S-5

Type 114
Pump S-4

Type 709
Load pipe

The load loop

The solar collection loop

Figure 5-6 TRNSYS information flow diagram of solar heating base case

5.2.2.1 Heat transfer fluid, HTF

Although water is an economical and thermodynamically superior heat transfer fluid, it processes
a relatively high freezing point and also promotes corrosion. Based on the lowest temperature, 80

28oC [23], in Pittsburgh historic data, a mixture of 50/50 inhibited propylene glycol and water
was selected as the heat transfer fluid, HTF, in the solar cooling and heating system installed for
the IW because of its freeze protection temperature, -32C. In order to prevent vaporization of
50% propylene glycol at 170C, an operating pressure of 6 bar was adopted, based on Boiling
temperature and pressure of aqueous propylene glycol solutions shown in Figure 5-7. To simplify
the problem, the physical- thermal properties of 50% propylene glycol were constant value
according to two typical operation temperatures: 150 C and 60C for cooling and heating
simulations, respectively, even though the properties of fluid are changed with the changes of
HTF operational temperature.

Figure 5-7 Boiling temperature and pressure of aqueous propylene glycol solutions

5.2.2.2 Piping and insulation

Steel pipe was selected for IW solar thermal system due to its 343 oC highest working
temperature in according with ASHRAE 2000 I Chapter 41. In order to reduce pressure drop and
thermal loss along 85 m long pipes connecting the PTSCs with the chiller, 1 1/4 schedule 40
black iron pipe with 3 inch fiberglass insulation was selected.

81

5.3 System components and operation controls

5.3.1

Components in the solar heating base-case

The components in the solar simulation based solar cooling and heating system installed in the
IW include PTSC, heat exchanger, circulation pumps, building heating load and controllers as
shown in Figure 5-6. All of components are represented in the Trnsys simulation as indicated in
the Figures 5-5 and 5-6.
The linear parabolic concentrator, Type 536, in the Trnsyss library can not accurately simulate
the performance of the installed PTSC, since this component does not consider the influence on
the solar collector performance of the end-loss and shadow loss discussed in Chapter 3, and also

tracking limitation of the installed PTSC.

Unlike

Type

536,

linear

parabolic

concentrator, the PTSC installed can only

rotate between 70 to -70 as shown in
Figure 5-8. A new component, type 230,
Broad PTSC, was programmed including the
endloss,

shadow

loss,

and

tracking

limitations of the PTSC. The performance of

installed PTSC is based on the efficiency
Equation 5-1 generated by means of multiple
regression of the experimental data.
Figure 5-8 BROAD PTSC tracking range

= 0.626 IAM 1.47(Tin Tam) / I dn

Equation 5-1

Where,
IAM = incident angle modifier
Tin = inlet temperature of solar field in C
Tam = ambient temperature in C
I = direct normal solar radiation in W/m2

82

5.3.2

Operational controls in the solar heating base-case

For the heat exchanger based solar system, the solar collection loop does not need to operate at a
high temperature as long as the temperature requirement of heating device is met. In order to
prevent HTF boiling without pressurization of the system, an upper limit of the solar field outlet
temperature is set to 95C. When the outlet temperature of solar field reaches this temperature, the
PTSC is defocused to prevent vaporization. This control feature is included in the Type 230,
PTSC model. A simple control has proposed in the system based on on/off with hysteresis.
Table 5-1 Control mode in the base-case simulation of solar heating system
Mode

Conditions

Output
S-5

Solar collection loop

A. On

S-4

HX-2

There is load from IW Trnsys building model

ON

ON

No Load

OFF

OFF

There is load, and

T_sr_o > T_HX2 _in +3 , Differential controller,
hysteresis

ON

ON

OFF

OFF

OFF

ON

Direct normal solar radiation

NIP >300 W/m2 , Differential controller

Heater

ON

ON

Off
B.

Off

Load loop
A. On
B.

Off

Heater
A. OFF
(T_sr_o: outlet temperature
of solar receiver,
T_HX-2_in: inlet
temperature of water at the
cold side of HX-2
T_heater_in:the inlet
temperature of the water
entering in the heater)

250

300

W/m^2

NIP<250 W/m^2

OFF

ON

OFF

0.5

T_heater_in < 45 and There is load

B.

ON

There are three components: pump S-5 in the solar collection loop, pump S-4 in the load loop,
and electric heater in the load loop, controlled by this simple control. Table 5-1 deals with the
control of the pumps and the heater. There is a major circulation pump, S-5, in the solar collection
loop. It is a constant frequency pump working with the PTSC to collect solar energy when solar
radiation is available. According to the experimental experience, the minimum direct normal solar

83

radiation to operate solar collection loop is 300 W/m2, which is required to balance the heat loss in
the collection loop.
Similar to the collection loop, load loop also has a circulation pump, S-4, controlled by the load
requirement. Whenever load is required, it delivers hot water either from heat exchanger or the
auxiliary heater for heating. When the outlet temperature of solar collectors is at 3 C above the
inlet hot water of HX-2 and there is heating required, the heat exchanger will transfer the heat
from the collection loop to the load loop for the heating device if useful solar energy is available.
The electrical heater is triggered by the inlet temperature of hot water to the heater. If it is less
than 45 C, the heater is turned on to provide the energy for space heating.

5.3.3

Components and operation controls in the solar cooling base-case

The components in the solar cooling simulation include PTSC, hot water driven double effect
absorption chiller, direct fired double effect absorption chiller, circulation pumps, space cooling
load and controllers as shown in Figure 5-5.
Similar to the solar heating base case, the system also includes two major loops: the solar
collection loop and the load loop. In the solar collection loop, the PTSC works with pump S-1 to
deliver solar energy to the absorption chiller when solar radiation is available. In the early
operation period, the HTF is continuously circulated and heated through bypass in the solar
collection loop until the HTF reaches the temperature required by hot water chiller, 155 C. The
HTF, then, is switched from the bypass to the Regenerator of absorption chiller by a three-way
valve. This three-way valve also can be used to adjust HTF flow over the regenerator of the
chiller. So the absorption chiller controls the HTF flow based on the chiller load by using the
three-way valve and the defocus controls the temperature of the HTF assuming solar input meets
or exceeds need.
The absorption chiller installed in the IW could be driven either by the solar energy or by the
natural gas, but it could not be driven simultaneously by both energy sources. In the real control
logic, the switch between two energy sources depends upon the relationship between the
temperature of HTF entering into the chiller model of chiller and the chiller load. The available
Trnsys chiller model does not provide the relation. To simplify the problem, simulation used the
control logical to switch the energy sources as follows. When the HTF from the solar field
reaches 155C, the chiller starts to use solar energy, and once it drops lower than 135C, the
chiller is switched to use natural gas. . The control mode of the solar cooling system base case is

84

shown in Table 5-2. The detail of components and simulation in solar cooling and heating could
be found addressed in Appendix 5.
Table 5-2 Control mode in the base-case simulation of solar cooling system
Mode

Conditions

Output
S1

bypass

HWchiller

Firedchiller

OFF

ON

OFF

ON

OFF

ON

ON

OFF

OFF

Solar collection loop

ON
A. ON

NIP >300 W/m^2 , Differential controller,

hysteresis
ON

Off
250
B. OFF
Load loop
A.

ON

300

W/m^2
OFF

NIP<250 W/m^2
1.Load >0 kJ/h
2.T_sr_o >155 C Differential controller,
hysteresis
ON

Off
140
B.

OFF

155

T_sr_o <155 C
No load

5.4 Simulation evaluation

It normally takes long time and money to build a simulation model. However, without
experimental data to evaluate the simulation, it is difficult to judge the accuracy of a simulation
because it embeds so many assumptions; therefore experimental based evaluation is a critical step
for any simulation to ensure that reasonable simulation results are provided.
The evaluations of solar cooling and heating simulation were carried out by using experimental
data on 31 July 2007and 02 March 2007, respectively, address in solar heating and cooling testing
described in Chapter 2. This evaluation compares the simulation results to the experimental data
with respect to the instant operational temperature conditions and energy quantities of the system.
In the solar heating experiment on 02 March, the PTSCs worked with the HX-2 to generate hot
water for heating; the generated hot water was rejected heat through the HX-1, which used chilled
85

water at around 6.6 - 7 C from grid on the cold side of HX-1. The evaluation of solar heating
simulation includes the measured weather data, models of the PTSC and two heat exchangers,
and the system operation procedure on 02 March. The simulation time period was 1440 minutes
and the time step was 1 minute.

Simulation results
100.00
90.00
80.00

T_HTF_HX_in

Temperature in C

70.00
60.00
50.00
40.00

T_sr_out

T_HX_HW_out
T HTF HX out
T_HX_HW_in

30.00
20.00
10.00

9:
30
9:
50
10
:1
0
10
:3
0
10
:5
0
11
:1
0
11
:3
0
11
:5
0
12
:1
0
12
:3
0
12
:5
0
13
:1
0
13
:3
0
13
:5
0
14
:1
0
14
:3
0
14
:5
0
15
:1
0
15
:3
0
15
:5
0
16
:1
0
16
:3
0
16
:5
0
17
:1
0
17
:3
0

0.00

Experimental data

Local time on Mar.02, 2007

Figure 5-9 Operation temperature comparison between solar heating evaluation simulation and
experiment

At the beginning, the simulation results showed that warm-up time of the system was much short
than the actual time span although system pipeline was modeled with proper size and thermal loss
in the simulation. In checking each of the components in simulation, it was found that the
problem was from pipe component. The simulation of the PTSC in the system did not consider

86

the energy used for heating the fluid and the pipe from the initial temperature to its operating
temperature (its thermal heat capacity). To resolve this problem, a thermal storage tank was added
and configured like the pipe: a horizontal cylinder with the same diameter as the piping line and
same thermal loss coefficient. The pipe component was still retained without thermal loss in the
simulation due to its contribution to the relation between the temperature change and time delay.
After this modification, the results showed good agreement between the simulation result and the
experimental data, as shown in Figures 5-9 and 5-10.

Simulation results

55.00
50.00

Idn*Aa*cos()

45.00

Power rate in kW

40.00
35.00
30.00
25.00
20.00

Q_solar_delivered
Q_HX_solarinput
Q_HX_heating

15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
9:3 9:5 10:1 10:3 10:5 11:1 11:3 11:5 12:1 12:3 12:5 13:1 13:3 13:5 14:1 14:3 14:5 15:1 15:3 15:5 16:1 16:3 16:5 17:1 17:3

Experimental data

Local time on Mar.02,2007

Figure 5-10 Energy flow comparison between solar heating evaluation simulation and experiment

In Figure 5-9, the five temperature curves represent the outlet temperature of solar field, the
temperature of HTF entering into heat exchanger, the temperature of hot water leaving from the
heat exchanger, the temperature of HTF leaving from the heat exchanger, and the temperature of

87

water entering into heat exchanger, from top to the bottom of the chart. Figure 5-10 shows the
energy flow of the simulation and of the experiment. The curves in the charts show total solar
energy rate received by the PTSC, the energy transferred to the HTF, the energy input to the HX2,
and the heat output of the HX-2 from top to the bottom of chart. Both figures show that the added
thermal storage improves the system stability so that the simulation results have smoother curves
than the data. The results basically confirm that the simulation well represents the experiment on
02 March 2007.

Simulation results
170.00

T_chiller_HTF_in

160.00
150.00
140.00

T_chiller_HTF_out

130.00

Temperature in C

120.00
110.00
100.00
90.00

T_sr_out

80.00
70.00
60.00
50.00
40.00
30.00

T_chiller_CHW_return

20.00
10.00

T_chiller_CHW_supply
9:
40
10
:0
0
10
:2
0
10
:4
0
11
:0
0
11
:2
0
11
:4
0
12
:0
0
12
:2
0
12
:4
0
13
:0
0
13
:2
0
13
:4
0
14
:0
0
14
:2
0
14
:4
0
15
:0
0
15
:2
0
15
:4
0
16
:0
0
16
:2
0
16
:4
0
17
:0
0

9:
20

9:
00

8:
40

0.00

Experimental data

Local time on Jul.31, 2007

Figure 5-11 Operating temperature comparison between cooling evaluation simulation and
experiement

88

Simulation results
55.00
50.00
45.00

Power rate in kW

40.00

IDN*Aa*cos()

35.00
30.00
25.00
20.00
15.00

Q_chiller_cooling

10.00

Q_solar_delivered

5.00

Q_chiller_solarinp

0.00
8 :4

9 :0

9 :2

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
9:4 10:0 10:2 10:4 11:0 11:2 11:4 12:0 12:2 12:4 13:0 13:2 13:4 14:0 14:2 14:4 15:0 15:2 15:4 16:0 16:2 16:4 17:0

Experimental data

Local time on Jul.31, 2007

Figure 5-12 Energy flow comparison between solar cooling evaluation simulation and experiment

In the solar cooling experiment on 31 July, the PTSCs worked with the absorption chiller to
generate chilled water for space cooling; the chilled water rejected heat in the HX-1 to hot water
at around 35 ~ 40 C from grid. The solar cooling evaluation simulation includes the measured
weather data, the models of the PTSC, two double effect absorption chillers and the system
operation procedure on 31 July. The simulation time period was also 1440 minutes and time step
was 1 minute.
The storage tank simulated system heat capacity was also added in the evaluation cooling model.
The results show good agreement between the simulation calculation and the experimental data.
Figure 5-11, 5-12 are the comparisons of operational temperatures and energy flow between the
simulation and the experiment. Since the simulation has used the chiller performance data
provided by the Trnsys model, there is small difference the operational temperature of HTF

89

between the simulation result and experiment. However, the simulation still provides a reasonable
accurate response of the system and reasonable performance of the solar cooling system.

5.5 Base-case result of solar cooling and heating simulation

5.5.1

Building simulation results

The solar cooling and heating system installed has been designed for IW south zone, whose net
floor area is about 245 m2. Its average height is about 3.1 m including the raised floor and average
height of roof. The IW, an open space, is subdivided by partition walls and furniture in nine
offices and one conference space. The IW has horizontal shading on the east and west facades. Its
internal loads include lighting, computers, and occupants.
The total heat gain of the artificial lighting is 17 W/m2. The equipment heat gain is 100 W per
computer (one per person) and 50 W for one printer. It is occupied by 30 faculty members and
students throughout the weekdays. Most of them arrive between 9AM and 10AM and leave
between 5PM and 8PM. The equipment heat gain is based on the occupancy schedule and the
lighting heat gain is based on solar radiation available. The lights are seldom turned on due to the
architectural integration of day lighting features (skylight, windows) of the space. Figure 5-13
shows the cooling and heating loads of the IW south zone estimated by Trnsys.
5500
Q_sensible_cooling
Q_dehumidification
Q_sensible_heating
Q_humidification

5000
4500
4000

Load in kWh

3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
1

10

11

12

Month

Figure 5-13 IW building heating and cooling load estimated by building simulation

90

5.5.2

Solar energy system simulation results

Several definitions aid in understanding the expressed results of the Trnsys simulation of the
performance of the IW solar cooling / heating system. The solar fraction is the ratio of the
building cooling / heating loads shown in Table 5-3 provided by solar energy. The value of solar
fraction represents the efficiency of solar cooling and heating system. The higher the solar
fraction is, the higher the system performance.

5.5.2.1 Solar heating simulation

The annual IW solar heating performance in a base case is detailed in Table 5-3.
Table 5-3 System performance estimated by IW solar heating system base-case simulation
Item

Energy (kJ)

Solar total energy collected by the solar collectors (including dumped solar energy)
Solar energy dumped by the solar collectors (high cut limit temperature is 95 C )

18,403,342
2,933,399
15,469,944

Solar energy delivered to the solar collection loop

125,874

Energy added by circulation pump in the solar collection loop

Energy loss through pipe to the environment in the solar collection loop

14,497,792
994,196

Energy transffered to the load loop by HX2

30,807,898

Energy delivered to the load loop by the auxiliary heater

1,155,017

Energy loss through pipe to the environment in the load loop

32,603,345

Heating load

1,697,190

Energy added by the circulation pump in the load loop

Solar energy delivered to the collection loop / total solar energy collected

84.1%

Energy loss through pipe in the collection loop / energy in the collecton loop

93.0%

Energy transferred by HX / energy in the collection loop

6.4%

Solar fraction

3.8%

Only 3.8% of the IW heating load was provided by solar energy, even though the total solar
useful energy was about half of total sensible heating load. Much of the solar heat collected 79%
was lost to the surroundings from the system; 16% was rejected by defocusing.
Pittsburgh has 49% days with solar availability throughout middle of October to the middle of
April (182 days) in TMY2 weather data, but simulation results showed that solar energy can be
used for space heating only about one or two hours during a day. The reason is that the solar

91

availability is out of phase with the IW heating load. The building heating load along with the
available solar energy is shown in Figure 5-14 and 5-15. Figure 5-15, the energy flow profile in
the IW for a day in the heating season, illustrated the problem is solar heating of the space.
30.00
Q_useful_solar_kW
Q_load(kW)

25.00

Energy rate in kW

20.00

15.00

10.00

5.00

1/
1
1/
2
1/
3
1/
4
1/
5
1/
6
1/
7
1/
8
1/
9
1/
10
1/
11
1/
12
1/
13
1/
14
1/
15
1/
16
1/
17
1/
18
1/
19
1/
20
1/
21
1/
22
1/
23
1/
24
1/
25
1/
26
1/
27
1/
28
1/
29
1/
30
1/
31

0.00
Date

Figure 5-14 Useful solar energy and IW sensible heating load in January

20.00
Q_useful_solar_kW
Q_load(kW)
Q_HX2_kW

Energy rate in kW

16.00

12.00

8.00

4.00

0.00
0:00

3:00

6:00

9:00

12:00

15:00

18:00

21:00

0:00
Solar time

Figure 5-15 Useful solar energy and IW sensible cooling on 30 December

First, much of the required heat flow for building heating occurs when solar energy is not
available. Heat storage is required to overcome both this difficulty and the next. Second, when

92

solar energy is available it overwhelms that required to heat the space; the PTSC reflectors must
be defused to moderate the solar flux; solar energy is lost. Third, much heat is lost from the
system both during its operation in the day and at night. The lost heat at night might be replaced
at the beginning of the day to return the solar heating system to its operating conditions. Reducing
the surface area, volume, and heat capacity of the system will reduce this third problem. In both
storage and reduced system volume are needed to increase the solar fraction for IW heating above
0.038.

5.5.2.2 Solar cooling simulation

Overall solar cooling performance in the IW calculated; the results are shown in Table 5-4. From
the table, the solar fraction in cooling the IW is 12.7%; 76% of the collected useful solar energy
by the system is rejected to the surroundings through the piping and solar collectors.
Table 5-4 System performance estimated by IW solar cooling system base-case simulation
Item

Energy (kJ)

Solar total energy collected by the solar collectors (including dumped solar energy)
Solar energy dumped by the solar collectors (high cut limit temperature is 175 C )
Solar energy delivered to the solar collection loop

26,836,168
476,504
26,359,664
277,922

Energy added by circulation pump in the solar collection loop

Energy loss through pipe to the environment in the solar collection loop

20,242,840

Energy transffered to the load

6,220,705

Cooling delivered by the hot water chiller

6,720,545

Energy delivered to the load loop by the gas fired chiller

49,253,322

Energy loss through pipe to the environment in the load loop

-1,577,278

Cooling load

52,761,101

Energy added by the circulation pump in the load loop

1,634,412

Solar energy delivered to the collection loop / total solar energy collected

98.2%

Energy loss through pipe in the collection loop / energy in the collecton loop

76.0%

Energy transferred HWchiller / energy in the collection loop

23.4%

Solar fraction

12.7%

Solar cooling is not well suited to a climate like Pittsburgh, which is humid in the summer with a
high latent cooling load. The moisture in the air diffuses the direct normal solar radiation, and

93

reduces the solar energy collected by the PTSC. According to the simulation results, solar cooling
could work for about 69 days over 183 days from middle April to middle of October.
25.00
Q_useful_kW
Q_load(kW)
Q_Hchiller_chw_kw

Power rate in kW

20.00

15.00

10.00

5.00

8/
1
8/
2
8/
3
8/
4
8/
5
8/
6
8/
7
8/
8
8/
9
8/
10
8/
11
8/
12
8/
13
8/
14
8/
15
8/
16
8/
17
8/
18
8/
19
8/
20
8/
21
8/
22
8/
23
8/
24
8/
25
8/
26
8/
27
8/
28
8/
29
8/
30
8/
31

0.00

Date

Figure 5-16 Useful solar energy, cooling load and energy provided by chiller in August
20.00
Q_useful (kW)
Q_load (kW)
Q_Hchiller_chw (kW)

Energy rate in kW

16.00

12.00

8.00

4.00

0.00
0:00

3:00

6:00

9:00

12:00

15:00

18:00

21:00

Solar time

Figure 5-17 Useful solar energy, cooling load and energy provided by chiller on 09 August

The average time span of the chiller using solar energy to generate the chilled water is about three
to four hours over six to eight hours of solar time due to a large system heat capacity. A great

94

portion of useful solar energy is used to heat the system to the temperature required by the
absorption chiller, between 135 C to 170 C; the operational time is about three hours per day. In
addition, for the high variable weather conditions during Pittsburgh summer, solar cooling is
intermittent since absorption chiller is sensitive to the HTF temperature from the PTSCs. Figure
5-16 and 5-17 show the system performance of solar cooling monthly and daily, respectively.
Figure 5-16 indicates relatively few days that conditions are suitable for solar cooling in August.
Figure 5-17 shows that in the morning it took 3-4 hours to heat up the HTF to the operation state.
Next chapter shows how reduce the volume of piping or use a drain back system to solve the
problem. In general, solar energy meets the load.

95

Simulation-based design and performance analysis on solar cooling

and heating

Model based calculations of the overall performance of the solar cooling and heating system
installed in the IW have been described in Chapter 5. In order to identify optimal system design
and operation, performance calculations have been performed to assess the impact of the system
configuration, operating conditions, and control strategies on the fraction of IW cooling and
heating that might be met with solar energy to investigate the effects of:

the orientation of parabolic trough solar collectors, PTSCs.

the system operation and control strategies

the thermal storage provided.

the inclusion of a gas fired auxiliary heater for HTF preheating.

the pipe length and size in the solar heating loop.

The area of PTSCs provided.

The results of model calculations quantify the effects of these variables on system performance.
An optimized system configuration and operating condition has been proposed, and guidelines for
the design and operation of a similar solar cooling and heating systems have been provided.

6.1 Orientation of PTSC

A parabolic trough solar collector tracks the altitude of sun in the sky along only a single axis.
Consequently, the perpendicular to the aperture of the collector does not point directly at the sun
throughout a day, some of the solar energy that might be collected is lost. The cosine of the angle
between this perpendicular and the direct rays of the sun, the tracking angle, represents the
fractional loss of solar energy due to the limitation of a singe axis tracking arrangement. As
discussed in Chapter 3, the tracking angle varies both the time of day and the orientation of the
PTSC: therefore, this orientation plays important role in the collection of solar energy.
To determine the most efficient orientation of the PTSC at a given location, twelve orientations
were selected to analyze the relation between the orientation of the PTSC and the solar energy

96

collected. In addition, the relation has been reassessed by considering the tracking limitations of
the PTSC, such as the Broad PTSC as discussed in Chapter 5.

6.1.1

Orientation of the PTSC for increased, effective solar energy recovery

The orientation of the PTSC refers to the position of its tracking axis. Twelve orientations shown
in Figure 6-1 have been selected to examine the relation between the orientation of the PTSC and
the solar energy collected. In the figure, the due north -south, NS, orientation is 0 degrees; on the
right, the figure shows the primarily east - west, EW, orientation of the PTSC installed in the IW.

Typical simulation results are shown in Figures 6-2 and 6-3. The solar beam radiation,
Watts/m2, throughout a summer and a winter day are plotted for both a NS and an EW
orientation of the PTSC. Solar beam radiation on a NS oriented PTSC has two peak
values, one in the morning and the other in the afternoon of a day; an EW oriented PTSC
has one peak. The beam radiation in the summer day has a higher intensity and a longer
time duration than in the winter day. These figures illustrate that in Pittsburgh on a
summer day a PTSC with a NS orientation can collect one third more solar beam
radiation than one with a EW orientation, while on the winter day a NS oriented PTSC
will receive less than one half of the beam radiation on a EW oriented PTSC.
N
(165)
(150)
(135)
(120)
(105)

N (180)
E (90)

W
(75)

105

(60)
(45)

S (0)

(30)
(15)
S (0)

Figure 6-1 Twelve orientations in the simulation

If the PTSC is not oriented due north or due east, the pattern of solar beam irradiation on the
PTSC is similar but the peak radiation varies with the angular difference between two
orientations. For instance, the PTSC installed on IW roof at a 105 orientation has solar energy

97

radiation pattern similar to the EW orientation, but the peak of solar beam radiation is delayed
slightly due to 15 deviation toward north from due east. For solar cooling applications in
Pittsburgh, model calculations show that NS is favored. Figure 6-4 shows that there is 25% more
solar radiation available on a NS oriented PTSC than on a EW PTSC throughout the summer;
however, as shown in Figure 6-5 for solar heating, an EW orientation is better than a NS because
of 5% more solar radiation available from October to April. For combined solar cooling and
heating, Figure 6-6 indicates that a NS oriented PTSC receives more solar energy (927.7
kWh/m2) than does an EW PTSC (815.3 kWh/m2) throughout the entire year in Pittsburgh, a
difference of 14%.
1000.00
Beam_0

Beam_90

Beam_105

Beam irradiation on the aperture in W/m2

900.00
800.00
700.00
600.00
500.00
400.00
300.00
200.00
100.00

Time of Jun.10
0:
00

23
:0
0

22
:0
0

21
:0
0

20
:0
0

19
:0
0

18
:0
0

17
:0
0

16
:0
0

15
:0
0

14
:0
0

13
:0
0

12
:0
0

11
:0
0

9:
00
10
:0
0

8:
00

7:
00

6:
00

5:
00

4:
00

3:
00

2:
00

1:
00

0.00

Figure 6-2 Orientation and solar beam irradiation on a PTSC on 10 June in Pittsburgh

1000.00
Beam_0

Beam_90

Beam_105

Beam irradiation on the aperture in W/m2

900.00
800.00
700.00
600.00
500.00
400.00
300.00
200.00
100.00

Time of Dec. 02
00
0:

10
:0
0
11
:0
0
12
:0
0
13
:0
0
14
:0
0
15
:0
0
16
:0
0
17
:0
0
18
:0
0
19
:0
0
20
:0
0
21
:0
0
22
:0
0
23
:0
0

00
9:

00
8:

00
7:

00
6:

00
5:

00
4:

00
3:

00
2:

1:

00

0.00

Figure 6-3 Orientation and solar beam irradiation on a PTSC on 2 December in Pittsburgh

98

900

Monthly solar beam radiations (kWh/m2)

800
0 (N/S)
90 (E/W)

700

105 (IW)
600

Direct normal_kWh/m2

500
400
300
200
100
0

10

Cooling

0 (N/S)

93.7

113.6

129.2

117.6

111.6

91.9

69.7

727.1

90 (E/W)

73.8

85.1

97.7

87.8

87.4

76.1

74.0

581.8

105 (IW)

75.6

87.2

100.0

90.0

89.7

77.3

73.1

593.1

Direct normal_kWh/m2

100.7

117.3

132.4

120.7

118.3

104.5

92.3

786.1

Figure 6-4 Orientation and solar beam irradiation on a PTSC in summer of Pittsburgh

600

Monthly solar beam radiations (kWh/m2)

0 (N/S)
500

90 (E/W)
105 (IW)
Direct normal_kWh/m2

400

300

200

100

10

11

12

Heating

0 (N/S)

36.0

41.3

75.4

93.7

69.7

30.5

17.3

363.9

90 (E/W)

49.8

47.4

69.5

73.8

74.0

40.0

26.8

381.2

105 (IW)

48.3

46.0

69.3

75.6

73.1

39.0

26.0

377.3

Direct normal_kWh/m2

58.4

57.9

90.8

100.7

92.3

47.0

30.3

477.3

Figure 6-5 Orientation and solar beam irradiation on a PTSC in winter of Pittsburgh

99

Annual total solar beam radiation availability (kWh/m2)

940
920
900
880
860
840
820
800
780
760
740

Total solar gain

0 (N/S)

15

30

45

60

75

90
(E/W)

105 (IW)

120

135

150

165

927.7

923.0

905.7

879.2

849.6

825.8

815.3

821.6

842.6

871.2

898.7

919.0

Figure 6-6 Annual solar beam irradiation on PTSC with different orientations in Pittsburgh
110.00

Tracking Angle (degree)

90.00

70.00
70 degree

50.00

30.00

10.00
Time of Jun. 21
0:59 1:59 2:59 3:59 4:59 5:59 6:59 7:59 8:59 9:59 10:59 11:59 12:59 13:59 14:59 15:59 16:59 17:59 18:59 19:59 20:59 21:59 22:59 23:59
-10.00
TA_0

TA_15

TA_30

TA_45

TA_60

TA_75

TA_90

TA_105

TA_120

TA_135

TA_150

TA_165

Figure 6-7 Tracking angle and orientation of the PTSC on 21Jun

90.00
80.00
70.00
70 degree

Tracking Angle (degree)

60.00
50.00
40.00
30.00
20.00
10.00
Time of Dec. 21
0.00
0:59 1:59 2:59 3:59 4:59 5:59 6:59 7:59 8:59 9:59 10:59 11:59 12:59 13:59 14:59 15:59 16:59 17:59 18:59 19:59 20:59 21:59 22:59 23:59
-10.00
TA_0

TA_15

TA_30

TA_45

TA_60

TA_75

TA_90

TA_105

TA_120

TA_135

TA_150

TA_165

Figure 6-8 Tracking angle and orientation of the PTSC on 21 Dec

100

1200

Monthly solar beam radiations (kWh/m2)

IDN_20_90_kWh/m2
IDN_20_105_kWh/m2

1000

IDN_20_0_kWh/m2
Direct normal_kWh/m2
800

600

400

200

10

11

12

Total

IDN_20_90_kWh/m2

43.3

45.8

69.5

73.8

84.6

96.3

87.1

87.3

76.1

73.1

37.4

22.9

797.1

IDN_20_105_kWh/m2

39.7

43.8

68.5

75.5

86.5

98.4

89.2

89.6

76.7

70.1

35.4

22.7

796.2

IDN_20_0_kWh/m2

29.4

32.7

65.1

83.0

100.9

115.3

107.0

99.6

75.6

59.2

22.6

13.8

804.1

Direct normal_kWh/m2

58.4

57.9

90.8

100.7

117.3

132.4

120.7

118.3

104.5

92.3

47.0

30.3

1070.4

Figure 6-9 Solar beam irradiation and orientation of the PTSC in Pittsburgh

6.1.2

Orientation, tracking limitation, and solar beam irradiation on the PTSC

Due to a difficulty in its structure or drive mechanism, the reflector of a PTSC may not be able to
rotate over the full range required to follow the altitude of the sun. The range of the Broad PTSC
installed in the IW is addressed in Chapter 5. Its tracking limitation reduces the solar collection
time and the amount of the solar beam radiation collected. Analyses of the collection time and
solar radiation availability have been carried out for this PTSC installed in the IW. Model based
simulation results for the required tracking angle shown in Figure 6-7 and 6-8 indicate that the
tracking period for this PTSC is reduced by about 40% in the typical winter day and about 25% in
the typical summer day.
The effect of this reduction in tracking time on the annual total solar energy collected by the IW
PTSC in its EW orientation is a 2.2% reduction; a NS orientation would have experienced a 13%
in solar energy collected due to this tracking limitation and solar collection time reduction. In
addition, the simulation indicated that the impact from the orientation on solar beam irradiation is
on longer significant with this tracking limitation.
In general, NS is the favored orientation of a PTSC for the solar cooling or the combination of
solar cooling and heating system. For the Broad PTSC with its tracking limitation, the orientation
does not seem to be a affect greatly the solar beam radiation collected.

101

In general, N/S is the favorite orientation of the PTSC for the solar cooling or solar cooling and
heating system. For the PTSC with tracking limitation, the orientation may not be critical factor
effect on the solar beam irradiation on the PTSCs aperture.

6.1.3

Orientation and overall system performance

Based on the system configuration of base cases, the overall system performance has been
analyzed how orientation of the PTSC effect on building cooling and heating system , the results
show that NS orientated solar system has better performance in summer and worse in winter than
the current orientated PTSC. For solar cooling, NS orientation could provide 6% more energy for
cooling than EW orientation; for solar heating, the difference on the solar fraction between NS
orientation and EW is very small, as shown in Table 6-1. In addition, simulation indicated that the
performance of the system with tracking limitation is almost same as the system without tracking
angle limitation. When the PTSC cannot track the sun, due to the cosine effect on solar radiation
intensity is relative low, less than 300 W/m2, under which thermal loss is same as solar gain, the
final effect of collected solar energy by the PTSC is almost same for with and without tracking
angle limitations. Therefore, NS orientation of the PTSC shall be the favorable choice for solar
cooling dominated system, to achieve a high system performance.
Table 6-1 Effect of PTSCs orientation on overall system performance
Cooling season

Solar fraction
Collected solar energy
available to HTF (kJ)
Dumped solar energy to
avoid overheating(kJ)
HTF tramsmitted to the
chiller / HX (kJ)

Heating season

Base case
(105 )

N/S orientation
(0 )

Base case
(105 )

N/S orientation
(0 )

12.7%

18.7%

3.8%

2.0%

26,836,168

32,393,246

18,403,342

13,338,496

476,504

532,892

2,933,399

838,380

6,220,705

9,855,454

994,196

392,411

6.2 System operation and control

6.2.1

Constant-flow or constant-outlet temperature control of the PTSC

The flow rate of the heat transfer fluid, the HTF, through the PTSC and the solar collection loop
is a significant operating condition of the solar cooling and heating system. Two alternatives to
setting this HTF flow are: a constant flow or a flow varied to maintain a constant outlet
temperature of the HTF from the PTSC. Constant HTF flow control is common in flat plate

102

collector systems to minimize the costs of equipment and in solar collectors used in supplemental,
preheat systems. Collectors with HTF temperature control are used in high temperature systems
where excessive temperatures can degrade the HTF or cause high system pressure resulting in
damage [Stine 1985].
These two control alternatives: constant HTF flow and constant HTF outlet temperature have
been simulated in the solar cooling and heating model to compare their system performances. In
this comparison, the HTF flow in the solar loop is adjusted between a maximum flow of 80 gpm
determined by the pump capacity and a minimum flow required to maintain well developed
turbulent flow in the solar loop, a Reynolds number of 4000. The outlet HTF temperature from
the PTSC is set at 75 C for space heating, and 156 C for solar cooling in order to operate the
absorption chiller effectively.

