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MICROSCOPY
THEORY
CONSTRUCTION,
THE
OF
USE
AND
THE
MICROSCOPE
EDMUND
BY
L.R.C.P.
PAST
CLUB,
LOND., M.R.C.S.
PRKSIDENT
OF
of
Author
of
With
J.
THE
SPITTA
MICROSCOPICAL
"Jln Atlas of
Bacteriology
from OriginalNegatives
83 Half-tone
Reproductions
and
255
Text Illustrations
LONDON
JOHN
MURRAY,
ALBEMARLE
1920
STREET,
W.
FIRST
SECOND
EDITION
EDITION
August
1907
January
1909
....
THIRD
February
EDITION
Al.L
Ullillls
Kt"EKVBD
1920
DEDICATED
MEMBERS
AND
COUNCIL
TO
THE
THE
OF
MICROSCOPICAL,
QUEKETT
CLUB
IN
this
and
third
their
difficult
few
meaning
objects
of
edition
also
are
illustrations
them
all
photographs,
original
Plates"
of
understood.
objectives
being
either
which
there
test-
focal
sandwiched
length,
the
between
themselves
the
in
number
in
twelve
are
making
additional
different
of
by
placed
of
hopes
Some
for
or
the
in
revised,
been
has
text
rewritten,
easily
suggested
of
the
MICROSCOPY
paragraphs
more
EDITION
THIRD
THE
TO
PREFACE
of
end
the
at
"
new
the
volume.
difficulty
The
he
has
been
obtained
pointed
have
to
therefore
omission
in
with
be
before
able
him
what
it
with,
looks
quickly
he
sees
his
how
of
amount
falling
reproduction
war
an
of
"
to
perfection
of
type
new
meet
studying
the
and
all
is
explanation
comparatively
designed
in
processes
Further,
a
off
of
that
with
image
the
the
beginner
himself,
for
the
by
photograph
should
appear,
for
made
being
"
of
and
medium,
learn
critical
hoped
microscope
allowance
due
with
is
this
meet
to
reproductions
two
efficiently
and
in
plate,
like
It
has
text-books.
all
attempted
taken
one
objective.
to
the
in
issue
containing
plate
met
what
comparing
present
high-power
now
the
commonly
other
as
"
image
in
neglect
serious
me
adding
by
diatoms
will
out
critical
"
when
recognising
in
about
talked
often
the
student
the
by
experienced
inseparably
connected
how
and
small
with
kinds.
given
low-power
difficulty
reproducing
much
"
objects
to
test
combination,
as
to
use
expressly
during
pronounced
such
how
whole
the
Flies,
Lice,
Fleas,
to
of
account
of
the
the
to
"which
plates, and
produced by
much
of
made
remarks
few
fresh
gelatine films
Whether
of
definition
as
compared
call
like to
the
of
use
both
used
when
the
matters
of
the
to
wave-length
Limited, in conjunction
by Kodak,
out
is
attention
short
to
mention
other
special
new
some
resolution
assist
to
several
able
been
not
Addenda
the
still in
new,
objectives,besides
(brought
delete
to
references
to, and
apparatus
constructed
in
with
company
illuminants
new
consulted
as
in
well
as
work
reference
of
the
making
previous
and
the
as
Mi"
especially by
"
any
edition
to
microscopical
been
K"
the
subject
hov
may
those
often
further
additions,
remain
unaltered
be
a!
manufacture
such
all
intact
thought,
been
objectives of
text
of
nature
of
be better, without
has
It
leave
or
has
countries
enemy
of the
issue,
of, microscopes
illustrations
book
this
entirely from
deliberation.
considerable
that,
the
manufacture,
new
being fullydescribed.
screens
would
lenses
the
in
equality
opticians have
war,
is
high-power illuminants,
of
is
diaphragm.
added
are
the
show
English
of
I should
concerning
myself)
ocular
an
self-contained
its
ocular"
an
the
to
that
interest.
general
when
added
be
tube
of the
diameter
on
or
areas,
foreign construction.
Although, owing
introduce
by the
being able
not
extended
such
either
hitherto, owing
length
at
employ.
to
they
hoped
objectives
of
those
focal
of
without
it is
long
of
nature
of the
used
this
it may
even
limiting
are
with
or
illustrations
Several
do
imposed
restriction
the
microscope,
used,
with
of
fields
effectivelywith
deal
suggested specimens
difficultyto
existing combinations
the
to
been
always
large dimensions,
of
creatures
magnifications, with
different
It has
such-likc
or
EDITION
THIRD
THE
TO
PREFACE
viii
it
"
allow
to
in
this
"'Ct.
i
made
for the
to
.
increased,
convenience
thank
Prof.
of
A.
numerous
new
entries
quick reference.
I
TO
PREFACE
his advice
me
felt the
upon
need
chapters
of
the
at
thanks
My
Commander
A.
Groom,
D.
suggestions
made
with
far
it
as
This
E.
in my
staff
Emery
of
and
the
to
their
text
first and
is
such
this
who
"
difficulties
their
the
1919.
of
cost
of the
called
in
it
for
was
the
been
to
come
over-
chapter
of
it has
above
general
demanded,
so
it is
them
the
situation, and
the
continue
future,
as
hoped
of the
end
of
porating
incor-
which
that
the
the
will
they
place
standing
Still, notwith-
text.
to
all
of
to
instead
"
tion
produc-
avoidance
liberallyadvanced
sincerely thank
of
the second
when
at
been
that
book
compelled
Addenda,
the
the
item
as
that
edition
this
is
in
matter
in
Mr.
attention
unable
add
to
great
as
I have
previously
I
and
graphs,
photo-
new
careful
been
every
that
has
the
Murray
objectionable arrangement
times
for which
of
price
it
new
have
lively assistance
HOVE,
so
of the
have
Indeed,
somewhat
have
of
of
times.
times
paragraphs
of the
exigency
book
three
of the
which
nected
con-
supervision, to
such
paid
should
The
expenditure
volume,
have
execution
the
raise
to
amount
details
without
John
and
regretfully bound
am
printed.
unnecessary
friends
feel
second.
was
certain
the
to
Mr.
reproduction
dexterous
almost
now
edition
the
his
difficulties of the
necessary
kind
notice
however,
to
assistance
general
as
conclusion, I
found
B.
J.
their
taken
been
indebtedness
my
joint support
In
various
upon
have
Mr.
others, for
incomplete,
printers,who
the
well
as
the
the
for
to
and
time
to
be
their
Walker
two
friends, notably,
several
to
U.S.A.,
time
would
for
his
reviewing
power.
Preface
his
for
G. Burton-Brown,
acknowledgment
to
Scale,
from
the
lay
omitted
be
not
Mr.
which
concerning
matters
volume.
of the
must
ix
EDITION
assistance, and
expert
end
THIRD
recondite
any
his
too
THE
good
interest
recognise
offer
have
the
the
in
the
of
the
author
past.