The model based results show that there is little difference in system performance
between these two alternatives in solar heating; but in solar cooling, constant HTF outlet
temperature control improves the solar fraction attained by factor 2 as indicated in Table
6-2. This performance improvement is due to the longer time period when the absorption
chiller directly uses solar energy to generate the chilled water as shown in Figure 6-10.
This figure indicates that the constant outlet temperature control shortens the preheat time
prior to chiller operation for about one hour, so that more useful solar energy is directly
used for cooling rather than for preheating the HTF in the solar loop. Figure 6-11 shows
that the HTF temperature is not uniform throughout the system with constant outlet temperature
control.
Table 6-2 Effect of flow controls on overall system performance
Cooling season

Solar fraction
Collected solar energy
available to HTF (kJ)
Dumped solar energy to
avoid overheating(kJ)
HTF tramsmitted to the
chiller / HX (kJ)

Heating season

Constant flow
(base case)

Constant
temperature

Constant flow
(base case)

Constant
temperature

12.7%

21.8%

3.8%

3.6%

26,836,168

29,246,233

18,403,342

19,229,768

476,504

925,716

2,933,399

5,234,940

6,220,705

10,504,396

994,196

923,758

103

20.00
Q_useful_ConsFR
Q_Hchiller_chw_ConsFR
Q_useful_ConsT
Q_Hchiller_chw_ConsT
Q_load

Energy rate in kW

16.00

12.00

8.00

4.00

0.00
0:00

3:00

6:00

9:00

12:00

15:00

18:00

21:00

Time on Aug.09

Figure 6-10 System performance comparison of alternate controls on 9 August 2007

When the HTF outlet temperature from the PTSCs reaches the desired value for chiller
operation, the HTF inlet temperature entering the PTSC is at a lower value. This reduced HTF
temperature in the return pipeline indicates that less solar energy has been used in heating the
system and fluid at the time the chiller operation is initiated for generating chilled water. The
operating period for the chiller is in this way extended.
In solar heating, however, the IW heat load is out of phase with the availability of solar energy
availability, the reduction of system preheat time does not increase the operational period of IW
heating. Table 6-2 provides a quantitative comparison of system performance between the two
HTF flow control alternatives for solar cooling and heating in the IW.
180
170
160
150

T_sr_in_ConsFR
T_sr_out_ConsFR
T_ambient
T_sr_in_ConsT
T_sr_out_ConsT

140
130

Temperature in C

120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10

10
:0
0
11
:0
0
12
:0
0
13
:0
0
14
:0
0
15
:0
0
16
:0
0
17
:0
0
18
:0
0
19
:0
0
20
:0
0
21
:0
0
22
:0
0
23
:0
0

00

00
8:

9:

00

00
6:

7:

00

00
4:

5:

00

00
2:

3:

00
0:

1:

00

Time on Aug.09

Figure 6-11 System operating temperature comparison of alternate controls on 9 August 2007

104

In general, constant outlet temperature control of HTF flow is recommended for solar cooling
systems with a large heat capacity; this approach improves the system performance in solar
cooling by reducing the preheat time of the system.

6.3 Storage tank requirements

Thermal energy storage is employed in solar cooling and heating systems primarily to shift excess
solar energy recovered during periods of high solar availability to periods of reduced solar
availability. In addition, a small amount of energy storage, called buffer storage, can be provided
to smooth irregularities in the solar supply and building loads. Without storage, some of the solar
thermal energy available from the PTSCs may have to be discarded and therefore may not be
available to provide the energy for the building cooling and heating loads, because the time - rate
profiles of incident solar energy supply may not coincide with the profiles of the building cooling
and heating loads. The appropriate amounts of PTSC capacity and thermal energy storage depend
primarily on these time profiles.
If thermal storage is installed in a solar cooling/heating system, there are two alternative locations
for the storage: in the solar collection loop or in the load loop. There are also alternate choices
for the storage media: the HTF in the collection loop or the fluid circulated in the load loop or a
separate phase change medium. The choice among these alternates depends on the volume,
weight, cost, and energy loss, of the required storage; on the capacities of the chiller and heat
recovery exchanger components of the system, and on the flexibility required in the operation of
the overall cooling/heating system, particularly in the choice of operating temperatures. Based
on all these factors, thermal storage in HTF in the solar collection loop of the IW cooling/heating
system has been selected for model simulations to calculate the performance benefits of storage.
Ordinarily, a solar collection loop is operated at as low a temperature and pressure as is
compatible with the required cooling/heating components of the system. In order to reduce the
volume and weight of the storage, however, the operating temperature might be elevated to
increase the amount of sensible heat available from the stored HTF as it delivers heat to the
cooling/heating system components at the required temperature. The appropriate operating
temperature and pressure for the solar collection loop including its storage depends both on the
heat losses from the PTSCs and the system and on the temperature limitations of equipment and
materials comprising the system.

105

6.3.1

The volume of the storage tank

As mentioned above, the proper amount of thermal storage is determined by the time - rate
profiles of the building cooling and heating loads and of the solar incident radiant solar energy.
But also simple empirical rules can be applied to provide a preliminary estimate of thermal
storage capacity to be included in the solar cooling/heating system of the IW.
A simple empirical rule suggests that the most practical storage capacity for a solar thermal
energy system used for space heating with water as the HTF is approximately 1-2 gal of water per
square foot of collector area [19]. Based on this rule, the storage tank volume for the IW solar
energy system would be 3.2 m3 as indicated in Equation 6-1.

V _ st = 1.5( gal / ft 2 ) * Aa

Equation 6-1

= 1.5 (gal/ft2 collector area) * 52.44 (ft2)*10.76 (ft2/m2)

= 846 gal = 3.2 m3

Where,

Aa =aperture area of solar collector, ft2

The capacity of the storage tank might also be calculated from the solar energy to be stored, 100
kWh based on simulation results, and the temperature difference between the heat storage and the
heat delivery temperatures of the HTF storage media, 90 C and 60 C. The volume of the
storage is estimated in this way is 3.19 m3 according to Equation 6-2.

Q
* Cp * T

V _ st =

Equation 6-2

100kWhr * 3600 sec/ hr

1024.3(kg / m3 ) * 3.67(kJ / kg.o C ) * (90 60)(oC )

= 3.19 m3
Where,
Q = daily solar energy input from simulation result, in kWh/hr

= density of the HTF at 35 C in kg/m3

106

Cp = specific heat of HTF at 35 C in kJ/kg C

T = the difference between storage and the delivery temperatures
Model based simulations of the annual performance of the IW solar cooling/heating systems
incorporating HTF thermal storage volumes of 0.5 m3 to 12 m3 have been carried out to estimate
quantitatively the effects of thermal storage.

6.3.2

Storage used for shifting energy for later use in solar heating

In the Trnsys model of the IW solar cooling/heating system, a storage tank was placed parallel to
the by pass and a pump was added for discharging the storage tank, as indicated in Figure 6-12,
the information flow diagram of the system. In the morning, the HTF is heated in the PTSCs and
circulated through the by pass until the desired operating temperature, 90 oC, is reached. Then the
HTF is directed through the storage tank to charge it. If there is heating demand, the storage tank
is discharged by pump S-6 until the solar energy stored in the tank is exhausted.
The system control is addressed in Appendix 6.
The simulation results show that the storage tank significantly improves the overall system
performance of solar heating system. The storage tank shifts the excess solar energy during time
of high solar availability to time of low solar availability. Due to the time lag between heating
demand and solar availability, the excess solar energy is collected and stored during the day and
used in the evening and the next morning, as shown in Figure 6-13.

Type 709
Return pipe

Type 11
Flow diverter

Type 6
Heater

Type 230
BROAD PTSC
Type 534
Storage tank

Type 682
Heating load

HX-2

Storage Tank

Type 5
Heat exchanger

Type 709
Supply pipe

Type 60
Storage tank for
heat capacity

Type 114
Pump S-5

Type 114
Pump S-6

Type 11
Flow mixer

The solar collection loop

Type 114
Pump S-4

The load loop

Figure 6-12 Trnsys information flow diagram of solar heating system with storage

107

In addition, the simulation results show that for the currently installed IW solar heating system, a
4.5 m3 storage tank is the optimal volume because of its highest quantity of solar energy used, as
indicated in Table 6-3. Incrementally larger storage volumes lose more heat than they store.
25.00
Q_useful_solar_kW
Q_load(kW)
Q_HX2_kW

Energy rate in kW

20.00

15.00

10.00

5.00

0.00
0:00

3:00

6:00

9:00

12:00

15:00

18:00

21:00

0:00

3:00

6:00

9:00

12:00

15:00

18:00

21:00

Solar time

Figure 6-13 Solar energy collected, heating load, and energy provided on 14, 15 November 2007

6.3.3

Storage used for shifting energy for later use in solar cooling

In the Trnsys model of the IW solar cooling system, a storage tank was located in parallel with
and between the by pass and the absorption chiller as shown in the information flow diagram,
Figure 6-14. A variable frequency pump was added to discharge the storage tank into the chiller.

Table 6-3 Effect of storage volume on solar heating system performance

Volume of tank
(m3)
V ( m3)
Base case

Storage tank

0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
6
8
12

Heating
Collected solar
Dumped solar
energy available to energy to avoid
solar fraction
HTF (kJ)
overheating (kJ)
3.84%
11.31%
14.88%
16.97%
18.54%
19.74%
20.54%
21.17%
21.52%
21.53%
21.38%
21.34%
20.55%
18.06%

18,403,342
18,505,478
18,752,238
18,882,101
19,020,091
19,147,403
19,265,445
19,373,780
19,464,986
19,559,422
19,633,745
19,804,859
20,045,108
20,409,026

2,933,399
1,663,272
1,081,677
809,298
657,389
539,060
424,209
340,974
246,748
178,320
120,677
60,026
1,664
0

108

HTF transmitted
to HX (kJ)
994,196
3,388,870
4,556,497
5,229,771
5,746,807
6,144,554
6,404,862
6,609,712
6,722,158
6,730,696
6,685,361
6,678,163
6,430,824
5,623,503

In the morning, the HTF was circulated through the by pass and heated until the operating
temperature of chiller, 160 oC, was reached. The PTSCs were then operated at constant outlet
temperature, and the HTF was diverted through the regenerator of the absorption chiller. If the
flow from the solar field was greater than the flow required by the chiller, the storage tank was
charged. When the flow from the solar field was not adequate for the chiller and the HTF stored
in the storage tank was at the operating temperature, the storage tank was discharged until it was
exhausted. The simulation detail can be found in Appendix 6.

Type 709
Return pipe

Type 11
Flow mixer

Type 11
Flow diverter

Type 11
Flow mixer

Type 236
PTSC combined
with VFD pump
Type 677
HW abs. chiller
Type 534
Storage tank

Storage
Tank

Hot-water
abs. chiller

Type 678
DF abs. chiller

Type 110
VFD pump

Type 709
Supply pipe

Type 60
Storage tank for
heat capacity

Type 11
Flow mixer

Type 11
Flow diverter

Type 682
Heating load

Direct fired
abs. chiller

Type 11
Flow diverter

Type 114
Pump S-4

The load loop

The solar collection loop

Figure 6-14 Trnsys information flow diagram of solar cooling system with storage for shifting energy

180
170
160
150
140

Temperature in C

130
120

T_sr_in_ConsFR
T_sr_out_ConsFR
T_ambient
T_sr_in_ConsT
T_sr_out_ConsT
T_sr_in_ConsT_0.5Tank
T_sr_out_ConsT_0.5Tank

110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10

0:
00
1:
00
2:
00
3:
00
4:
00
5:
00
6:
00
7:
00
8:
00
9:
00
10
:0
0
11
:0
0
12
:0
0
13
:0
0
14
:0
0
15
:0
0
16
:0
0
17
:0
0
18
:0
0
19
:0
0
20
:0
0
21
:0
0
22
:0
0
23
:0
0

Time on Aug.09

Figure 6-15 Operating temperature of solar cooling system with and without storage on 9 August

The simulation results indicate that the storage tank did not improve the performance of the
system operated at a constant outlet temperature from the PTSCs. The reason is that the large
collection loop volume of the IW solar cooling/heating system provides the storage required by

109

the system in cooling and that additional storage is not required. It merely results in additional
heat loss. Figure 6-15 shows that the HTF in the system with storage flows into the PTSC at a
lower temperature than the system without storage. This circumstance indicates that heated HTF
is being stored in the tank and replaced by cooler HTF flowing from it.
In addition, the model solar cooling system results also show that the optimal volume of storage
tank for the IW solar cooling system is less 0.5 m3, as indicated in Table 6-4 A large storage tank
does not improve the system performance, increasing the usage of the solar energy. The excess
solar energy is limited. On the other hand, additional storage tank volume, and area, increases
thermal losses.
Table 6-4 Effect of storage volume on solar cooling system performance
Volume of
tank (m3)

Base case

Storage tank for

shifting with
constatn
temperature
control

6.3.4

V ( m3)

solar fraction

0 (Cons_FR)
0 (Cons_T)
0.5
1
2
3
4
5
6
8
12

12.74%
21.77%
21.16%
21.10%
21.09%
21.09%
21.09%
21.09%
21.09%
21.09%
21.09%

Cooling
Collected solar
Dumped solar
energy available to
energy to avoid
HTF (kJ)
overheating(kJ)
26,836,168
29,246,233
30,523,930
30,570,174
30,574,672
30,576,031
30,576,462
30,576,693
30,576,804
30,576,933
30,577,012

476,504
925,716
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

HTF tramsmitted
to the chiller (kJ)
6,720,545
10,504,396
10,368,464
10,293,472
10,276,415
10,276,564
10,276,631
10,276,671
10,276,689
10,276,711
10,276,723

Storage used for preheating

The solar cooling/heating system installed in the IW requires a long time for heat up due to its
large heat capacity. It takes three or more hours to heat the system to the temperature required to
operate the absorption chiller. As mentioned before, the storage tank can be used to minimize the
time required for preheating. At the end of the day heated HTF in the solar collection loop is
directed to the storage tank, replaced by cool HTF fluid from the tank. The heated fluid is stored
overnight in the tank whose heat loss is significantly lower that that of the loop. In the next
morning HTF in the storage tank, still hot, is returned to the loop, replaced by the cool HTF from
loop. This procedure limits the overnight heat loss from the system to that from the structure of
the solar loop and from the reduced losses from the HTF stored in the tank. Based on this idea,
the system with storage tank used for preheating has been simulated to estimate the
performance improvement of system performance due to this procedure.

110

Two assumptions made in the system simulation:

charging or discharging the storage tank occurs in a short time period.

the storage tank is only used for preheating not for shifting the useful energy.

Figure 6-16 show the Trnsys information flow diagram for the model simulation. The storage
tank remains in parallel with the by pass, but an additional by pass and a pump, S-7, were added
for charging the storage tank when the PTSCs were stowed at the end of the day. The storage
tank is discharged into the solar collection loop at the beginning of the next day. The solar
collection loop is then operated under constant outlet temperature control. The details of the
simulation are presented in Appendix 6.

Type 11
Flow mixer

Type 709
Return pipe

Type 11
Flow diverter

Type 11
Flow mixer

Type 11
Flow diverter

Type 236
PTSC combined
with VFD pump

Type 677
HW abs. chiller
Type 534
Storage tank

Storage
Tank

Hot-water
abs. chiller

Type 682
Heating load

Direct fired
abs. chiller

Type 114
Pump S-7

Type 678
DF abs. chiller

Type 11
Flow diverter

Type 709
Supply pipe

Type 60
Storage tank for
heat capacity

Type 11
Flow mixer

Type 11
Flow mixer

Type 11
Flow diverter

Type 114
Pump S-4

The load loop

The solar collection loop

Figure 6-16 Trnsys information flow diagram for solar cooling with storage for preheating

Table 6-5 Effect of Preheat storage tank volume on solar cooling performance
Volume of
tank (m3)

V ( m3)
Base case

Storage tank
with constatn
temperature
control for
preheating

0 (Cons_FR)
0 (Cons_T)
0.3
0.5
1
2
3
4
5
6
8
12

Cooling

solar fraction
12.74%
21.77%
20.09%
20.05%
19.76%
19.49%
18.92%
18.00%
17.09%
16.12%
13.91%
8.07%

Collected solar energy

available to HTF (kJ)

Dumped solar
energy to avoid
overheating(kJ)

HTF tramsmitted to
the chiller (kJ)

26,836,168
29,246,233
30,253,127
30,242,132
30,487,982
31,064,999
31,631,206
32,225,692
32,874,591
33,418,695
34,667,050
37,258,670

476,504
925,716
872,562
881,377
883,890
852,647
809,270
762,118
701,295
661,484
516,368
163,354

6,720,545
10,504,396
9,617,850
9,589,144
9,448,823
9,314,232
9,084,069
8,629,051
8,202,775
7,707,899
6,703,694
3,907,529

111

The simulation results showed that the storage tank used for preheating did not improve the
system performance as much as expected, as shown in Table 6-5. The major reason is that the
mixing of the HTF from the solar collection loop and storage tank is not able to avoid during
charging and discharging process. However, a drain-back system could work well because it can
prevent mixing and fulfill the function of the replacement between the cold fluid and hot fluid.

6.4 Auxiliary heater for preheating in the solar collection loop

An auxiliary heater might be used to heat rapidly the HTF to the required operating temperature
in order to minimize the warm up time at the beginning of the day. A gas fired preheater was
added in the solar collection loop prior to the PTSCs in the Trnsys model of the IW solar
cooling/heating system, and performance calculations were carried out. The simulation and its
results are presented in Appendix 6.
These results show that the auxiliary heater improves significantly, the fraction of the IW
cooling/heating loads carried by solar energy. For solar heating, if the HTF set temperature is 50
C, the overall solar fraction is improved from 3.8% to 7.1%; for solar cooling, if the heater set
temperature is 120C, from 12.7% to 30.4%. The energy quantities and the operational
temperatures of solar cooling system with a heater for preheating are shown in Figure 6-17 and 618, respectively.
These figures compare the system without a heater using constant-outlet-temperature control.
Figure 6-17 indicate that the chiller starts to generate chilled water using solar energy one hour
earlier than one in the system without a heater.
The use of a gas fired heater substitutes heat from natural gas for solar heat in HTF preheating. It
is not clear that this is a desirable substitution. In addition, the capital and operating cost of the
system will be increased when an auxiliary heater is added to the system. A decision on this
feature requires further analysis.
According to the effect of the auxiliary heater for preheating on the system performance, a drainback system for the HTF in the solar collection loop could be a reasonable design to reduce the
night time heat loss from the system and the warm-up in the next morning. Almost providing
same function as auxiliary heater here, instead of using heater, a drain-back system could drain all
of HTF from the solar collection loop at about 130 C (cooling) / 50 (heating) in the well insulated

112

drain-back tank and use this hot fluid in the next morning. It has about 4-9% potential
improvement in solar fraction for both solar heating and solar cooling.
20.00
Q_useful_heater
Q_Hchiller_chw_heater
Q_useful_ConsT
Q_Hchiller_chw_ConsT
Q_load
Q_dumped_heater
Q_dumped_constT

Energy rate in kW

16.00

12.00

8.00

4.00

0.00
0:00

3:00

6:00

9:00

12:00

15:00

18:00

21:00
Time on Aug.09

Figure 6-17 Effect of a heater on energy flow for solar cooling on 09 August
180
170
160
150
140
130

T_sr_in_heater
T_sr_out_heater
T_ambient
T_sr_in_ConsT
T_sr_out_ConsT

Temperature in C

120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10

0:
00
1:
00
2:
00
3:
00
4:
00
5:
00
6:
00
7:
00
8:
00
9:
00
10
:0
0
11
:0
0
12
:0
0
13
:0
0
14
:0
0
15
:0
0
16
:0
0
17
:0
0
18
:0
0
19
:0
0
20
:0
0
21
:0
0
22
:0
0
23
:0
0

Time on Aug.09

Figure 6-18 Effect of a heater on operating temperature for solar cooling on 9 August

6.5 The length and diameter of collection loop pipe and solar system
performance
The length and diameter size of the pipe comprising the solar collection loop play an important
part in the system performance. Greater pipe lengths and diameters increase the heat loss from
the system and increase also the overall heat capacity of the system and of the HTF it contains.
Both of these factors increase the amount of time and the quantity of energy consumed in
preheating the system to its operating temperature at the beginning of the day. Greater pipe

113

lengths also increase the pressure loss in circulating the HTF, while greater diameters reduce
these losses.
In general, reducing the length and diameter of the loop pipes is an effective means to improve
the solar cooling/heating system performance at least until pressure loss and pump energy for
HTF circulation in the collection loop become appreciable.
The IW solar cooling/heating system Trnsys model has been used to predict the system
performance based on the HTF volume of the solar collection loop. A loop with one fourth of the
volume of the current IW collection loop, for instance, would almost double the heating energy
provided by solar energy as indicated in Table 6-6. With a 4 m3 HTF thermal storage tank, the
system could provide almost 36% of the IWs heating load. Further decreases in IW collection
loop volume are limited by the HTF volume in the 52 m2 Broad PTSCs currently installed.
Table 6-6 Effect of collection loop volume on solar heating system performance
Heating

Volume

V ( m3)
Base case
Pipeline

1/4V pipe + Storage

tank

105m long,
OD=0.35m
1/2 V
1/3 V
1/4 V
0.5
1
2
3
4
5
6
8
12

solar
fraction

Collected solar
energy available
to HTF (kJ)

3.84%
5.58%
6.55%
6.86%
17.38%
23.53%
30.61%
34.33%
36.05%
36.44%
36.51%
35.53%
32.31%

Dumped solar
energy to avoid
overheating (kJ)

18,403,342
16,942,898
16,389,211
16,194,339
16,626,052
16,893,591
17,235,390
17,465,762
17,713,285
17,965,478
18,143,975
18,435,085
18,971,394

HTF transmitted
to HX (kJ)

2,933,399
6,856,225
8,701,500
9,385,102
6,622,184
5,261,024
3,763,539
2,864,593
2,323,940
1,871,082
1,439,610
781,945
194,458

994,196
1,558,454
1,876,762
1,974,948
5,341,629
7,355,152
9,656,647
10,871,042
11,451,191
11,588,960
11,619,296
11,314,689
10,270,337

Table 6-7 Effect of collection loop volume on solar cooling system performance
Cooling

Volume of
tank (m3)

Base case
Constant FR+Pipeline
constant temperature
control
Constant T+Pipeline
1/4V pipe + Storage tank

Dumped solar
energy to avoid HTF tramsmitted to
overheating(kJ)
the chiller (kJ)

V ( m3)

solar fraction

Collected solar energy

available to HTF (kJ)

105m long,
OD=0.35m
1/2 V
1/3 V
1/4 V

12.74%
18.81%
20.82%
22.37%

26,836,168
22,431,818
20,865,671
19,802,927

476,504
1,670,502
2,217,887
2,639,001

6,720,545
9,210,723
10,232,847
11,030,277

0 (Cons_T)
1/2 V
1/3 V
1/4 V
0.5
1
2

21.77%
26.72%
28.66%
29.86%
30.26%
30.02%
29.55%

29,246,233
25,622,199
24,181,580
23,531,796
25,226,145
25,302,771
25,397,568

925,716
2,770,240
3,569,758
4,004,222
260,845
105,374
38,389

10,504,396
12,748,661
13,605,490
14,153,381
14,534,410
14,398,325
14,118,677

114

Reducing the HTF volume of IW solar collection loop also significantly improves system
performance as indicated in Table 6-7 and Figure 6-19. Again, a loop with one fourth of the
volume of the current IW collection loop would almost double the energy provided to the chiller
by solar energy as indicated in the table. Table 6-7 also indicates that a storage tank for shifting
energy or for preheating does not significantly improve the system performance when the
collection loop has a small volume. And finally, if the system were operated at a constant outlet
temperature, as illustrated in Figure 6-19, it could provide 30% of the IWs cooling. Figures 6-20
and 6-21 show the energy quantities and operating temperatures in the system with a reduced
collection loop volume.
35%

1/4 V
30%

1/3 V
1/2 V

25%

20%

Constant F R
Constant T
15%

10%
0

1/5

2/5

3/5

4/5

1 1/5

Percent of the current pipe volume

Figure 6-19 Solar fraction and pipe size under two control strategies

20.00

Q_useful_ConsT
Q_Hchiller_chw_ConsT
Q_load
Q_useful_ConsT_1/4V
Q_Hchiller_chw_ConsT_1/4V

Energy rate in kW

16.00

12.00

8.00

4.00

0.00
0:00

3:00

6:00

9:00

12:00

15:00

18:00

21:00
Time on Aug.09

Figure 6-20 System energy performance and pipe size on 9 August

115

180.00
170.00

T_ambient

160.00

T_sr_in_ConsT

150.00

T_sr_out_ConsT
T_sr_in_ConsT_1/4v

140.00

T_sr_out_ConsT_1/4v

Temperature in C

130.00
120.00
110.00
100.00
90.00
80.00
70.00
60.00
50.00
40.00
30.00
20.00
10.00

:0
0

23

:0
0

:0
0

22

21

:0
0

:0
0

20

19

:0
0

:0
0

17

18

:0
0

:0
0

15

16

:0
0

:0
0

13

14

:0
0

:0
0

12

:0
0

10

11

00

00

00
9:

8:

7:

00

00
5:

6:

00

00
3:

4:

00

00
2:

1:

0:

00

0.00

Time on Aug.09

Figure 6-21 Operating temperature and pipe size on 9 August

Figure 6-20 showed that system with volume of installed pipe operates the absorption chiller
by solar energy an hour earlier than current installation controlled by constant-outlet-temperature
since the system with a small heat capacity heats up rapidly. In addition, the instant loss from the
system to the ambient during preheat period is grater than one in the system with a large volume
of pipe. Both Figure 6-20 and Figure 6-21 indicated that a small volume of the system has more
useful solar energy utilized to provide building heating and cooling.

6.6 The area of solar collector and storage tank

The area of the PTSCs and the capacity of the thermal storage provided are important factors
impacting the performance of a solar cooling/heating system. Increasing the area of the collectors
and the capacity of the storage increase the quantity of solar heat made available for
cooling/heating, but also increase the cost of the installation; an economic decision is required.
The Trnsys model of the IW solar cooling/heating system has been used to calculate the
performance of the system with 52 m2 and with 81m2 of PTSCs. Figure 6-22 shows that the
solar fraction has been improved by 10 % in solar cooling and 15 % in solar heating of the IW. In
the Figure, in both solar cooling and heating is achieved by increasing the solar collector area
from 52 m2 to 81 m2.
In addition, the figure shows that the storage tank does not improve the system performance in
solar cooling although it may be useful in minimizing fluctuations in system operation. In solar

116

heating, the greater PTSC area collects more solar energy in the relatively short solar day in
winter. And the storage tank makes the solar energy available when it is needed in the evening, at
night, and in the early morning. Figure 6-22 also indicates that the larger area of solar collector
requires a larger the storage tank to achieve the maximum solar fraction. For 81 m2 of PTSCs, 5
m3 is the optimal volume of the storage tank.
40%
35%

Solar fraction

30%
25%
20%
15%
Solar heating (52 m2)
Solar cooling (52 m2)
Solar heating (81m2)
Solar cooling (81 m2)

10%
5%
0%
0

10

11

12

Volume of tank (m3)

Figure 6-22 Effect of PTSC area and storage volume on the solar fraction in IW cooling and heating

6.7 Guidelines for design and operation of solar cooling and heating system
Conclusions from the results of calculations provided by the Trnsys model of solar
cooling/heating in the IW throughout a year regarding the design and operation of such systems
are summarized as follows:

The orientation of the solar collectors

The orientation of the PTSCs impacts the performance of PTSC based solar cooling system. A
NS axis for PTSC tracking is the orientation that provides the greatest amount of solar energy
collected throughout the year for cooling and heating.

PTSC area

The area of the PTSC for the IW is reasonably determined so that the solar energy collected
during a design day is that required by its cooling/heating load. The thermal storage stores
throughout the day solar energy when it is in excess then makes it available when there is a

117

deficiency of incident solar energy. PTSCs of larger area with adequate storage tank capacity
improve the system performance for both cooling and heating on days when the solar incidence is
intermittent or low. The selection of PTSC area and thermal capacity is properly determined by
an economic analysis.

Storage tank capacity

A storage tank located in the collection loop stores, during the day, thermal energy in excess of
that required for cooling/heating and makes it available for cooling/heating at a later time. The
storage can also be used to minimize the effects of short term fluctuations in the solar radiation or
the cooling/heating load. Since the solar supply and the cooling load of the IW are nearly
coincident, only a small storage tank is required. The solar supply and the heating load of the IW
during the evening, night, and early morning are far from coincident. A sizable storage tank can
significantly improve the system performances, the solar fraction, by storing the excess solar
energy during the day and making it available in the evening and early morning.

Drain-back system for preheating

A gas fired auxiliary heater reduces the start up time and increase the time duration for solar
cooling and heating. But this feature merely substitutes the energy of natural gas for solar energy,
and it increases the capital and operating costs of the solar system. Therefore, based on similar
principle, a drain-back system could be recommended for preheating.

The length and diameter of pipe in the solar collection and the load loops

Decreasing the length and diameter of the pipe in the solar collection loop reduces the system
heat capacity, the heat loss, and the preheat time and energy required by the system. And these
dimensions also affect the pressure loss and the energy required for circulating the HTF in the
solar collection loop. A length and diameter of this pipe line as small as feasible, limiting the
pressure loss and pumping energy for the loop, optimizes the system performance in both solar
cooling and heating.

Operating strategy

Operating a PTSC at a constant outlet temperature results in a higher solar fraction than operating
at a constant HTF flow in solar cooling. This procedure effectively shortens the preheating time
of system. Its advantage, however, is dependent on the heat capacity of the system.

118

In conclusion, additional system simulations have been implemented to predict the system
performance of IW solar cooling and heating system applying the recommended design
parameters and operating controls. The results indicated in Figure 6-23 show that the IW solar
cooling/heating system with 52 m2 of PTSCs oriented NS, a 4 m3 storage tank, a collection loop
volume one fourth the current value, operated at a constant collector outlet temperature would
provide 40% of the IW cooling load and 20% heating load by use of solar energy. But the
orientation of the PTSC in the IW is EW; the IW solar cooling/heating system with a 4 m3 storage
tank and one forth of the current collection loop volume would provide about 30% of its cooling
by solar energy and 37% of its heating.
45%
Solar cooling (N/S, 52 m2, 1/4 V)

40%
35%

Solar heating (E/W, 52 m2, 1/4 V)

Solar cooling (E/W, 52 m2, 1/4 V)

Solar fraction

30%
25%

Solar heating (E/W, 52 m2)

Solar cooling (E/W, 52 m2)

20%
Solar heating (N/S, 52 m2, 1/4 V)

15%
10%
5%
0%
0

10

11

12

Volume of tank (m3)

Figure 6-23 Idealized IW solar cooling/heating system performance and system sensitivity analysis

In general, the design and operation of a solar thermal cooling/heating system should be based on
the building and its load profiles, the climate conditions and the incident solar radiation profiles,
the physical limitations of the situation, and the economics of the energy supply.

119

Contributions and areas of future research

7.1 Contributions
This thesis presents methods developed for the effective design, operation, and evaluation of
parabolic trough solar collectors, PTSCs, and also of the systems using them for providing
cooling and heating for buildings. Such systems will reduce the primary energy consumption,
and improve environmental benefits in buildings by using renewable energy, solar energy.
The work reported in this thesis comprises
1. The establishment of a test bed PTSC based solar cooling and heating system for a
building
A solar absorption cooling and heating test system was installed, and tested in the IW. Its primary
components are 52 m2 of parabolic trough solar collectors, PTSCs; a 16 kW double effect
absorption chiller; and a heat recovery exchanger together with a heat exchanger that simulates
building cooling/heating loads for solar collector and system test and performance evaluation. A
web based control and data acquisition system was developed to operate the solar thermal system
while storing and displaying the test measurement data. The PTSCs were tested at various
operating conditions: direct normal solar irradiation; heat transfer fluid, HTF, flow and
temperature; and wind velocity. Tests throughout 37 days involving solar cooling and heating
were conducted at various weather conditions: clear days, mostly sunny days, mostly cloudy and
overcast days in winter and summer. The analyses and evaluation of the experimental data from
the tests of solar collectors and system were carried out using statistical analyses to define the
efficiency and heat capacity of solar collectors, the heat and pressure losses of the solar collector
loop, the COP and capacity of the absorption chiller, and the overall transfer coefficient of the
heat recovery exchanger. In the future, the operation of this solar absorption cooling and heating
test system will be integrated with the cooling and heating units in the IW, with the campus
chilled water and heated water grids, and with the ventilation air supply unit.
2. The development and programming of a comprehensive solar collector model for
analysis of experimental data obtained from the parabolic trough solar collectors and for
the design of improved collectors.
A comprehensive mathematical, PTSC performance model based on the fundamental scientific
and engineering principles was developed and programmed to analyze the experimental data from

120

the test program, to assist in the PTSC design, and to assist in the evaluation of the system
performance of solar cooling and heating. The model incorporates the energy balance relations
for the absorber tube and the glass tube envelope and the heat transfer correlations among them
and the surroundings. When appropriate assumptions, design parameters, operating conditions,
and material properties are provided, the model can be solved calculating the efficiency, the heat
capacity, and heat and pressure losses of the collector, and the temperatures throughout the
collector. The solar collector model considers the effects of the intensity and direction of the
normal solar radiation, the collector design and dimensions, the HTF fluid properties, and the
ambient and operating conditions on the performance of the collector.
3. Development of an overall solar based, building cooling/heating system performance
model for evaluating experimental data and for system design
An overall system performance simulation was developed to assist the system design, to evaluate
the system performance, and to optimize the system configuration. The model developed is able
to calculate and consider in detail the working conditions of each system component (PTSCs,
chiller, recovery exchanger, heat storage, piping, and controls) under various ambient weather and
operating conditions to investigate the effectiveness of the solar based system in cooling and
heating a building space (the IW), to validate the system operation, to quantify the system
performance, to provide a tool and technique for analysis of system, and to assist in the
optimization of the design and operation of solar absorption cooling and heating systems.
4. Analysis of the experimental data, refinement of the solar collector model, and
recommended provisions for the improvement of PTSC design
The model developed for the PTSCs has been used to analyze the experimental data from the
solar collector test program. Discrepancies between the measurements and the model
calculations, most important low measured efficiencies and high measured glass tube
temperature, have been found and used to adjust model assumptions, calculations, and parameter
estimates. The discrepancies found were primarily associated with the heat losses from
connectors and supporting arrangements of the absorber pipes and with an assumed high value of
the transmissivity of the glass tube of the collectors. The validated solar collector model has been
applied to project PTSC performance under the various ambient weather and operating
conditions. Significant recommendations concerning the PTSCs design have been provided

121

regarding the designs of the collector tracking arrangements, the glass tube, and the absorber pipe
with its connectors and supports
5. Analysis of the experimental data on solar absorption cooling and heating, and
optimization of the design and operation of the solar absorption cooling/heating system
Performance projections by the overall solar building cooling/heating system model were
compared with experimental data on the cooling and heating of the IW obtained throughout
several days in the test program. Reasonable agreement was observed. The model was used in
sensitivity studies to explore what design and operation modifications in the installed solar
cooling/heating system might be most effective in improving the performance of the system,
primarily the fraction of the cooling/heating loads of the IW that could be met by solar energy
system. The modifications explored in these studies include: the orientation and area of the solar
collectors; the provision of thermal storage in the solar loop; changes in the solar loop pipe
length, diameter, and insulation; modified system operation and control strategies.

Finally,

guidelines have been formulated to provide a basis for the preliminary selection of components, a
configuration, and an operating approach in the design of an effective solar absorption cooling
and heating system for a particular building.

7.2 Areas of future research

7.2.1

Improving the tracking system of the PTSC

The installed PTSCs track the sun in one dimension according to the tracking angle calculated
by a set of equations that consider of the relative positions of the earth, the sun, and the PTSCs at
each instant throughout the year. The equations after an initial correction was made appear to be
accurate. But experiments have showed that the PTSCs did not accurately track the sun
throughout a day, especially in the early morning or late afternoon. The difficulties in tracking
and focus of the solar reflectors may be due to the tracking mechanisms and/or to structural
inaccuracies of the reflector position and shape and of the support for the absorber pipe.
Accurate tracking is the key factor for a PTSC based solar thermal system in achieving a high
efficiency for the recovery of solar energy throughout a day. Two approaches can be considered to
improve the current tracking system. One is adding radiation focus sensors of various types. This
approach adjusts the tracking based on a measurement at a single point along the length of the
collector.

122

Another approach to improved tracking uses feedback control based on maximizing the
temperature difference between the outlet and inlet HTF temperatures over the PTSCs by
adjusting the position of the reflector. This approach needs accurate temperature measurements at
appropriate time intervals, but it does deal with the integrated performance of the whole of the
PTSC.

7.2.2

Extending the operational controls of the PTSC, the absorption chiller, and
the heat recovery exchanger

The current solar cooling and heating system was tested in space cooling and heating; its
operation now needs to be automated and integrated with the cooling/heating units of the IW and
with the chilled and heated water grids of the campus.
It still requires a lot of manual control to fulfill the task. In order to have a completely automatic
control, both the controls of absorption chiller and the PTSC need to be improved at following
aspects.

tracking offset control of the PTSC

At an instance, if the solar energy is gained by the system more than the system could receive, a
tracking offset would be a better idea to limit the receiver temperature than fully defocusing the
receiver tube off the focal line like current situation. Since a small tracking offset could not only
reduce the solar gain of the system, but also stabilize the system operation. Therefore after the
quantification of the relation between the solar gain and a tracking offset under a certain direct
normal solar radiation, a tracking offset control of the PTSC could be developed to efficiently
control solar thermal system.

Develop drain-back system

A system with a large system heat capacity, like IW solar thermal system, normally has a long
preheating time to heat the HTF in the pipe to the useful temperature. This long preheating
process not only consumes a lot of useful solar energy but also shortens the effective solar
cooling and heating time. So reducing this preheating time of the system will definitely improve
the system performance. A drain-back system can be developed in the IW to shorten preheating
period. There is a storage tank installed indoor for filling and draining the HTF. After well
insulated, this storage tank could be utilized as a drain-back tank. So all of hot HTF from solar
collection loop could be collected back to this tank when the HTF could not be directly used by

123

the absorption chiller / HX and then the stored hot HTF could be discharged from the tank back to
the collection loop in the next sunny day. The substantial control strategy will also be developed
to effectively operate the solar thermal system.

Develop automated operation of solar cooling and heating system

The current solar cooling and heating system installed in the IW is still operated in a partially
manual way. A completely automated operational control system will be developed to operate the
system without human being involving. This automated operation control includes start-up and
shut-down the operation of solar cooling and heating system, operating absorption chiller / HX
under various condition, and safely operating PTSC. According to the cooling and heating
demands and solar availability, this automated control can start to operate the absorption chiller
by using natural gas or HX to meet the cooling or heating requirement and operate the PTSC to
collect solar energy if the conditions to operate the PTSC are satisfied. Before operation of the
PTSC, the control system can refill the solar collection loop with the hot HTF from the drainback tank. It, then, can circulate and heat the HTF to the temperature desired by the absorption
chiller / HX. The operation of the PTSC can be protected by this control system without any
damage from preheating. When the HTF cannot provide the energy required by the chiller / HX,
the control system could drain the hot HTF from the solar collection loop back to the drain-back
tank and shut-down the PTSC. If there are no load demands, the system will shut-down by this
automated control system. This automated control system integrates all of components in the
solar cooling and heating system and safely operate it in completely automatic way.

7.2.3

Integrate thermal storage in the cooling/heating system

Thermal storage can be an important component in solar based building cooling and heating
systems that minimizes fluctuations in the energy supply and compensates for displacements in
time of day between the solar heat supply and the cooling/heating energy requirements. Thermal
storage can be provided either in the form of HTF at high temperature or of a material that
changes phase absorbing/desorbing heat at a selected temperature. HTF based storage requires a
relatively large volume of fluid in order to provide a high capacity. Phase change based storage
reduces the volume and weight of storage, but it operates effectively only at the temperature of
the phase change. In the future work, a phase change storage device will be integrated with the
current IW solar cooling and heating system.

124

7.2.4

Cost model

A comprehensive cost model should be provided to support decision making in applying a solar
cooling and heating to a particular building. This model should facilitate the comparison of the
PTSC based solar cooling and heating system with other alternative solar systems, and with the
traditional cooling and heating system. As the basis of economical analysis, a cost model should
be developed to predict the capital, operating, and maintenance costs of a solar cooling and
heating system. The model will use these costs and the interest rates to provide the expected
economic value added the return on investment, and the overall system economic performance of
a solar cooling and heating systems.

125

References

1. http://www2.chass.ncsu.edu/garson/pa765/regress.htm#samplesize.
2. http://stc.solargen.org/stc.collector.html.
3. Active Solar Heating Systems Design Manual, ASHRAE.
4.

http://stc.solargen.org/stc.collector.html#linear-fresnel.

5. Standard Test Method for Determining Thermal Performance of Tracking Concentrating

Solar Collectors.
6. http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/old_data/nsrdb/tmy2/.
7. Comparative Climatic Data. 2001, National Climatic Data Center.
8. ASHRAE handbook 2003.
9. Assilzadeh, F., et al., Simulation and optimization of a LiBr solar absorption cooling system
with evacuated tube collectors. Renewable energy, 2005. 30: p. 1143-1159.
10. Casals, X.G., solar absorption cooling in Spain: perspectives and outcomes from the
simulation of recent installations. Renewable energy, 2006. 31: p. 1371-1389.
11. Cohen, G.E., D.W. Kearney, and G.J. Kolb, Final report on the operation and maintenance
improvement program for concentrating solar power plants, in SAND99-1290. 1999.
12. Dudley, V.E., SEGS LS-2 solar Collector. 1994.
13. Duff, W.S., et al., Performance of the Sacramento demonstration ICPC collector and double
effect chiller. Solar Energy, 2004. 76: p. 175-180.
14. Duffie, J.A. and W.A. Beckman, Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes. 1980, New York:
John wiley & sons.
15. Florides, G.A., et al., Modeling, simulation and warming impact assessment of a domesticsize absorption solar cooling system. Applied thermal engineering, 2002. 22: p. 1313-1325.

126

16. Florides, G.A., et al., Modeling and simulation of an absorption solar cooling system for
CYPRUS. Solar Energy, 2002. 72(1): p. 43-51.
17. Hansen, E.G., Hydronic system design and operation, a guide to heating and cooling with
water. 1985, New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. .
18. Henning and H.m., Air conditioning with solar energy. . 2000.
19. Hewett, R., Solar absorption cooling: An innovative use of solar energy. AIChE
SYMPOSIUM SERIES, 1995. 91(306): p. 291-299.
20. Holman, J.P., Heat transfer. 8th ed. 1997: McGraw-Hill, Inc.
21. Ibrahim Atmaca and A.Y., Simulation of solar-powered absorption cooling system. .
Renewable Energy, 2003. 28: p. 1277-1293.
22. Ileri, A., A discussion on performance parameters for solar-aided absorption cooling systems.
Renewable Energy, 1997. 10(4): p. 617-624.
23. Incorpera, F.P., Fundamentals of heat and mass transfer. 3th ed. 1990: John Wiley & Sons.
24. Iqbal, M., An introduction to solar radiation. 1983: Academic Press Canada.
25. Joudi, K.A. and Q.J.a. G., Development of design charts for solar cooling systems. Part I:
computer simulation for a solar cooling system and development of solar cooling design charts.
Energy conversion & management, 2003. 44: p. 313-339.
26. Kalogirou, s., s. lloyd, and j. ward, modeling, optimisation and performance evaluation of a
parabolic trough solar collector steam generation system. solar Energy, 1997. 60(1): p. 49-59.
27. Kaushik, S.C. and Y.K. Yadav, Thermodynamic design and assessment of hybrid double
absorption solar cooling systems. Heat recovery system & CHP, 1991. 11(4): p. 255-262.
28. Knapp, C.L. and T.L. Stoffel, Direct Normal Solar Radiation Data Manual. 1982, SERI report
29. Kulkarni, P.P., Solar Absorption Cooling for Demand-side Management. Energy Engineering,
1994. 91(5): p. 29 - 39.

127

30. Lokurlu, A., et al., A new kind of steam supply and air conditioning in a hotel in antalya,
Turkey, by application of parabolic trough collectors (SOLITEM PTC) combined with double
effect absorption chiller. VDI-BERICHTE, 2002. 174.
31. Mendes, L.F., Supply of cooling and heating with solar assisted absorption heat pumps: an
energetic approach. Int J. Refrig., 1998. 21: p. 116-125.
32. Mendes, L.F., M.C. P., and F.Ziegler, Supply of cooling and heating with solar assisted
absorption heat pumps: an energetic approach. . International Journal of Refrigeration, 1998.
21(2): p. 116-125.
33. Odeh, S.D., G.L.M., and M.Behnia, Modelling of parabolic trough direct steam generation
solar collectors. Solar energy, 1998. 62(6): p. 295-406.
34. Patnode, A.M., simulation and performance evaluation of parabolic trough solar power
plants. 2006, University of Wisconsin-madison
35. Price, H., Advanced in parabolic trough solar power technology. Journal of solar energy
engineering, 2002. 124: p. 109-125.
36. Stine, W.B., Energy Fundamentals and Design: With Computer Applications. 1985, New
York: John Wiley and Sons.
37. Stine, W.B., Solar industrial process heat project. 1989, Sandia National laboratories.
38. Stine, W.B. and M. Geyer, Power from the sun: Principles of high temperature solar thermal
technology. 1987: Solar Energy Research Institute.
39. Syed, A., optimal solar cooling systems. 2004.
40. Wardono, B., Simulation of a solar-assisted LiBr/H2O cooling system. ASHRAE
transactions, 1996. 102(1): p. 104-109.
41. Yin, H., An Absorption Chiller in a Micro BCHP Application: Model based Design and
Performance Analysis. 2006, Carnegie Mellon University: Pittsburgh.

128

Appendix

Table of Contents of Appendix

Appedix 1
Appedix 1.1

The control of PTSC......................................................................................... 1-1

Sun position in the literatures......................................................................... 1-1

A1.1.1

Solar constant ..................................................................................................... 1-1

A1.1.2

Solar angles ........................................................................................................ 1-2

Appedix 1.2

Calculation in broad tracking program .......................................................... 1-5

Appedix 1.3

Broad solar control system............................................................................. 1-7

Appedix 2

The experimental performance data of the PTSC......................................... 2-1

Appedix 3

The PTSC mathematic model ......................................................................... 3-1

Appedix 3.1
Appedix 4
Appedix 4.1
Appedix 5
Appedix 5.1

Code of the PTSC model ............................................................................... 3-2

Validation of the PTSC model......................................................................... 4-1
Radiation transmission through covers and absorption by collectors ............ 4-1
Solar cooling and heating system simulation ................................................. 5-1
Building simulation interface......................................................................... 5-1

A5.1.1

Geometry ............................................................................................................ 5-2

A5.1.2

Materials............................................................................................................. 5-3

A5.1.3

Simulation of the ventilation .............................................................................. 5-3

Appedix 5.2
A5.2.1

Solar heating evaluation simulation ............................................................... 5-5

Definition of the components in the model ........................................................ 5-6

Appedix 5.3

Solar cooling evaluation simulation............................................................. 5-10

Appedix 5.4

Solar heating base-case ................................................................................ 5-11

Appedix 5.5

Solar cooling base-case................................................................................ 5-12

Appedix 5.6

Code of parabolic trough solar collector...................................................... 5-13

Appedix 5.7

Code of main control of solar cooling base-case ......................................... 5-19

Appedix 6

System optimization and sensitivity analysis ................................................. 6-1

Appedix 6.1

Solar heating system with constant-outlet-temperature control..................... 6-1

Appedix 6.2

Solar cooling system with constant-outlet-temperature control..................... 6-2

Appedix 6.3

Solar heating system with storage tank.......................................................... 6-3

A6.3.1
Appedix 6.4
A6.4.1

Control of solar heating system with storage tank ............................................. 6-4

Solar cooling system with storage tank for shifting energy ........................... 6-5
Control of solar cooling system with storage tank for shifting energy .............. 6-6

ii

Appedix 6.5
A6.5.1

Solar cooling system with storage tank for preheat ....................................... 6-7
Control of solar cooling system with storage tank for preheat........................... 6-8

Appedix 6.6

Solar heating system with auxiliary heater for preheat .................................. 6-9

Appedix 6.7

Solar cooling with auxiliary heater for preheat............................................ 6-10

Appedix 6.8

Code of type 236: PTSC with constant-outlet-temperature control............. 6-11

Appedix 6.9

Code of type 237: main control of solar cooling for constant-outlet-

temperature control ................................................................................................................ 6-21

Appedix 6.10

Code of type 243: main control of solar cooling with storage tank for

shifting energy by constant-outlet-temperature ..................................................................... 6-27

Appedix 6.11

Code of type 242: main control of solar cooling with storage tank control

for preheat controlled by constant-outlet-temperature ........................................................... 6-34

Appedix 6.12

code of type 245: Control of solar heating with auxiliary heater controlled

by constant-outlet-temperature .............................................................................................. 6-43

Appedix 6.13

Code of type 244: control of solar cooling with auxiliary heater for preheat

6-47

iii

Appedix 1

The control of PTSC

The data acquisition and control system, provided by Broad Co, is able to operate the PTSC to
track sun throughout a day, protect the PTSC, and record and display the experimental data as
well. This control system calculates the tracking angle and sends commands to the PTSC tracking
the sun, based on solar field location and orientation (the longitude, altitude), date and time,
tracking setting, operation condition and schedule, as indicated in the inputs block of Figure 1:1.

Figure 1:1 Broad solar control inputs and outputs

Appedix 1.1 Sun position in the literatures

A1.1.1 Solar constant
Solar energy approaches the earth as electromagnetic radiation, with wavelengths ranging from
0.1 um (x-rays) to 100 m (radio waves). Approximately 99% of suns radiation energy has
wavelengths between 0.28 and 4.96 um. The current value of the solar constant, which is defined

1-1

as the intensity of solar radiation on a surface normal to the suns rays, just beyond the earths
atmosphere at the average earth-sun distance, is 433 Btu/h. ft2 (1367 W/m2). Due to absorption
and scattering in the atmosphere, solar radiation is attenuated as it reaches the earths surface
[ASHRAE handbook 2003].

A1.1.2 Solar angles

The earth rotates about its axis which is tilted at an angle of 23.45 to the plane of the earths
orbital plane and the suns equator. Due to this tilted axis, the position of the sun varies
throughout a day. The declination angle is used to describe the angular position of the sun at solar
noon with respect to the plane of the equator. The following expression for declination angle was
developed by P.I. Cooper in 1969 (Beckman 1980).

= 23.5 sin[360

284 + N
]
365

(Equation 1:1)

Where,
N= the day of the year, for Jan 1st, N=1
Because the earths daily rotation and its annual orbit around the sun are regular and predictable,
the solar path can be calculated for any desired time of day if altitude, longitude, and date
(declination) are specified. The hour angle determines the position of the sun, calculated by
Equation 1:2. It is the angular displacement of the sun east or west of the local meridian.
H = (12-AST)*15

(Equation 1:2)

Where,
AST= Apparent solar time in hour, which is claculated based on Equation 1:3.
AST=LST+EOT+(LST meridian-Local longitude)/15

(Equation 1:3)

Where,
LST=local stand time
EOT = Equation of time [min], calculated based on Equation 1:4
LST meridian= standard meridian for the local time zone [deg]
Local longitude = the local meridian of the site [deg]
EOT=(229.2*(7.5*10^(-5)+0.001868*COS(B)-0.032077*SIN(B)-0.014615*COS(2B)(Equation 1:4) ( Iqbal 1983)
0.04089*SIN(2B)))/60

1-2

Where,
B=360*(N-1)/365, where N= the day of the year, for Jan 1st, N=1
So solar altitude( ), the angle between the line of signt to the sun anf the horizont, can be
calculated based on decilination angle( ), latitude location of the site (LAT), and hour angle (H)
as shown in Euqation 1:5
sin = cos( LAT ) * cos * cos H + sin( LAT ) * sin

(Equation 1:5)

Figure 1:2 ingle axis tracking system coordinates

Solar altitudes complement, the angle between the line of sight to the sun and the vertical, is the
zeith angle. Solar azimuth ( ) can be calculated according to Equation 1:6

sin = cos * sin H / cos

(Equation 1:6)

1-3

The tracking angle ( ) measures rotation about the tracking axis, with =0 when N is vertical as
shown. It can be calculated based on Equation A1.7 as indicated Figure 1:2. (Stine 1987)

tan =

Sb
Su

(Equation 1:7)

So the general case of a collector aperture tracking about a single, horizontal axis, the tracking
angle

tan =

S b cos * cos( ) cos( )

=
=
Su
sin
tan

(Equation 1:8)

Where,

: Orientation (azimuth of the surface normal) from true SOUTH, toward east -, toward
west +
And the incident angle, which the angle between the sun ray and the normal to the aperture
surface of collector, is

cos i = 1 cos 2 * sin 2 ( )

(Equation 1:9)

1-4

Appedix 1.2 Calculation in broad tracking program

Reference
name
Solar
declination
(same)
Equation of
time (hour)

ASHRAE

= 23.5 sin[360

284 + N
]
365

Where, for Jan 1st, N=1

EOT= 0.165*SIN(2B)-0.126*COS(B)-0.025*SIN(B)
Where,
B= 360*(N-81)/364

(Same)
Solar time
(same)

AST=LST+EOT+(LST meridian-Local longitude)/15

Hour angle ()
(inverse sign)

H=(12-AST)*15
East : + ; West: -

Solar latitude
()
(same)
Solar azimuth
()
Morning
inverse sign;
afternoon,
same

BROAD

= 23.5 sin[360

284 + N
]
365

Where, for Jan 1st, N=1

EOT=(229.2*(7.5*10^(-5)+0.001868*COS(B)0.032077*SIN(B)-0.014615*COS(2B)0.04089*SIN(2B)))/60
Where,
B=360*(N-1)/365
AST=LST+EOT +(Local longitude- LST meridian-)/15 (East global)
AST=LST+EOT -(Local longitude- LST meridian-)/15 (West global)
H=(AST-12)*15
Moring: - ; Afternoon: +

sin = cos( LAT ) * cos * cos H + sin( LAT ) * sin

sin = cos( LAT ) * cos * cos H + sin( LAT ) * sin

Where,
LAT= local latitude

Where,
LAT= local latitude

sin = cos * sin H / cos

OR

cos =

sin * sin( LAT ) sin

cos * cos( LAT )

if | | LAT , thenC1 = 1
EW = arccos(tan( ) / tan( LAT )
if | H | EW , thenC1 = 1; otherwiseC1 = 1
ifLAT * ( LAT ) 0, thenC 2 = 1; otherwiseC 2 = 1
ifH 0, thenC 3 = 1; otherwiseC 3 = 1
FF = sin H * cos / cos
= C1 * C 2 * arcsin( FF ) + 180 * C 3 * (1 C1 * C 2) / 2

1-5

Vertical
Shadow
Angle ()
Horizontal
axis, the
tracking
angle
Incident angle

tan(VSA) = tan( ) / cos( )

Where,
: orientation (azimuth of the surface normal)

tan =

if | |> 90, RS = 180 + arctan(tan / cos( ); otherwise

RS = arctan(tan / cos( )

S b cos * cos( ) cos( )

=
=
Su
sin
tan

cos i = 1 cos 2 * sin 2 ( )

cos i = cos * cos(90 ) + sin * sin(90 ) * cos( )

1-6

Appedix 1.3 Broad solar control system

The PTSCs control system monitors the instant operation temperature, pressure, solar radiation
and wind velocity. Three operation modes are available in Broad solar control system:
commissioning, automation, linkage. The commissioning mode is used to check if the main solar
circulation pump and the PTSC work well individually. The automation mode is used to
automatically operate the PTSC throughout a day under protection. The linkage mode is used to
operate the PTSC and absorption chiller together. This model basically is same as automation
model, but it allows PTSC and absorption chiller working together to provide cooling for a space
through the information communication between them. In addition, Broad solar control system
can also defocus the PTSC to prevent the damage of the PTSC or system when the operating
temperate or pressure in the solar loop is too high. Figure 1:3 shows the control logic of Broad
solar collector control.

Figure 1:3 Broad PTSC control block diagram

1-7

Appedix 2

The experimental performance data of the PTSC

Table 2:1 PTSC performance experimental data in the steady states

Date

Time

4/20/2007
4/20/2007
4/21/2007
4/21/2007
4/22/2007
4/22/2007
4/22/2007
4/22/2007
4/22/2007
4/22/2007
2/24/2007
2/24/2007
2/24/2007
2/24/2007
3/2/2007
3/2/2007
3/2/2007
3/2/2007
5/4/2007
5/4/2007
5/4/2007
5/4/2007
5/4/2007
5/4/2007
5/6/2007
5/6/2007
5/6/2007
5/6/2007
5/6/2007
5/6/2007
7/8/2007
6/16/2007
6/16/2007
6/16/2007
6/16/2007
7/31/2007
7/31/2007
7/31/2007
7/31/2007
7/31/2007
7/31/2007
3/9/2007
3/9/2007
3/9/2007
7/2/2007
3/8/2007
3/8/2007
3/20/2007
3/20/2007
3/20/2007
3/20/2007
3/11/2007
3/11/2007
3/11/2007
3/11/2007

13:45~14:15
14:15~14:45
13:40~14:10
14:10~14:40
13:00~13:30
13:30~14:00
14:20~14:50
14:50~15:20
15:25~16:49
15:49~16:25
11:42~11:53
11:53~12:09
12:52~13:22
13:22~13:42
12:07~12:37
12:37~13:07
13:08~13:38
13:38~14:08
12:03~12:33
12:33~13:03
13:12~13:42
13:42~14:12
14:25~14:55
14:55~15:25
13:00~13:30
13:30~14:00
14:08~14:38
14:38~15:08
15:34~16:04
16:04~16:34
13:39~13:53
14:33~14:44
14:44~14:53
15:10~15:23
15:23~15:40
13:01~13:29
13:29~14:01
14:02~14:32
14:32~15:02
15:03~15:25
15:25~16:03
13:30~14:00
14:00~14:30
14:31~15:31
16:20~16:50
14:30~15:00
14:30~15:30
14:45~15:15
15:15~15:45
15:46~16:04
16:03~16:22
14:35~15:04
15:04~15:35
15:36~15:55
15:55~16:12

T_amb ( Wind_speed
C )
W1 (m/s)
NIP (W/m^2) T1 C

T2 C

solar loop
flow F1
(gpm)

T2b C

solar loop
flow F1
(kg/hr)

Average
two array
Heat gain
I*Aa*cos(Th Operated
temp. [C]
(kW) (mcpt2 eta)(kW)

19.12

1.30

974.06

44.03

59.66

60.05

6.80

1568.42

26.71

49.33

32.72

19.71

1.42

971.90

44.68

58.70

59.08

6.80

1568.42

23.77

47.09

31.98

22.36

0.80

958.90

61.53

78.35

78.27

8.39

1910.14

34.55

48.81

47.58

22.99

0.80

959.90

63.50

78.16

78.09

8.39

1909.34

30.29

46.87

47.84

25.83

2.05

931.84

63.22

78.15

78.13

8.40

1911.61

30.95

48.71

44.86

26.01

2.03

925.68

63.84

78.73

78.63

8.39

1900.65

30.55

47.54

45.28

26.73

2.22

914.59

65.49

76.97

76.86

8.38

1899.26

23.78

43.89

44.50

26.93

1.96

904.85

68.28

77.90

77.79

8.40

1902.91

19.74

40.57

46.16

26.91

1.90

883.11

68.95

77.23

77.13

8.40

1902.91

17.11

36.02

46.18

26.99

2.38

864.20

69.18

76.23

76.13

8.40

1902.91

14.20

32.62

45.71

-2.93

0.60

887.87

41.79

51.08

57.48

5.60

1291.64

21.45

44.58

49.36

-2.19

0.80

864.54

41.30

50.98

57.40

5.60

1291.64

22.00

44.14

48.34

-1.45

0.31

922.61

41.30

51.63

59.98

5.60

1291.64

25.43

47.79

47.91

-1.08

0.59

891.84

43.39

54.10

62.27

5.60

1291.64

25.81

45.14

49.82

10.98

6.20

1000.10

47.44

56.74

66.19

5.77

1324.45

26.64

52.01

41.11

11.42

4.66

995.81

47.13

57.18

66.66

5.76

1323.44

27.68

51.93

40.74

11.75

6.33

992.45

47.85

60.03

67.88

5.78

1328.16

28.47

50.53

42.19

12.37

6.42

979.06

48.04

60.93

66.94

5.79

1328.69

26.93

47.88

42.12

20.10

2.51

898.21

73.35

85.68

85.70

8.40

1894.20

25.40

45.62

59.42

20.75

2.97

905.81

74.58

87.45

87.57

8.40

1894.20

26.67

47.15

60.26

21.22

2.59

902.18

77.52

90.84

90.97

8.40

1885.48

27.56

46.82

62.96

21.50

2.89

901.03

78.30

91.30

91.39

8.40

1885.48

26.85

45.48

63.30

22.21

2.43

890.01

79.44

92.73

92.80

8.40

1885.48

27.40

41.98

63.87

22.50

2.45

880.86

79.81

91.25

91.34

8.40

1885.48

23.77

40.13

63.03

15.05

3.25

961.90

56.47

69.18

69.63

8.31

1898.90

26.65

50.21

47.77

15.85

2.77

963.17

57.66

69.93

70.27

8.33

1904.28

25.67

49.22

47.95

16.30

3.04

956.54

60.40

73.64

73.94

8.40

1911.61

27.70

46.51

50.72

16.82

2.20

950.27

62.01

74.20

74.48

8.40

1911.61

25.60

43.46

51.29

17.23

2.70

931.18

68.42

79.28

79.50

8.40

1902.91

22.85

39.40

56.62

17.67

2.12

914.66

69.84

79.40

79.61

8.40

1902.91

20.28

37.99

56.95

15.99

1.76

791.85

151.17

156.41

158.43

6.89

1457.59

12.01

41.06

138.81

16.40

2.03

876.97

150.34

154.90

158.05

6.90

1465.58

12.79

42.06

137.80

16.40

2.17

861.62

150.29

154.49

157.59

6.90

1465.58

12.14

40.51

137.54

16.40

2.81

881.98

148.84

151.93

155.46

6.60

1401.85

11.10

38.91

135.75

16.85

2.28

840.97

147.18

149.08

152.46

6.60

1401.85

8.52

35.73

132.98

28.45

2.46

819.13

146.81

154.81

154.83

6.63

1407.71

13.26

42.85

122.37

28.80

2.14

778.51

148.35

153.00

157.40

6.60

1401.85

14.80

40.11

124.08

29.13

1.97

730.40

149.33

152.94

157.59

6.60

1401.85

13.07

36.39

124.33

29.44

1.81

689.84

148.05

151.55

155.82

6.60

1401.85

12.84

32.67

122.50

29.59

1.77

667.00

146.42

148.81

153.64

6.60

1401.85

11.46

30.26

120.44

29.76

1.93

635.33

143.85

144.75

149.70

6.60

1408.20

9.41

28.48

117.02

13.07

1.35

886.56

129.53

139.03

138.90

6.92

1490.81

16.06

42.49

121.15

13.45

1.59

877.53

128.74

138.16

137.97

6.91

1486.88

15.77

40.35

119.91

13.68

1.65

839.52

127.32

136.10

135.88

6.90

1492.50

14.22

36.25

117.91

23.76

1.55

825.25

138.57

138.76

142.59

6.70

1436.05

6.21

26.85

116.82

3.90

1.20

832.98

127.70

133.86

137.61

6.68

1437.23

15.78

36.84

128.76

4.12

1.20

829.27

125.70

128.73

135.17

6.70

1449.24

15.71

35.45

126.31

8.46

2.19

861.55

127.72

136.03

136.35

6.99

1512.74

14.54

40.83

123.58

8.40

1.84

713.84

126.62

135.28

135.42

7.00

1513.41

15.33

31.47

122.62

7.75

1.58

648.14

126.11

134.60

134.75

6.99

1512.86

15.06

26.63

122.68

8.31

1.20

668.30

125.20

133.21

133.31

6.96

1505.48

14.13

25.64

120.94

10.30

3.10

923.67

126.68

136.58

135.96

6.80

1470.87

15.15

44.90

121.02

10.33

3.36

918.98

126.88

137.07

136.33

6.80

1470.87

15.42

42.44

121.28

10.79

2.41

913.13

126.34

136.28

135.59

6.80

1470.87

15.60

39.22

120.17

10.76

2.69

903.42

124.86

134.16

133.36

6.80

1470.87

14.41

36.57

118.34

2-1

Table 2:2 The flow rate required to ensure the turbulent flow
Temperature

Pipe size

ID

Dynamic viscosity

Start Tubulent flow

Tubulent flow

Density

Tubulent flow

Tubulent flow

Transition flow

Transition flow

(m)

kg/m.s

(Red=2300 )kg/s

kg/h

kg/m3

m3/h

(2300)gpm

(Red=4000 )kg/s

(4000)gpm

3/4"

0.02093

0.019029931

0.7195

2590.16

1051.54407

2.4632

10.84

1.25

18.86

1 1/4"

0.03504

0.019029931

1.2045

4336.32

1051.54407

4.1238

18.16

2.09

31.58

1 1/2"

0.0409

0.019029931

1.4060

5061.52

1051.54407

4.8134

21.19

2.45

36.86

3/4"

0.02093

0.010059949

0.3803

1369.26

1044.60119

1.3108

5.77

0.66

10.04

1 1/4"

0.03504

0.010059949

0.6368

2292.35

1044.60119

2.1945

9.66

1.11

16.80

1 1/2"

0.0409

0.010059949

0.7433

2675.71

1044.60119

2.5615

11.28

1.29

19.61

3/4"

0.02093

0.007568298

0.2861

1030.12

1040.82203

0.9897

4.36

0.50

7.58

1 1/4"

0.03504

0.007568298

0.4790

1724.58

1040.82203

1.6569

7.30

0.83

12.69

(C)
0

10

20

25

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

1 1/2"

0.0409

0.007568298

0.5592

2012.99

1040.82203

1.9340

8.52

0.97

14.81

3/4"

0.02093

0.005810306

0.2197

790.84

1036.87831

0.7627

3.36

0.38

5.84

1 1/4"

0.03504

0.005810306

0.3678

1323.99

1036.87831

1.2769

5.62

0.64

9.78

1 1/2"

0.0409

0.005810306

0.4293

1545.41

1036.87831

1.4904

6.56

0.75

11.41

3/4"

0.02093

0.004544475

0.1718

618.55

1032.79594

0.5989

2.64

0.30

4.59

1 1/4"

0.03504

0.004544475

0.2877

1035.54

1032.79594

1.0027

4.41

0.50

7.68

1 1/2"

0.0409

0.004544475

0.3358

1208.72

1032.79594

1.1703

5.15

0.58

8.96

3/4"

0.02093

0.002922669

0.1105

397.80

1024.30389

0.3884

1.71

0.19

2.97

1 1/4"

0.03504

0.002922669

0.1850

665.98

1024.30389

0.6502

2.86

0.32

4.98

1 1/2"

0.0409

0.002922669

0.2159

777.36

1024.30389

0.7589

3.34

0.38

5.81

3/4"

0.02093

0.001992523

0.0753

271.20

1015.49799

0.2671

1.18

0.13

2.04

1 1/4"

0.03504

0.001992523

0.1261

454.03

1015.49799

0.4471

1.97

0.22

3.42

1 1/2"

0.0409

0.001992523

0.1472

529.96

1015.49799

0.5219

2.30

0.26

4.00

3/4"

0.02093

0.001427745

0.0540

194.33

1006.49668

0.1931

0.85

0.09

1.48

1 1/4"

0.03504

0.001427745

0.0904

325.34

1006.49668

0.3232

1.42

0.16

2.48

1 1/2"

0.0409

0.001427745

0.1055

379.75

1006.49668

0.3773

1.66

0.18

2.89

3/4"

0.02093

0.001228569

0.0465

167.22

1001.95243

0.1669

0.73

0.08

1.28

1 1/4"

0.03504

0.001228569

0.0778

279.95

1001.95243

0.2794

1.23

0.14

2.14

1 1/2"

0.0409

0.001228569

0.0908

326.77

1001.95243

0.3261

1.44

0.16

2.50

3/4"

0.02093

0.000936415

0.0354

127.46

992.824436

0.1284

0.57

0.06

0.98

1 1/4"

0.03504

0.000936415

0.0593

213.38

992.824436

0.2149

0.95

0.10

1.65

1 1/2"

0.0409

0.000936415

0.0692

249.06

992.824436

0.2509

1.10

0.12

1.92

3/4"

0.02093

0.000738545

0.0279

100.52

983.69482

0.1022

0.45

0.05

0.78

1 1/4"

0.03504

0.000738545

0.0467

168.29

983.69482

0.1711

0.75

0.08

1.31

1 1/2"

0.0409

0.000738545

0.0546

196.44

983.69482

0.1997

0.88

0.09

1.53

3/4"

0.02093

0.000599981

0.0227

81.66

974.612719

0.0838

0.37

0.04

0.64

1 1/4"

0.03504

0.000599981

0.0380

136.72

974.612719

0.1403

0.62

0.07

1.07

1 1/2"

0.0409

0.000599981

0.0443

159.58

974.612719

0.1637

0.72

0.08

1.25

2-2

Appedix 3

The PTSC mathematic model

Figure 3:1 Interface of the PTSC mathematic model

3-1

Appedix 3.1 Code of the PTSC model

{Parabolic Trough Solar Collector Model
By Ming Qu
Feb.16,2006
Updated Sep.11,07
Comments on Sep.11,07}

{function for identifying the conductivity of glass, }

Procedure Glassfeature(T_gi,T_go:A_g,T_g,R_g,E_g,k_g)
$COMMON Glass$,THETA,OD_g,ID_g
T_g:=(T_gi+T_go)/2
IF (Glass$='Pyrex glass') THEN
IF(THETA=0) THEN
A_g:=0.11
T_g:=0.82
R_g:=0.07
E_g:=0.86
ELSE
{the extinction coefficient of the glass}
K:=23
"[m-1]"
THK_g:=OD_g-ID_g
{the average index of refraction of glass for the solar spectrum is 1.526
Based on "Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes" P173}
Index_g:=1.526
Theta2:=arcsin(sin(THETA)/Index_g)
r_perp:=(sin(Theta2-THETA)/sin(Theta2+THETA))^2
r_para:=(tan(Theta2-THETA)/tan(Theta2+THETA))^2
Tau_g_a:=EXP((-1)*K*THK_g/cos(Theta2))
A_g:=1-Tau_g_a
T_g_r:=1/2*((1-r_para)/(1+r_para)+(1-r_perp)/(1+r_perp))
T_g:=T_g_r*Tau_g_a
R_g:=Tau_g_a-T_g
ENDIF
E_g:=0.86
k_g:=1.125
ENDIF
IF (Glass$='Pyrex AR glass') THEN
A_g:=0.01
T_g:=0.94
R_g:=0.03
E_g:=0.86
IF(THETA=0) THEN
A_g:=0.11
T_g:=0.82
R_g:=0.07
E_g:=0.86
ELSE
{the extinction coefficient of the glass}
K:=21
"[m-1]"
THK_g:=OD_g-ID_g

3-2

{the average index of refraction of glass for the solar spectrum is 1.526
Based on "Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes" P173}
Index_g:=1.526
Theta2:=arcsin(sin(THETA)/Index_g)
r_perp:=(sin(Theta2-THETA)/sin(Theta2+THETA))^2
r_para:=(tan(Theta2-THETA)/tan(Theta2+THETA))^2
Tau_g_a:=EXP((-1)*K*THK_g/cos(Theta2))
A_g:=1-Tau_g_a
T_g_r:=1/2*((1-r_para)/(1+r_para)+(1-r_perp)/(1+r_perp))
T_g:=TAU_g_r*Tau_g_a
R_g:=Tau_g_a-TAU_g
ENDIF
E_g:=0.86
k_g:=1.125
ENDIF
END
{function for idetifying the characteristics of absorber tube}
Procedure Absorbtubefeature(T_ai,T_ao:A_a,T_a,R_a,E_a,k_a,e)
$COMMON Steel$,Coating$
T_a:=(T_ai+T_ao)/2
IF (Coating$='Black chrome') THEN
A_a:=0.94
T_a:=0.01
R_a:=0.05
E_a:=0.0005333*(T_a+T_zero#)-0.0856
IF(E_a<0.11) THEN
E_a:=0.11
ENDIF
ENDIF
IF (Coating$='Black nickel') THEN
A_a:=0.96
T_a:=0.01
R_a:=0.03
E_a:=0.43
ENDIF
IF (Steel$='Stainless Steel 304L') THEN
k_a:=k_('Stainless_AISI304', T_a)
ENDIF
IF (Steel$='Stainless Steel 316L') THEN
k_a:=k_('Stainless_AISI316', T_a)
ENDIF