OWING
England
it
is
it
has
of
information
contain
different
illumination
subjects
the
to
for
arrangements
:al
stands
"
ually
the
long
Mr.
theoretical
obtaining
additional
lercd
of
remarks
and
for
too,
has
has
subject
Dr.
to
"
those
of
certain
microwith
purposes
original
,,U
interesting
date.
light,
forth.
so
kindly
to
constructed
remained
not
up
Siedentopfs
monochromatic
and
hi
dark-ground
particles
and
very
embracing
of
special
ordinary
of
These
adaptation
and
this
n"
the
character
powers
microscope,
section,
incorporate
pages.
extension
high
standing
notwith-
amount
additional
The
objectives,
new
\.S.,
ble
manufacture
Coi
:ion
issue
publication
to
ultra-microscopical
the
The
as
original
varied
working-distances
for
arrangements
very
of
use
viewing
in
improvements
the
considerable
thirty
some
that,
pace
obligatory
volume
new
occupying
matter,
such
in
to
necessary
since
found
been
the
such
at
months
seventeen
of
text
fresh
but
work,
this
the
nowadays
advances
Science
in
whether
general,
found
by
edition.
second
of
in
been
has
it
both
MICROSCOPY,
microscopists
abroad,
or
of
reception
by
and
reviewers
kind
the
to
EDITION
SECOND
THE
TO
PREFACE
unaltered,
contributed
chapters,
and
for
some
which
he
far-reaching
TO
PREFACE
hoped
It
Mr
to
little
is
wish
because
last,
personal
friends
to
for
me,
which
to
their
recognise
and
and
thank
others,
have
of
of
whom
and
criticisms
been
A.
Mr.
some
no
little
EDMUND
HOVE,
SUSSEX.
"
indebtedness
this
and
entire
valuable
for
least
not
Conrady,
are
all
volume
new
E.
and
Viney,
assistance
hearty
sincerely
congenial
to
Watson
is
it
existed.
my
of
five
which
by
originally
printing
xi
unchanged,
acknowledge
Hazell,
publishing
and
that
cordially
co-operation
loyal
their
the
in
remains
interpolated,
filled
Messrs.
Murray,
John
concerned
to
EDITION
plates
are
be
will
gap
my
the
blocks
half-tone
additional
of
number
the
Although
SECOND
THE
several
strangers
suggestions,
service
and
J.
support.
SPITTA.
PREFACE
which
work,
Tins
friends
several
book
the
that
the
upon
of
outcome
the
simple
with
wish
siderable
con-
expressed
by
write
to
attempt
Theory,
the
in
reader
make
should
Construction,
expressed
Microscope
the
before
bring
is
diffidence,
EDITION
FIRST
THE
TO
Use
and
of
the
employed
language
in
PliotomicrograpJiy.
Two
things
seemed
which
the
in
way
failings
which
fact
with
and
camera
me
its
small
pleasure
had
generosity
the
that
other
and
the
was
workers
many
themselves
of
utility
by
faults
so
"
the
with
many
expressed
to
as
gratifying
dealt
was
whilst
the
was
overlooking
microscope
pronounced
such
in
no
one
brochure
impressed
me
gave
"
me
last-mentioned
greatly
had
encourage
kindness
whose
critic,
the
to
with
its
subject-
matter.
It
st.'irt
the
upon
besides
in
further
was
the
the
medical
d"
time
in
pe
i:
table
:ch
'.ill
to
tho~c
book
have
meet
mouth.
could
to
students
be
is
acquired
at
waste
much
who,
in
might
a
later
the
of
thc.'r
of
univ"
;"
as
be
period
felt
present
rudiments
well
of
of
even
life,
the
-cognised
from
went
"mc
handbook
much
want
just
to
Microscope,
where
the
the
It
incentive
on
laboratories,
of
one
additional
an
might
amateur,
teaching
Igc
as
practical
tors
word
by
other
and
and
out,
that
work,
assisting
lecturers
valuable
pointed
so
far
greater
to
Microscope
the
as
in
training
in
scientific
the
the
themselves
to
persons
of
their
use
help
any
microscope
has
been
the
aim
deal
with
the
subject
requirements, then,
these
meet
; such
possibleadvantage.
greatest
To
them
previous
any
instrument
availing
lead
would
that
guidance
of
became
or
profit,
received
not
the
of
use
desirous
be
might probably
to
had
engaged
or
pleasure and
of
source
xiii
EDITION
FIRST
THE
TO
PREFACE
of
MICROSCOPY.
As
by
desired
is
beginning
from
a
it
small
lenses
magnifiers or
and
description of
has
condensers
which
been
has
attention
paid
is
believe
been
method
added.
For
the
in
aid
to
of
hand-
as
advanced
more
testingobjectives
this
of
use
with
dealt
not
employment
whilst
the
to
devote
to
hand-microscopes,
as
full
the
general,particularisingtheir
in
students
advisable
thought
was
explaining
to
space
it
end,
to
should
work
this
special
purpose
the
Abbe
test-plate,
text-book
any
in
the
English language.
But,
to
interpolate articles
problems
recondite
of
estimation
by
the
the
by
meant
of
"
the
obtaining
in
so
Abbe
and
certain
as
between
combinationsr
handmaid
; the
been
so
might
well
as
the
selection
focal
length
and
and
semi-apochromatic
absolutely imperative
of
to
the
devote
of
and
is
really
the
theory
of
use
aperture
the
and
Microscope
Arts
the
oculars
devised
upon
the
as
what
proper
numerical
the
many
more
such
system
with
explanation of
the
the
art
volved
inthe
specialadaptability of
as
as
called
the
the
well
an
necessary
Aperture
of
ginning
be-
found
objectives and
explanation
Numerical
; the
be
by
as
from
subject
microscopy,
of
powers
importance
Further,
of
has
doing
purposes,
existing
expression
Substage Diaphragm
objectivesof
the
with
connected
method,
Prof.
the
by
follow
what
upon
magnifying
"
rational
late
to
intelligently,it
end
to
reader
the
enable
to
is
for particular
real difference
apochromatic
nowadays
the
Sciences, it seemed
chapter
to
the
assistance
b
xiv
of
PREFACE
those
about
case
what
for
demanded,
the
was
life
pond
molecular
the
of
discovery
Lastly,
in
periodic
omission
involved
careful
I
standpoint,
friend
far
could
hope
have
world
for
besides
to
blocks,
he
as
or
that
has
with
of
this
would
it
be
of
an
grossing
en-
so
that
to
nature,
from
of
the
the
meet
purely theoretical
the
kind
as
assistance
of
felt that
his
in
and
grapple with
philosophical
opticians
Press
taken
Also
of
the
I
Dent
"
in
explain
it
than
manner
proprietors of
permission
with
this
to
use
distinct
"
manufacture
object
Co., for
of
the
the
book
my
few
on
excerpts,
ack
greatly indebted
am
the
manufactures,
criticallytheir
the
of
parts
many
of their
blocks
me
examine
for their
"
firm
to
objects
Seeing, however,
of
more
with
made
F.R.A.S.,
to
lent
to
me
Scientific
work.
given
the
underlie
commensurate
were
subject
and
the
diagrams
the
the
him
having kindly
the
was
myself.