"[W/m-K]"
"[W/m-K]"

e=0.00000005 [m]
END

{roughness of the absorber tube}

{function for identifying the properties of fluid}

Procedure Fluidproperties(T_f,P_w:C_f,D_f,COND_f,V_f,P_f)
$COMMON Fluid$
IFNOT(Fluid$='WATER') THEN
C_f:=INTERPOLATE(Fluid$,'TEMPERATURE','CP',TEMPERATURE=T_f) "[kJ/kg-K]"
{heat capacity}

3-3

D_f:=INTERPOLATE(Fluid$,'TEMPERATURE','DENSITY',TEMPERATURE=T_f)
"[kg/m^3]"
{density}
COND_f:=INTERPOLATE(Fluid$,'TEMPERATURE','CONDUCTIVITY',TEMPERATURE=T_f)
"[W/mK]"
{conductivity}
V_f:=INTERPOLATE(Fluid$,'TEMPERATURE','VISCOSITY',TEMPERATURE=T_f) "[kg/ms]" {viscosity}
P_f:=INTERPOLATE(Fluid$,'TEMPERATURE','PRESSURE',TEMPERATURE=T_f) "[kPa]"
{pressure}
ENDIF
IF(Fluid$='WATER') THEN
C_f:=SPECHEAT(Water,T=T_f,P=P_w)
{heat capacity}
D_f:=DENSITY(Water,T=T_f,P=P_w)
{density}
COND_f:=CONDUCTIVITY(Water,T=T_f,P=P_w)
{conductivity}
V_f:=VISCOSITY(Water,T=T_f,P=P_w)
{viscosity}
P_f:=P_w
{pressure}
ENDIF
END
{function of the convection from the absorber tube inner surface to the heat transfer fluid}
Procedure Conv_f(Tf,T_wall : Re_f,Pr_f,Q_12,FT$,m_t,h_f)
$COMMON m1,Dh_1,P_water, L_aper,S_a
CALL Pro_conv_f(Tf,T_wall,Dh_1,L_aper ,S_a: Cp_f_b,FT$,Re_f,Pr_f,m_t,h_f)
Q_12:= h_f*PI*Dh_1*(T_wall-Tf)
END
{function of identifying the heat transfer coefficient of the convection from the absorber tube to the
heat transfer fluid}
Procedure Pro_conv_f(Tf,T_wall,Dh,L ,S: Cp_rf_b,FT$,Re_rf,Pr_rf,m_rt,h_rf)
$COMMON m1,P_water,
CALL Fluidproperties(Tf,P_water:Cp_rf_b,rho_rf_b,KAPPA_rf_b,MU_rf_b,P_rf_b)
CALL Fluidproperties(T_wall,P_water:Cp_rf_w,rho_rf_w,KAPPA_rf_w,MU_rf_w,P_rf_w)
Re_rf:=Dh*m1/S/MU_rf_b
Pr_rf:=1000*Cp_rf_b*MU_rf_b/KAPPA_rf_b
converter}
m_rt:=2300*S*MU_rf_b/Dh
flow which reyolds number >2300}

{ Kappa unit is W/mC, 1000 is unit

{the mininum flow rate to have turbulent

IF(Re_rf>2300) THEN
FT$:='Turbulent Flow'
{Turbulent flow based on Frank P. Incorpera 3th "Fundamentals of heat and mass transfer"
PP497}
IF (2000>Pr_rf) AND (Pr_rf>0.5) AND (5*10^6>=Re_rf) THEN
{for 6~10 percent accuracy}
f:=(0.79*LN(Re_rf)-1.64)^(-2)

3-4

Nus_rf_b:=(f/8)*(Re_rf-1000)*Pr_rf/(1+12.7*(f/8)^0.5*(Pr_rf^(0.6667)-1))
h_rf:=Nus_rf_b*KAPPA_rf_b/Dh
"[w/m^2-K]"
ELSE
CALL WARNING('THERE IS NO ACCURATE EQUATION FOR THIS TYPE OF FLOW')
ENDIF
ELSE
{Laminar flow based on J.P.Holman 8th "Heat Transfer"PP289}
FT$:='Laminar Flow'
Nus_rf_b:=3.66+(0.0668*(Dh/L)*Re_rf*Pr_rf)/(1+0.04*((Dh/L)*Re_rf*Pr_rf)^(0.6667))
h_rf:=Nus_rf_b*KAPPA_rf_b/Dh
ENDIF
END
{function of convection between the absorber tube and glass envelope}
Procedure Conv_a_g(T_f_g,T_f_a,P_air_ga:Q_conv_34)
$COMMON OD_a, ID_g,T_std
T_f_ga=(T_f_g+T_f_a)/2
Cp_air_ga:=SPECHEAT(Air,T=T_f_ga)
Cv_air_ga:=CV(Air,T=T_f_ga)
MU_air_ga:=VISCOSITY(Air,T=T_f_ga)
KAPPA_air_ga:=CONDUCTIVITY(Air,T=T_f_ga)
KAPPA_std:=CONDUCTIVITY(Air,T=T_std)
RHO_air_ga:=DENSITY(Air,T=T_f_ga,P=P_air_ga)
NU_air_ga:=MU_air_ga/RHO_air_ga
ALPHA_air_ga:=KAPPA_air_ga/(RHO_air_ga*1000*Cp_air_ga)
T_inK:=T_f_ga+T_zero#
BETA_air_ga:=1/T_inK
Pr_air_ga:=NU_air_ga/ALPHA_air_ga
Gr_air_ga:=g#*BETA_air_ga*ABS(T_f_a-T_f_g)*OD_a^3/NU_air_ga^2
Ra_air_ga:=Pr_air_ga*Gr_air_ga
Ra_air_ga_L=g#*BETA_air_ga*ABS(T_f_a-T_f_g)*((ID_gOD_a)/2)^3/(NU_air_ga*ALPHA_air_ga)
Q_cond_34:= 0
Ra_air_ga_star:=(LN( ID_g/OD_a))^4*Ra_air_ga_L/( ((ID_g-OD_a)/2)^3*((OD_a)^(0.6)+(ID_g)^(-0.6))^5)
IF(Ra_air_ga_star<100) THEN
KAPPA_eff:=KAPPA_air_ga
{Raithby and hollands version,Based on Frank P. Incorpera 3th "Fundamentals of heat and mass
transfer" PP563 }
Q_conv_34:=2*PI*KAPPA_eff*(T_f_a-T_f_g)/LN( ID_g/OD_a)
ELSE
{the gas in the annular region is circulating by laminar natural convection. in laminar flow, the
fluid does not mix and
the heat transfer mechanism is molecular conduction, for 100<Rac<10^7, Based on Vernon E.
Dudley,
" SEGS LS-2 solar Collector", SAND94-1884}
{free-molecular heat transfer for annular space between horizontal cylinders}
{ga in mmHg, DELTA_air in cm}
DELTA_air := 3.53*10^(-8) [cm]
{molecular diameter of the gas in cm}

3-5

a:=1
{accommodation coefficient is defined as
the ratio of the energy
actually transferred between impinging gas molecules and a surface and the energy which
would be theoretically
transferred if the impinging molecules reached complete thermal equilibrium with the surface. a=1
unless the surface
were extremely cleanned. this is what was assumed}
gamma:=Cp_air_ga/Cv_air_ga
{the ratio for specific heats for the gas
inside the annulus for air equal to 1.4}
b:=(2-a)/a*(9*gamma-5)/(2*(gamma+1))
{BELOW, 7.500638 is for unit converter 1kpa=7.500638mmHg}
LAMBDA:=2.331*10^(-20)*T_inK/(P_air_ga*7.500638*DELTA_air^2)
h_air_ga:=KAPPA_std/(OD_a/2*LN( ID_g/OD_a)+b*LAMBDA*(OD_a/ID_g+1))
Kineticq_conv_34:= h_air_ga*PI*OD_a*(T_f_a-T_f_g)
{Raithby and hollands version,Based on Frank P. Incorpera 3th "Fundamentals of heat and mass
transfer" PP563 }
KAPPA_eff:=KAPPA_air_ga*0.386*(Pr_air_ga/(0.861+Pr_air_ga))^(0.25)*(Ra_air_ga_star)^(0
.25)
Natq_conv_34:=2*PI*KAPPA_eff*(T_f_a-T_f_g)/LN( ID_g/OD_a)
{use the larger value between natural convection heat transfer and free-molecular heat transfer}
IF(Kineticq_conv_34>Natq_conv_34) THEN
Q_conv_34:=Kineticq_conv_34
ELSE
Q_conv_34:=Natq_conv_34
ENDIF
ENDIF
END

{function of convection from the glass envelope to the surrounding air}

Procedure Conv_g_air(T_f_og,T_s,U_wind, OD:Q_conv_56,h_f)
CALL Property_air_sur(T_f_og,T_s,U_wind,OD:Pr_g_air,Gr_g_air,Ra_g_air,Nus_g_air,h_g_air)
h_f:=h_g_air
Q_conv_56:= h_f*PI*OD*(T_f_og-T_s)
END
{function of identifying the heat transfer coeeficient of the convection from the glass envelope to
surrounding}
Procedure
Property_air_sur(T_sur,T_air,U_wind,OD:Pr_sur_air,Gr_sur_air,Ra_sur_air,Nus_s_air,h_s_air)
$COMMON wind$
T_sur_air:=(T_sur+T_air)/2
P_air:=Po#
Cp_air:=SPECHEAT(Air,T=T_sur_air)
MU_air:=VISCOSITY(Air,T=T_sur_air)
KAPPA_air:=CONDUCTIVITY(Air,T=T_sur_air)
RHO_air:=DENSITY(Air,T=T_sur_air,P=P_air)

3-6

NU_air:=MU_air/RHO_air
ALPHA_air:=KAPPA_air/(RHO_air*1000*Cp_air)
T_inK_sur_air:=T_sur_air+T_zero#
BETA_sur_air:=1/T_inK_sur_air
Pr_sur_air:=NU_air/ALPHA_air
Gr_sur_air:=g#*BETA_sur_air*ABS(T_sur-T_air)*OD^3/NU_air^2
Ra_sur_air:=Pr_sur_air*Gr_sur_air
IF(wind$='NO') THEN
U_wind=0
IF(Ra_sur_air<=10^(-5)) or (Ra_sur_air>=10^12) Then
CALL WARNING('The result may not accurate, since equation does not hold.')
ENDIF
Nus_s_air:=(0.6+0.387*Ra_sur_air^(0.1667)/(1+(0.559/Pr_sur_air)^(0.5625))^(0.2963))^2
h_s_air:=Nus_s_air*KAPPA_air/OD
ENDIF
{Forced convection, based on J.P.Holman, "heat transfer", 8th edition, P302,303}
IF(wind$='YES') THEN
Re_sur_air:=U_wind*OD/NU_air
Nus_s_air:=0
IF (Re_sur_air=<4) AND (Re_sur_air=>0.4) THEN
Nus_s_air:=0.989*(Re_sur_air)^0.33*Pr_sur_air^(1/3)
ENDIF
IF (Re_sur_air=<40) AND (Re_sur_air>4) THEN
Nus_s_air:=0.911*(Re_sur_air)^0.385*Pr_sur_air^(1/3)
ENDIF
IF (Re_sur_air=<4000) AND (Re_sur_air>40) THEN
Nus_s_air:=0.683*(Re_sur_air)^0.466*Pr_sur_air^(1/3)
ENDIF
IF (Re_sur_air=<40000) AND (Re_sur_air>4000) THEN
Nus_s_air:=0.193*(Re_sur_air)^0.618*Pr_sur_air^(1/3)
ENDIF
IF (Re_sur_air=<400000) AND (Re_sur_air>40000) THEN
Nus_s_air:=0.0266*(Re_sur_air)^0.805*Pr_sur_air^(1/3)
ENDIF
h_s_air:=Nus_s_air*KAPPA_air/OD
ENDIF
END
{function of convection from the glass envelope to surrounding}
Procedure
Property_air_brac(T_sur,T_air,U_wind,OD:Pr_sur_air,Gr_sur_air,Ra_sur_air,Nus_s_air,h_s_air)
$COMMON wind$
T_sur_air:=(T_sur+T_air)/2
P_air:=Po#
Cp_air:=SPECHEAT(Air,T=T_sur_air)
MU_air:=VISCOSITY(Air,T=T_sur_air)
KAPPA_air:=CONDUCTIVITY(Air,T=T_sur_air)

3-7

RHO_air:=DENSITY(Air,T=T_sur_air,P=P_air)
NU_air:=MU_air/RHO_air
ALPHA_air:=KAPPA_air/(RHO_air*1000*Cp_air)
T_inK_sur_air:=T_sur_air+T_zero#
BETA_sur_air:=1/T_inK_sur_air
Pr_sur_air:=NU_air/ALPHA_air
Gr_sur_air:=g#*BETA_sur_air*ABS(T_sur-T_air)*OD^3/NU_air^2
Ra_sur_air:=Pr_sur_air*Gr_sur_air
IF(wind$='NO') THEN
U_wind=0
IF(Ra_sur_air<=10^(-5)) or (Ra_sur_air>=10^12) Then
CALL WARNING('The result may not accurate, since equation does not hold,Wind=no.')
ENDIF
Nus_s_air:=(0.6+0.387*Ra_sur_air^(0.1667)/(1+(0.559/Pr_sur_air)^(0.5625))^(0.2963))^2
h_s_air:=Nus_s_air*KAPPA_air/OD
ENDIF
IF(wind$='YES') THEN
{for noncircular cylinders, reference: Heat transfer,J.P. Holman P307}
Re_sur_air:=U_wind*OD/NU_air
IF(Re_sur_air<5000) or (Re_sur_air>100000) THEN
CALL WARNING('The result may not accurate, since equation does not hold, bracket
convection.')
ENDIF
Nus_s_air:=0.102*(Re_sur_air)^0.675*Pr_sur_air^(1/3)
h_s_air:=Nus_s_air*KAPPA_air/OD
ENDIF
END
{function of conduction through bracket}
{for infinite fin, reference: Heat transfer,J.P. Holman P47}
Procedure Cond_bracket(T_ab,T_s,U_wind:Q_cond_38,h_f_38)
$COMMON wind$, OD_brac,P_brac,A_cs_brac,k_brac
T_base=T_ab-15
T_support=(T_base+T_s)/2
about average T_base and ambient}

{assume temperature od support is

CALL Property_air_brac(
T_support,T_s,U_wind,OD_brac:Pr_b_air,Gr_b_air,Ra_b_air,Nus_b_air,h_b_air)
h_f_38:=h_b_air
Q_cond_38:= SQRT( h_f_38*P_brac*A_cs_brac*k_brac)*(T_base-T_s)
END
{function of conduction through flange}
Procedure Cond_fin(T_ab,T_s,U_wind,L_fin,t_fin,r1,k_fin:Q_cond_fin,Q_cyl_permeter,h_f_fin)
$COMMON wind$
Lc:=L_fin+t_fin/2
r2c:=r1+Lc
x_value:=r2c/r1
Am:=t_fin*(r2c-r1)

3-8

OD=2*r1
CALL Property_air_sur( T_ab,T_s,U_wind,OD:Pr_s_air,Gr_s_air,Ra_s_air,Nus_s_air,h_s_air)
y_value:=Lc^(3/2)*(h_s_air/k_fin/Am)^(1/2)
e:=INTERPOLATE2D('cir fin efficiency', 'x','y', 'eta_fin', x=x_value, y=y_value)
h_f_fin:=h_s_air
Q_fin_max=2*PI*(r2c^2-r1^2)*h_s_air*(T_ab-T_s)
Q_cond_fin:= e* Q_fin_max
Q_cyl_permeter:=2*PI*r1*h_s_air*(T_ab-T_s)
END
{Heat loss thru piping }
Procedure
Pipeloss(pmaterial$,insulations$,T_f,T_oa,L:k_p,k_ins,Q_pipe,rcr,t_1p,t_2p,t_3p,t_4p,R_01,R_12
,R_23,R_34,R_total)
$COMMON ID_pipe,OD_pipe,S_pipe,r_pipe_in,r_pipe_out,r_insult_out,V_wind
OD_ins:=r_insult_out*2
CALL Property_air_sur(
T_oa+0.5,T_oa,V_wind,OD_ins:Pr_pb_air,Gr_pb_air,Ra_pb_air,Nus_oa,h_oa)
CALL Pro_conv_f(T_f,T_f-0.4,ID_pipe,L ,S_pipe: Cp_p_f,FT$,Re_p_f,Pr_p_f,m_p_f,h_f)
k_p:=k_(pmaterial$, t_f)
k_ins:=INTERPOLATE(insulations$,'Temperature','K',Temperature=( t_f+T_oa+3)/2) "[W/mk]"
R_01:=1/(2*PI*h_f*r_pipe_in)
R_12:=LN(r_pipe_out/r_pipe_in)/(2*PI*k_p)
R_23:=LN(r_insult_out/r_pipe_out)/(2*PI*k_ins)
R_34:=1/(2*PI*h_oa*r_insult_out)
R_total:=R_01+R_12+R_23+R_34
Q_pipe:=(T_f-T_oa)/R_total
rcr=k_ins/h_oa
t_1p:=T_f-Q_pipe*R_01
t_2p:=t_1p-Q_pipe*R_12
t_3p:=t_2p-Q_pipe*R_23
t_4p:=t_3p-Q_pipe*R_34
END
{Heat loss thru piping }
Procedure PipePro(pipingnd$,schedules$,TH_ins,t_f:ID_pp,OD_pp,S_pp,r1,r2,r3)
ID_pp:=INTERPOLATE2D('PIPES', 'ND', 'schedule', 'ID', ND=pipingnd$, schedule=schedules$,1
)/100 "[m]"
OD_pp:=INTERPOLATE2D('PIPES', 'ND', 'schedule', 'OD', ND=pipingnd$, schedule=schedules$
,1) /100 "[m]"
S_pp:=INTERPOLATE2D('PIPES', 'ND', 'schedule', 'FA', ND=pipingnd$, schedule=schedules$,1 )
/10000 "[m^2]"
{fiberglass .....2.5 inch... 0.0635 m}
{cellularglass .....4.5inch.... 0.1143m}
r1:=ID_pp/2
r2:=OD_pp/2
r3=r2+TH_ins
END

3-9

{function of presure in pipe}

{for pressure loss in the pipe, reference: Introduction to fluid mechanics, Robert W. Fox
P357~361}
Procedure Pressure_f(Dh,S,m,T_f,P_f,e_p,ID,L :Re_f,Lambda_f,Delt_Pressure, Delt_H)
CALL Fluidproperties(T_f,P_f:Cp_f,rho_f,KAPPA_f,MU_f,P_f_f)
Re_f:=Dh*m/S/MU_f
Pr_f:=1000*Cp_f*MU_f/KAPPA_f
W_f:=m/rho_f/S
IF(Re_f>2300) THEN
{Turbulent flow}
Lambda_f:=0.25/(log10(e_p/ID/3.7+5.74/Re_f^0.9))^2
ELSE
{Laminar flow}
Lambda_f:=64/Re_f
ENDIF
Delt_Pressure=Lambda_f*W_f^2*L/ID*rho_f/2/1000
"[kPa]"
for unit conversion}
Delt_H=Delt_Pressure*1000/g#/rho_f
"[m]"
{"1000" for unit conversion}
END

{"1000"

"**************************************************************************************************************

{calculation of the solar energy absorbered by glass envelope and absorber tube}
{Incidence angle modifer is equal to consin incident angle}
IAM=cos(THETA)+0.0003178*(THETA)-0.00003985*(THETA)^2
CALL Glassfeature(T_4,T_5:ALPHA_g,TAU_g,RHO_g,EPSILON_g,KAPPA_g)
E_op_beforein=E_op*R_mirror
CALL Absorbtubefeature(T_2,T_3:ALPHA_a,TAU_a,RHO_a,EPSILON_a,KAPPA_a,e_a)
q_sol_total=I_dn*W
q_focus=I_dn*E_op_beforein*IAM*W
q_solab_g=q_sol_total*E_op_beforein*cos(THETA)*1.01*TAU_g*ALPHA_g
q_solab_a=q_focus*TAU_g*ALPHA_a
{Convection of fluid}
Dh_1=ID_a
S_a=PI*ID_a^2/4
CALL Conv_f(T1_avg,T_2:Re_f_b,Pr_f_b,q_conv_f,FlowType$,m_turb,h_f_b)
m_turb_H=m_turb*3600
{conduction through absorber tube}
q_cond_a=2*PI*KAPPA_a*(T_2-T_3)/LN(OD_a/ID_a)
{convection between absorber tube and glass envelope}
T_std=25 [c] "standard temperautre"
CALL Conv_a_g(T_4,T_3,P_air_34:q_conv_a)
{radiation between absorber tube and glass envelope, based on J.P.Holman, "heat transfer", 8th
edition, P430}

3-10

T_3_k=T_3+T_zero#
T_4_k=T_4+T_zero#
q_rad_a= sigma#*PI*OD_a*(T_3_k^4-T_4_k^4)/(1/EPSILON_a+OD_a/ID_g*(1/EPSILON_g-1))
{conduction through glass envelope}
q_cond_g= 2*PI*KAPPA_g*(T_4-T_5)/LN(OD_g/ID_g)
{Convection from glass envelope to surrounding air}
CALL Conv_g_air(T_5,T_s_air,V_wind,OD_g:q_conv_g_air,h_f_56)
{Radiation from glass envelope to sky}
T_5_k=T_5+T_zero#
T_s_air_k=T_s_air+T_zero#
T_sky_k=0.0552*T_s_air_k^1.5
T_sky=T_sky_k-T_zero#
q_rad_g= sigma#*PI*OD_g*EPSILON_g*(T_5_k^4-T_sky_k^4)
{Heat transferred by conduction through rectangle bracket cross-section}
N_module=N_a*N_s
"[-]"
OD_brac=0.03
P_brac=0.08
A_cs_brac=0.0006
k_brac=KAPPA_a
CALL Cond_bracket(T1_avg,T_s_air,V_wind:Subq_cond_bracket,h_f_bracket)
{Heat transferred by conduction through flange}
L_flange=25/1000 [m]
t_flange=20/1000
[m]
r1=21/1000
[m]
CALL
Cond_fin(T1_avg,T_s_air,V_wind,L_flange,t_flange,r1,KAPPA_a:q_cond_flange,q_c_flange,h_f_f
lange)
{Heat transferred by conduction through flexible end of solar collector}
L_fle_end=7/1000 [m]
t_fle_end=2/1000
[m]
CALL
Cond_fin(T1_avg,T_s_air,V_wind,L_fle_end,t_fle_end,r1,KAPPA_a:q_cond_fle_end,q_c_fle_end,
h_f_fle_end)
{Heat transferred by conduction through hard end of solar collector}
L_h_end=37/1000 [m]
t_h_end=1/1000
[m]
CALL
Cond_fin(T1_avg,T_s_air,V_wind,L_h_end,t_h_end,r1,KAPPA_a:q_cond_h_end,q_c_h_end,h_f_
h_end)
{Heat transferred by conduction through connection flexible spring tube between solar modules}
L_connect=10/1000 [m]
t_connect=8/1000 [m]
CALL
Cond_fin(T1_avg,T_s_air,V_wind,L_connect,t_connect,r1,KAPPA_a:q_fle_connect,q_c_connect,
h_f_connect)

3-11

{although the bracket stainless steel is trapezoid, assumed that it is circumferential fin, the curve
part bracket is negalitable in heat transfer view}
L_bracket=73/1000 [m]
t_bracket=1/1000
[m]
CALL
Cond_fin(T1_avg,T_s_air,V_wind,L_bracket,t_bracket,r1,KAPPA_a:q_brac_c,q_c_brac_c,h_f_br
ac)
{Heat transferred by conduction through one module}
{2mm is the space between the curves, there are total 13 curves at one end}
q_fend=13*q_cond_fle_end+q_cond_h_end+q_c_h_end*13*2/1000
{4mm is the space between the curves, there are total 13 curves,40mm bare receiver tube }
q_connect=13*q_fle_connect+q_c_connect*13*4/1000 +40/1000*q_c_flange
q_hend=q_cond_h_end
{25mm is the bare receiver tube at the short end}
q_end_short=q_hend+q_cond_flange+25/1000*q_c_flange
{35mm is the bare receiver tube at the long end}
q_end_long=q_fend+q_cond_flange+35/1000*q_c_flange
q_connect_sub=q_fend+q_end_short+35/1000*q_c_flange
q_module_stru=q_end_short+2*q_connect_sub+q_end_long+4*Subq_cond_bracket
{305mm is the bare receiver tube at the end conneting to the flexible hose}
q_array_end=360/1000*q_c_flange+q_cond_flange
q_array_stru=N_a*q_module_stru+q_connect*(N_a-1)+2*q_array_end
q_stru_total=N_s*q_array_stru
q_cond_bracket=q_stru_total/L
{Heat transferred by radiation from the connection pieces to the sky}
EPSILON_stainlesssteel=0.79
OD_flange=92/1000 "[m]"
OD_flex_1=60/1000
"[m]"
OD_flex_2=65/1000
"[m]"
OD_hend=120/1000
"[m]"
LT_flange=5*2*2*20/1000 "[m]"
L_flex_1=3*2*2*60/1000
"[m]"
L_flex_2=2*65/1000
"[m]"
L_hend=2*3*2*2*1/1000
"[m]"
L_bare=2*2*360/1000+3*2*2*(35+25)/1000+2*40/1000 "[m]"
q_rad_flange= sigma#*PI*OD_flange*EPSILON_stainlesssteel*(T_3_k^4-T_sky_k^4)
q_rad_flex_1= sigma#*PI*OD_flex_1*EPSILON_stainlesssteel*(T_3_k^4-T_sky_k^4)
q_rad_flex_2= sigma#*PI*OD_flex_2*EPSILON_stainlesssteel*(T_3_k^4-T_sky_k^4)
q_rad_hend= sigma#*PI*OD_hend*EPSILON_stainlesssteel*(T_3_k^4-T_sky_k^4)
q_rad_bare= sigma#*PI*OD_a*EPSILON_stainlesssteel*(T_3_k^4-T_sky_k^4)
q_rad_connection=(q_rad_flange*LT_flange+q_rad_flex_1*L_flex_1+q_rad_flex_2*L_flex_2+q_r
ad_hend*L_hend+q_rad_bare*L_bare)/L
{Solar collector efficiency}
q_heatloss=q_rad_g+q_conv_g_air+q_cond_bracket+q_rad_connection
{Energy balance}
q_solab_g+q_rad_a+q_conv_a=q_rad_g+q_conv_g_air
q_cond_g=q_conv_a+q_rad_a
{conduction from the absorber tube to the glass envelope is included in convection

3-12

calculation between the absorber tube and the glass envelope}

q_solab_a=q_conv_a+q_rad_a+q_cond_a+q_cond_bracket+q_rad_connection
q_cond_a=q_conv_f
{absorbed by receiver including absorber tube and galss tube}
q_sol_abd=q_solab_g+q_solab_a
{solar energy deliveried}
q_sol_deli=q_conv_f
m1=m1_H/3600
{unit conversion}
T1_avg=(T1_in+T1_out)/2
CALL Fluidproperties(T1_avg,P_water:Cp_f_b,rho_f_b,KAPPA_f_b,MU_f_b,P_f_b)
m1*Cp_f_b*(T1_out-T1_in)=q_conv_f*L/1000
ETA=q_sol_deli/q_sol_total
{pressure drop in one module}
L_module=6
CALL Pressure_f(Dh_1,S_a,m1,T1_avg,P_water,e_a,ID_a,L_module
:Re_sc,Lambda_sc,Delt_P, Delt_H_sc)
{solar energy delivery from modules}
T_out_modules=T1_out
Q_out_modules=q_sol_deli*L/1000
kW"
P_loss_modules=Delt_P*N_module
H_loss_modules=Delt_H_sc*N_module

"1000 is coversion factor ro convert W to

{piping supply calculation}

e_pipe=0.000046 [m]
{piping return calculation}
CALL
PipePro(pipe$,schedule$,Thickness_ins,T_p_retn:ID_pipe,OD_pipe,S_pipe,r_pipe_in,r_pipe_out,
r_insult_out)
T_p_retn=T_out_modules
T_p_supy=T1_in
CALL
Pipeloss(pipematerial$,insulation$,T_p_retn,T_s_air,L_piping_r:k_pipe_retn,k_ins_retn,q_pipe_re
tn,rcr_rent,t_1pr,t_2pr,t_3pr,t_4pr,R_01r,R_12r,R_23r,R_34r,R_total_retn)
CALL
Pipeloss(pipematerial$,insulation$,T_p_supy,T_s_air,L_piping_s:k_pipe_supy,k_ins_supy,q_pipe
_supy,rcr_supy,t_1ps,t_2ps,t_3ps,t_4ps,R_01s,R_12s,R_23s,R_34s,R_total_supply)
Q_loss_piping=(L_piping_s*q_pipe_supy+L_piping_r*q_pipe_retn)/1000
coversion factor ro convert W to kW"

"1000 is

CALL
Pressure_f(ID_pipe,S_pipe,m1,T1_in,P_water,e_pipe,ID_pipe,L_piping_s:Re_sp,Lambda_sp,Del
t_P_spiping, Delt_H_spiping)
CALL Pressure_f(ID_pipe,S_pipe,m1,T_out_modules,P_water,e_pipe,ID_pipe,L_piping_r
:Re_rp,Lambda_rp,Delt_P_rpiping,Delt_H_rpiping )
Delt_P_piping=Delt_P_rpiping+Delt_P_spiping
Delt_H_piping=Delt_H_rpiping+Delt_H_spiping

3-13

{Overall performance}
Q_overall=Q_out_modules-Q_loss_piping
P_overall_loss=P_loss_modules+Delt_P_piping
H_overall_loss=H_loss_modules+Delt_H_piping
{for model presentation}
Delt_T=(T1_out+T1_in)/2-T_s_air
Delt_T_I=Delt_T/I_dn
m1_vol=m1_H/rho_f_b

3-14

Appedix 4

Validation of the PTSC model

Appedix 4.1 Radiation transmission through covers and absorption by collectors

The glass cover properties of the PTSC play an important role in the PTSCs efficiency. These
properties, including transmittance, reflectance, and absorptivity, are functions of the incoming
radiation, and glass thickness, refractive index, and the extinction coefficient of the material.
When direct normal solar irradiation impinges on a solar collector with a glass cover, the
absorbed solar radiation can be calculated as the Equation 4:1.

S = I DN * cos 1 * ( )

(Equation 4:1)

Where,
IDN : direct normal solar radiation in W/m2

1 : incident angle between direct normal solar irradiation and the normal of glass envelope
(): transmittance-absorptance product of glass cover, of the radiation passing through the
cover system and striking the plate, some is reflected back to the cover system. However, all
this radiation is not lost since some of it is, in turn, reflected back to the plate. The value of
(), for most practical solar collectors, is a reasonable approximation of 1.01 times of the
product of times .
According to Bouguers law, the absorbed radiation is proportional to the intensity and the
distance traveled (x) in the medium and can be expressed as Equation 4:2

dI = I DN * K * dx

(Equation 4:2)

Where,
K: extinction coefficient, which is assumed to be constant in the solar spectrum. The value of
K varies from 4 m-1 for water white glass to 32 m-1 for poor glass (which appears greenish
when views on the edge).
Integrating along the actual path length in glass yields

a = e KL / cos

(Equation 4:3)

Where,

a : transmittance regarding to absorption losses

4-1

L: thickness of glass

2 : angle of refraction in the medium. It can be calculated based on Equation 4:4

n1 sin 1
=
n2 sin 2

(Equation 4:4)

Where,
n1: index of refraction of air, 1
n2: index of refraction of medium, for glass, the average index of refraction of glass is
1.526

4-2

The simplified equation for the transmittance, absorptance, and reflectance of a collector cover
can be calculated based on Equation 4:5, 4:6, and 4:7, respectively.

a r

(Equation 4:5)

1a

(Equation 4:6)

(Equation 4:7)

Where,

r : transmittance regarding to reflected losses, it is related the perpendicular component

of unpolarized radiation, r and the parallel component of unpolarized radiation, r||.

Equation 4:8, 4:9, 4:10 can be used to find r , r and r||, respectively.

1 1 r11 1 r
+
]
2 1 + r11 1 + r

(Equation 4:8)

sin 2 ( 2 1 )
sin 2 ( 2 + 1 )

(Equation 4:9)

r = [
r =

tan 2 ( 2 1 )
r11 =
tan 2 ( 2 + 1 )

(Equation 4:10)

Therefore, according to the extinction efficient and index of glass cover, for a certain incident
angle, the transmittance, absorptance, and reflectance can be identified by addressed equations.

4-3

Appedix 5

Solar cooling and heating system simulation

Appedix 5.1 Building simulation interface

Figure 5:1 Building simulation interface

5-1

The thermal behavior of the building is modeled by the TRNSYS type 561. To perform the load
calculation, the building characteristics have to be defined in TRNBuild.

A5.1.1 Geometry
The net floor area of the south zone is about 245 m2 (10.2 m * 24 m) and the average height is
about 4.8 m2. The building has horizontal shadings (catwalk) on the east and west facades (1m *
24 m). The whole zone is divided in 5 bays (approximate 49 m2/ bay).
The quasi open space is subdivided by partition walls and furniture in about two times five areas
(office or conference zones approximate 22m2) on the east and west faade. The hallway in the
middle zone is separated to the zones only by open partition walls and furniture. As the IW south
part is an open space office, the model in TRNBuild is a single zone model. Figure 5:2 shows the
roof plan of the IW and the IWs orientation.
Solar Collectors

Building North
15

31'-6" (9600mm)

57'7"(17500mm)
39'4"(12000mm)

Location of chiller
and control box

9@15'9" (9@ 4800 mm)

17'5"(5310mm)

Figure 5:2 IW roof plan and orientation

The level of detail of TRNSYS building model is compliant with the requirements of ANSI/ASHRAE
standard 140-2001
2
The average height includes the raised floor and average height of roof.
5-2

A5.1.2 Materials
There are three different types of wall: roof: WALL ROOF; floor : WALL BST_H_FLO;
vertical wall: WALL 001. And there are two types of windows.
The specifications of these walls and windows are described in the Table 5:1.
Table 5:1 Specifications of the material in the building
Vertical wall
Layers
Inside surface resistance
Aluminum or steel siding
R-19 bat insulation
Aluminum or steel siding
Outside surface resistance

WALL 001
Thickness (m)
0.0001
0.152
0.0001
-

Insulated metal panel

U value (W/m2.K)

Roof
Layers
Inside surface resistance
Steel deck
R-38 bat insulation
Build up roofing
Outside surface resistance

WALL ROOF
Thickness (m)
0.001
0.305
0.01
-

Insulated metal panel

U value (W/m2.K)

Floor
Layers
Concrete stab
Resistance

0.281

0.143

WALL BST_H_FLO
Thickness (m)
U value (W/m2.K)
0.08
0.04
-

U-value
(BTU/hr*ft2F)

U-value
(W/m2K)

Shade
coefficient

g-value (solar heat

gain coefficient)

Window1

0.24

1.38

0.43

0.34

Window2

0.45

2.55

0.44

0.35

A5.1.3 Simulation of the ventilation

A5.1.3.1 Description of the ventilation
The ventilation deals with the sensible, latent loads and hygienic air change. Conditioned outside
air is supplied by a desiccant wheel unit (SEMCO unit) via a main duct placed in the center of the
plenum distributed to each zone and controlled by a constant volume device. The outside air
volume rate is about 20 cfm (34m3/h) per person based on the ASHRAE standards3. The outside
3

A regular office, without point sources (copiers, laser printers, faxes) may be adequately supplied with 20 cfm per person.

5-3

air is supplied throughout whole year by under floor air system with a proper relative humidity to
maintain the room conditions in the comfort range. The conditioned outside air properties are
listed in Table 5:2.
Table 5:2 Conditioned outside air properties

Heating period
Cooling period

Conditioned outside air properties

Temperature (C)
Relative humidity (%)
16
30
20
40

A5.1.3.2 Model of the ventilation

The SEMCO unit is modeled by the TESS type 696 component.
Type696 models a simple air conditioning device that adds or removes sensible and latent energy
from an air stream to meet specified set point conditions of temperature and or humidity. In this
device, the sensible condition controls the latent decisions. In other words the device cannot heat
and dehumidify or cool and humidify the air stream. It can, however, heat and humidify or cool
and dehumidify.
A5.1.3.3 Simulation of the air conditioning
ASHRAE Standard 55-1992 Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy

recommends: temperature ranges of 20 to 23.5 Celsius for winter and 23 to 26 Celsius for
summer at 50% relative humidity; relative humidity levels of 30% to 60% .
During the heating period (from 16th October to 15th April), the room set point temperature is
20C for the day time period (7:00 AM - 8:00 PM every day). During the night, the set back
temperature is 15C and the air room temperature decreases depend on the outside conditions.
During the cooling period (from 16th April to 15th October), the room set point temperature is
22C for the day time period (7:00 AM - 8:00 PM every day). During the night, the set back
temperature is 40C and the air room temperature increases or decreases depend on the outside
conditions. To meet these room temperature requirements, the air conditioning system heats and
cools the room. TRNSYS calculates the heating and cooling loads required to meet the demand.

5-4

Appedix 5.2 Solar heating evaluation simulation

Figure 5:3 Interface of solar heating evaluation simulation

5-5

This simulation includes the PTSCs, two heat exchangers and two circulation pumps. Figure 5:3
is the snap shot of solar heating evaluation model.

A5.2.1 Definition of the components in the model

A5.2.1.1 Pipes in the solar collection loop
The pipe is used only for the time delay effect. The input of pipe for the model is given in table
5:3.
Table 5:3 Pipe specification in the evaluation simulation
Solar collection loop pipe (Type 709)
Inside diameter
Outside diameter
Pipe length
Pipe thermal conductivity
Fluid density
Fluid specific heat
Fluid thermal conductivity
Fluid viscosity
Initial fluid temperature
Number of nodes
Insulation thickness
Conductivity of insulation

0.03504 [m]
0.04216 [m]
55 [m](return line) / 50 [m](supply line)
216
[kJ/hr.m.K]
1011.02 [kg/m^3]
3.709 [kJ/kg.K]
1.378 [kJ/hr.m.K]
6.048 [kg/m.hr]
8
[C]
1
0.076 [m]
0.126 [kJ/hr.m.K]

Outer surface convection coefficient

Loss temperature for node

0
Tam

[kJ/hr.m^2.K]
C (from the weather file)

In order to simulate the system heat capacity, a thermal storage tank was included in the model.
Its specification is given in table 5:4.
Table 5:4 Thermal tank specification in the evaluation simulation
Thermal storage tank - horizontal cylinder (Type 60I)
0.23
[m3]
Tank volume
Tank height
0.035 [m]
Height of flow inlet 1
0.017 [m]
Height of flow outlet 1
0.017 [m]
Fluid specific heat
Fluid density
Tank loss coefficient
Fluid thermal conductivity
Destratification conductivity
Boiling temperature

3.709
1011.02
15
1.378
0
300

[kJ/kg.K]
[kg/m^3]
[kJ/hr.m2.K]
[kJ/hr.m.K]
[kJ/hr.m.K]
[C]

5-6

A5.2.1.2 Circulation pump in the solar collection loop

Solar main circulation pump is using a constant speed pump. Type 114 was used in the
simulation. It sets the downstream flow rate based on its rated flow rate parameter and the current
value of its control signal input. The specification of the pump is given in table 5:5.
Table 5:5 Solar pump specification in the evaluation simulation
Solar pump (Type 114)
Rated flow rate
Fluid specific heat
Rated power
Motor heat loss fraction

1372
3.709
2520
0

kg/hr
[kJ/kg.K]
[kJ/hr]
-

Overall pump efficiency

Motor efficiency

0.2
0.89

A5.2.1.3 Heat exchanger between solar loop and load loop

The HX-2 is a brazed plate heat exchanger, which offers the highest level of thermal efficiency
and durability in a compact, low cost unit. The corrugated plate design provides very high heat
transfer coefficients, resulting in a more compact design.
According to the specification sheet, overall heat transfer coefficient, service is 359 Btu/hr-ft2-F,
which is equal to 2.05 kW/m^2-C (8560 kJ/h.K). the specification of HX2 is given in table 5:6.
Table 5:6 HX - 2 specification in the evaluation model
Heat exchanger (counter flow) (Type 5b)
Counter flow mode
Specific heat of hot side fluid
Specific heat of cold side fluid

2
3.709
4.18

[kJ/kg.K]
[kJ/kg.K] @ 45 C

Overall heat transfer coefficient of exchanger

8600

[kJ/h.K]

A5.2.1.4 Parabolic Trough Solar collector

The PTSC is one-axis tracking solar collector. It is basically comprised of a reflector mirror, a
receiver tube, supporting structure, and tracking mechanism. Its concentrate rate is 19.6 (the
aperture area is 13.34 m^2 and receiver area is 0.68 m^2.). The heat transfer fluid flows from one
end of the absorber tube to another to convert solar energy into thermal energy.

5-7

It is able to provide a high temperature fluid for both industry and residential thermal usage.
The specification of modeled PTSC is given in Table 5:7.
Table 5:7 PTSC specifications in the evaluation simulation
Linear Parabolic Concentrator Solar Collector (Type 230 based on type 536)
4
Number of collectors in series
1
Number of collectors in parallel
13.11 [m2]
Aperture area
Concentration ratio
22
Intercept efficiency (FrTan)
0.626
Efficiency slope (FrUl)
116.42 kJ/hr. m^2 K
Fluid specific heat
3.709 kJ/kg.K (at 54C)
Number of IAM points
8
Tested flow rate
127.17 kg/hr.m^2 (Flow rate/Aa of one module)
Number of modules in an array
Number of arrays
Parabola focal length
Distance between adjacent arrays

2
2
0.818 [m]
4.8 [m]

Max, outlet temperature

IAM

Heating: 95 C
0,10,20,30,40,50,60,70/1,0.984,0.93,0.84,0.715,0.559,0.376,0.169

A5.2.1.5 Circulation pump in the load loop

Main circulation pump in the load loop is a constant speed pump. Type 114 was used in the
simulation. The specification of the pump is given in Table 5:8.
Table 5:8 Loop pump specification in the evaluation model
Load pump (Type 114)
Rated flow rate
Fluid specific heat
Rated power
Motor heat loss fraction

1480
4.18
2592
0

kg/hr
[kJ/kg.K] @ 45 C
[kJ/hr]
-

Overall pump efficiency

Motor efficiency

0.22
0.5

A5.2.1.6 Heat exchanger as false load

The HX - 1 as the false load consists of one shell pass and two tube passes. It is water-to-water
heat transfer style. Heat transfer area is 0.68 m2 and overall heat transfer coefficient is 1.06
kW/m2 C, which is proved accurate by experimental data.

5-8

The specification of this heat exchanger is given in Table 5:9.

Table 5:9 Heat exchanger 1 in the evaluation simulation
Heat exchanger as false load (Type 5g)
Shell and Tube mode
Specific heat of hot side fluid
Specific heat of cold side fluid
Number of Shell Passes

7
4.18
4.198
1

Overall heat transfer coefficient of exchanger

2600

[kJ/kg.K]@45 C
[kJ/kg.K]@7 C
[kJ/h.K]

A5.2.1.7 Pipes in the load loop

The pipe is used in the load loop. Since the length of the load pipe is not very long, the heat
capacity of the load loop did not concern specially. The input of pipe in the load loop is given in
table 5:10.
Table 5:10 Specification of the pipe in the load loop for the evaluation simulation
Load loop pipe (Type 709)
Inside diameter
Outside diameter
Pipe length
Pipe thermal conductivity
Fluid density
Fluid specific heat
Fluid thermal conductivity
Fluid viscosity
Initial fluid temperature
Number of nodes
Insulation thickness
Conductivity of insulation

0.0381
0.0483
5
1436
990.22
4.18
2.248
2.15
20
1
0.076
0.126

[m]
[m]
[m]
[kJ/hr.m.K]
[kg/m^3]
[kJ/kg.K]
[kJ/hr.m.K]
[kg/m.hr]
[C]
[m]
[kJ/hr.m.K]

Outer surface convection coefficient

Loss temperature for node

10
Tam

[kJ/hr.m^2.K]
C (from the weather file)

A5.2.1.8 Solar pump control and load pump control

Based on the operation of experiment, the schedule of the solar pump followed operational
procedure from 9:37 AM to 3:22 PM On March 02, 07.
The load pump was controlled by a differential controller. When the outlet temperature of the
solar field is greater than 93C, load pump is turned on till the outlet temperature is lower than
40C

5-9

Appedix 5.3 Solar cooling evaluation simulation

Figure 5:4 Solar cooling evaluation mode

5-10

Appedix 5.4 Solar heating base-case

Figure 5:5 Solar heating base-base simulation interface

5-11

Appedix 5.5 Solar cooling base-case

Figure 5:6 Solar cooling base-case simulation interface

5-12

Appedix 5.6 Code of parabolic trough solar collector

SUBROUTINE TYPE230 (TIME,XIN,OUT,T,DTDT,PAR,INFO,ICNTRL,*)
C************************************************************************
C Object: Linear Parabolic Concentrator Solar Collector
C IISiBat Model: Type230
C
C DESCRIPTION: THIS SUBROUTINE MODELS A LINEAR PARABOLIC CONCENTRATING SOLAR
COLLECTOR. THIS
C SUBROUTINE REQUIRES THE DYNAMICDATA UTILITY SUBROUTINE TO DETERMINE THE
INCIDENCE ANGLE MODIFIERS THAT ARE
C INTERPOLATED FROM A USER-SUPPLIED DATA FILE. THE USEFUL ENERGY EQUATION AND
MODIFYING FUNCTIONS
C
C
C FROM "SOLAR ENGINEERING OF THERMAL PROCESSES" BY DUFFIE AND BECKMAN.
SPECIFICALLY CHAPTER 7 OF
C THE SECOND EDITION.
C
C
C Editor: Ming Qu
C Date: 1/1/97
C LAST UPDATED:: May 2007
C
C The Linear Parabolic Concentrator model is based on equations taken from Duffie and Beckman's
C "Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes"
C
C Ming Qu modified TESS type 536 in three aspects
C 1. when FR_solar is equal to 0 and there is direct solar radiation, it is assumped that the PTSC
C is not tracking, so that the outlet temperature of solar collector is equal to the ambient temperature.
C 2. add the end-loss into model due to the incident angle existed
C 3. add the shadow loss caused by the adjacent solar collector array
C
C
C
C
C
C ***
C *** Model Parameters
C ***
C
Number of collectors in series
- [1;+Inf]
C
Number of collectors in parallel
- [1;+Inf]
C
Aperture length
m [0.0;+Inf]
C
Aperture width
m [0;+Inf]
C
Concentration ratio - [0.0;+Inf]
C
Intercept efficiency (FrTan) - [0.0;1.0]
C
Efficiency slope (FrUl)
kJ/hr.m^2.K [-Inf;+Inf]
C
Fluid specific heat kJ/kg.K [0.0;+Inf]
C
Logical unit
- [10;30]
C
Number of IAM points
- [2;10]
C
Tested flow rate
kg/s [0.0;+Inf]
C
Number of modules in an array
- [1;+Inf]
C
Number of arrays - [1;+Inf]
C
Parabola focal length
m [0;+Inf]
C
Distance between adjacent arrays
m [0;+Inf]
C ***
C *** Model Inputs
C ***
C
C
C

Inlet temperature C [-Inf;+Inf]

Inlet flow rate
kg/hr [0.0;+Inf]
Ambient temperature
C [-Inf;+Inf]

5-13

C
C
C
C
C
C ******
C ***
C *** Model Outputs
C ***
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C

Incident beam radiation

kJ/hr.m^2 [0.0;+Inf]
Incidence angle
degrees [0.0;90.0]
Maximum outlet temperature C [-Inf;+Inf]
Tracking angle degrees [0.0;90.0]

Outlet temperature C [-Inf;+Inf]

Outlet flow rate
kg/hr [0.0;+Inf]
Useful energy gain kJ/hr [-Inf;+Inf]
Dumped energy
kJ/hr [0.0;+Inf]
Theoretical temperature
C [-Inf;+Inf]
Length of the end loss
m [0;+Inf]
Height of the shadow from the adjacent array

m [0;+Inf]

C ***
C *** Model Derivatives
C ***
C (Comments and routine interface generated by TRNSYS Studio)
C************************************************************************
C

TRNSYS acess functions (allow to acess TIME etc.)

USE TrnsysConstants
USE TrnsysFunctions

C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C REQUIRED BY THE MULTI-DLL VERSION OF TRNSYS

!DEC$ATTRIBUTES DLLEXPORT :: TYPE230
!SET THE CORRECT TYPE
NUMBER HERE
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C TRNSYS DECLARATIONS
IMPLICIT NONE
DOUBLE PRECISION XIN,OUT,TIME,PAR,T,DTDT,TIME0,TFINAL,DELT
INTEGER*4 INFO(15),NP,NI,NOUT,ND,IUNIT,ITYPE,ICNTRL
CHARACTER*3 YCHECK,OCHECK
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C USER DECLARATIONS - SET THE MAXIMUM NUMBER OF PARAMETERS (NP), INPUTS (NI),
C OUTPUTS (NOUT), AND DERIVATIVES (ND) THAT MAY BE SUPPLIED FOR THIS TYPE
PARAMETER (NP=15,NI=7,NOUT=8,ND=0)
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C REQUIRED TRNSYS DIMENSIONS
DIMENSION XIN(NI),OUT(NOUT),PAR(NP),YCHECK(NI),OCHECK(NOUT)
INTEGER NITEMS
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C ADD DECLARATIONS AND DEFINITIONS FOR THE USER-VARIABLES HERE
C DECLARATIONS AND DEFINITIONS FOR THE USER-VARIABLES
DOUBLE PRECISION BEAM,X(1),Y(1),XNS,XNP,AAP_TOTAL,CONC,FRTAN,FRUL
DOUBLE PRECISION GTEST,TIN,FLWC,TAMB,THETA,TMAX,XKAT,FTEST,FPUL,RTEST
DOUBLE PRECISION QU,TCALC,TOUT,QDUMP,LFOCAL,LSPAN,HSHADOW,AAL,AAW

5-14

DOUBLE PRECISION RDCONV,XK,R2,AAP,CPF,LENDLOSS,R1

DOUBLE PRECISION TANGLE,SANGLE,OTANGLE
INTEGER NX(1),LU,NPOINT,NUM_S,NUM_P,NUM_M,NUM_A
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C CONSTANTS REQUIRED BY THE MODEL
DATA RDCONV/0.0174532925D0/
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C GET GLOBAL TRNSYS SIMULATION VARIABLES
TIME0=getSimulationStartTime()
TFINAL=getSimulationStopTime()
DELT=getSimulationTimeStep()
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C SET THE VERSION INFORMATION FOR TRNSYS
IF(INFO(7).EQ.-2) THEN
INFO(12)=16
RETURN 1
ENDIF
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C DO ALL THE VERY LAST CALL OF THE SIMULATION MANIPULATIONS HERE
IF (INFO(8).EQ.-1) THEN
RETURN 1
ENDIF
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C PERFORM ANY "AFTER-ITERATION" MANIPULATIONS THAT ARE REQUIRED
IF(INFO(13).GT.0) THEN
RETURN 1
ENDIF
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C DO ALL THE VERY FIRST CALL OF THE SIMULATION MANIPULATIONS HERE
IF (INFO(7).EQ.-1) THEN
C
RETRIEVE THE UNIT NUMBER AND TYPE NUMBER FOR THIS COMPONENT FROM THE INFO
ARRAY
IUNIT=INFO(1)
ITYPE=INFO(2)
C

SET SOME INFO ARRAY VARIABLES TO TELL THE TRNSYS ENGINE HOW THIS TYPE IS TO WORK
INFO(6)=NOUT
INFO(9)=1
INFO(10)=0
!STORAGE FOR VERSION 16 HAS BEEN CHANGED

C
CALL THE TYPE CHECK SUBROUTINE TO COMPARE WHAT THIS COMPONENT REQUIRES TO
WHAT IS SUPPLIED IN
C
THE TRNSYS INPUT FILE
CALL TYPECK(1,INFO,NI,NP,ND)
C
SET THE YCHECK AND OCHECK ARRAYS TO CONTAIN THE CORRECT VARIABLE TYPES FOR
THE INPUTS AND

5-15

OUTPUTS
DATA YCHECK/'TE1','MF1','TE1','IR1','DG1','TE1','DG1'/
DATA OCHECK/'TE1','MF1','PW1','PW1','TE1','LE1','LE1'/

C
CALL THE RCHECK SUBROUTINE TO SET THE CORRECT INPUT AND OUTPUT TYPES FOR THIS
COMPONENT
CALL RCHECK(INFO,YCHECK,OCHECK)
C

CALL LINKCK TO TELL THE UISER THIS TYPE REQUIRES TAU_ALPHA

CALL LINKCK('TYPE 536',' TAU_ALPHA',4,INFO(1))

RETURN TO THE CALLING PROGRAM

RETURN 1

ENDIF
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C DO ALL OF THE INITIAL TIMESTEP MANIPULATIONS HERE - THERE ARE NO ITERATIONS AT THE
INTIAL TIME
IF (TIME.LT.(TIME0+DELT/2.D0)) THEN
C

SET THE UNIT NUMBER FOR FUTURE CALLS

IUNIT=INFO(1)

READ IN THE VALUES OF THE PARAMETERS IN SEQUENTIAL ORDER

NUM_S=JFIX(PAR(1)+0.1)
XNS=DBLE(NUM_S)
NUM_P=JFIX(PAR(2)+0.1)
XNP=DBLE(NUM_P)
AAL=PAR(3)
AAW=PAR(4)
CONC=PAR(5)
FRTAN=PAR(6)
FRUL=PAR(7)
CPF=PAR(8)
LU=JFIX(PAR(9)+0.1)
NPOINT=JFIX(PAR(10)+0.1)
GTEST=PAR(11)
NUM_M=JFIX(PAR(12)+0.1)
NUM_A=JFIX(PAR(13)+0.1)
LFOCAL=PAR(14)
LSPAN=PAR(15)

C
CHECK THE PARAMETERS FOR PROBLEMS AND RETURN FROM THE SUBROUTINE IF AN ERROR
IS FOUND
IF(NUM_S.LT.1) CALL TYPECK(-4,INFO,NI,1,0)
IF(NUM_P.LT.1) CALL TYPECK(-4,INFO,NI,2,0)
IF(AAL.LE.0.) CALL TYPECK(-4,INFO,NI,3,0)
IF(AAW.LE.0.) CALL TYPECK(-4,INFO,NI,4,0)
IF(CONC.LE.0.) CALL TYPECK(-4,INFO,NI,5,0)
IF(FRTAN.LE.0.) CALL TYPECK(-4,INFO,NI,6,0)
IF(FRUL.LE.0.) CALL TYPECK(-4,INFO,NI,7,0)
IF(CPF.LT.0.) CALL TYPECK(-4,INFO,NI,8,0)
IF(LU.LT.10) CALL TYPECK(-4,INFO,NI,9,0)
IF(NPOINT.LT.2) CALL TYPECK(-4,INFO,NI,10,0)
IF(GTEST.LE.0.) CALL TYPECK(-4,INFO,NI,11,0)
IF(NUM_M.LT.1) CALL TYPECK(-4,INFO,NI,12,0)
IF(NUM_A.LT.1) CALL TYPECK(-4,INFO,NI,13,0)
IF(LFOCAL.LE.0.) CALL TYPECK(-4,INFO,NI,14,0)
IF(LSPAN.LE.0.) CALL TYPECK(-4,INFO,NI,15,0)

5-16

PERFORM ANY REQUIRED CALCULATIONS TO SET THE INITIAL VALUES OF THE OUTPUTS HERE
OUT(1)=XIN(1)
OUT(2)=0.
OUT(3)=0.
OUT(4)=0.
OUT(5)=0.
OUT(6)=0.
OUT(7)=0.
OUT(8)=0.

RETURN TO THE CALLING PROGRAM

RETURN 1

ENDIF
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C *** ITS AN ITERATIVE CALL TO THIS COMPONENT ***
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C RE-READ THE PARAMETERS IF ANOTHER UNIT OF THIS TYPE HAS BEEN CALLED
IF(INFO(1).NE.IUNIT) THEN
C

RESET THE UNIT NUMBER

IUNIT=INFO(1)
ITYPE=INFO(2)

READ IN THE VALUES OF THE PARAMETERS IN SEQUENTIAL ORDER

NUM_S=JFIX(PAR(1)+0.1)
XNS=DBLE(NUM_S)
NUM_P=JFIX(PAR(2)+0.1)
XNP=DBLE(NUM_P)
AAL=PAR(3)
AAW=PAR(4)
CONC=PAR(5)
FRTAN=PAR(6)
FRUL=PAR(7)
CPF=PAR(8)
LU=JFIX(PAR(9)+0.1)
NPOINT=JFIX(PAR(10)+0.1)
GTEST=PAR(11)
NUM_M=JFIX(PAR(12)+0.1)
NUM_A=JFIX(PAR(13)+0.1)
LFOCAL=PAR(14)
LSPAN=PAR(15)

ENDIF
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C RETRIEVE THE CURRENT VALUES OF THE INPUTS TO THIS MODEL FROM THE XIN ARRAY IN
SEQUENTIAL ORDER
TIN=XIN(1)
FLWC=XIN(2)
TAMB=XIN(3)
BEAM=XIN(4)
THETA=XIN(5)
TMAX=XIN(6)
TANGLE=XIN(7)

5-17

C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C CHECK THE INPUTS FOR PROBLEMS

IF(FLWC.LT.0.) CALL TYPECK(-3,INFO,2,0,0)
IF(BEAM.LT.0.) CALL TYPECK(-3,INFO,4,0,0)
IF(ERRORFOUND()) RETURN 1
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C PERFORM ALL THE CALCULATION HERE FOR THIS MODEL.
C

FIND THE LENGTH OF RECEIVER TUBE WITH NO SUN RAY DUE TO ENDLOSS
SANGLE=DASIN(AAW/LSPAN)
OTANGLE=(90.-TANGLE)*RDCONV
IF(SANGLE.GT.OTANGLE) THEN
HSHADOW=AAW-LSPAN*DSIN(OTANGLE)
ELSE
HSHADOW= 0.
ENDIF
LENDLOSS=LFOCAL*DTAN(THETA*RDCONV)
IF (LENDLOSS.GT.NUM_M*AAL)THEN
AAP_TOTAL = 0
ELSE
AAP_TOTAL=NUM_A*(NUM_M*AAL-LENDLOSS)*(AAW-HSHADOW)
ENDIF
AAP=AAL*AAW

DETERMINE INCIDENCE ANGLE MODIFIER FROM CALL TO DATA

IF((BEAM.GT.0.).AND.(THETA.LE.90.)) THEN
X(1)=THETA
NX(1)=NPOINT
CALL DYNAMICDATA(LU,1,NX,1,X,Y,INFO,*10)
CALL LINKCK('TYPE 230','DYNAMICDATA',1,99)
10
IF(ERRORFOUND()) RETURN 1
XKAT=Y(1)
IF(XKAT.LT.0.) XKAT=0.
ELSE
XKAT=0.
ENDIF
C

CHECK TO SEE IF THERE IS FLOW

IF(FLWC.GT.0.) THEN

CALCULATE F'UL
FTEST=FRUL/GTEST/CPF/CONC
IF(FTEST.GE.1.) THEN
FPUL=FRUL
ELSE
FPUL=-GTEST*CPF*DLOG(1.-FRUL/GTEST/CPF/CONC)
ENDIF

DETERMINE MODIFIERS FOR OFF-TEST FLOW RATE AND COLLECTORS IN SERIES

RTEST=GTEST*CPF*(1.-DEXP(-FPUL/GTEST/CPF))
R1=XNS*FLWC/XNP*CPF/AAP*(1.-DEXP(-FPUL*AAP/XNS/(FLWC/XNP)/CPF))
1
/RTEST
XK=R1*AAP*FRUL/(FLWC/XNP)/CPF/XNS/CONC
R2=(1.-(1.-XK)**NUM_S)/XNS/XK

5-18

CALCULATE USEFUL ENERGY GAIN AND COLLECTOR TEMP

QU=R1*R2*AAP_TOTAL*(FRTAN*XKAT*BEAM-FRUL/CONC*(TIN-TAMB))
TCALC=QU/FLWC/CPF+TIN
TOUT=DMIN1(TCALC,TMAX)
QDUMP=FLWC*CPF*(TCALC-TOUT)
ELSE
TCALC=TAMB
TOUT=DMIN1(TCALC,TMAX)
C
TCALC=TAMB+FRTAN*XKAT*BEAM*CONC/FRUL
C
TOUT=DMIN1(TCALC,TMAX)
QU=0.
QDUMP=0.
FLWC=0.
ENDIF

C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C SET THE OUTPUTS FROM THIS MODEL IN SEQUENTIAL ORDER AND GET OUT
OUT(1)=TOUT
OUT(2)=FLWC
OUT(3)=QU
OUT(4)=QDUMP
OUT(5)=TCALC
OUT(6)=LENDLOSS
OUT(7)=HSHADOW
OUT(8)=AAP_TOTAL
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C EVERYTHING IS DONE - RETURN FROM THIS SUBROUTINE AND MOVE ON
RETURN 1
END
C-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Appedix 5.7 Code of main control of solar cooling base-case

SUBROUTINE TYPE235 (TIME,XIN,OUT,T,DTDT,PAR,INFO,ICNTRL,*)
C************************************************************************
C Object: Differential Based Solar Controller;
C IISiBat Model: TYPE235
C
C Author: Ming Qu
C Editor:
C Date: TRNSYS 7.5 last modified: Jun 2007
C
C NOTE: This controller can only be used with Solver 0 (Successive substitution)
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C ***

5-19

C *** Model Parameters

C ***
C
C
C

No. of oscillations - [1;+Inf]

High limit cut-out of NIP
kJ/hr.m^2 [-Inf;+Inf]
High limit cut-out of circulating fluid temperatureC [-Inf;+Inf]

C ***
C *** Model Inputs
C ***
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C

Direct normal solar radiation on horizontal surface

kJ/hr.m^2 [-Inf;+Inf]
Upper dead band of NIP
kJ/hr.m^2 [-Inf;+Inf]
Lower dead band of NIP
kJ/hr.m^2 [-Inf;+Inf]
Input control function of solar radiation - [0;1]
Cooling load
kJ/hr [-Inf;+Inf]
HTF temperature at the inlet of the chiller
C [-Inf;+Inf]
Upper dead band of inlet temperature C [-Inf;+Inf]
Lower dead band of inlet temperature C [-Inf;+Inf]
Input control function of inlet temperature
- [0;1]
Chilled water supply temperature of HW chiller in the last timestep C [-Inf;+Inf]

C ***
C *** Model Outputs
C ***
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C

Output control signal of NIP - [0.0;1.0]

Counter of stick in solar raidiation control
- [0.0;1.0]
Osillation number of solar radiation control
- [0.0;1.0]
Lastcall output of solar radiation control
- [0.0;1.0]
Output control signal of HT ctrl
- [0.0;1.0]
Counter of stick in temperature control - [0.0;1.0]
Osillation number of the temperature control
- [0.0;1.0]
Lastcall output of temperature control - [0.0;1.0]
Output control of bypass
- [0.0;1.0]
Output control of chiller
- [0.0;1.0]
Output control of fired chiller - [0.0;1.0]
Output control of cooling load
- [0.0;1.0]

C ***
C *** Model Derivatives
C ***
C (Comments and routine interface generated by TRNSYS Studio)
C************************************************************************
C

TRNSYS acess functions (allow to acess TIME etc.)

USE TrnsysConstants
USE TrnsysFunctions

C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C REQUIRED BY THE MULTI-DLL VERSION OF TRNSYS

!DEC$ATTRIBUTES DLLEXPORT :: TYPE235
!SET THE CORRECT TYPE
NUMBER HERE
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C TRNSYS DECLARATIONS
DOUBLE PRECISION XIN,OUT,TIME,PAR,T,DTDT,TIME0,TFINAL,DELT
INTEGER*4 INFO(15),NPMAX,NI,NO,ND,IUNIT,ITYPE,ICNTRL(4)
CHARACTER*3 OCHECK,YCHECK
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C USER DECLARATIONS - SET THE MAXIMUM NUMBER OF PARAMETERS (NP), INPUTS (NI),
C OUTPUTS (NOUT), AND DERIVATIVES (ND) THAT MAY BE SUPPLIED FOR THIS TYPE

5-20

PARAMETER (NP=3,NI=11,NO=14,ND=0,NSTORED=0)
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C-----------------------------------C REQUIRED TRNSYS DIMENSIONS
DIMENSION XIN(NI),OUT(NO),PAR(NP),YCHECK(NI),OCHECK(NO)
INTEGER NITEMS
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C ADD DECLARATIONS AND DEFINITIONS FOR THE USER-VARIABLES HERE
C

LOCAL VARIABLE DECLARATIONS

CHARACTER*12 ICNTStr
CHARACTER*160 WarnMsg
INTEGER NSTK, !No__of_oscillations
1 ICNT_1,ICNT_2,
1 CNTOLD_1,CNTOLD_2,
1 IOSC_1,IOSC_2 !Osillation number
DOUBLE PRECISION RMAX, !direct normal solar radiaition max value
1 TMAX,
!max temperature at inlet of the chiller
1 CLAST_1,CLAST_2,
1 NIP, !Direct_normal_solar_radiation_on_horizontal_surface
1 UP_NIP,
!Upper_dead_band_of_NIP
1 LOW_NIP,
!Lower_dead_band_of_NIP
1 CLOAD,
!cooling load
1 T_chillerin, !HTF_temperature_at_the_inlet_of_the_chiller
1 UP_T,
!Upper_dead_band_of_inlet_temperature
1 LOW_T,
!Lower_dead_band_of_inlet_temperature
1 CLOAD_CTRL, !LOAD CONTROL SIGNAL
1 CHILLER_CTRL, !HW CHILLER CONTROL
1 T_CHL_PREV_O, !OUTLET TEMPERATURE OF CHW FROM THE CHILLER
1 ICF_1, ICF_2, !CONTROL FUCTION INPUTS
1 T_CHW_SETPOINT,
!CHILLED WATER SETPOINT
1 R_BYPASS,
!RATIO OF HTF OVER THE BYPASS
1 R_LDIVERTER !RATIO OF CHW OVER THE HW CHILLER

DATA STATEMENTS
DATA YCHECK/'IR1','IR1','IR1','CF1','PW1','TE1','TE1','TE1',
1
'CF1','TE1','TE1'/
DATA OCHECK/'CF1','DM1','DM1','CF1','CF1','DM1','DM1','CF1',
1
'CF1','CF1','CF1','CF1','CF1','CF1'/

TRNSYS FUNCTIONS
TIME0=getSimulationStartTime()
TFINAL=getSimulationStopTime()
DELT=getSimulationTimeStep()

C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C SET THE VERSION INFORMATION FOR TRNSYS

IF(INFO(7).EQ.-2) THEN
INFO(12)=16
RETURN 1
ENDIF
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C PERFORM LAST CALL MANIPULATIONS
IF (INFO(8).EQ.-1) THEN
IF(ErrorFound()) RETURN 1
ICNT_1=JFIX(OUT(2)*DELT/(TFINAL-TIME0)*100.d0)
ICNT_2=JFIX(OUT(6)*DELT/(TFINAL-TIME0)*100.d0)

5-21

IF(ICNT_1.GE.10) THEN
WRITE (ICNTStr,*) ICNT_1
WarnMsg='The controller was stuck during '//TRIM(ADJUSTL(
& ICNTStr))//' percent of the simulation timesteps.'
CALL MESSAGES(-1,WarnMsg,'WARNING',INFO(1),INFO(2))
ENDIF
IF(ICNT_2.GE.10) THEN
WRITE (ICNTStr,*) ICNT_2
WarnMsg='The controller was stuck during '//TRIM(ADJUSTL(
& ICNTStr))//' percent of the simulation timesteps.'
CALL MESSAGES(-1,WarnMsg,'WARNING',INFO(1),INFO(2))
ENDIF
ENDIF
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C RETURN FROM THIS MODEL AS NO "AFTER-CONVERGENCE" MANIPULATIONS ARE REQUIRED
IF(INFO(13).GT.0) RETURN 1
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C

PERFORM FIRST CALL MANIPULATIONS

IF (INFO(7).EQ.-1) THEN
!retrieve unit and type number for this component from the INFO array
IUNIT=INFO(1)
ITYPE=INFO(2)
!set some info array variables to tell the trnsys engine how this type is to work
INFO(6)=NO !reserve space in the OUT array using INFO(6)
INFO(9)=1 !this TYPE should be called until convergence is reached
INFO(10)=0 !no storage spots are required
!SET THE PROPER NUMBER OF PARAMETERS ACCORDING TO THE MODE
NSTK=JFIX(PAR(1)+0.01)
IF(NSTK.LT.0) CALL TYPECK(4,INFO,0,1,0)

!CALL THE TYPE CHECK SUBROUTINE TO COMPARE WHAT THIS TYPE REQUIRES TO WHAT IS
SUPPLIED IN
!THE TRNSYS INPUT FILE
CALL TYPECK(1,INFO,NI,NP,ND)
!CALL THE INPUT-OUTPUT CHECK SUBROUTINE TO SET THE CORRECT INPUT AND OUTPUT
UNITS
CALL RCHECK(INFO,YCHECK,OCHECK)
!RETURN TO THE CALLING PROGRAM
RETURN 1
ENDIF
C

PERFORM INITIAL TIMESTEP MANIPULATIONS

IF (TIME.LT.(TIME0+DELT/2.)) THEN
!set the UNIT number for future calls
IUNIT=INFO(1)
ITYPE=INFO(2)
!read parameter values
NSTK = JFIX(PAR(1)+0.01)
RMAX = PAR(2)
TMAX = PAR(3)
ENDIF

CHECK TO SEE IF THIS COMPONENT IS BEING CALLED AT THE VERY END OF A TIMESTEP
IF(INFO(7).EQ.-2) RETURN 1

C-------------------------------------------------------------------C THIS IS AN ITERATIVE CALL TO THIS COMPONENT ***

5-22

C-------------------------------------------------------------------C
C

RE-READ THE PARAMETERS IF ANOTHER UNIT OF THIS TYPE HAS BEEN CALLED SINCE THE LAST
TIME THEY WERE READ IN
IF(INFO(1).NE.IUNIT) THEN
!reset the unit number
IUNIT=INFO(1)
ITYPE=INFO(2)
!reread the parameter values
NSTK=JFIX(PAR(1)+0.01)
RMAX = PAR(2)
TMAX = PAR(3)
ENDIF

PERFORM THE CALCULATIONS

C
C
C
C
C
C

CHECK NUMBER OF ITERATIONS

OUT(3),A.K.A. IOSC_1, IS STICK COUNTER of solar radiation control
OUT(2) IS COUNTING TOTAL NUMBER OF TIMES IN SIM. STICK OCCURS of solar radiation control
OUT(7),A.K.A. IOSC_2, IS STICK COUNTER of by-pass valve control
OUT(6) IS COUNTING TOTAL NUMBER OF TIMES IN SIM. STICK OCCURS of by-pass valve control
CLEAR STICK COUNTER ON FIRST CALL OF T-S
IF(INFO(7).EQ.0) THEN
OUT(3)=0.d0
OUT(7)=0.d0
ENDIF
NIP = XIN(1)
UP_NIP = XIN(2)
LOW_NIP = XIN(3)
ICF_1= XIN(4)
CLOAD = XIN(5)
T_chillerin = XIN(6)
UP_T = XIN(7)
LOW_T = XIN(8)
ICF_2= XIN(9)
T_CHL_PREV_O = XIN(10)
T_CHW_SETPOINT = XIN(11)

CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
C CONTROL SOLAR PUMP C
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
C IT CONTROL
CNTOLD_1=OUT(4) ! control signal for the last time step
CLAST_1=OUT(1)
IOSC_1=JFIX(OUT(3)+0.01)
IF(IOSC_1.EQ.NSTK) OUT(2)=OUT(2)+1.d0
IF(IOSC_1 .GE. NSTK) GO TO 15
IF(INFO(7).EQ.0) THEN
IF (XIN(4) .GT. 0.5) THEN
CNTOLD_1 = 1
OUT(4)=DBLE(CNTOLD_1)
ELSE
CNTOLD_1 = 0
OUT(4)=DBLE(CNTOLD_1)