thank
to
aim
minute
thought
myself
Conrady,
scientific
uncrography
Dent,
V..
permitting
11
from
availed
do
have
problem
enable
more
be
to
consideration
A.
would
with
dealing
topic.
simple
diatoms.
mention
no
whose
one
iron
microscopical image,
as
of
have
Mr.
intricacies
a
the
acquaintance
intimate
in
if
difficult
of
its
with
the
or
of
student
an
whose
one
kinds
various
of
be
metals,
principles which
is
light,
in
of the
of
the
small
so
of
in
wants
instrument
requirements
my
of
part
of
apparatus
required by
strain
comparison
far-reaching
explanation
the
final structure
the
my
and
of
special
in
structure
on
that
the
attending
of
kind
the
highly magnified
wave-lengths
the
the
the
the
especially when
of
from
consequence
of
formation
special requirements
arrangements
botany,
or
of
particular branches
bacteriologicalstudent, would
character
and
EDITION
obvious
investigation
the
of
details
the
very
by the
say,
FIRST
upon
are
is
it
entirely different
aim
embark
to
subject, showing
each
THE
TO
incnt
to
Mr.
Alfred
personal attention
extra
blocks
herein
TO
PREFACE
contained
Press,
which
to
Watson
"
in
the
printing
possible
as
Two
is
my
Mr.
but
also
with
final
issue
Quekett
this
dedicate
In
its
already
"
have
written
special
effort
to
meet
to
1907.
trouble
especially
the
blocks
sparing
no
only
bearing
in
highly
special
in
his
the
the
to
be
mind
above
assisting
kindness
MS.
in
before
Council
their
me
the
kind
that
classical
subject,
a
of
express
will
critic
chapters
one
its
of
the
permission
Club."
"
to
taken
for
granting
the
his
has
as
but
hope
enough
it
and
is
that,
to
not
standard
merely
to
J.
look
over-
intended
works
represent
end."
EDMUND
HOVE,
for
for
lastly,
in
the
upon
well
and,
effort
the
but
Murray
portion
the
with
compete
and
care
from
he
as
Club
failings,
many
Hazell,
unacknowledged
trouble
MICROSCOPY,
Scientific
Messrs.
much
only
not
the
Press
the
work,
remain
yet
considerable
little
conclusion
reading
to
for
Microscopical
the
as
John
by
to
the
obtain
Conrady,
the
to
made
xv
matter.
details,
a
lent
for
Mr.
to
this
numerous
through
reading
been
to
gratitude
friend
mentioned,
me
of
kindly
throughout
as
as
in
debts
to
to
well
incurred
expense
so
EDITION
executive
only
Plates
as
their
not
few
has
and
taken
FIRST
the
reference
Viney
have
they
above
and
over
THE
SPITTA,
in
CONTE
NTS
CHAPTER
I
PAGE
kinds
different
The
Prisms
of
of
Prisms
of
and
Snell's
Foci
and
Image
an
the
of
Theory
ascertaining
which
upon
different
by
such
the
Microscope
Compound
and
by
adopted
Mechanical
Auxiliary
18
of
Light
with
"
and
the
same
Optical
Aperture
Numerical
the
Abbe
"
and
Depth
by
described
Cheshire
"
of Focus
defined
ments
Arrange-
The
and
Care
their
between
of
of
tions
Correc-
cussed,
dis-
the
Objectives
"Dry"
.
57
Objective
an
by
and
Constructions
fully discussed
and
of
and
Fine
Passage
"
Difference
the
Systems
Aperture
"
various
Portion
Objectives
"
CHAPTER
Numerical
The
described
Substage
Apochromatic
of
Description
Homogeneous"
30
the
and
Semi-apochromatic
IV
(continued)
through
Portion
and
Stages,
CHAPTER
Rays
Opticians
different
Microscope
of
Varieties
"
discussed"
Models
Stages,
Magnitude
III
the
Continental
Adjustments,
Compound
Focal
Opticians
CHAPTER
English
"
Series
the
founded
are
The
II
Methods
Microscopes
Simple
of
of
Microscope
Simple
consists
Lens
CHAPTER
The
kinds
explained
ascertaining
for
Action
different
them
Lens
Methods
"
Their
"
The
"
through
A
"
defined
Law
Light-rays
Deviation
Conjugate
"
Length
of
Path
Minimum
of
Angle
The
explained"
the
and
enumerated
Lenses
Light
of
Rays
upon
of
Method
explained
by
How
"
to
Apertometers
suggested
by
Mr.
ascertain
after
Conrady
79
CONTENTS
VI
CHAPTER
PAGE
icnian
of
Path
Construction
the
and
Kamsden
of the
Diameter
ascertain
the
Eyepiece
when
with
employed
Evaluation
The
Methods,
Abbe
and
104
VII
of
Objectives and
and
the
Oculars
by the
usefulMagnification
limits of
19
VIII
CHAPTER
their
the
CHAPTER
".ionaland
and
Simple
Compento
explained" How
Beam
Emergent
issuingthrough an
different
of
Objectives
Aperture
ys through
Circle discussed
the
Magnification"
their
both
The
:ig"
Kamsden
and
Varieties
and
the
Special Properties ot
Conversion
of
each
Obtaining their Numerical
Aperture
F
The
Cone
ratio"
and
Numerical
Aplanatic
Aperture into the
Diameter
Focal
of
ascertain
its
The
various
how
to
Length
for different Objectives The
their suitability
and
Condensers
Condensers,
Substage
"
"
"
"
"
"
its Abuse
Diaphragm,
Substage
and
Use
IX
CHAITKK
Methods
of
Illumination:
lectric
the
Lamps by
Monochromatic
142
Bull's-eyeMicroscopist's
ordinary
(".onion. Barnard,
and
and
Oil
how
obtained
-Various
of
for Low
Powers
Dark-ground Illumination
and
Mr.
"Differential
Colour
Illumination
""The
Khcinberg's
N
of Dark-ground
tension
for use
Illumination
with High
Powers
Method"
'entopf's
Oblique Light, its Theory and UseIllumination
of Opaque
Objects" Theory and Use of Polarised
ht,its varieties and how they are employed
.160
ins
[AFTER
On
the
Use
of the
Microscope"
issed
:.d
thods
terns
Corre"
relative
Illumination
and
Merits
the
of
the
Lon,
Adjustment
of
the
Removing
the
th
lomogeneous"
:.ser-Obtaining Critical Lighting
of doii
-Centring
"
The
Objective
"
Focussin.
"
^s
"
Find::
tive-
positions on
scopical
Micro-
CONTENTS
xx
XVII
H.MTKK
"
PAGE
Microscopical Accessories,and
how
to
"
correcting several
upon
delations
API"
Concerning
of the
of
Fiel4
the
Area
any
specialocular
and
Object
between
with
View
any
to ascertain
How
"
Faults
common
its Accessories"
and
roscope
449
.....