5-23

ENDIF
ENDIF
IF (CNTOLD_1.GT.0.5) GOTO 10
!OUTPUT WAS 0 LAST CALL
OUT(1)=0.d0
IF (NIP.GT.UP_NIP) OUT(1)=1.d0
IF (NIP.GT.4680.) OUT(1)=0.d0
GO TO 15
10

15

!OUTPUT WAS 1 LAST CALL

OUT(1)=1.d0
IF (NIP.LT.LOW_NIP) OUT(1)=0.d0
IF (NIP.GT.4680.) OUT(1)=0.d0
IF((ABS(CLAST_1-OUT(1)).LT.1.E-06).AND.(IOSC_1.NE.NSTK)) THEN
OUT(3)=OUT(3)
ELSE
!OUTPUT HAS CHANGED STATE SINCE LAST CALL
OUT(3)=OUT(3)+1.d0
ENDIF

CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
C LOADS CONTROL
C
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
IF (CLOAD.LE.0.) THEN
CLOAD_CTRL = 0.
ELSEIF (CLOAD.GT.0) THEN
CLOAD_CTRL = 1.
ENDIF

C********************************C
C CONTROL HT at inlet of chiller C
C********************************C
C

TEMPERATURE CONTROL
CNTOLD_2=OUT(8) ! control signal for the last time step
CLAST_2=OUT(5)
IOSC_2=JFIX(OUT(7)+0.01)
IF(IOSC_2.EQ.NSTK) OUT(6)=OUT(6)+1.d0
IF(IOSC_2.GE.NSTK) GO TO 25
IF(INFO(7).EQ.0) THEN
IF (XIN(9).GT.0.5) THEN
CNTOLD_2 = 1
OUT(8)=DBLE(CNTOLD_2)
ELSE
CNTOLD_2 = 0
OUT(8)=DBLE(CNTOLD_2)
ENDIF
ENDIF
IF (CNTOLD_2.GT.0.5) GOTO 20
!OUTPUT WAS 0 LAST CALL
OUT(5)=0.d0

5-24

IF (T_chillerin.GT.UP_T) OUT(5)=1.d0
IF (T_chillerin.GT.175.) OUT(5)=0.d0
GO TO 25
20

25

!OUTPUT WAS 1 LAST CALL

OUT(5)=1.d0
IF (T_chillerin.LT.LOW_T) OUT(5)=0.d0
IF (T_chillerin.GT.175.) OUT(5)=0.d0
IF((ABS(CLAST_2-OUT(5)).LT.1.E-06).AND.(IOSC_2.NE.NSTK)) THEN
OUT(7)=OUT(7)
ELSE
!OUTPUT HAS CHANGED STATE SINCE LAST CALL
OUT(7)=OUT(7)+1.d0
ENDIF

CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
C IF THE OUTLET TEMPERATURE OF CHILLER IS HIGHER THATN 14 C
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
IF(T_CHL_PREV_O.LT.13.1) THEN
CHILLER_CTRL = OUT(5)*CLOAD_CTRL*OUT(1)
ELSE
CHILLER_CTRL = 0.0
ENDIF
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
C BYPASS CONTROL BASED ON THE CHILLED WATER OUTLET TEMPERATURE C
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
IF(CHILLER_CTRL .GE. 0.5) THEN
IF(T_CHL_PREV_O.GE.(T_CHW_SETPOINT+4.0)) THEN
R_BYPASS=0.0
ELSEIF(T_CHL_PREV_O.GE.(T_CHW_SETPOINT+3.0)) THEN
R_BYPASS=0.2
ELSEIF(T_CHL_PREV_O.GE.(T_CHW_SETPOINT+2.0)) THEN
R_BYPASS=0.4
ELSEIF(T_CHL_PREV_O.GE.(T_CHW_SETPOINT-1.0)) THEN
R_BYPASS=0.65
ELSE
R_BYPASS=1.0
ENDIF
ELSE
R_BYPASS=1.0
ENDIF
C OUTPUT DECLARATION
OUT(9) = OUT(1)- CHILLER_CTRL
OUT(10)= CHILLER_CTRL
OUT(11)= CLOAD_CTRL - CHILLER_CTRL
OUT(12)= CLOAD_CTRL
OUT(13)= R_BYPASS
OUT(14)= CHILLER_CTRL
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C EVERYTHING IS DONE - RETURN FROM THIS SUBROUTINE AND MOVE ON
RETURN 1
END
C-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

5-25

Appedix 6

System optimization and sensitivity analysis

Appedix 6.1 Solar heating system with constant-outlet-temperature control

Figure 6:1Interface of solar heating system with constant-outlet-temperature control

6-1

Appedix 6.2 Solar cooling system with constant-outlet-temperature control

Figure 6:2 Interface of solar cooling system with constant-outlet-temperature control

6-2

Appedix 6.3 Solar heating system with storage tank

Figure 6:3 Interface of solar heating system with storage tank

6-3

A6.3.1 Control of solar heating system with storage tank

Table 6:1 Control of solar heating system with storage tank for shifting energy
Mode

Conditions

Output
S5

Solar collection pump

A. On

Direct normal solar radiation

NIP >300 W/m2 , Differential controller

S6

HX2

ON

ON

Heater

ON

ON

Off
250

B. Off
Storage tank
A. Charging ON
B. Charging OFF
C. Discharging
Heater
A. ON

B. OFF

300

W/m^2

NIP<250 W/m^2

OFF

T_sr_out > T_st_bottom_out + 4 C

T_sr_out < T_st_bottom_out + 3 C
T_st_top_out > T_lpump_out +3 C
Load is ON
T_mixer_out < 45 and There is load
Load is ON

ON

T_st_top_out > T_lpump_out +3 C

OFF

Where,
T_sr_out: the outlet temperature of the solar collector
T_st_bottom_out: the outlet temperature at the bottom of storage tank
T_st_top_out: the outlet temperature on the top of storage tank
T_lpump_out: the outlet temperature of the fluid from the pump in the load loop

6-4

Appedix 6.4 Solar cooling system with storage tank for shifting energy

Figure 6:4 Interface of solar cooling system with storage tank for shifting energy

6-5

A6.4.1 Control of solar cooling system with storage tank for shifting energy
Table 6:2 Control of solar cooling system with storage tank for shifting energy

Mode

Conditions

Output
S5

Solar collection pump

A. On

Direct normal solar radiation

NIP >300 W/m2 , Differential controller

HWchiller

VFD
pump

ON

ON

ON

ON

Off
250

B. Off
Storage tank
A. Charging ON

300

W/m^2

NIP<250 W/m^2

OFF

FR_sr >FR_chiller

B. Discharging
FR_sr >FR_chiller or T_sr_out < 130 C
ON
T_st_top

Off
130

155

Load is ON

Where,
T_sr_out: the outlet temperature of the solar collector
FR_sr: the flow rate of the solar collection loop
FR_chiller: the flow rate required by the absorption chiller
T_st_top: the temperature at the top of the storage tank
NIP: the direct normal solar radiation

6-6

Appedix 6.5 Solar cooling system with storage tank for preheat

Figure 6:5 Interface of solar cooling system with storage tank for preheat

6-7

A6.5.1 Control of solar cooling system with storage tank for preheat
Table 6:3 Control of solar cooling system with storage tank for preheat

Mode

Conditions

Output
Solar main
VFD pump

Solar collection pump

A. On

Direct normal solar radiation

NIP >300 W/m2 , Differential controller

S7

ON

ON

Off
250

B. Off
Storage tank
A. Charging

B. Discharging

300

W/m^2

NIP<250 W/m^2

OFF

Solar loop at last time step is ON

Solar loop at current time step is OFF
T_st_top < T_HC_AVE-3

OFF

ON

Solar loop at last time step is OFF

Solar loop at current time step is ON
T_st_bottom -3 > T_HC_AVE

ON

OFF

Or
Discharging is ON
Solar loop is ON
Mass in the storage tank has not fully been
discharged

Where,
T_st_top: the temperature at the top of the storage tank
T_st_bottom: the temperature at the bottom of the storage tank
T_HC_AVE: the average temperature of the HTF in the pipeline

NIP: the direct normal solar radiation

6-8

Appedix 6.6 Solar heating system with auxiliary heater for preheat

Figure 6:6 Interface of solar heating system with auxiliary heater for preheat

6-9

Appedix 6.7 Solar cooling with auxiliary heater for preheat

Figure 6:7 Interface of solar cooling with auxiliary heater for preheat

6-10

Appedix 6.8 Code of type 236: PTSC with constant-outlet-temperature control

SUBROUTINE TYPE236
(TIME,XIN,OUT,T,DTDT,PAR,INFO,ICNTRL,*)
C************************************************************************
C Object: Linear Parabolic Concentrator Solar Collector
C IISiBat Model: Type236
C
C Author: From Duffie and Beckman "Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes"
C Editor: Ming Qu
C Date: last modified: Oct 2007
C
C The Linear Parabolic Concentrator model is based on equations taken from
C Duffie and Beckman's "Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes"
C
C Description: this subroutine models a linear parabolic concentrating solar
C collector with a variable speed pump to keep the collector outer at the user
C specified condition, but if the he flow reaches its maximum condition, dump
C collected energy to keep the outlet at the desired condition.
C
C
C Ming Qu modified TESS type 536 at four aspects
C 1. when FR_solar is equal to 0 and there is direct solar radiation, it is assumped that the PTSC
C is not tracking, so that the outlet temperature of solar collector is equal to the ambient temperature.
C 2. add the end-loss into model due to the incident angle existed
C 3. add the shadow loss caused by the adjacent solar collector array
C 4. Constant temperature control added in the calculation
C 5. include the viscosity of propylene glycol look up table
C
C ***
C *** Model Parameters
C ***
C
Number of collectors in series
- [1;+Inf]
C
Number of collectors in parallel
- [1;+Inf]
C
Aperture length
m [0.0;+Inf]
C
Aperture width
m [0;+Inf]
C
Concentration ratio - [0.0;+Inf]
C
Intercept efficiency (FrTan) - [0.0;1.0]
C
Efficiency slope (FrUl)
kJ/hr.m^2.K [-Inf;+Inf]
C
Fluid specific heat kJ/kg.K [0.0;+Inf]
C
Logical unit
- [10;30]
C
Number of IAM points
- [2;10]
C
Tested flow rate
kg/s [0.0;+Inf]
C
Number of modules in an array
- [1;+Inf]
C
Number of arrays - [1;+Inf]
C
Parabola focal length
m [0;+Inf]
C
Distance between adjacent arrays
m [0;+Inf]
C
Maximum flow ratekg/hr [0;+Inf]
C
Diameter of the pipe
m [0;+Inf]
C
Viscosity of the fluid
kg/m.s [0;+Inf]
C
C ***
C *** Model Inputs
C ***
C
Inlet temperature C [-Inf;+Inf]
C
Inlet flow rate
kg/hr [0.0;+Inf]
C
Ambient temperature
C [-Inf;+Inf]
C
Incident beam radiation
kJ/hr.m^2 [0.0;+Inf]
C
Incidence angle
degrees [0.0;90.0]
C
Maximum outlet temperature C [-Inf;+Inf]
C
Tracking angle
degrees [0;+Inf]

6-11

C
Pump control specification - [0;+Inf]
C
Outlet temperature setpoint C [0;+Inf]
C
C ***
C *** Model Outputs
C ***
C
Outlet temperature C [-Inf;+Inf]
C
Outlet flow rate
kg/hr [0.0;+Inf]
C
Useful energy gain kJ/hr [-Inf;+Inf]
C
Dumped energy
kJ/hr [0.0;+Inf]
C
Theoretical temperature
C [-Inf;+Inf]
C
Length of the end loss
m [0;+Inf]
C
Height of the shadow from the adjacent array
m [0;+Inf]
C
Actual aperture area
m^2 [0;+Inf]
C
C ***
C *** Model Derivatives
C ***
C
C (Comments and routine interface generated by TRNSYS Studio)
C************************************************************************
C
C TRNSYS acess functions (allow to acess TIME etc.)
USE TrnsysConstants
USE TrnsysFunctions
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C REQUIRED BY THE MULTI-DLL VERSION OF TRNSYS
!DEC$ATTRIBUTES DLLEXPORT :: TYPE236
!SET THE CORRECT TYPE
NUMBER HERE
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C TRNSYS DECLARATIONS
IMPLICIT NONE
DOUBLE PRECISION XIN,OUT,TIME,PAR,T,DTDT,TIME0,TFINAL,DELT,STORED
INTEGER*4 INFO(15),NP,NI,NOUT,ND,IUNIT,ITYPE,ICNTRL,NSTORED
CHARACTER*3 YCHECK,OCHECK
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C USER DECLARATIONS - SET THE MAXIMUM NUMBER OF PARAMETERS (NP), INPUTS (NI),
C OUTPUTS (NOUT), AND DERIVATIVES (ND) THAT MAY BE SUPPLIED FOR THIS TYPE
PARAMETER (NP=19,NI=9,NOUT=8,ND=0,NSTORED=0)
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C REQUIRED TRNSYS DIMENSIONS
DIMENSION XIN(NI),OUT(NOUT),PAR(NP),YCHECK(NI),OCHECK(NOUT),
1 STORED(NSTORED),T(ND),DTDT(ND)
INTEGER NITEMS
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C ADD DECLARATIONS AND DEFINITIONS FOR THE USER-VARIABLES HERE
DOUBLE PRECISION BEAM,X(1),Y(1),XNS,XNP,AAP_TOTAL,CONC,FRTAN,FRUL,
1
Z(1),W(1)
DOUBLE PRECISION GTEST,TIN,FLWC,TAMB,THETA,TMAX,XKAT,FTEST,FPUL
DOUBLE PRECISION RTEST,TWANT,FLOWMAX,FLOWMIN,DH,S,MUF,RATIO,MIDPAR
DOUBLE PRECISION QU,TCALC,TOUT,QDUMP,LFOCAL,LSPAN,HSHADOW,AAL,AAW

6-12

DOUBLE PRECISION RDCONV,XK,R2,AAP,CPF,LENDLOSS,R1,R1A,PI,MIDPAR2

DOUBLE PRECISION TANGLE,SANGLE,OTANGLE,IDNMIN
INTEGER NX(1),LU,NPOINT,NUM_S,NUM_P,NUM_M,NUM_A,IPUMP,ICOUNT,LU1,
1
NPOINT1,NW(1)
CHARACTER*12::FAILCOUNTSTR
CHARACTER(LEN=MAXMESSAGELENGTH)::WARNMESS
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C CONSTANTS REQUIRED BY THE MODEL
DATA RDCONV/0.0174532925D0/, PI/3.14159265358979/
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C GET GLOBAL TRNSYS SIMULATION VARIABLES
TIME0=getSimulationStartTime()
TFINAL=getSimulationStopTime()
DELT=getSimulationTimeStep()
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C SET THE VERSION INFORMATION FOR TRNSYS
IF(INFO(7).EQ.-2) THEN
INFO(12)=16
RETURN 1
ENDIF
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C DO ALL THE VERY LAST CALL OF THE SIMULATION MANIPULATIONS HERE
IF (INFO(8).EQ.-1) THEN
IF(ErrorFound()) RETURN 1
ENDIF
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C DO ALL THE VERY FIRST CALL OF THE SIMULATION MANIPULATIONS HERE
IF (INFO(7).EQ.-1) THEN
C
RETRIEVE THE UNIT NUMBER AND TYPE NUMBER FOR THIS COMPONENT FROM THE INFO
ARRAY
IUNIT=INFO(1)
ITYPE=INFO(2)
C

SET SOME INFO ARRAY VARIABLES TO TELL THE TRNSYS ENGINE HOW THIS TYPE IS TO WORK
INFO(6)=NOUT
INFO(9)=1
INFO(10)=0
!STORAGE FOR VERSION 16 HAS BEEN CHANGED

C
CALL THE TYPE CHECK SUBROUTINE TO COMPARE WHAT THIS COMPONENT REQUIRES TO
WHAT IS SUPPLIED IN
C
THE TRNSYS INPUT FILE
CALL TYPECK(1,INFO,NI,NP,ND)
C
SET THE YCHECK AND OCHECK ARRAYS TO CONTAIN THE CORRECT VARIABLE TYPES FOR
THE INPUTS AND
C
OUTPUTS
DATA YCHECK/'TE1','MF1','TE1','IR1','DG1','TE1','DG1','DM1','TE1'/
DATA OCHECK/'TE1','MF1','PW1','PW1','TE1','LE1','LE1','AR1'/

6-13

C
CALL THE RCHECK SUBROUTINE TO SET THE CORRECT INPUT AND OUTPUT TYPES FOR THIS
COMPONENT
CALL RCHECK(INFO,YCHECK,OCHECK)
C

CALL LINKCK TO TELL THE USER THIS TYPE REQUIRES TAU_ALPHA

CALL LINKCK('TYPE 536',' TAU_ALPHA',4,INFO(1))

RETURN TO THE CALLING PROGRAM

RETURN 1

ENDIF
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C DO ALL OF THE INITIAL TIMESTEP MANIPULATIONS HERE - THERE ARE NO ITERATIONS AT THE
INTIAL TIME
IF (TIME.LT.(TIME0+DELT/2.D0)) THEN
C

SET THE UNIT NUMBER FOR FUTURE CALLS

IUNIT=INFO(1)

READ IN THE VALUES OF THE PARAMETERS IN SEQUENTIAL ORDER

NUM_S=JFIX(PAR(1)+0.1)
XNS=DBLE(NUM_S)
NUM_P=JFIX(PAR(2)+0.1)
XNP=DBLE(NUM_P)
AAL=PAR(3)
AAW=PAR(4)
CONC=PAR(5)
FRTAN=PAR(6)
FRUL=PAR(7)
CPF=PAR(8)
LU=JFIX(PAR(9)+0.1)
NPOINT=JFIX(PAR(10)+0.1)
GTEST=PAR(11)
NUM_M=JFIX(PAR(12)+0.1)
NUM_A=JFIX(PAR(13)+0.1)
LFOCAL=PAR(14)
LSPAN=PAR(15)
FLOWMAX=PAR(16)
DH=PAR(17)
LU1=JFIX(PAR(18)+0.1)
NPOINT1=JFIX(PAR(19)+0.1)

C
CHECK THE PARAMETERS FOR PROBLEMS AND RETURN FROM THE SUBROUTINE IF AN ERROR
IS FOUND
IF(NUM_S.LT.1) CALL TYPECK(-4,INFO,NI,1,0)
IF(NUM_P.LT.1) CALL TYPECK(-4,INFO,NI,2,0)
IF(AAL.LE.0.) CALL TYPECK(-4,INFO,NI,3,0)
IF(AAW.LE.0.) CALL TYPECK(-4,INFO,NI,4,0)
IF(CONC.LE.0.) CALL TYPECK(-4,INFO,NI,5,0)
IF(FRTAN.LE.0.) CALL TYPECK(-4,INFO,NI,6,0)
IF(FRUL.LE.0.) CALL TYPECK(-4,INFO,NI,7,0)
IF(CPF.LE.0.) CALL TYPECK(-4,INFO,NI,8,0)
IF(LU.LT.10) CALL TYPECK(-4,INFO,NI,9,0)
IF(NPOINT.LT.2) CALL TYPECK(-4,INFO,NI,10,0)
IF(GTEST.LE.0.) CALL TYPECK(-4,INFO,NI,11,0)
IF(NUM_M.LT.1) CALL TYPECK(-4,INFO,NI,12,0)
IF(NUM_A.LT.1) CALL TYPECK(-4,INFO,NI,13,0)
IF(LFOCAL.LE.0.) CALL TYPECK(-4,INFO,NI,14,0)
IF(LSPAN.LE.0.) CALL TYPECK(-4,INFO,NI,15,0)

6-14

IF(FLOWMAX.LT.0.) CALL TYPECK(-4,INFO,NI,16,0)

IF(DH.LT.0.) CALL TYPECK(-4,INFO,NI,17,0)
IF(LU1.LT.10) CALL TYPECK(-4,INFO,NI,18,0)
IF(NPOINT1.LT.2) CALL TYPECK(-4,INFO,NI,19,0)
C

PERFORM ANY REQUIRED CALCULATIONS TO SET THE INITIAL VALUES OF THE OUTPUTS HERE
OUT(1)=XIN(1)
OUT(2)=0.
OUT(3)=0.
OUT(4)=0.
OUT(5)=0.
OUT(6)=0.
OUT(7)=0.
OUT(8)=0.

RETURN TO THE CALLING PROGRAM

RETURN 1

ENDIF
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C *** ITS AN ITERATIVE CALL TO THIS COMPONENT ***
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C RE-READ THE PARAMETERS IF ANOTHER UNIT OF THIS TYPE HAS BEEN CALLED
IF(INFO(1).NE.IUNIT) THEN
C

RESET THE UNIT NUMBER

IUNIT=INFO(1)
ITYPE=INFO(2)

READ IN THE VALUES OF THE PARAMETERS IN SEQUENTIAL ORDER

NUM_S=JFIX(PAR(1)+0.1)
XNS=DBLE(NUM_S)
NUM_P=JFIX(PAR(2)+0.1)
XNP=DBLE(NUM_P)
AAL=PAR(3)
AAW=PAR(4)
CONC=PAR(5)
FRTAN=PAR(6)
FRUL=PAR(7)
CPF=PAR(8)
LU=JFIX(PAR(9)+0.1)
NPOINT=JFIX(PAR(10)+0.1)
GTEST=PAR(11)
NUM_M=JFIX(PAR(12)+0.1)
NUM_A=JFIX(PAR(13)+0.1)
LFOCAL=PAR(14)
LSPAN=PAR(15)
FLOWMAX=PAR(16)
DH=PAR(17)
LU1=JFIX(PAR(18)+0.1)
NPOINT1=JFIX(PAR(19)+0.1)

ENDIF
C-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

6-15

C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C RETRIEVE THE CURRENT VALUES OF THE INPUTS TO THIS MODEL FROM THE XIN ARRAY IN
SEQUENTIAL ORDER
TIN=XIN(1)
FLWC=XIN(2)
TAMB=XIN(3)
BEAM=XIN(4)
THETA=XIN(5)
TMAX=XIN(6)
TANGLE=XIN(7)
IPUMP=INT(XIN(8)+0.1)
TWANT=XIN(9)
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C CHECK THE INPUTS FOR PROBLEMS
IF(FLWC.LT.0.) CALL TYPECK(-3,INFO,2,0,0)
IF(BEAM.LT.0.) CALL TYPECK(-3,INFO,4,0,0)
IF(TWANT.GT.TMAX) CALL TYPECK(-3,INFO,9,0,0)
IF(ERRORFOUND()) RETURN 1
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C PERFORM ALL THE CALCULATION HERE FOR THIS MODEL.
C

STORE THE INLET FLOW RATE AS AN OUTPUT TO DO MASS FLOW CHECKING

C DETERMINE THE VISCOSITY OF PROPYLENE GLYCOL REGARDING TO THE INLET TEMPERATURE

OF FLUID

W(1)=TIN
NW(1) = NPOINT1
CALL DYNAMICDATA(LU1,1,NW,1,W,Z,INFO,*5)
CALL LINKCK('TYPE 236','DYNAMICDATA',1,99)
IF(ERRORFOUND()) RETURN 1
MUF=Z(1)/1000
S=PI*DH*DH/4
FLOWMIN=4000.*S*MUF/DH*3600.
IDNMIN=3.6*300.0

FIND THE LENGTH OF RECEIVER TUBE WITH NO SUN RAY DUE TO ENDLOSS
SANGLE=DASIN(AAW/LSPAN)
OTANGLE=(90.-TANGLE)*RDCONV
IF(SANGLE.GT.OTANGLE) THEN
HSHADOW=AAW-LSPAN*DSIN(OTANGLE)
ELSE
HSHADOW= 0.
ENDIF
LENDLOSS=LFOCAL*DTAN(THETA*RDCONV)
IF (LENDLOSS.GT.NUM_M*AAL)THEN
AAP_TOTAL = 0
ELSE
AAP_TOTAL=NUM_A*(NUM_M*AAL-LENDLOSS)*(AAW-HSHADOW)
ENDIF

6-16

AAP=AAL*AAW
C

DETERMINE INCIDENCE ANGLE MODIFIER FROM CALL TO DATA

IF((BEAM.GT.0.).AND.(THETA.LE.90.)) THEN
X(1)=THETA
NX(1)=NPOINT
CALL DYNAMICDATA(LU,1,NX,1,X,Y,INFO,*10)
CALL LINKCK('TYPE 236','DYNAMICDATA',1,99)
10
IF(ERRORFOUND()) RETURN 1
XKAT=Y(1)
IF(XKAT.LT.0.) XKAT=0.
ELSE
XKAT=0.
ENDIF
C********************START RIGHT MODE*****************C
C

SKIP TO THE RIGHT MODE

IF((IPUMP .GT. 0) .AND.(TWANT.GT.TIN)) GO TO 120

CONSTANT FLOW MODEL OF A SOLAR COLLECTOR

CHECK TO SEE IF THERE IS FLOW

FLWC=XIN(2)
IF(FLWC.GT.0.) THEN

CALCULATE F'UL
FTEST=FRUL/GTEST/CPF/CONC
IF(FTEST.GE.1.) THEN
FPUL=FRUL
ELSE
FPUL=-GTEST*CPF*DLOG(1.-FRUL/GTEST/CPF/CONC)
ENDIF

DETERMINE MODIFIERS FOR OFF-TEST FLOW RATE AND COLLECTORS IN SERIES

RTEST=GTEST*CPF*(1.-DEXP(-FPUL/GTEST/CPF))
R1=XNS*FLWC/XNP*CPF/AAP*(1.-DEXP(-FPUL*AAP/XNS/(FLWC/XNP)/CPF))
1
/RTEST
XK=R1*AAP*FRUL/(FLWC/XNP)/CPF/XNS/CONC
R2=(1.-(1.-XK)**NUM_S)/XNS/XK

CALCULATE USEFUL ENERGY GAIN AND COLLECTOR TEMP

QU=R1*R2*AAP_TOTAL*(FRTAN*XKAT*BEAM-FRUL/CONC*(TIN-TAMB))
TCALC=QU/FLWC/CPF+TIN
TOUT=DMIN1(TCALC,TMAX)
QDUMP=FLWC*CPF*(TCALC-TOUT)
ELSE
TCALC=TAMB
TOUT=DMIN1(TCALC,TMAX)
QU=0.
QDUMP=0.
FLWC=0.
ENDIF

120
CONTINUE
C
WHEN SOLAR BEAM IS GREATER THAN THE MINIMUM INTENSITY, THE PTSC STARTS TO
TRACK

6-17

IF(BEAM .GE. IDNMIN) THEN

C

GUESS A RATIO FOR THE START OF THE ITERATIONS

RATIO=1.0
ICOUNT=1

CALCULATE THE USEFUL ENERGY GAIN JUST TO SEE IF ITS POSITIVE

QU=RATIO*AAP_TOTAL*(FRTAN*XKAT*BEAM-FRUL/CONC*(TIN-TAMB))
C
MIDPAR = FRTAN*XKAT*BEAM
C
MIDPAR2 = FRUL/CONC*(TIN-TAMB)
IF(BEAM.LE.0.) QU=0.
C

SET AN INITIAL FLOW RATE FOR THE CALCULATION

FLWC=FLOWMAX

C
C
C

IF THERE IS USEFUL ENERGY GAIN, CALCULATE THE MAXIMUM FLOW, IF NOT, TURN THE
PUMPS OFF AND GET OUT
MIDPAR = QU
IF(QU.GT.0) THEN

122

IF(GTEST.GT.0.) THEN
FTEST=FRUL/GTEST/CPF/CONC
IF(FTEST.GE.1.) THEN
FPUL=FRUL
ELSE
FPUL=-GTEST*CPF*DLOG(1.-FRUL/GTEST/CPF/CONC)
ENDIF

DETERMINE MODIFIERS FOR OFF-TEST FLOW RATE AND COLLECTORS IN SERIES

RTEST=GTEST*CPF*(1.-DEXP(-FPUL/GTEST/CPF))
R1=XNS*FLWC/XNP*CPF/AAP*(1.-DEXP(-FPUL*AAP/XNS/(FLWC/XNP)/CPF))
1
/RTEST
XK=R1*AAP*FRUL/(FLWC/XNP)/CPF/XNS/CONC
R2=(1.-(1.-XK)**NUM_S)/XNS/XK
RATIO=R1*R2
ELSE
RATIO=1.0
ENDIF
QU=RATIO*AAP_TOTAL*(FRTAN*XKAT*BEAM-FRUL/CONC*(TIN-TAMB))
FLWC=QU/CPF/(TWANT-TIN)
TOUT=TWANT

CHECK TO SEE IF THE FLOW RATE HAS CONVERGED

IF(GTEST.GT.0.) THEN
R1A=XNS*FLWC/XNP*CPF/AAP*(1.-DEXP(-FPUL*AAP/XNS/(FLWC/XNP)
1
/CPF))/RTEST
IF((DABS(R1A-R1).GT.0.01).AND.(ICOUNT.LT.100)) THEN
ICOUNT=ICOUNT+1
GOTO 122
ENDIF
ENDIF
MIDPAR = FLWC

6-18

C
IF THE CALCULATED FLOW IS GREATER THAN THE MAXIMUM FLOW, RUN AT THE MAXIMUM
FLOW
IF(FLWC.GT.FLOWMAX) THEN
FLWC=FLOWMAX
IF(GTEST.GT.0.) THEN
R1=XNS*FLWC/XNP*CPF/AAP*(1.-DEXP(-FPUL*AAP/XNS/(FLWC/XNP)
1
/CPF))/RTEST
XK=R1*AAP*FRUL/(FLWC/XNP)/CPF/XNS/CONC
R2=(1.-(1.-XK)**NUM_S)/XNS/XK
RATIO=R1*R2
ELSE
RATIO=1.
ENDIF
QU=RATIO*AAP_TOTAL*(FRTAN*XKAT*BEAM-FRUL/CONC*(TIN-TAMB))
TCALC=QU/FLWC/CPF+TIN
IF(IPUMP.GT.1) THEN
TOUT=DMIN1(TCALC,TWANT)
QDUMP=FLWC*CPF*(TCALC-TOUT)
ELSE
QDUMP=0.
ENDIF
MIDPAR2 = TCALC
ELSE IF (FLWC.LT.FLOWMIN) THEN

FLWC=FLOWMIN
IF(GTEST.GT.0.) THEN
R1=XNS*FLWC/XNP*CPF/AAP*(1.-DEXP(-FPUL*AAP/XNS/(FLWC/XNP)
/CPF))/RTEST
XK=R1*AAP*FRUL/(FLWC/XNP)/CPF/XNS/CONC
R2=(1.-(1.-XK)**NUM_S)/XNS/XK
RATIO=R1*R2
ELSE
RATIO=1.
ENDIF
QU=RATIO*AAP_TOTAL*(FRTAN*XKAT*BEAM-FRUL/CONC*(TIN-TAMB))
TCALC=QU/FLWC/CPF+TIN
IF(IPUMP.GT.1) THEN
TOUT=DMIN1(TCALC,TWANT)
QDUMP=FLWC*CPF*(TCALC-TOUT)
ELSE
QDUMP=0.
ENDIF
MIDPAR2 = TCALC
ELSE
QU=RATIO*AAP_TOTAL*(FRTAN*XKAT*BEAM-FRUL/CONC*(TIN-TAMB))
FLWC=QU/CPF/(TWANT-TIN)
TCALC=QU/FLWC/CPF+TIN
IF(IPUMP.GT.1) THEN
TOUT=DMIN1(TCALC,TWANT)
QDUMP=FLWC*CPF*(TCALC-TOUT)
ELSE
QDUMP=0.

6-19

ENDIF
MIDPAR2 = TCALC
ENDIF

ELSE
FLWC=FLOWMIN
IF(GTEST.GT.0.) THEN
R1=XNS*FLWC/XNP*CPF/AAP*(1.-DEXP(-FPUL*AAP/XNS/(FLWC/XNP)
1
/CPF))/RTEST
XK=R1*AAP*FRUL/(FLWC/XNP)/CPF/XNS/CONC
R2=(1.-(1.-XK)**NUM_S)/XNS/XK
RATIO=R1*R2
ELSE
RATIO=1.
ENDIF
QU=RATIO*AAP_TOTAL*(FRTAN*XKAT*BEAM-FRUL/CONC*(TIN-TAMB))
TOUT=QU/FLWC/CPF+TIN
C
FLWC=0.
C
QU=0.
C
C
C
C

QDUMP=0.
TCALC=TAMB+FRTAN*XKAT*BEAM*CONC/FRUL
TOUT=DMIN1(TCALC,TMAX)
ENDIF
ELSE
FLWC=0.
QU=0.
QDUMP=0.
TOUT=TAMB

ENDIF
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C SET THE OUTPUTS FROM THIS MODEL IN SEQUENTIAL ORDER AND GET OUT
OUT(1)=TOUT
OUT(2)=FLWC
OUT(3)=QU
OUT(4)=QDUMP
C
C
C
C

OUT(1)=S
OUT(2)=MUF
OUT(3)=DH
OUT(4)=FLOWMIN
OUT(5)=TCALC
OUT(6)=LENDLOSS
OUT(7)=HSHADOW
OUT(8)=AAP_TOTAL

C
OUT(5)=Z(1)
C
OUT(6)=MIDPAR
C
OUT(7)=MIDPAR2
C
OUT(8)=AAP_TOTAL
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C EVERYTHING IS DONE - RETURN FROM THIS SUBROUTINE AND MOVE ON

6-20

RETURN 1
END
C-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Appedix 6.9 Code of type 237: main control of solar cooling for constant-outlettemperature control
SUBROUTINE TYPE237
(TIME,XIN,OUT,T,DTDT,PAR,INFO,ICNTRL,*)
C************************************************************************
C Object: Differential Based Solar Controller;
C IISiBat Model: TYPE237
C
C Author: Ming Qu
C Editor:
C Date: TRNSYS 7.5 last modified: oct 2007
C
C NOTE: This controller can only be used with Solver 0 (Successive substitution)
C
C
C
C
C This controller is main integrated controller for IW solar cooling system with
C constant outlet temperature control. It is used to control the outlet temperature
C of the solar field by varying the flow rate. It also controls the switch between
C by-pass and chiller and the switch between hot-water chiller and direct fired chiller.
C
C Description: there is no solar pump control signal from this component, since the
C control of solar pump is determined in the PTSC component.
C
C
C
C
C ***
C *** Model Parameters
C ***
C
No. of oscillations - [1;+Inf]
C
High limit cut-out of circulating fluid temperatureC [-Inf;+Inf]
C ***
C *** Model Inputs
C ***
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C

Flowrate of solar loop

kg/hr [0;+Inf]
Cooling load
kJ/hr [-Inf;+Inf]
HTF temperature at the inlet of the chiller
C [-Inf;+Inf]
Upper dead band of inlet temperature C [-Inf;+Inf]
Lower dead band of inlet temperature C [-Inf;+Inf]
Input control function of inlet temperature
- [0;1]
Chilled water supply temperature of HW chiller in the last timestep
chilled water setpoint of chiller
C [-Inf;+Inf]

C ***
C *** Model Outputs
C ***
C
C
C
C
C
C
C

Output control signal of HT ctrl

- [0.0;1.0]
Counter of stick in temperature control - [0.0;1.0]
Osillation number of the temperature control
- [0.0;1.0]
Lastcall output of temperature control - [0.0;1.0]
Output control of bypass
- [0.0;1.0]
Output control of chiller
- [0.0;1.0]
Output control of fired chiller - [0.0;1.0]

6-21

C [-Inf;+Inf]

C
C
C

Output control of cooling load

- [0.0;1.0]
Ratio of HTF over bypass
- [-Inf;+Inf]
Ration of CHW
- [-Inf;+Inf]

C ***
C *** Model Derivatives
C ***
C (Comments and routine interface generated by TRNSYS Studio)
C************************************************************************
C

TRNSYS acess functions (allow to acess TIME etc.)

USE TrnsysConstants
USE TrnsysFunctions

C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C REQUIRED BY THE MULTI-DLL VERSION OF TRNSYS

!DEC$ATTRIBUTES DLLEXPORT :: TYPE237
!SET THE CORRECT TYPE
NUMBER HERE
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C

TRNSYS DECLARATIONS
DOUBLE PRECISION XIN,OUT,TIME,PAR,T,DTDT,TIME0,TFINAL,DELT
INTEGER*4 INFO(15),NPMAX,NI,NO,ND,IUNIT,ITYPE,ICNTRL(4)
CHARACTER*3 OCHECK,YCHECK

C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C USER DECLARATIONS - SET THE MAXIMUM NUMBER OF PARAMETERS (NP), INPUTS (NI),
C OUTPUTS (NOUT), AND DERIVATIVES (ND) THAT MAY BE SUPPLIED FOR THIS TYPE
PARAMETER (NP=2,NI=8,NO=10,ND=0,NSTORED=0)
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C REQUIRED TRNSYS DIMENSIONS
DIMENSION XIN(NI),OUT(NO),PAR(NP),YCHECK(NI),OCHECK(NO)
INTEGER NITEMS
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C ADD DECLARATIONS AND DEFINITIONS FOR THE USER-VARIABLES HERE
C

LOCAL VARIABLE DECLARATIONS

CHARACTER*12 ICNTStr
CHARACTER*160 WarnMsg
INTEGER NSTK, !No__of_oscillations
1 ICNT_1,
1 CNTOLD_1,
1 IOSC_1
!Osillation number
DOUBLE PRECISION
1 TMAX,
!max temperature at inlet of the chiller
1 CLAST_1,
1 CLOAD,
!cooling load
1 T_chillerin, !HTF_temperature_at_the_inlet_of_the_chiller
1 UP_T,
!Upper_dead_band_of_inlet_temperature
1 LOW_T,
!Lower_dead_band_of_inlet_temperature
1 CLOAD_CTRL, !LOAD CONTROL SIGNAL
1 CHILLER_CTRL, !HW CHILLER CONTROL
1 T_CHL_PREV_O, !OUTLET TEMPERATURE OF CHW FROM THE CHILLER
1 ICF_1, !CONTROL FUCTION INPUTS

6-22

1 T_CHW_SETPOINT,
!CHILLED WATER SETPOINT
1 R_BYPASS,
!RATIO OF HTF OVER THE BYPASS
1 R_LDIVERTER, !RATIO OF CHW OVER THE HW CHILLER
1 FR_sr,
!FLOW RATE OF THE SOLAR COLLECTION LOOP
1 SOLAR_CTRL !SOLAR COLLEITON LOOP IS RUNING
C

DATA STATEMENTS
DATA YCHECK/'MF1','PW1','TE1','TE1','TE1','CF1','TE1','TE1'/

DATA OCHECK/'CF1','DM1','DM1','CF1','CF1','CF1','CF1','CF1',
1
'CF1','CF1'/
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C TRNSYS FUNCTIONS
TIME0=getSimulationStartTime()
TFINAL=getSimulationStopTime()
DELT=getSimulationTimeStep()
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C SET THE VERSION INFORMATION FOR TRNSYS
IF(INFO(7).EQ.-2) THEN
INFO(12)=16
RETURN 1
ENDIF
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C PERFORM LAST CALL MANIPULATIONS
IF (INFO(8).EQ.-1) THEN
IF(ErrorFound()) RETURN 1
ICNT_1=JFIX(OUT(2)*DELT/(TFINAL-TIME0)*100.d0)
IF(ICNT_1.GE.10) THEN
WRITE (ICNTStr,*) ICNT_1
WarnMsg='The controller was stuck during '//TRIM(ADJUSTL(
& ICNTStr))//' percent of the simulation timesteps.'
CALL MESSAGES(-1,WarnMsg,'WARNING',INFO(1),INFO(2))
ENDIF
ENDIF
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C RETURN FROM THIS MODEL AS NO "AFTER-CONVERGENCE" MANIPULATIONS ARE REQUIRED
IF(INFO(13).GT.0) RETURN 1
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C

PERFORM FIRST CALL MANIPULATIONS

IF (INFO(7).EQ.-1) THEN
!retrieve unit and type number for this component from the INFO array
IUNIT=INFO(1)
ITYPE=INFO(2)
!set some info array variables to tell the trnsys engine how this type is to work
INFO(6)=NO !reserve space in the OUT array using INFO(6)
INFO(9)=1 !this TYPE should be called until convergence is reached
INFO(10)=0 !no storage spots are required
!SET THE PROPER NUMBER OF PARAMETERS ACCORDING TO THE MODE
NSTK=JFIX(PAR(1)+0.01)

6-23

IF(NSTK.LT.0) CALL TYPECK(4,INFO,0,1,0)

!CALL THE TYPE CHECK SUBROUTINE TO COMPARE WHAT THIS TYPE REQUIRES TO WHAT IS
SUPPLIED IN
!THE TRNSYS INPUT FILE
CALL TYPECK(1,INFO,NI,NP,ND)
!CALL THE INPUT-OUTPUT CHECK SUBROUTINE TO SET THE CORRECT INPUT AND OUTPUT
UNITS
CALL RCHECK(INFO,YCHECK,OCHECK)
!RETURN TO THE CALLING PROGRAM
RETURN 1
ENDIF
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C

PERFORM INITIAL TIMESTEP MANIPULATIONS

IF (TIME.LT.(TIME0+DELT/2.)) THEN
!set the UNIT number for future calls
IUNIT=INFO(1)
ITYPE=INFO(2)
!read parameter values
NSTK = JFIX(PAR(1)+0.01)
TMAX= PAR(2)
ENDIF

CHECK TO SEE IF THIS COMPONENT IS BEING CALLED AT THE VERY END OF A TIMESTEP
IF(INFO(7).EQ.-2) RETURN 1

C-------------------------------------------------------------------C THIS IS AN ITERATIVE CALL TO THIS COMPONENT ***

C-------------------------------------------------------------------C
C

RE-READ THE PARAMETERS IF ANOTHER UNIT OF THIS TYPE HAS BEEN CALLED SINCE THE LAST
TIME THEY WERE READ IN
IF(INFO(1).NE.IUNIT) THEN
!reset the unit number
IUNIT=INFO(1)
ITYPE=INFO(2)
!reread the parameter values
NSTK=JFIX(PAR(1)+0.01)
TMAX= PAR(2)
ENDIF

C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C *** PERFORM ALL THE CALCULATION HERE FOR THIS MODEL. ***
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C

PERFORM THE CALCULATIONS

C CHECK NUMBER OF ITERATIONS

C OUT(3),A.K.A. IOSC_1, IS STICK COUNTER of outlet temperature of solar collector control
C OUT(2) IS COUNTING TOTAL NUMBER OF TIMES IN SIM. STICK OCCURS of outlet temperature of solar
collector control
C

CLEAR STICK COUNTER ON FIRST CALL OF T-S

IF(INFO(7).EQ.0) THEN
OUT(3)=0.d0
ENDIF

6-24

FR_sr = XIN(1)
CLOAD = XIN(2)
T_chillerin = XIN(3)
UP_T = XIN(4)
LOW_T = XIN(5)
ICF_1= XIN(6)
T_CHL_PREV_O = XIN(7)
T_CHW_SETPOINT = XIN(8)

CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
C SOLAR LOOP CONTROL C
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
IF (FR_sr.GT.0.) THEN
SOLAR_CTRL = 1.
ELSE
SOLAR_CTRL = 0.
ENDIF
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
C LOADS CONTROL
C
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
IF (CLOAD.LE.0.) THEN
CLOAD_CTRL = 0.
ELSEIF (CLOAD.GT.0) THEN
CLOAD_CTRL = 1.
ENDIF

C********************************C
C CONTROL HT at inlet of chiller C
C********************************C
C

TEMPERATURE CONTROL
CNTOLD_1=OUT(4) ! control signal for the last time step
CLAST_1=OUT(1)
IOSC_1=JFIX(OUT(3)+0.01)
IF(IOSC_1.EQ.NSTK) OUT(2)=OUT(2)+1.d0
IF(IOSC_1 .GE. NSTK) GO TO 15
IF(INFO(7).EQ.0) THEN
IF (XIN(6) .GT. 0.5) THEN
CNTOLD_1 = 1
OUT(4)=DBLE(CNTOLD_1)
ELSE
CNTOLD_1 = 0
OUT(4)=DBLE(CNTOLD_1)
ENDIF
ENDIF
IF (CNTOLD_1.GT.0.5) GOTO 10

6-25

!OUTPUT WAS 0 LAST CALL

OUT(1)=0.d0
IF (T_chillerin.GT.UP_T) OUT(1)=1.d0
IF (T_chillerin.GT.175.) OUT(1)=0.d0
GO TO 15
10

15

!OUTPUT WAS 1 LAST CALL

OUT(1)=1.d0
IF (T_chillerin.LT.LOW_T) OUT(1)=0.d0
IF (T_chillerin.GT.175.) OUT(1)=0.d0
IF((ABS(CLAST_1-OUT(1)).LT.1.E-06).AND.(IOSC_1.NE.NSTK)) THEN
OUT(3)=OUT(3)
ELSE
!OUTPUT HAS CHANGED STATE SINCE LAST CALL
OUT(3)=OUT(3)+1.d0
ENDIF

CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
C IF THE OUTLET TEMPERATURE OF CHILLER IS HIGHER THATN 14 C
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
IF(T_CHL_PREV_O.LT.13.1) THEN
CHILLER_CTRL = OUT(1)*CLOAD_CTRL*SOLAR_CTRL
ELSE
CHILLER_CTRL = 0.0
ENDIF
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
C BYPASS CONTROL BASED ON THE CHILLED WATER OUTLET TEMPERATURE C
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
IF(CHILLER_CTRL .GE. 0.5) THEN
IF(T_CHL_PREV_O.GE.(T_CHW_SETPOINT+4.0)) THEN
R_BYPASS=0.0
ELSEIF(T_CHL_PREV_O.GE.(T_CHW_SETPOINT+3.0)) THEN
R_BYPASS=0.2
ELSEIF(T_CHL_PREV_O.GE.(T_CHW_SETPOINT+2.0)) THEN
R_BYPASS=0.4
ELSEIF(T_CHL_PREV_O.GE.(T_CHW_SETPOINT-1.0)) THEN
R_BYPASS=0.65
ELSE
R_BYPASS=1.0
ENDIF
ELSE
R_BYPASS=1.0
ENDIF
C OUTPUT DECLARATION
OUT(5)= SOLAR_CTRL*(1-CHILLER_CTRL)
OUT(6)= CHILLER_CTRL
OUT(7)= CLOAD_CTRL - CHILLER_CTRL
OUT(8)= CLOAD_CTRL
OUT(9)= R_BYPASS
OUT(10)= CHILLER_CTRL

C-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

6-26

C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C SET THE STORAGE ARRAY AT THE END OF THIS ITERATION IF NECESSARY
C
NITEMS=
C
STORED(1)=
C
CALL SET_STORAGE_VARS(STORED,NITEMS,INFO)
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C REPORT ANY PROBLEMS THAT HAVE BEEN FOUND USING CALLS LIKE THIS:
C
CALL MESSAGES(-1,'put your message here','MESSAGE',IUNIT,ITYPE)
C
CALL MESSAGES(-1,'put your message here','WARNING',IUNIT,ITYPE)
C
CALL MESSAGES(-1,'put your message here','SEVERE',IUNIT,ITYPE)
C
CALL MESSAGES(-1,'put your message here','FATAL',IUNIT,ITYPE)
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C EVERYTHING IS DONE - RETURN FROM THIS SUBROUTINE AND MOVE ON
RETURN 1
END
C-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Appedix 6.10 Code of type 243: main control of solar cooling with storage tank for
shifting energy by constant-outlet-temperature
SUBROUTINE TYPE243
(TIME,XIN,OUT,T,DTDT,PAR,INFO,ICNTRL,*)
C************************************************************************
C Object: Differential Based Solar Controller;
C IISiBat Model: TYPE243
C
C Author: Ming Qu
C Editor:
C Date: TRNSYS 7.5 last modified: Oct 2007
C
C NOTE: This controller can only be used with Solver 0 (Successive substitution)
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C ***
C *** Model Parameters
C ***
C
No. of oscillations - [1;+Inf]
C
High limit cut-out of circulating fluid temperatureC [-Inf;+Inf]
C
the hot water rated flow of absorption chiller
kg/hr [0;+Inf]
C
the target temeprature of solar collection loop
C [0;+Inf]
C ***
C *** Model Inputs
C ***
C
C
C
C

Flowrate of solar loop

kg/hr [0;+Inf]
Cooling load
kJ/hr [-Inf;+Inf]
HTF temperature at the inlet of the chiller
C [-Inf;+Inf]
Upper dead band of inlet temperature C [-Inf;+Inf]

6-27

C
C
C
C
C

Lower dead band of inlet temperature C [-Inf;+Inf]

Input control function ofHT - [0;1]
Chilled water supply temperature of HW chiller in the last timestep
chilled water setpoint of chiller
C [-Inf;+Inf]
the temperature at the outlet2 of the storage tank C [0;+Inf]

C ***
C *** Model Outputs
C ***
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C

Output control signal ofHT ctrl

- [0.0;1.0]
Counter of stick in HT control
- [0.0;1.0]
Osillation number of the HT control
- [0.0;1.0]
Lastcall output of HT control - [0.0;1.0]
Output control of hw chiller - [0.0;1.0]
Output control of fired chiller - [0.0;1.0]
Output control of cooling load
- [0.0;1.0]
RA2
- [0;1.0]
RB2
- [0;1.0]
RC2
- [0;1.0]
Flow rate of the HTF discharged from the storage tank
kg/hr [0;+Inf]
Output control of charge the storage tank
- [0;1.0]
Output control of discharge the storage tank
- [0;1.0]
output for debug - [-Inf;+Inf]

C [-Inf;+Inf]

C ***
C *** Model Derivatives
C ***
C (Comments and routine interface generated by TRNSYS Studio)
C************************************************************************
C

TRNSYS acess functions (allow to acess TIME etc.)

USE TrnsysConstants
USE TrnsysFunctions

C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C REQUIRED BY THE MULTI-DLL VERSION OF TRNSYS

!DEC$ATTRIBUTES DLLEXPORT :: TYPE243
!SET THE CORRECT TYPE
NUMBER HERE
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C TRNSYS DECLARATIONS
DOUBLE PRECISION XIN,OUT,TIME,PAR,T,DTDT,TIME0,TFINAL,DELT
INTEGER*4 INFO(15),NPMAX,NI,NO,ND,IUNIT,ITYPE,ICNTRL(4)
CHARACTER*3 OCHECK,YCHECK
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C USER DECLARATIONS - SET THE MAXIMUM NUMBER OF PARAMETERS (NP), INPUTS (NI),
C OUTPUTS (NOUT), AND DERIVATIVES (ND) THAT MAY BE SUPPLIED FOR THIS TYPE
PARAMETER (NP=4,NI=9,NO=14,ND=0,NSTORED=0)
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C REQUIRED TRNSYS DIMENSIONS
DIMENSION XIN(NI),OUT(NO),PAR(NP),YCHECK(NI),OCHECK(NO)
INTEGER NITEMS
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C ADD DECLARATIONS AND DEFINITIONS FOR THE USER-VARIABLES HERE

6-28

LOCAL VARIABLE DECLARATIONS

CHARACTER*12 ICNTStr
CHARACTER*160 WarnMsg
INTEGER NSTK, !No__of_oscillations
1 ICNT_1,
1 CNTOLD_1,
1 IOSC_1
!Osillation number
DOUBLE PRECISION
1 TMAX,
!max temperature at inlet of the chiller
1 CLAST_1,
1 CLOAD,
!cooling load
1 T_chillerin, !HTF_temperature_at_the_inlet_of_the_chiller
1 UP_T,
!Upper_dead_band_of_inlet_temperature
1 LOW_T,
!Lower_dead_band_of_inlet_temperature
1 CLOAD_CTRL, !LOAD CONTROL SIGNAL
1 CHILLER_CTRL, !HW CHILLER CONTROL
1 T_CHL_PREV_O, !OUTLET TEMPERATURE OF CHW FROM THE CHILLER
1 ICF_1,
!CONTROL FUCTION INPUTS
1 T_CHW_SETPOINT,
!CHILLED WATER SETPOINT
1 R_BYPASS,
!RATIO OF HTF OVER THE BYPASS
1 R_LDIVERTER, !RATIO OF CHW OVER THE HW CHILLER
1 FR_SR,
!FLOW RATE OF THE SOLAR COLLECTION LOOP
1 SOLAR_CTRL, !SOLAR COLLEITON LOOP IS RUNING
1 FR_R_CHILLER,
!THE RATED FLOW RATE OF THE HOT WATER REQUIRED BY
CHILLER
1 T_SR_TARGET,
!THE TARGET TEMPERATURE OF THE SOLAR COLLECTOR
1 T_S3,
!THE TEMPERATURE AT OUTLET 2 OF THE STORAGE TANK
1 RA2,
!FLOW RATIO OF STREAM2 OF THE BYPASS DIVERTER
1 RB2,
!FLOW RATIO OF STREAM2 OF THE STORAGE DIVERTER
1 RC2,
!FLOW RATIO OF STREAM2 OF THE CHILLER DIVERTER
1 FR_DISCHARGE,
!FLOW RATE OF THE HTF FROM THE STORAGE TANK
1 FR_CHILLER, !FLOW RATE OF HTF TROUGH THE CHILLER
1 CHARGE_CTRL,
!CHARGING CTRL
1 DISCHARGE_CTRL !DISCHARGING CTRL
C

DATA STATEMENTS
DATA YCHECK/'MF1','PW1','TE1','TE1','TE1','CF1','TE1','TE1',
1
'TE1'/

DATA OCHECK/'CF1','DM1','DM1','CF1','CF1','CF1','CF1','CF1',
1 'CF1','CF1','MF1','CF1','CF1','DM1'/
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C TRNSYS FUNCTIONS
TIME0=getSimulationStartTime()
TFINAL=getSimulationStopTime()
DELT=getSimulationTimeStep()
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C SET THE VERSION INFORMATION FOR TRNSYS
IF(INFO(7).EQ.-2) THEN
INFO(12)=16
RETURN 1
ENDIF
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C PERFORM LAST CALL MANIPULATIONS

6-29

IF (INFO(8).EQ.-1) THEN
IF(ErrorFound()) RETURN 1
ICNT_1=JFIX(OUT(2)*DELT/(TFINAL-TIME0)*100.d0)
IF(ICNT_1.GE.10) THEN
WRITE (ICNTStr,*) ICNT_1
WarnMsg='The controller was stuck during '//TRIM(ADJUSTL(
& ICNTStr))//' percent of the simulation timesteps.'
CALL MESSAGES(-1,WarnMsg,'WARNING',INFO(1),INFO(2))
ENDIF
ENDIF
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C RETURN FROM THIS MODEL AS NO "AFTER-CONVERGENCE" MANIPULATIONS ARE REQUIRED
IF(INFO(13).GT.0) RETURN 1
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C

PERFORM FIRST CALL MANIPULATIONS

IF (INFO(7).EQ.-1) THEN
!retrieve unit and type number for this component from the INFO array
IUNIT=INFO(1)
ITYPE=INFO(2)
!set some info array variables to tell the trnsys engine how this type is to work
INFO(6)=NO !reserve space in the OUT array using INFO(6)
INFO(9)=1 !this TYPE should be called until convergence is reached
INFO(10)=0 !no storage spots are required
!SET THE PROPER NUMBER OF PARAMETERS ACCORDING TO THE MODE
NSTK=JFIX(PAR(1)+0.01)
IF(NSTK.LT.0) CALL TYPECK(4,INFO,0,1,0)

!CALL THE TYPE CHECK SUBROUTINE TO COMPARE WHAT THIS TYPE REQUIRES TO WHAT IS
SUPPLIED IN
!THE TRNSYS INPUT FILE
CALL TYPECK(1,INFO,NI,NP,ND)
!CALL THE INPUT-OUTPUT CHECK SUBROUTINE TO SET THE CORRECT INPUT AND OUTPUT
UNITS
CALL RCHECK(INFO,YCHECK,OCHECK)
!RETURN TO THE CALLING PROGRAM
RETURN 1
ENDIF
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C

PERFORM INITIAL TIMESTEP MANIPULATIONS

IF (TIME.LT.(TIME0+DELT/2.)) THEN
!set the UNIT number for future calls
IUNIT=INFO(1)
ITYPE=INFO(2)
!read parameter values
NSTK = JFIX(PAR(1)+0.01)
TMAX= PAR(2)
FR_R_CHILLER = PAR(3)
T_SR_TARGET = PAR(4)
ENDIF

CHECK TO SEE IF THIS COMPONENT IS BEING CALLED AT THE VERY END OF A TIMESTEP
IF(INFO(7).EQ.-2) RETURN 1

6-30

C-------------------------------------------------------------------C THIS IS AN ITERATIVE CALL TO THIS COMPONENT ***

C-------------------------------------------------------------------C
C

RE-READ THE PARAMETERS IF ANOTHER UNIT OF THIS TYPE HAS BEEN CALLED SINCE THE LAST
TIME THEY WERE READ IN
IF(INFO(1).NE.IUNIT) THEN
!reset the unit number
IUNIT=INFO(1)
ITYPE=INFO(2)
!reread the parameter values
NSTK=JFIX(PAR(1)+0.01)
TMAX= PAR(2)
FR_R_CHILLER = PAR(3)
T_SR_TARGET = PAR(4)
ENDIF

C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C *** PERFORM ALL THE CALCULATION HERE FOR THIS MODEL. ***
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C

PERFORM THE CALCULATIONS

C CHECK NUMBER OF ITERATIONS

C OUT(3),A.K.A. IOSC_1, IS STICK COUNTER of outlet temperature of solar collector control
C OUT(2) IS COUNTING TOTAL NUMBER OF TIMES IN SIM. STICK OCCURS of outlet temperature of solar
collector control
C

CLEAR STICK COUNTER ON FIRST CALL OF T-S

IF(INFO(7).EQ.0) THEN
OUT(3)=0.d0
ENDIF
FR_SR = XIN(1)
CLOAD = XIN(2)
T_chillerin = XIN(3)
UP_T = XIN(4)
LOW_T = XIN(5)
ICF_1= XIN(6)
T_CHL_PREV_O = XIN(7)
T_CHW_SETPOINT = XIN(8)
T_S3=XIN(9)

CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
C SOLAR LOOP CONTROL C
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
IF (FR_SR.GT.0.) THEN
SOLAR_CTRL = 1.
ELSE
SOLAR_CTRL = 0.
ENDIF
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
C
LOADS CONTROL C

6-31

CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
IF (CLOAD.LE.0.) THEN
CLOAD_CTRL = 0.
ELSEIF (CLOAD.GT.0) THEN
CLOAD_CTRL = 1.
ENDIF

CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
C CONTROL OF TOUT OF ST & SR C
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC

CNTOLD_1=OUT(4) ! control signal for the last time step

CLAST_1=OUT(1)
IOSC_1=JFIX(OUT(3)+0.01)
IF(IOSC_1.EQ.NSTK) OUT(2)=OUT(2)+1.d0
IF(IOSC_1 .GE. NSTK) GO TO 15
IF(INFO(7).EQ.0) THEN
IF (XIN(6) .GT. 0.5) THEN
CNTOLD_1 = 1
OUT(4)=DBLE(CNTOLD_1)
ELSE
CNTOLD_1 = 0
OUT(4)=DBLE(CNTOLD_1)
ENDIF
ENDIF
IF (CNTOLD_1.GT.0.5) GOTO 10

!OUTPUT WAS 0 LAST CALL

OUT(1)=0.d0
IF((T_chillerin.GT.UP_T) .OR. (T_S3.GT.UP_T)) OUT(1)=1.d0
GO TO 15
10

!OUTPUT WAS 1 LAST CALL

OUT(1)=1.d0
IF ((T_chillerin.LT.LOW_T) .AND. (T_S3.LT.LOW_T)) THEN
OUT(1)=0.d0
ENDIF

15

IF((ABS(CLAST_1-OUT(1)).LT.1.E-06).AND.(IOSC_1.NE.NSTK)) THEN
OUT(3)=OUT(3)
ELSE
!OUTPUT HAS CHANGED STATE SINCE LAST CALL
OUT(3)=OUT(3)+1.d0
ENDIF

CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
C HW CHILLER CONTROL
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC

IF((CLOAD_CTRL.GT.0.5).AND.(T_CHL_PREV_O.LT.13.1)) THEN
IF (OUT(1) .GT. 0.5) THEN

6-32

CHILLER_CTRL =1.0
ELSE
CHILLER_CTRL =0.0
ENDIF
ELSE
CHILLER_CTRL =0.0
ENDIF
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
C BYPASS CONTROL BASED ON THE CHILLED WATER OUTLET TEMPERATURE C
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
IF(CHILLER_CTRL .GE. 0.5) THEN
IF(T_CHL_PREV_O.GE.(T_CHW_SETPOINT+4.0)) THEN
R_BYPASS=0.0
FR_CHILLER=FR_R_CHILLER
ELSEIF(T_CHL_PREV_O.GE.(T_CHW_SETPOINT+3.0)) THEN
R_BYPASS=0.2
FR_CHILLER=FR_R_CHILLER*0.8
ELSEIF(T_CHL_PREV_O.GE.(T_CHW_SETPOINT+2.0)) THEN
R_BYPASS=0.4
FR_CHILLER=FR_R_CHILLER*0.6
ELSEIF(T_CHL_PREV_O.GE.(T_CHW_SETPOINT-1.0)) THEN
R_BYPASS=0.65
FR_CHILLER=FR_R_CHILLER*0.35
ELSE
R_BYPASS=1.0
FR_CHILLER=0.
ENDIF
ELSE
R_BYPASS=1.0
FR_CHILLER=0.
ENDIF
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
C
DIVERTER CONTROLS
C
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
FR_DISCHARGE=0.
CHARGE_CTRL=0.0
DISCHARGE_CTRL=0.0
RA2=0.
RB2=0.
RC2=0.
IF(CHILLER_CTRL .GT. 0.5) THEN

C
C
C
C
C

IF(FR_SR .GE.FR_CHILLER) THEN

RA2=1.
RB2=FR_CHILLER/FR_SR
RC2=1.
CHARGE_CTRL=1.0
ELSE
IF(T_chillerin.GE. LOW_T)THEN
IF(T_S3 .GE. LOW_T)THEN
RA2=1.
RB2=1.
FR_DISCHARGE=FR_CHILLER-FR_SR
IF(FR_DISCHARGE .GT. roh_HTF*V_ST/DELT)

6-33

C
C
C
C

C
C

FR_DISCHARGE=roh_HTF*V_ST/DELT
RC2=FR_SR/FR_CHILLER

DISCHARGE_CTRL=FR_DISCHARGE/FR_R_CHILLER
ELSE
RA2=1.
RB2=1.
RC2=1.
ENDIF
ELSE
IF(T_S3 .GE. LOW_T)THEN
RC2=0.0
FR_DISCHARGE=FR_CHILLER
IF(FR_DISCHARGE .GT. roh_HTF*V_ST/DELT)
1
FR_DISCHARGE=roh_HTF*V_ST/DELT
DISCHARGE_CTRL=FR_DISCHARGE/FR_R_CHILLER
ENDIF
ENDIF
ENDIF
ENDIF

C OUTPUT DECLARATION
OUT(5)= CHILLER_CTRL
OUT(6)= CLOAD_CTRL*(1-CHILLER_CTRL)
OUT(7)= CLOAD_CTRL
OUT(8)= RA2
OUT(9)= RB2
OUT(10)= RC2
OUT(11)= FR_DISCHARGE
OUT(12)= CHARGE_CTRL
OUT(13)= DISCHARGE_CTRL
OUT(14)= FR_CHILLER
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C EVERYTHING IS DONE - RETURN FROM THIS SUBROUTINE AND MOVE ON
RETURN 1
END
C-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Appedix 6.11 Code of type 242: main control of solar cooling with storage tank
control for preheat controlled by constant-outlet-temperature
SUBROUTINE TYPE242
(TIME,XIN,OUT,T,DTDT,PAR,INFO,ICNTRL,*)
C************************************************************************
C Object: Differential Based Solar Controller;
C IISiBat Model: TYPE242
C
C Author: Ming Qu
C Editor:
C Date: TRNSYS 7.5 last modified: Oct 2007
C

6-34

C NOTE: This controller can only be used with Solver 0 (Successive substitution)
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C ***
C *** Model Parameters
C ***
C
No. of oscillations - [1;+Inf]
C
High limit cut-out of circulating fluid temperatureC [-Inf;+Inf]
C
the hot water rated flow of absorption chiller
kg/hr [0;+Inf]
C
the target temeprature of solar collection loop
C [0;+Inf]
C
the density of the HTF
kg/m^3 [0;+Inf]
C
the volume of the storage tank
m^3 [0;+Inf]
C ***
C *** Model Inputs
C ***
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C

Flowrate of solar loop

kg/hr [0;+Inf]
Cooling load
kJ/hr [-Inf;+Inf]
HTF temperature at the inlet of the chiller
C [-Inf;+Inf]
Upper dead band of inlet temperature C [-Inf;+Inf]
Lower dead band of inlet temperature C [-Inf;+Inf]
Input control function of HW chiller - [0;1]
Chilled water supply temperature of HW chiller in the last timestep
chilled water setpoint of chiller
C [-Inf;+Inf]
the temperature at the outlet2 of the storage tank C [0;+Inf]
the inlet temperature of solar field
C [-Inf;+Inf]
the temperature at the bottom of the storage tank C [-Inf;+Inf]
the average temperature of the heat capacity tank C [-Inf;+Inf]

C ***
C *** Model Outputs
C ***
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C

Output control signal of HWchiller ctrl - [0.0;1.0]

Counter of stick in HWchiller control - [0.0;1.0]
Osillation number of the HWchiller control
- [0.0;1.0]
Lastcall output of HWchiller control - [0.0;1.0]
Output control of bypass
- [0.0;1.0]
Output control of fired chiller - [0.0;1.0]
Output control of cooling load
- [0.0;1.0]
RA2
- [0.0;1.0]
RB2
- [0.0;1.0]
output for solar control
- [0.0;1.0]
output of late charging
- [0.0;1.0]
output of preheating
- [0.0;1.0]
RE2
- [0.0;1.0]
RF2
- [0.0;1.0]
temperature at the bottom of the storage tank
C [-Inf;+Inf]
average temperature of heat capacity tank
C [-Inf;+Inf]
Output control of HW chiller - [0.0;1.0]

C ***
C *** Model Derivatives
C ***
C (Comments and routine interface generated by TRNSYS Studio)

6-35

C [-Inf;+Inf]

C************************************************************************
C

TRNSYS acess functions (allow to acess TIME etc.)