XVIII
LPTER
Hints
them
use
with in
met
using the
Plates
the
472
to ascertain
Image" How
given objective used with
Distance
Working
the
of
an
484
objective
ADDENDA
489
ngements
On
Binocular
Attachment
Wave-length
Screens
Watson-Conrady
The
the
of Short
use
of
Depth
How
Index
Illuminants
by
the
use
of Denser
Media
493
in the
:mens
Mountii
The
Powerful
is increased
Focus
492
with
of
Visibility
Annul
Rhein'
498
Usin^
the
ffl over
Colour
of the
Summary
erning
the
Ocular
Corrections
to
r'ferent Colours
in
Microscopical
Objectives
502
lengths in
Convert!:
"sd
into
Tenth-metres
.
Waves
per
Inch
and
502
....
Stage
Micrometers, Crosslines,
licroscope
et"
503
Eyepieces.
New
501
503
504
Objectives
New
Some
Abbe-
Traviss
Microscope by
505
.....
505
Mr
Immersion
Oil
506
Jame"
itistmcnt
On'
506
507
....
Index
508
of
the
Different
i.
ecus
the
i
of
Coir
n.ttc
the
.........
Number
in
Tenth
of
Waves
with
tl
met:
to
the
509
CONTENTS
xxi
PAGE
Some
Specially
Good
for
Substances
the
Polariscope
.
Crystalline
for
Objects
use
with
Convergent
Polarised
.510
Light
.510
Two
Table
New
of
Natural
LIST
ADDRESS
which
of
Methods
most
Adjusting
Tube-Length
510
Sines
OF
of
511
VARIOUS
their
OPTICIANS,
objectives
are
with
the
corrected
.
INDEX
for
tube-length
.
.512
.
513
OF
LIST
TEXT
ILLUSTRATIONS
List
For
of
Plates
536.
page
see
PAGE
FIGURE
1.
Different
2.
Snell's
kinds
of
Lenses
"
of
3.
Path
4.
Various
5.
6.
Oblique
an
of
kinds
of
Path
"
Law
through
Ray
Prisms,
Glass
with
Parallel
Sides
6
.
Refractive
Summit,
showing
and
Angle,
Base
each
of
consists
Lens
7.
Collective
8.
9.
Radiant
11.
Owvergent
12.
Different
the
Rays
8
....
form
Focus
....
the
of
Focus
forms
Lens
an
Image
side
opposite
causes
away
Prisms
Length
on
...
to
Focal
Length
further
Deviation"
of
"Angle
Superimposed
the
twice
Focal
the
10
approach
to
Lens
the
on
side
opposite
Parallel
of
series
at
moved
10.
and
converging
placed
twice
at
of
Lens
Radiant
Prism
through
Rays
II
forming
Rays
True
how
Light:
of
Focus
dealt
with
Lens
by
II
Convex
Lens
12
...
Points
dealt
with
by
Ascertaining
14.
Ascertaining
the
Object
from
Light
situated
not
the
on
Axis
how
Lens
Focal
True
Object
an
Collective
the
13.
15.
of
14
of
Length
Lens
making
by
Image
and
size
same
15
Length,
the
Focal
the
Magnification
in
approximately,
of
with
Object
an
Apartment.
an
15
19
19
Magnifier
Hand
,,
!6.
,,
,,
17.
Looking
18.
The
the
at
within
Object
19.
Magnification
20.
The
Eye
21.
The
Case
their
of
to
Concerning
23.
Dissecting
Simple
the
Lens
Objects
Two
Convex
of
Lens
Object
an
20
Focus
Object
an
Diameter
Apparent
22.
of
,,
by
Focus
the
applied
formed
Image
the
beyond
placed
,,
Aerial
used
as
Microscope
to
the
Beam
Emergent
21
the
to
22
Magnifier
distance
same
similar
which
in
Eye
Simple
the
at
seen
placed
Eye
Unaided
the
to
exactly
position
best
the
and
that
Eye
of
should
22
...
their
the
of
Ratio
Magnification
be
placed
24
with
24
Microscopes
26
26
24-
25-
"
"
,*
,,
27
26.
28
"
27.
Zeiss's
28.
Mr.
,,
Hand
Nelson's
Magnifier
Hand
..........
Magnifier
29
29
The
through
same
and
Ocular,
; m
61
ILLUSTRATIONS
TKXT
OF
LIST
an
Condenser
Achromatic
Apochromatic Objective,
"
or
59
...
.;,MT
Ocular,
59
.........
62
..........
icction
63.
tkm
62
..........
63
...........
63
........
66.
Sine-Law
.........
...
ilfilment of the
Sinc-I.
.........
I--w
........
69.
70.
.....
.66
"
67
nine
74.
an
-mitcd
"s
the
of
cause
the
outside
Aeneous
Objectives
....
the
Colours
Focus
...
pcrccivc-dwhen
70
72
ILLUSTRATIONS
TEXT
OF
LIST
xxv
PACE
FIGURE
77.
After
compared.
78.
SnelPs
Passage of the
Abbe's
"
B.
in
Light
84.
and
Dry
of
Use
Objectives;
Homogeneous
89
94
Apertometer
Cheshire's
99
....,...*"
IO2
of Focus
Eyepiece ;
Huyghenian
Ordinary
97"
Apertometers
B.
of
Path
Monochromatic
Ray
of
Light
JOS
Blue
and
Path
87.
Passage
of
Rays
Oculars
of Monochromatic
86.
Ray
and
Red
Blue
through
Rays
ordinary Ramsden
an
through
Compensating
loS
Ocular
Ramsden
Eyepiece
88.
Colours
at
HO
explainedin
ordinaryUn-achromatic
Ocular
112
89.
Colours
90.
Over-corrected
91.
Ramsden
at
of the
Edges
,,
,..
"
"
113
.
115
115
...
Il6
"
"
95.
Magnification
96.
"
"
.119
"
120
97.
Abbe's
98.
Aplanatic Condenser
99.
Over-corrected
Imaginary
added
Lens
to
the
Microscope: Explanation
Uncorrected
101.
Under-corrected
102.
Iris Frame
148
148
ditto
148
ditto
158
163
Bull's-eyeIlluminators
104.
105.
164
"
"
and
Bull's-eyeIlluminator
Electric Lamp
107.
Gordon's
108.
Watson's
Argus
Lamp
Electric
166
Lamp
no.
The
111.
Traviss's
112.
Wenham's
113.
Leitz's reflecting
Condenser
114.
Zeiss's Condenser
115.
Beck's
116.
Diffraction
117.
Monochromatic
Expanding
165
combined
............
109.
Author's
Central
.167
168
Light Arrangement.
Stop
After
Baiter
.170
174
178
Paraboloid
for
Dark-ground
Illumination
with
High
183
Powers
184
184
"
of
132
148
ditto
100.
8.
113
"6
94-
1 1
Ocular.
Achromatic
Circle
93-
106.
Diaphragm
explained in
Eye-lens
92.
103 "
83
Fluid
Depth of Focus
830. Magnificationin Depth
83A "
Objectiveequalsthe Semi-Diameter
Length
by the equivalentFocal
an
Law
Immersion
81.
tive
Objec-
2-mm.
89
79.
80.
82A
1-40 N.A.
77
of
divided
Pencil
Emerging
of the
1-30 and
Zeiss
that N.A.
Proof
Mathematical
of
Lens
Light
with
the
an
Ultra-microscopicparticle
190
Investigationof Ultra-microscopicparticlesin
190
....
when
Oblique
193
xxvi
OF
LIST
ILLUSTRATIONS
TEXT
PAGZ
FIGURE
119.
Diagrammatic Representation
the
at
Back
angulatum
120.
on
I^ens
of
the
Stage
Direct
of
N.A.
an
and
seen
as
Spectral Beams
Objective, with Pleurosigma
1*40
194
196
Oblique Light
196
121.
,,
197
122.
"
"
197
124.
,,
198
126.
127.
200
Objects
203
Secoi
"
205
,,
,,
Third
,,
"
,,
130.
,,
,,
131.
132.
133.
206
ical
ical
134
\\.f-on
135.
"
136.
Nicol's
137.
Polarised
207
.,
207
Illuminator
Vertical
New
,,
Illuminator
Conrady
i.ight
Sons
208
.....
(Full Size)
Vertical
New
"
by Watson
Illuminator
208
Illuminator
209
21
Prism
Light;
of
ngement
Parallel
Crossed
and
for
Microscope
Planes
214
using Convergent
Polarised
Light
to
show
139.
140.
141.
Kye-.shade
Betting a Circular
.219
240
"
Sons
243
244
Stage
in
Alignment
with
the
Optical
Axis
",
Use
247
""
"
,.
248
of Vernier
^50
"
Binocular
151.
Abbe's
15^.
Puwell's
After
Microscope.
Swift
of Binocular
Form
150.
Stereo-
P.inocular
251
"
....
Microscope
258
;ece
Prism
260
After
ter.
154.
247
"
,"
146.
The
Watson
n,
their relative
155.
Botanical
1 60.
Microscope
values
.201
Double
Mu,
graphicallyexplained
and
the
Tenth-Metre:
268
...
Microscope
"oj.e
....
272
^
.
icy
163I'
'!"
211
and
Histology
"
,,
280
2i)I
LIST
xxviii
241.
TEXT
........
Uinocular
Beck's
A.
lath
Glass
246.
ILLUSTRATIONS
.,
,,
2.JJ.
244
OF
of
:iocular
in
Rays
......
increasing
247.
of
Path
.nociilar
'
Rays
.......
Attachment
493
rent
Colours
...
249.
How
250.
Annul
251.
Rhei:
255.
Depth
of
l-'ocus
is
the
i:
use
"
.
........
'
496
MICROSCOPE
THE
CHAPTER
INTRODUCTORY
word
THE
(small)
and
magnifies
A
rather
intended
small
an
ordinary
of
two
the
instrument
an
The
that
be
examined,
to
second
of
ends
form
the
ocular
consists
"
lenses,"
further
eyepiece
in
its
magnified
For
is
venience
con-
held
are
turn,
of
image
eyepiece.
or
of
one
inverted
an
and
which,
tube
of
being
image
objective
the
use
opposite
this
possessing
microscope
sets
or
and
images
erect
everybody
to
to
handle,
magnified
"
lenses
"
suitable
"
serves
called
set,
in
compound.
or
several
or
compound
lenses
"
objective,
lens
familiar
lens."
the
"
obtaining
way
separated
in
the
words
simple
"
"
other
for
the
"
kinds
two
each
to
in
called
the
of
name
single
used
objects
object
by
be
widely
which,
of
of
close
to
of
be
may
consists
simple
mounted
the
is
Greek
two
object.
an
microscope
The
is
(to see),
o-fcoTreco
from
derived
Microscope,
at
attached
to
stand."
"
The
word
hence
several
A
it
the
explain
the
of
for
calls
immediate
an
before
advisable
be
meaning
used
and
term
tion,
explana-further
proceeding
to
and
name
to
describe
the
varieties.
lens
ground
is the
and
property
passing
curves
above
will
medium"
the
"
lens
"
in
polished
of
these
causing
to
to
rays
may
of
piece
glass
"
which
from
together
or
having
manner,
light
be
of
form
in
specific
converge
faces
circular
usually
through
on
given
name
or
distant
diverge
spherical,
other
its
parent
trans-
two
faces
imparts
to
after
point
The
apart.
cylindrical,
I
it
or
of
that
on
is
'.
rise
plane.
shown
the
because
"lano-convcx,
:
a
the
third, having
concave
other
is called
"
The
the
on
fourth, with
:icavc
meniscus
or
the
on
first is
each
and
of
sides
which
is
concave,
plano-concave;
concave
both
; the
one
surfaces
the
eighth
although of
arc
all thinner.
arc
!
"it
ither
object to form
be received
on
conca\
real
or
convi
should
at
:id the
properties pe
although
curvature
their
former
is
be
concave
that
centres, whereas
arc
collective
all
termed
lc:
in
they
bt from
"
the
and
noticed
object,/V.
latter
one
which
collectively
arc
images.
is
curve
because
1
!
diverging
surface
image of the
; whereas
screen
or
each
It
The
and
nounced
pro-
double
ruling
different
as
live,
gc:
will
can
and
of
are
all thicker
are
more
sixth
convex,
curvature.
and
I.
concave,
dissimilar
3 and
4, 5, 6
they
convex
crossed
convex
crossed
numh
seventh
termed
the
5
Fig.
second
side
one
is the
the
because
the
converging meniscus.
or
concavo-convex,
on
lenses,
bi-convex,
the other
surface
convex
face
of
or
is similar
the
spherical
with
kinds
double
that
other, or
side
convexo-concave
both
of
different
eight
the former
"
the
being plane
fifth is
the
combination
on
side
one
The
The
curve
convex
first type
with
to
F'ig.I
in
LENSES
only
another
with
side
one
it is
but
parabolic nature,
microscoj
surface
OF
FORMS
DIFFERENT
In
the
description that
and
follows
so
the
do
not
double
clou!
the
by
these
two
tyj
es
apply
equally
to
REMARKS
INTRODUCTORY
defects
certain
of
nature
of the
the thickness
that
The
of
curves
the
called
being
circle,of
lenses
is
of
curve
from
each
of
such
is
is called
arc,
its
the
centres
the
axis,or
assumed
given centres,
and
an
and
negligible.
be
to
as
curvature,"
joining such
line
It is also
small
described
are
centre
the
The
aberrations.
of
body
"
which
curvature."
lens
called
so
them
differ from
which
remainder,
the
LIGHT
ON
radius
the
passing through
the
of
the
principalaxis
"
of
radius
"
lens."
explaining the
Before
how
lenses,showing
those
from
in
in
another,
passage
case
one
be
it will
the
for
necessary
context
to
few
followed
to make
a
introductory remarks
intelligibly
in
the subject of light in general, and
refraction
upon
upon
not
particular; but the reader must
expect in what immediately
be
follows
simple
as
the
for that
manner,
in
find
to
The
is
given
in another
issuing from
size,naturallydiverge in
the
from
is
very
consistingof
that
obtained
of
beam
any
or
this
in
ray
it will
again
path, until
it will be
Change
will
given
medium
with
another
is called
in
nature
medium
fresh
be
held
in
mind.
be
vessel
The
on.
be
It will
containing
less
the
dense,
bent
aside,
bending,
when
on
ever,
how-
of
cause
of
water
and
entrance
refraction,
advantage
of
alteration
and
its
be different.
medium
is the
of this
point out briefly the nature
brought about
by the change of medium,
descriptionto have to resort to Fig. 2.