USE TrnsysConstants
USE TrnsysFunctions

C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C REQUIRED BY THE MULTI-DLL VERSION OF TRNSYS

!DEC$ATTRIBUTES DLLEXPORT :: TYPE242
!SET THE CORRECT TYPE
NUMBER HERE
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C TRNSYS DECLARATIONS
DOUBLE PRECISION XIN,OUT,TIME,PAR,T,DTDT,TIME0,TFINAL,DELT
INTEGER*4 INFO(15),NPMAX,NI,NO,ND,IUNIT,ITYPE,ICNTRL(4)
CHARACTER*3 OCHECK,YCHECK
C--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C USER DECLARATIONS - SET THE MAXIMUM NUMBER OF PARAMETERS (NP), INPUTS (NI),
C OUTPUTS (NOUT), AND DERIVATIVES (ND) THAT MAY BE SUPPLIED FOR THIS TYPE
PARAMETER (NP=6,NI=12,NO=19,ND=0,NSTORED=0)
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C REQUIRED TRNSYS DIMENSIONS
DIMENSION XIN(NI),OUT(NO),PAR(NP),YCHECK(NI),OCHECK(NO)
INTEGER NITEMS
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C ADD DECLARATIONS AND DEFINITIONS FOR THE USER-VARIABLES HERE
C

LOCAL VARIABLE DECLARATIONS

CHARACTER*12 ICNTStr
CHARACTER*160 WarnMsg
INTEGER NSTK, !No__of_oscillations
1 ICNT_1,
1 CNTOLD_1,
1 IOSC_1
!Osillation number
DOUBLE PRECISION
1 TMAX,
!max temperature at inlet of the chiller
1 CLAST_1,
1 CLOAD,
!cooling load
1 T_chillerin, !HTF_temperature_at_the_inlet_of_the_chiller
1 UP_T,
!Upper_dead_band_of_inlet_temperature
1 LOW_T,
!Lower_dead_band_of_inlet_temperature
1 CLOAD_CTRL, !LOAD CONTROL SIGNAL
1 CHILLER_CTRL, !HW CHILLER CONTROL
1 T_CHL_PREV_O, !OUTLET TEMPERATURE OF CHW FROM THE CHILLER
1 ICF_1,
!CONTROL FUCTION INPUTS
1 T_CHW_SETPOINT,
!CHILLED WATER SETPOINT
1 R_BYPASS,
!RATIO OF HTF OVER THE BYPASS
1 FR_SR,
!FLOW RATE OF THE SOLAR COLLECTION LOOP
1 SOLAR_CTRL, !SOLAR COLLEITON LOOP IS RUNING
1 FR_R_CHILLER,
!THE RATED FLOW RATE OF THE HOT WATER REQUIRED BY
CHILLER
1 T_SR_TARGET,
!THE TARGET TEMPERATURE OF THE SOLAR COLLECTOR
1 T_S3,
!THE TEMPERATURE AT OUTLET 2 OF THE STORAGE TANK
1 RA2,
!FLOW RATIO OF STREAM2 OF THE BYPASS DIVERTER

6-36

1 RB2,
!FLOW RATIO OF STREAM2 OF THE STORAGE DIVERTER
1 RE2,
!FLOW RATIO OF STREAM2 OF THE PREHEAT DIVERTER
1 RF2,
!FLOW RATIO OF STREAM2 OF THE LTCHARGE DIVERTER
1 T_S4,
!THE TEMPERATURE AT INLET 2 OF THE STORAGE TANK
1 T_SR_INLET, !THE INLET TEMPERATURE OF THE SOLAR FIELD
1 LTCHARGE_CTRL, !THE CONTROL OF LATE AFTERNOON CHARGE
1 PREHEAT_CTRL, !THE CONTROL OF DISCHARING THE STORAGE FOR PERHEAT
1 SOLAR_CTRL_LST, !THE CONTROL OF LAST SOLAR CONTROL
1 PREHEAT_CTRL_LST, !THE CONTROL OF LAST PREHEATDISCHARGE
1 LTCHARGE_CTRL_LST, ! THE CONTROL OF LAST LATECHARGE
1 T_HC_AVE,
! the average temperature of the heat capacity tank
1 T_S3_LST,
! TEMPERATURE AT THE TOP OF THE STORAGE TANK AT
LAST TIME STEP
1 T_HC_AVE_LST,
!AVERAGE TEMEPRATURE OF THE HEAT CAPACTIY TANK

C
AT THE
C

1 roh_HTF,
1 V_ST,
1 M_H_HTF,
1 M_H_HTF_LST,
1 T_S4_LST

LAST TIME STEP

!DENSITY OF THE HTF
!THE VOLUME OF THE STORAGE TANK
!THE MASS IN THE STORAGE TANK
!THE MASS IN THE STORAGE TANK AT THE LAST TIME
! TEMPERATURE AT THE BOTTOM OF THE STORAGE TANK

AT
C
LAST TIME STEP
C
C DATA STATEMENTS
DATA YCHECK/'MF1','PW1','TE1','TE1','TE1','CF1','TE1','TE1',
1
'TE1','TE1','TE1','TE1'/
DATA OCHECK/'CF1','DM1','DM1','CF1','CF1','CF1','CF1','CF1','CF1'
1 ,'CF1','CF1','CF1','CF1','CF1','TE1','TE1','CF1','MA1','TE1'/
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C TRNSYS FUNCTIONS
TIME0=getSimulationStartTime()
TFINAL=getSimulationStopTime()
DELT=getSimulationTimeStep()
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C SET THE VERSION INFORMATION FOR TRNSYS
IF(INFO(7).EQ.-2) THEN
INFO(12)=16
RETURN 1
ENDIF
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C PERFORM LAST CALL MANIPULATIONS
IF (INFO(8).EQ.-1) THEN
IF(ErrorFound()) RETURN 1
ICNT_1=JFIX(OUT(2)*DELT/(TFINAL-TIME0)*100.d0)
IF(ICNT_1.GE.10) THEN
WRITE (ICNTStr,*) ICNT_1
WarnMsg='The controller was stuck during '//TRIM(ADJUSTL(
& ICNTStr))//' percent of the simulation timesteps.'
CALL MESSAGES(-1,WarnMsg,'WARNING',INFO(1),INFO(2))
ENDIF
ENDIF

6-37

C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C RETURN FROM THIS MODEL AS NO "AFTER-CONVERGENCE" MANIPULATIONS ARE REQUIRED

IF(INFO(13).GT.0) RETURN 1
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C

PERFORM FIRST CALL MANIPULATIONS

IF (INFO(7).EQ.-1) THEN
!retrieve unit and type number for this component from the INFO array
IUNIT=INFO(1)
ITYPE=INFO(2)
!set some info array variables to tell the trnsys engine how this type is to work
INFO(6)=NO !reserve space in the OUT array using INFO(6)
INFO(9)=1 !this TYPE should be called until convergence is reached
INFO(10)=0 !no storage spots are required
!SET THE PROPER NUMBER OF PARAMETERS ACCORDING TO THE MODE
NSTK=JFIX(PAR(1)+0.01)
IF(NSTK.LT.0) CALL TYPECK(4,INFO,0,1,0)

!CALL THE TYPE CHECK SUBROUTINE TO COMPARE WHAT THIS TYPE REQUIRES TO WHAT IS
SUPPLIED IN
!THE TRNSYS INPUT FILE
CALL TYPECK(1,INFO,NI,NP,ND)
!CALL THE INPUT-OUTPUT CHECK SUBROUTINE TO SET THE CORRECT INPUT AND OUTPUT
UNITS
CALL RCHECK(INFO,YCHECK,OCHECK)
!RETURN TO THE CALLING PROGRAM
RETURN 1
ENDIF
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C

PERFORM INITIAL TIMESTEP MANIPULATIONS

IF (TIME.LT.(TIME0+DELT/2.)) THEN
!set the UNIT number for future calls
IUNIT=INFO(1)
ITYPE=INFO(2)
!read parameter values
NSTK = JFIX(PAR(1)+0.01)
TMAX= PAR(2)
FR_R_CHILLER = PAR(3)
T_SR_TARGET = PAR(4)
roh_HTF = PAR(5)
V_ST = PAR(6)
ENDIF

CHECK TO SEE IF THIS COMPONENT IS BEING CALLED AT THE VERY END OF A TIMESTEP
IF(INFO(7).EQ.-2) RETURN 1

C-------------------------------------------------------------------C THIS IS AN ITERATIVE CALL TO THIS COMPONENT ***

C-------------------------------------------------------------------C
C

RE-READ THE PARAMETERS IF ANOTHER UNIT OF THIS TYPE HAS BEEN CALLED SINCE THE LAST
TIME THEY WERE READ IN
IF(INFO(1).NE.IUNIT) THEN
!reset the unit number
IUNIT=INFO(1)

6-38

ITYPE=INFO(2)
!reread the parameter values
NSTK=JFIX(PAR(1)+0.01)
TMAX= PAR(2)
FR_R_CHILLER = PAR(3)
T_SR_TARGET = PAR(4)
roh_HTF = PAR(5)
V_ST = PAR(6)
ENDIF
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C *** PERFORM ALL THE CALCULATION HERE FOR THIS MODEL. ***
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C

PERFORM THE CALCULATIONS

C CHECK NUMBER OF ITERATIONS

C OUT(3),A.K.A. IOSC_1, IS STICK COUNTER of outlet temperature of solar collector control
C OUT(2) IS COUNTING TOTAL NUMBER OF TIMES IN SIM. STICK OCCURS of outlet temperature of solar
collector control
C
C

CLEAR STICK COUNTER ON FIRST CALL OF T-S

RETRIEVE THE STORED VALUE FROM THE OUT ARRAY
IF(INFO(7).EQ.0) THEN
OUT(3) = 0.d0
SOLAR_CTRL_LST=OUT(10)
PREHEAT_CTRL_LST = OUT(12)
LTCHARGE_CTRL_LST = OUT(11)
T_S3_LST = OUT(15)
M_H_HTF_LST = OUT(18)
T_HC_AVE_LST = OUT(16)
T_S4_LST = OUT(19)
ENDIF
FR_SR = XIN(1)
CLOAD = XIN(2)
T_chillerin = XIN(3)
UP_T = XIN(4)
LOW_T = XIN(5)
ICF_1= XIN(6)
T_CHL_PREV_O = XIN(7)
T_CHW_SETPOINT = XIN(8)
T_S3=XIN(9)
T_SR_INLET = XIN(10)
T_S4 = XIN(11)
T_HC_AVE = XIN(12)

CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
C SOLAR LOOP CONTROL C
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
IF (FR_SR.GT.0.) THEN
SOLAR_CTRL = 1.

6-39

ELSE
SOLAR_CTRL = 0.
ENDIF
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
C
LOADS CONTROL C
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
IF (CLOAD.LE.0.) THEN
CLOAD_CTRL = 0.
ELSEIF (CLOAD.GT.0) THEN
CLOAD_CTRL = 1.
ENDIF
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
C
HW CHILLER CONTROL C
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
CNTOLD_1=OUT(4) ! control signal for the last time step
CLAST_1=OUT(1)
IOSC_1=JFIX(OUT(3)+0.01)
IF(IOSC_1.EQ.NSTK) OUT(2)=OUT(2)+1.d0
IF(IOSC_1 .GE. NSTK) GO TO 15
IF(INFO(7).EQ.0) THEN
IF (XIN(6) .GT. 0.5) THEN
CNTOLD_1 = 1
OUT(4)=DBLE(CNTOLD_1)
ELSE
CNTOLD_1 = 0
OUT(4)=DBLE(CNTOLD_1)
ENDIF
ENDIF
IF (CNTOLD_1.GT.0.5) GOTO 10

!OUTPUT WAS 0 LAST CALL

OUT(1)=0.d0
IF (T_chillerin.GT.UP_T) OUT(1)=1.d0
IF (T_chillerin.GT.175.) OUT(1)=0.d0
GO TO 15
10

15

!OUTPUT WAS 1 LAST CALL

OUT(1)=1.d0
IF (T_chillerin.LT.LOW_T) OUT(1)=0.d0
IF (T_chillerin.GT.175.) OUT(1)=0.d0
IF((ABS(CLAST_1-OUT(1)).LT.1.E-06).AND.(IOSC_1.NE.NSTK)) THEN
OUT(3)=OUT(3)
ELSE
!OUTPUT HAS CHANGED STATE SINCE LAST CALL
OUT(3)=OUT(3)+1.d0
ENDIF

CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
C IF THE OUTLET TEMPERATURE OF CHILLER IS HIGHER THATN 14 C
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
IF(T_CHL_PREV_O.LT.13.1) THEN

6-40

CHILLER_CTRL = OUT(1)*CLOAD_CTRL*SOLAR_CTRL
ELSE
CHILLER_CTRL = 0.0
ENDIF
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
C BYPASS CONTROL BASED ON THE CHILLED WATER OUTLET TEMPERATURE C
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
IF(CHILLER_CTRL .GE. 0.5) THEN
IF(T_CHL_PREV_O.GE.(T_CHW_SETPOINT+4.0)) THEN
R_BYPASS=0.0
FR_CHILLER=FR_R_CHILLER
ELSEIF(T_CHL_PREV_O.GE.(T_CHW_SETPOINT+3.0)) THEN
R_BYPASS=0.2
FR_CHILLER=FR_R_CHILLER*0.8
ELSEIF(T_CHL_PREV_O.GE.(T_CHW_SETPOINT+2.0)) THEN
R_BYPASS=0.4
FR_CHILLER=FR_R_CHILLER*0.6
ELSEIF(T_CHL_PREV_O.GE.(T_CHW_SETPOINT-1.0)) THEN
R_BYPASS=0.65
FR_CHILLER=FR_R_CHILLER*0.35
ELSE
R_BYPASS=1.0
FR_CHILLER=0.
ENDIF
ELSE
R_BYPASS=1.0
FR_CHILLER=0.
ENDIF
C INITAL THE VALUE OF THE CONTROLS
LTCHARGE_CTRL=0.0
PREHEAT_CTRL=0.0
RA2=0.
RB2=0.
RE2=0.
RF2=0.
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
C
DIVERTER CONTROLS
C
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
C
C
C
C
C

FR_DISCHARGE=0.
CHARGE_CTRL=0.0
DISCHARGE_CTRL=0.0
RA2=0.
RB2=0.
IF(CLOAD_CTRL .GT.0.5) THEN
IF(CHILLER_CTRL .GT. 0.5) THEN
IF(FR_SR .GE.FR_CHILLER) THEN
RA2=FR_CHILLER/FR_SR
RB2=1.
RE2=1.
RF2=0.
ELSE
RA2=1.

6-41

RB2=1.
RE2=1.
RF2=0.
ENDIF
ENDIF
ENDIF
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
C
LATE CHARGE
C
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
IF((SOLAR_CTRL_LST .GT. 0.5) .AND. (SOLAR_CTRL .LT. 0.5)) THEN
IF (T_HC_AVE_LST-3 .GT. T_S3_LST) THEN
RA2=1.
RB2=0.
RE2=0.
RF2=1.
LTCHARGE_CTRL=1.0
ENDIF
ENDIF
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
C
PREHEAT DISCHARGE
C
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
IF((SOLAR_CTRL_LST .LT. 0.5) .AND. (SOLAR_CTRL .GT. 0.5)) THEN
IF (T_HC_AVE_LST .LT. T_S4_LST-3) THEN
RA2=1.
RB2=1.
RE2=0.
RF2=0.
PREHEAT_CTRL=1.0
M_H_HTF = roh_HTF*V_ST -DELT*FR_SR
ELSE
M_H_HTF = 0
ENDIF
ENDIF
IF((PREHEAT_CTRL_LST.GT. 0.5) .AND.(SOLAR_CTRL .GT. 0.5)) THEN
IF ((DELT*FR_SR) .LT. M_H_HTF_LST) THEN
RA2=1.
RB2=1.
RE2=0.
RF2=0.
PREHEAT_CTRL=1.0
M_H_HTF = M_H_HTF - DELT*FR_SR
ELSE
M_H_HTF = 0
ENDIF
ENDIF

C OUTPUT DECLARATION

6-42

OUT(5)= SOLAR_CTRL*(1-CHILLER_CTRL)*(1-PREHEAT_CTRL)
OUT(6)= CLOAD_CTRL - CHILLER_CTRL
OUT(7)= CLOAD_CTRL
OUT(8)= RA2
OUT(9)= RB2
OUT(10)= SOLAR_CTRL
OUT(11)= LTCHARGE_CTRL
OUT(12)= PREHEAT_CTRL
OUT(13)= RE2
OUT(14)= RF2
OUT(15)= T_S3
OUT(16)= T_HC_AVE
OUT(17)= CHILLER_CTRL
OUT(18)= M_H_HTF
OUT(19)= T_S4
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C EVERYTHING IS DONE - RETURN FROM THIS SUBROUTINE AND MOVE ON
RETURN 1
END
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Appedix 6.12 code of type 245: Control of solar heating with auxiliary heater
controlled by constant-outlet-temperature
SUBROUTINE TYPE245 (TIME,XIN,OUT,T,DTDT,PAR,INFO,ICNTRL,*)
C************************************************************************
C Object: Differential Based Solar Controller;
C IISiBat Model: TYPE245
C
C Author: Ming Qu
C Editor:
C Date: TRNSYS 7.5 last modified: Jun 2007
C
C NOTE: This controller can only be used with Solver 0 (Successive substitution)
C
C
C
C ***
C *** Model Parameters
C ***
C
setpoint of the temperature of heater C [0;+Inf]
C ***
C *** Model Inputs
C ***
C
C
C

Flowrate of solar loop

kg/hr [0;+Inf]
Heating load
kJ/hr [-Inf;+Inf]
Inlet temperature of the heat capacity tank

C ***
C *** Model Outputs
C ***
C

Output control of heater

- [0.0;1.0]

C ***
C *** Model Derivatives
C ***
C (Comments and routine interface generated by TRNSYS Studio)

6-43

C [0;+Inf]

C************************************************************************
C

TRNSYS acess functions (allow to acess TIME etc.)

USE TrnsysConstants
USE TrnsysFunctions

C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C REQUIRED BY THE MULTI-DLL VERSION OF TRNSYS

!DEC$ATTRIBUTES DLLEXPORT :: TYPE245
!SET THE CORRECT TYPE
NUMBER HERE
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C TRNSYS DECLARATIONS
DOUBLE PRECISION XIN,OUT,TIME,PAR,T,DTDT,TIME0,TFINAL,DELT
INTEGER*4 INFO(15),NPMAX,NI,NO,ND,IUNIT,ITYPE,ICNTRL(4)
CHARACTER*3 OCHECK,YCHECK
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C USER DECLARATIONS - SET THE MAXIMUM NUMBER OF PARAMETERS (NP), INPUTS (NI),
C OUTPUTS (NOUT), AND DERIVATIVES (ND) THAT MAY BE SUPPLIED FOR THIS TYPE
PARAMETER (NP=1,NI=3,NO=2,ND=0,NSTORED=0)
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C REQUIRED TRNSYS DIMENSIONS
DIMENSION XIN(NI),OUT(NO),PAR(NP),YCHECK(NI),OCHECK(NO)
INTEGER NITEMS
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C ADD DECLARATIONS AND DEFINITIONS FOR THE USER-VARIABLES HERE
C
C

PARAMETERS
INPUTS
CHARACTER*12 ICNTStr
CHARACTER*160 WarnMsg
DOUBLE PRECISION
1 FR_sr,
!FLOW RATE OF THE SOLAR COLLECTION LOOP\
1 HLOAD,
!HEATING LOAD
1 HLOAD_CTRL, !HEATING LOAD CONTROL
1 SOLAR_CTRL, !SOLAR COLLEITON LOOP CONTROL
1 HEATER_CTRL,!AUXILARY HEATER CONTROL
1 SOLAR_CTRL_LST,
!SOLAR PUMP CONTROL AT THE LAST TIMESTEP
1 T_HCT_IN,
! THE INLET TMEPERATURE OF THE HEAT CAPACITY TANK
1 HEATER_CTRL_LST,
!HEATER CONTROL AT THE LAST TIMESTEP
1 TSP
!THE SETPOINT OF THE HEATER
DATA STATEMENTS
DATA YCHECK/'MF1','PW1','TE1'/
DATA OCHECK/'CF','CF'/

C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C TRNSYS FUNCTIONS

TIME0=getSimulationStartTime()
TFINAL=getSimulationStopTime()
DELT=getSimulationTimeStep()

6-44

SET THE VERSION INFORMATION FOR TRNSYS

IF(INFO(7).EQ.-2) THEN
INFO(12)=16
RETURN 1
ENDIF
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C DO ALL THE VERY LAST CALL OF THE SIMULATION MANIPULATIONS HERE
IF (INFO(8).EQ.-1) THEN
IF(ErrorFound()) RETURN 1
ENDIF
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C PERFORM ANY 'AFTER-ITERATION' MANIPULATIONS THAT ARE REQUIRED HERE
C e.g. save variables to storage array for the next timestep
IF (INFO(13).GT.0) THEN
NITEMS=0
C
STORED(1)=... (if NITEMS > 0)
C
CALL SET_STORAGE_VARS(STORED,NITEMS,INFO)
RETURN 1
ENDIF
C
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C DO ALL THE VERY FIRST CALL OF THE SIMULATION MANIPULATIONS HERE
IF (INFO(7).EQ.-1) THEN
!retrieve unit and type number for this component from the INFO array
IUNIT=INFO(1)
ITYPE=INFO(2)
!set some info array variables to tell the trnsys engine how this type is to work
INFO(6)=NO !reserve space in the OUT array using INFO(6)
INFO(9)=1 !this TYPE should be called until convergence is reached
INFO(10)=0 !no storage spots are required
C
SET THE REQUIRED NUMBER OF INPUTS, PARAMETERS AND DERIVATIVES THAT THE USER
SHOULD SUPPLY IN THE INPUT FILE
C
IN SOME CASES, THE NUMBER OF VARIABLES MAY DEPEND ON THE VALUE OF PARAMETERS
TO THIS MODEL....
NIN=NI
NPAR=NP
NDER=ND
!CALL THE TYPE CHECK SUBROUTINE TO COMPARE WHAT THIS TYPE REQUIRES TO WHAT IS
SUPPLIED IN
!THE TRNSYS INPUT FILE
CALL TYPECK(1,INFO,NI,NP,ND)
!CALL THE INPUT-OUTPUT CHECK SUBROUTINE TO SET THE CORRECT INPUT AND OUTPUT
UNITS
CALL RCHECK(INFO,YCHECK,OCHECK)
!RETURN TO THE CALLING PROGRAM
RETURN 1
ENDIF
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C

PERFORM INITIAL TIMESTEP MANIPULATIONS

IF (TIME.LT.(TIME0+DELT/2.)) THEN

6-45

!set the UNIT number for future calls

IUNIT=INFO(1)
ITYPE=INFO(2)
!read parameter values
TSP = PAR(1)
ENDIF
C CHECK TO SEE IF THIS COMPONENT IS BEING CALLED AT THE VERY END OF A TIMESTEP
IF(INFO(7).EQ.-2) RETURN 1

C-------------------------------------------------------------------C THIS IS AN ITERATIVE CALL TO THIS COMPONENT ***

C-------------------------------------------------------------------C
C

RE-READ THE PARAMETERS IF ANOTHER UNIT OF THIS TYPE HAS BEEN CALLED SINCE THE LAST
TIME THEY WERE READ IN
IF(INFO(1).NE.IUNIT) THEN
!reset the unit number
IUNIT=INFO(1)
ITYPE=INFO(2)
!reread the parameter values
TSP = PAR(1)
ENDIF
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C *** PERFORM ALL THE CALCULATION HERE FOR THIS MODEL. ***
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C

PERFORM THE CALCULATIONS

C CHECK NUMBER OF ITERATIONS

C OUT(3),A.K.A. IOSC_1, IS STICK COUNTER of outlet temperature of solar collector control
C OUT(2) IS COUNTING TOTAL NUMBER OF TIMES IN SIM. STICK OCCURS of outlet temperature of solar
collector control
C

CLEAR STICK COUNTER ON FIRST CALL OF T-S

IF(INFO(7).EQ.0) THEN
HEATER_CTRL_LST = OUT(1)
SOLAR_CTRL_LST = OUT(2)
ENDIF
FR_sr = XIN(1)
HLOAD = XIN(2)
T_HCT_IN =XIN(3)

CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
C SOLAR LOOP CONTROL C
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
IF (FR_sr.GT.0.) THEN
SOLAR_CTRL = 1.
ELSE
SOLAR_CTRL = 0.
ENDIF
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
C LOADS CONTROL
C
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC

6-46

IF (HLOAD.LE.0.) THEN
HLOAD_CTRL = 1.
ELSEIF (CLOAD.GT.0) THEN
HLOAD_CTRL = 0.
ENDIF
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
C HEATER CONTROL
C
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
HEATER_CTRL = 0.
IF ((SOLAR_CTRL_LST .LT. 0.5).AND. (SOLAR_CTRL .GT. 0.5)) THEN
IF (T_HCT_IN.LT.TSP) HEATER_CTRL = 1.
ENDIF
IF ((HEATER_CTRL_LST.GT. 0.5).AND. (T_HCT_IN.LT.TSP)) THEN
HEATER_CTRL = 1.
ENDIF
C OUTPUT DECLARATION
OUT(1)= HEATER_CTRL
OUT(2)= SOLAR_CTRL
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C SET THE STORAGE ARRAY AT THE END OF THIS ITERATION IF NECESSARY
C
NITEMS=
C
STORED(1)=
C
CALL SET_STORAGE_VARS(STORED,NITEMS,INFO)
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C REPORT ANY PROBLEMS THAT HAVE BEEN FOUND USING CALLS LIKE THIS:
C
CALL MESSAGES(-1,'put your message here','MESSAGE',IUNIT,ITYPE)
C
CALL MESSAGES(-1,'put your message here','WARNING',IUNIT,ITYPE)
C
CALL MESSAGES(-1,'put your message here','SEVERE',IUNIT,ITYPE)
C
CALL MESSAGES(-1,'put your message here','FATAL',IUNIT,ITYPE)
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C EVERYTHING IS DONE - RETURN FROM THIS SUBROUTINE AND MOVE ON
RETURN 1
END
C-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Appedix 6.13 Code of type 244: control of solar cooling with auxiliary heater for
preheat
SUBROUTINE TYPE244 (TIME,XIN,OUT,T,DTDT,PAR,INFO,ICNTRL,*)
C************************************************************************
C Object: Differential Based Solar Controller;
C IISiBat Model: TYPE244
C
C Author: Ming Qu
C Editor:

6-47

C Date: TRNSYS 7.5 last modified: Jun 2007

C
C NOTE: This controller can only be used with Solver 0 (Successive substitution)
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C ***
C *** Model Parameters
C ***
C
No. of oscillations - [1;+Inf]
C
High limit cut-out of circulating fluid temperatureC [-Inf;+Inf]
C
Temperature set point of the heater
C [0;+Inf]
C ***
C *** Model Inputs
C ***
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C

Flowrate of solar loop

kg/hr [0;+Inf]
Cooling load
kJ/hr [-Inf;+Inf]
HTF temperature at the inlet of the chiller
C [-Inf;+Inf]
Upper dead band of inlet temperature C [-Inf;+Inf]
Lower dead band of inlet temperature C [-Inf;+Inf]
Input control function of inlet temperature
- [0;1]
Chilled water supply temperature of HW chiller in the last timestep
Chilled water setpoint of chiller
C [-Inf;+Inf]
Inlet temperature of the heat capacity tank
C [0;+Inf]

C ***
C *** Model Outputs
C ***
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C

Output control signal of HT ctrl

- [0.0;1.0]
Counter of stick in temperature control - [0.0;1.0]
Osillation number of the temperature control
- [0.0;1.0]
Lastcall output of temperature control - [0.0;1.0]
Output control of bypass
- [0.0;1.0]
Output control of chiller
- [0.0;1.0]
Output control of fired chiller - [0.0;1.0]
Output control of cooling load
- [0.0;1.0]
Ratio of HTF over bypass
- [-Inf;+Inf]
Ration of CHW
- [-Inf;+Inf]
Output control of heater
- [0.0;1.0]

C [-Inf;+Inf]

C ***
C *** Model Derivatives
C ***
C (Comments and routine interface generated by TRNSYS Studio)
C************************************************************************
C

TRNSYS acess functions (allow to acess TIME etc.)

USE TrnsysConstants
USE TrnsysFunctions

C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C REQUIRED BY THE MULTI-DLL VERSION OF TRNSYS

!DEC$ATTRIBUTES DLLEXPORT :: TYPE244
!SET THE CORRECT TYPE
NUMBER HERE

6-48

C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C TRNSYS DECLARATIONS

DOUBLE PRECISION XIN,OUT,TIME,PAR,T,DTDT,TIME0,TFINAL,DELT
INTEGER*4 INFO(15),NPMAX,NI,NO,ND,IUNIT,ITYPE,ICNTRL(4)
CHARACTER*3 OCHECK,YCHECK
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C USER DECLARATIONS - SET THE MAXIMUM NUMBER OF PARAMETERS (NP), INPUTS (NI),
C OUTPUTS (NOUT), AND DERIVATIVES (ND) THAT MAY BE SUPPLIED FOR THIS TYPE
PARAMETER (NP=3,NI=9,NO=12,ND=0,NSTORED=0)
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C REQUIRED TRNSYS DIMENSIONS
DIMENSION XIN(NI),OUT(NO),PAR(NP),YCHECK(NI),OCHECK(NO)
INTEGER NITEMS
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C ADD DECLARATIONS AND DEFINITIONS FOR THE USER-VARIABLES HERE
C

LOCAL VARIABLE DECLARATIONS

CHARACTER*12 ICNTStr
CHARACTER*160 WarnMsg
INTEGER NSTK, !No__of_oscillations
1 ICNT_1,
1 CNTOLD_1,
1 IOSC_1
!Osillation number
DOUBLE PRECISION
1 TMAX,
!max temperature at inlet of the chiller
1 CLAST_1,
1 CLOAD,
!cooling load
1 T_chillerin, !HTF_temperature_at_the_inlet_of_the_chiller
1 UP_T,
!Upper_dead_band_of_inlet_temperature
1 LOW_T,
!Lower_dead_band_of_inlet_temperature
1 CLOAD_CTRL, !LOAD CONTROL SIGNAL
1 CHILLER_CTRL, !HW CHILLER CONTROL
1 T_CHL_PREV_O, !OUTLET TEMPERATURE OF CHW FROM THE CHILLER
1 ICF_1, !CONTROL FUCTION INPUTS
1 T_CHW_SETPOINT,
!CHILLED WATER SETPOINT
1 R_BYPASS,
!RATIO OF HTF OVER THE BYPASS
1 R_LDIVERTER, !RATIO OF CHW OVER THE HW CHILLER
1 FR_sr,
!FLOW RATE OF THE SOLAR COLLECTION LOOP
1 SOLAR_CTRL, !SOLAR COLLEITON LOOP CONTROL
1 HEATER_CTRL,!AUXILARY HEATER CONTROL
1 SOLAR_CTRL_LST,
!SOLAR PUMP CONTROL AT THE LAST TIMESTEP
1 T_HCT_IN,
! THE INLET TMEPERATURE OF THE HEAT CAPACITY TANK
1 HEATER_CTRL_LST,
!HEATER CONTROL AT THE LAST TIMESTEP
1 TST_HEATER
!THE SET POINT OF SUPPLY TEMPERATURE OF THE HEATER
DATA STATEMENTS
DATA YCHECK/'MF1','PW1','TE1','TE1','TE1','CF1','TE1','TE1'/

DATA OCHECK/'CF1','DM1','DM1','CF1','CF1','CF1','CF1','CF1',
1
'CF1','CF1','CF','CF'/
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C TRNSYS FUNCTIONS
TIME0=getSimulationStartTime()
TFINAL=getSimulationStopTime()
DELT=getSimulationTimeStep()

6-49

C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C SET THE VERSION INFORMATION FOR TRNSYS

IF(INFO(7).EQ.-2) THEN
INFO(12)=16
RETURN 1
ENDIF
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C PERFORM LAST CALL MANIPULATIONS
IF (INFO(8).EQ.-1) THEN
IF(ErrorFound()) RETURN 1
ICNT_1=JFIX(OUT(2)*DELT/(TFINAL-TIME0)*100.d0)
IF(ICNT_1.GE.10) THEN
WRITE (ICNTStr,*) ICNT_1
WarnMsg='The controller was stuck during '//TRIM(ADJUSTL(
& ICNTStr))//' percent of the simulation timesteps.'
CALL MESSAGES(-1,WarnMsg,'WARNING',INFO(1),INFO(2))
ENDIF
ENDIF
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C RETURN FROM THIS MODEL AS NO "AFTER-CONVERGENCE" MANIPULATIONS ARE REQUIRED
IF(INFO(13).GT.0) RETURN 1
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C

PERFORM FIRST CALL MANIPULATIONS

IF (INFO(7).EQ.-1) THEN
!retrieve unit and type number for this component from the INFO array
IUNIT=INFO(1)
ITYPE=INFO(2)
!set some info array variables to tell the trnsys engine how this type is to work
INFO(6)=NO !reserve space in the OUT array using INFO(6)
INFO(9)=1 !this TYPE should be called until convergence is reached
INFO(10)=0 !no storage spots are required
!SET THE PROPER NUMBER OF PARAMETERS ACCORDING TO THE MODE
NSTK=JFIX(PAR(1)+0.01)
IF(NSTK.LT.0) CALL TYPECK(4,INFO,0,1,0)

!CALL THE TYPE CHECK SUBROUTINE TO COMPARE WHAT THIS TYPE REQUIRES TO WHAT IS
SUPPLIED IN
!THE TRNSYS INPUT FILE
CALL TYPECK(1,INFO,NI,NP,ND)
!CALL THE INPUT-OUTPUT CHECK SUBROUTINE TO SET THE CORRECT INPUT AND OUTPUT
UNITS
CALL RCHECK(INFO,YCHECK,OCHECK)
!RETURN TO THE CALLING PROGRAM
RETURN 1
ENDIF
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C

PERFORM INITIAL TIMESTEP MANIPULATIONS

IF (TIME.LT.(TIME0+DELT/2.)) THEN

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!set the UNIT number for future calls

IUNIT=INFO(1)
ITYPE=INFO(2)
!read parameter values
NSTK = JFIX(PAR(1)+0.01)
TMAX= PAR(2)
TST_HEATER = PAR(3)
ENDIF
C

CHECK TO SEE IF THIS COMPONENT IS BEING CALLED AT THE VERY END OF A TIMESTEP
IF(INFO(7).EQ.-2) RETURN 1

C-------------------------------------------------------------------C THIS IS AN ITERATIVE CALL TO THIS COMPONENT ***

C-------------------------------------------------------------------C
C

RE-READ THE PARAMETERS IF ANOTHER UNIT OF THIS TYPE HAS BEEN CALLED SINCE THE LAST
TIME THEY WERE READ IN
IF(INFO(1).NE.IUNIT) THEN
!reset the unit number
IUNIT=INFO(1)
ITYPE=INFO(2)
!reread the parameter values
NSTK=JFIX(PAR(1)+0.01)
TMAX= PAR(2)
TST_HEATER = PAR(3)
ENDIF

C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C *** PERFORM ALL THE CALCULATION HERE FOR THIS MODEL. ***
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C

PERFORM THE CALCULATIONS

C CHECK NUMBER OF ITERATIONS

C OUT(3),A.K.A. IOSC_1, IS STICK COUNTER of outlet temperature of solar collector control
C OUT(2) IS COUNTING TOTAL NUMBER OF TIMES IN SIM. STICK OCCURS of outlet temperature of solar
collector control
C

CLEAR STICK COUNTER ON FIRST CALL OF T-S

IF(INFO(7).EQ.0) THEN
OUT(3)=0.d0
HEATER_CTRL_LST = OUT(11)
SOLAR_CTRL_LST = OUT(12)
ENDIF
FR_sr = XIN(1)
CLOAD = XIN(2)
T_chillerin = XIN(3)
UP_T = XIN(4)
LOW_T = XIN(5)
ICF_1= XIN(6)
T_CHL_PREV_O = XIN(7)
T_CHW_SETPOINT = XIN(8)
T_HCT_IN =XIN(9)

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CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
C SOLAR LOOP CONTROL C
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
IF (FR_sr.GT.0.) THEN
SOLAR_CTRL = 1.
ELSE
SOLAR_CTRL = 0.
ENDIF
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
C LOADS CONTROL
C
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
IF (CLOAD.LE.0.) THEN
CLOAD_CTRL = 0.
ELSEIF (CLOAD.GT.0) THEN
CLOAD_CTRL = 1.
ENDIF

C********************************C
C CONTROL HT at inlet of chiller C
C********************************C
C

TEMPERATURE CONTROL
CNTOLD_1=OUT(4) ! control signal for the last time step
CLAST_1=OUT(1)
IOSC_1=JFIX(OUT(3)+0.01)
IF(IOSC_1.EQ.NSTK) OUT(2)=OUT(2)+1.d0
IF(IOSC_1 .GE. NSTK) GO TO 15
IF(INFO(7).EQ.0) THEN
IF (XIN(6) .GT. 0.5) THEN
CNTOLD_1 = 1
OUT(4)=DBLE(CNTOLD_1)
ELSE
CNTOLD_1 = 0
OUT(4)=DBLE(CNTOLD_1)
ENDIF
ENDIF
IF (CNTOLD_1.GT.0.5) GOTO 10

!OUTPUT WAS 0 LAST CALL

OUT(1)=0.d0
IF (T_chillerin.GT.UP_T) OUT(1)=1.d0
IF (T_chillerin.GT.175.) OUT(1)=0.d0
GO TO 15
10

!OUTPUT WAS 1 LAST CALL

OUT(1)=1.d0
IF (T_chillerin.LT.LOW_T) OUT(1)=0.d0
IF (T_chillerin.GT.175.) OUT(1)=0.d0

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15

IF((ABS(CLAST_1-OUT(1)).LT.1.E-06).AND.(IOSC_1.NE.NSTK)) THEN
OUT(3)=OUT(3)
ELSE
!OUTPUT HAS CHANGED STATE SINCE LAST CALL
OUT(3)=OUT(3)+1.d0
ENDIF

CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
C IF THE OUTLET TEMPERATURE OF CHILLER IS HIGHER THATN 14 C
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
IF(T_CHL_PREV_O.LT.13.1) THEN
CHILLER_CTRL = OUT(1)*CLOAD_CTRL*SOLAR_CTRL
ELSE
CHILLER_CTRL = 0.0
ENDIF
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
C BYPASS CONTROL BASED ON THE CHILLED WATER OUTLET TEMPERATURE C
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
IF(CHILLER_CTRL .GE. 0.5) THEN
IF(T_CHL_PREV_O.GE.(T_CHW_SETPOINT+4.0)) THEN
R_BYPASS=0.0
ELSEIF(T_CHL_PREV_O.GE.(T_CHW_SETPOINT+3.0)) THEN
R_BYPASS=0.2
ELSEIF(T_CHL_PREV_O.GE.(T_CHW_SETPOINT+2.0)) THEN
R_BYPASS=0.4
ELSEIF(T_CHL_PREV_O.GE.(T_CHW_SETPOINT-1.0)) THEN
R_BYPASS=0.65
ELSE
R_BYPASS=1.0
ENDIF
ELSE
R_BYPASS=1.0
ENDIF
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
C HEATER CONTROL
C
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
HEATER_CTRL = 0.
IF ((SOLAR_CTRL_LST .LT. 0.5).AND. (SOLAR_CTRL .GT. 0.5)) THEN
IF (T_HCT_IN.LT.TST_HEATER) HEATER_CTRL = 1.
ENDIF
IF ((HEATER_CTRL_LST.GT. 0.5).AND. (T_HCT_IN.LT.TST_HEATER)) THEN
HEATER_CTRL = 1.
ENDIF
C OUTPUT DECLARATION
OUT(5)= SOLAR_CTRL*(1-CHILLER_CTRL)
OUT(6)= CHILLER_CTRL
OUT(7)= CLOAD_CTRL - CHILLER_CTRL
OUT(8)= CLOAD_CTRL
OUT(9)= R_BYPASS

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OUT(10)= CHILLER_CTRL
OUT(11)= HEATER_CTRL
OUT(12)= SOLAR_CTRL
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C SET THE STORAGE ARRAY AT THE END OF THIS ITERATION IF NECESSARY
C
NITEMS=
C
STORED(1)=
C
CALL SET_STORAGE_VARS(STORED,NITEMS,INFO)
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C REPORT ANY PROBLEMS THAT HAVE BEEN FOUND USING CALLS LIKE THIS:
C
CALL MESSAGES(-1,'put your message here','MESSAGE',IUNIT,ITYPE)
C
CALL MESSAGES(-1,'put your message here','WARNING',IUNIT,ITYPE)
C
CALL MESSAGES(-1,'put your message here','SEVERE',IUNIT,ITYPE)
C
CALL MESSAGES(-1,'put your message here','FATAL',IUNIT,ITYPE)
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C EVERYTHING IS DONE - RETURN FROM THIS SUBROUTINE AND MOVE ON
RETURN 1
END
C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

6-54