ABCD
by
extent
is
it
be
only
can
propagation along
such
to
Let
light as
here, that
or
such
medium,
this should
more
; after
bent
of
object
later
to
if
divergence
some
hereafter,
its rectilinear
a
it
to
but
is
refraction
with
the
such
small
small
remarked
be
referred
be
noted
resume
it meets
just
of
point ;
sun,
reflection, and
or
that
safely regard
exist
not
the
as
It may
exception
one
undergoing what
new
such
be
to
comparatively
may
matter
pencil meets
with
when,
does
refraction
by
diffraction,but
path
we
parallelrays.
"?#verging light
and
illuminant
infinitesimal
so
from
all directions
lightfallingupon
distant
illuminant, assumed
an
rays
consider
we
in
possible.
as
way
rigidly mathematical
part of this work, but rather
treated
matter
for
AC
now
direction
purposes
the
water
of
REFRACTION,
SNELL'S
LAW
line ;
BD,
drawn
at
the
beam
and
the
medium
new
into
the
line
refraction
at
E,
for the
Suppose
it
is
incident
at
E, for the
ction
Sncll
made
another
from
using
cases
he
substances
were
substituted
he
had
found
its
exam;
found
manufacture,
and
found
called
for
sine
In
to
so
be
in all books
water
the
"
from
;;/
came
out
;/.
also
is
to
other
will
at
of
tin
n"
lh"
]
'3-
..
the
that,
same,
Other
substance
Flint
If the
is. the
holds
lines, wo,
'icsc
the incident
ratio bet
good,
reader
wee
whether
Inn
given substance.
;//
the
;//',
or
each
; that
fact
watet*
subject.
"
and
glass, for
164, according to its
Mibstanccs,
complete
index.
the
upon
the
-
mutant
point
vm
the
was
and
water,
i'54
the
from
come
ot
that in
is
less, and
quantity.
It will
be
of
to
there
there
the
by
discovered
about
with
on
about
other
"
the
lengths
greater
refractive
special
iay
the
it is incident
;;/E
index of
refractive
the
with
;//,
when
then
The
/.
air and
mathematically inclined, he
"'/", really
represent the sines
and
at
he
be
"
of
;/'.
taken, whether
were
This
["33.
ED
what
Now
angles
in all
nts"
at
divided, the
and
the
will be found
meeting
;/
quotient obtained.
wherever
;"'E,
on
passes
course
strike
to
;;/'along
at
ray
the
along
found
it
measured
were
will be
no
uninterruptedly
But
is
celebrated
drew
and
beam
for
"
water,
ED.
at
say
"
When
only instance
it undergoes
when
to
following
position
angles
there
the
"
bending
no
other
All
along
perpendicularly into
referred
AC,
incident
is
refraction
any
E.
at
is
to
are
at
Normal,
right angles
it
cutting
the
li^ht
the
LAW
SNELL'S
from
starts
ray
where
calculate
can
from
make
the
an
angle ;zE/,so
that
the
tables
ordinary
gives
is the
idea
operose
refracted
different
at
of
The
glass
the
need
One
It will
and
into
pass
if
is
the
when
total reflection
"
to
get
We
have
of the ray
in the
If
out
is
ray
ray
the
glasstowards
be incident
that is denser
the
with
1
The
author's
at
refractive
substance
law
when
good
to
rays
kind
one
modifications
the
"
angle
If this
A, say
"
"
be
true,
This
suffer
to
There
last
is the
critical
Z'.
at
that
xl
at
at #?
is said
so
again
of the
index
is
one
allows
limiting angle."
or
normal
of
of
the
the kind
of
the
Fig.
water
"
compound.
are
the
course
; but
it is bent
it is
diagram
permission of
the
surface
its
entering a
bending of course
vitreous
and
the
upon
it continues
in
as
because
amount
of this paragraph
with
say
"
NN,
The
air.
E, becomes
to
starting,say,
all,and
at
direction
any
Photomicrography,
many
the
the normal
than
are
beginning
along EC.
the
become
But
certain
ray
of
structing
con-
lens.1
of the
in the
is
first
largelyaffected
passes
holds
still nearer
starts
one
then, the
manufacture
this
where
from
to
colours
passing from
to
at
seen,
in
details
;z',passing
graze
this is called
mind
problem,
with
E, for it appears
angle, then, it is very evident, which
ray
from
different
"
find 0*5
simply put,
same
course
that
the water
of
out
get
off
fact,the
the
so
happen
air and
place
to
mentioned.
will
the
dividing by
intensely intricate.
Seeing
m't what
to
cannot
ray
be
remark.
will take
what
"
here
not
more
refracted
of
to
marked
computer's
the
air,and
into
water
tables, we
Although
reversed, of
"
starting
strike
and
our
calculations, as
angles ;
let
by
be
must
matter
calculations
law
same
from
which
30"
As
after
we
is
to
more
concerned, becomes
are
underlying these
pass
once
in real
exceedingly
end.
that
natural
that
lenses.
new
lenses
multiplying
that
draw
the
now
AD,
arc
example,
45".
can
30",so
the
It
find the
the
of
sine
quite evident
For
of
Resorting
0*5.
us
BC.
say,
and
is 07,
speaking,it
4
we
is
It
will strike
ray
in
given point
angle mEo,
any
'.
vi
or
taken
if
by
medium
varies
But
from
the
the
Scientific Press.
beam
emerging
glass then
quits the
in which
to
opposite direction as
and
incident
emerging
in the
it
the
rays
continuation
direct
of
instead
of
other
glass,or
been
have
-;
results
is called
not
are
prism
contained
be
may
""
sides
that
meet
defined
straight line.
entered
another
with
the
If,
piece
direction
would
change
not
parallelsides, but
the
conditions
of
is in
the
being modified,
which
the
form
the
together
meet
summit
summit
medium
transparent
of
the
the
to
surfaces
is called
below
is termed
at
prism, the
boundary
by the two
the
Yc1.
composing
the
of
can
the
ray
be
arc
in
in
other
optically as
it
the
glass ; hence
parallel,although not in
are
QS, and
"
amount
medium.
new
limiting
of
same
similar.
between
separated ends
the
accordance
prism,
one
tin
the
dense,
medium
differentdensity,its
of what
the
of
less
from
same
again
air, it had
directly in
refraction
When,
form
vt
medium
changed
of
the
into
ay
air,the
deviated
was
the
with
one
emerging
back
an'
medium
the
re-enter
it is bent
started, so
it
this time
on
normal, because
the
SIDES
PARALLEL
WITH
GLASS
1'
Uld
in contact
struck
prism, OI)
normals
The
is known,
prism
be
the
as
the
to
the
incident
the
summit,
refractive
and
the
index
normal
previously
incident
beam,
base, and
of
the
rcfracmedium
shown.
Let
ABC
and
the
dotted
respective surfaces
with
which
ray
OD,
on
entering
the
in
lines
they
glass,is
of
case
opposite direction
periphery. When
the
the
of
negative
dispersive or
the
computing
the
consider
to
necessary
course
in other
is turned
summit
the
one,
LENS
OF
CONSTRUCTION
PRISMATIC
exact
path
number
of
towards
of the
these
in
it is
ray
prisms
as
thin
same
"
of
urfaccs
to
small
infinitely
of these
any
little further
theoretical
planes
will
consideration
size.
suffice
line
Fig.
or
of
any
when
these
and
the
dicular
perpen-
its Normal.
that all
show
to
^-"^ ^CENTRE
CURVATURE
or
path
meet
drawn
6.
N', N",
normals,
analytically
is called
""""
the
infinite number
an
now
and
one
be
may
regation of
consi
But
being
front
lens
curved
ii.itthe
both
itself
surface
lens
"luting the
the
what
at
of
radius
is called
curvature,
the
centre
of
ture.
Collective
upon
on
side
one
the
lenses, it has
other
to
form
been
(Fig. 7).
This
the
is called
rays
distant
sufficiently
position
plane of focus."
and
of
image
an
the
stated, converge
where
the
When
the
falling
object
im
object
rrned
is very
di-
the/
"cal
plane, and
its distance
from
the
lens
/v?/ foca:
the
suitably placed
;
screen
oint of union
is
rays
meet
to
known
of the rays
form
the
ing
"
th"
image
the
on
the
object,"
LENGTH
FOCAL
form
cannot
so
it may
"
form
"
2-in.
negative
and
negative
for
piece
one
were
of
advantage
has
"
on
the
at
the
that
nomenclature
But
images.
has
such
differentiated
are
conventional
lens
phrase
meaning,
speak of
lective
neutralising the col-
of
property
the
we
say
"
glass with
of
lens
real
"
; hence
screen
2-in.
2-in.
object looked
diminished,
"
of
power
an
object
an
state they
to at once
illogical
the other and designated by the same
as
"
of
image
dispersive,and
very
seem
from
one
real
"
have
Negative lenses, we
LENS
OF
This
parallelsides.
If he
by the practicaloptician.
fact
has
an
is taken
unknown
PLANE
OF
Focus
Fig. 7,
is
obtained, he
knows
he
has
neutralised
the
lens
The
set
of
same
this
the
is
purpose
be
can
negatives of
done
known
lengths.
describingthe
to
positive by using
negative, and
for
necessary
unknown
an
the
know
called
are
rays
which
are
incident
venient
entering and leaving a lens it is conbeing spoken of. Rays fallingupon
or
while
affluent,
those
quitting it
definition covers
foci of positive as
well
Really, the same
if
focus
virtual
be
lenses,
a
accepted for the concave.
"
"virtual"
is
"
explained
hereafter.
as
are
negative
The
term
terme
together
which
that
"diverging." Kays
With
pencil further
they
to
respect
run
than
But
lens
it
leave
they
entering strongly convergent
a
concave
ing
The
been
it has
lens
the
from
object
"
this
have
have
traversed
in
converge,
the
as
varies
luminant, as
or
it,
convergence.
is formed
image
from
passed through
of light
the case
in
"
are
image, but
an
radiant
or
rays
lens
convex
said, to form
which
at
of the
:on
rays
incident
diminished
with
"
from
designated
diverging or
rays
divergent, or
and
without
side
when
and
"converging,"
principal focus
its
closer
apart
lens, when
convergent.
emerge
side
convex
away
further
by
"parallel."
called
are
called
are
and
further
separate
converging
advance
they
as
become
that
effluent. Kays
or
closer
DISTANCES
IMAGE
AND
OBJECT
io
most
distance
with
the
it is sometimes
Fig. 8.
called
it will
"
be
tfl between
If
of
radiant
consideration
an
image
object
and
be
placed
at
let it be
to
will
be
be
of
to
the
be
now
four
to
twice
on
the
to
nearer
till to
irallcl
other
it.
from
from
away
If K
be
than
the
rays
of the
of the
lens
at
the
distance
The
focal
the
lens
.nd
coining
t""
of
It is
"
twice
lens.
so
on
from
that
not
If
C,
position
be
the
still further
moved
The
lens
length
the
under
now
length
side
I.
id
of the
which
for convenience
"
Fig. 8, where
in
io.
as
the focal
is shown
further
relation
first instance
the
in
times
distance
given
to
equals that
moved
ted
I dra
This
lens
equal
equal
the
its im
said
formed
'h.
in detail
explain
to
the
K
description
well
until
it
now
of
may
thal
Lebe
occupied
lying in t/tc
possible
to
place
FOCUS
PRINCIPAL
R
at
the
sufficient
their rays
of
focus
the
or
sun
lens
is often
positionsof R
radiant
be placed
the
stars
LENS
ii
be
truly parallel,so
usually selected, as
to
rays
are
hence
the
principal
the
solar
focus."
rays
issue
parallelon
"
of
as
spoken
Seeing
I are
theoreticallyinterchangeable,if the
and
focus
the
at
sensibly parallel:
called
be
may
the
or
moon
the
for
distance
OF
I the
the
Fig. 9.
Hence
side.
other
rule
'
be
it
and
and
radiant
image
relation
certain
But
neither
where
9,
side"
other
the
on
in
of
That
"
radiant
issue
from
8
parallel,and
other, for
the
to
one
the
interchangeable, the
are
if
lens,parallelrays
are
rays
stated,
be
may
increases
one
as
the
RAYS
PARALLEL
PRINCIPAL
FOCAL
LENGTH
Fig.
diminishes, and
other
of
conjugate
as
be
Although
at
times
foci,by which
the
lens
This
on
one
within
to
is meant,
side, where
is effected
; hence
versa
and
are
spoken
foci.1
hardly
desirable
vice
10.
the
If
of
scope
ascertain
the
be
object
an
work
relative
is the image
placed
formed
on
i
"
/'
at
given
the other
distance
side ?
from
LIGHT
CONVERGENT
12
have
We
that
from
beams
the
in
is not
condition
it
of
deals
that
the
It
sunlight.
upon
beams
with
in
with
produces
distance
case
joined
set
forth
more
in
been
having
less
or
met
that
rays
those
on
individual
remains
yet
^wvergent
are
II,
cast
there
by the
have
ion
the
focusscd
of C
cc
shortens
//, for
would
they
i:
change,
occur
be
of
I'
at
the
focal
C
course
is
falling upon
C,
C'.
This
lens
the
therefore
been
have
focusscd
the
focal
th
parallel
of
focus
shorter
at
entirely brought
distance
the
the
that
a
rays
is
understood,
ii
length,
has
the
red, U
lenses
ii.
rays
had
be
condition
auxiliary lens
I instead.
at
it may
several
shown
are
rays
Fig.
would
where
where
Fig.
but
nature,
lens-systems
certain
of
formation
are
now
lens
effect
a
LENS
it.
the
in
great
so
POSITIVE
convex
the
effect it has
what
shown
upon
Such
at
as
parallel,
are
be
to
placed
radiant
also
^//verging,and
are
how
discussed
now
AND
This
K.
about
object
from
by
the
/the
J length.
priii
following example which
:"S
Let
Hence
on
ihc
the
might
in
occur
microscopical
con-
will
by
be
found
to
be
tl, from
tal.
the
lens
1 with
the
ot;
mentioned
that
when
is
"
"
it
'
;on,
to
50
diameters.
in
"
hence
in
the
above
rase
the
is
;unj"litif.ition
LIGHT
CONVERGENT
the
recollect,
to
of
convergency
may
placed
at
fall upon
rays
at
It
changes
great
of
such
how
rule
lens
additionally
be
It
apart.
are
the
is
it
this
with
the
that
other
their
forth
set
are
moreover
in
be
to
the
the
facturing
manu-
careful
so
the
all
relative
exact
in
binations
com-
distance
account,
it
how
by
and
had
said
rays
the
by
positionone
of
manner,
modified
on
been
path
this
in
obtain
has
of
the
as
convex
would
what
in
associated
lenses
components
from
effected
be
can
can
inferred
be
readily
can
13
be
been
Hence
question.
of parallel,
as
"/2vergentinstead
placed at F, the principalfocus.
would
LENS
focus?
plane which lies within its principal
the reader, if a radiant
further
were
just remind
(within the true focus) the rays issuing from
focusses them
We
in
converging
WJien
"
beams
the
POSITIVE
AND
computer's
formula.
The
1.
in
be tabulated
now
following five principlesmay
When
collective lens they
a
parallelrays enter
focus
at
distance
2.
of
3.
being
certain
focus
called
of the
radiant.
5. If
falling in
principalfocal length
of the
So
than
light and
to
now
sensible
when
leave
rays
far
be
it
on
side, such
lens.
what
Not
area.
much
is
There
nothing
is this
not
should
all
be
but
which
situated
indicated
considered, the
an
on
to
arrow
the
axis
however
axis
BC
although
of
the
be
of
the
of
the
to
less
an
point
these
of
lens ; it remains
is
one
of
here
experienced
object of sensible
self-luminous
points
lens,
reader's
being
as
object
the
self-luminous
clear
the
manner,
aggregation
the
gency
conver-
principalfocus.
principal focus of a
happens when
should
difficulty
is new,
greater
mostly depicted
the
that
it is recollected
size
lies within
been
on
it with
form
to
manner
it.
upon
has
radiant
shown
leave
placed within
in a diverging
usually situated
be
converging
which
focus
incident
those
the
it
it in
convergency
radiant
the
degree
be
other
leave
limits
to form
still,
are
the
certain
Rays
4.
lens
the
from
distance
united
are
within
a
hence
mind.
object of
in
points.
this
case
their
Let
paths
Fig. 12
sensible
size
SECONDARY
I4
AA'
and
all directions
in
to
fall upon
focus
to
that
bent
the
(although
and
form
the
in
shown
It is obvious
the
its
image,
be
former
latter
the
than
nearer
its
of
reference
that
the
both,
or
entire
complicating it, so
.hole
B"
natural
be
and
MIC
called
ire
is
merely
;i
the
To
yet
to
the
"
referred
to
here
in
not
diagram
to
uncommon
that
is
of
axes
such
as
puzzle considerably
if the
of
issuing from,
rays
shown
all
.-ccondary
than
This
of
working
for convenience
of
it is
furnishes
lens
latter is greater.
which
compared
the
of the
c.
future
12.
system
that
b and
object, whilst
results
noted
cast
rendering)
as
of rays
mass
O,
or
the
image,
always
not
are
the
arrow,
are
between
gap
the
in
part of the
that
than
course
indicated
as
BC
other
Fig
of
at
points of
the
as
It should
conjugates.
C,
pass
form
to
is smaller
easily understood
or
by
of
inverted
image becomes
object be further from
that the
now
object. If the
with
the
at
from
other
in their
is
focus
rays
any
image
an
issuing from
rays
not
from
collected
are
The
L.
lens
as
and
from
figure. Those
whilst
of the
axis
the
AXES
the
axes,
of
because
represent
such
lens."
The
figureshave
as
lin"
really required.
the
say,
Such
matter
often
been
beginner unacquainted
with
subj
ascertain
the
principal focal
:hro\v
"allel raysy
the
of
image
n
upon
the
all tiir^
lens.
the
for
the
point
of
the
lens
tu
measure
tl
means
.lent, the
lens, it is only
'which
sun
from
"
of
length
to
measure
As, hov.
purpose
of
to, it may
such
be
FOCAL
ASCERTAINING
16
liter, and
LENGTH
equal
to
in. the
found
be
can
OF
LENS
former.
of / is necessary,
why this reduction
that as one
conjugate lessens, the other
when
It is obvious
recollected
hence
the
as
the
parallelso
be
conjugate
side
however, it is
Sometimes,
object from
the
manner.
other, in such
lens
position
scale
glass
of the
this
on
reduced.1
the
distance
differences
screen
image
an
the
the
on
of
greatly magnified.
the length of a given part of the scale, L
in
following
receive
to
as
be
side, and
one
not
arc
utilised in the
is
necessarily
length ; this the
the
case
object are
and
illuminated
principal focus
In
increases
room
ascertain
to
easy
lens.
the
magnification of image
An
not
it is
must
formula
portion
scale
of the
Let
of
other
the
on
of the
end
little
of
coming
rays
the
from
The
/ be
the
portion
same
the
and
seen
as
the
on
of the
distance
in
screen
from
screen
the
the
the
length
magnified
lens.
Then
the
There
is
that is
and
another
yet
constructed
by the
to
xcd
at
the
The
otherwise
of
end
one
small
up
on
It
the
side.
and
this
of
end
the
in
the
is
sun
tya the
piece
if the
at
in the al"
.
cr,
is
only
is
occupied
brass, which
a
be
li;_jht
issue
f the
length
prin"
'005
it be
be
from
principal focus
principal
tier
"
of
will
the
"
object
of
If,now,
"
instrument
an
position
tube.
placed
!)ccn
length,
ground glass
sharply foci
slit,parallelrays
With
absolutelyrigorousexpression /
difference
piece
its
,ite
thort com{
the
dimensions
"
other
tube,
is
focal
artificially.An
glass removed,
ground
covers
This
rays
position that
collimator.
produce- parallel
slit
of
obtaining the
of
method
use
other, in such
it.
by
at
by solvingthe following:
is found
principalfocal length
long,
subsiit.
tli
is
lens
be
found
the
sun,
can
been
had
principal
the
obtained
focal
of
circle
in
lens
white
fills
and
of
it is
only
to
be
size
reader
found
able
of
the
is
for
negative
lens
neutralise
this
often
is
the
principal
condition
said
is
to
it
is
and
to
the
until
screen
of
diameter
is
focal
to
the
diffused
this
length.
first
on
piece
the
hold
Now
large.
the
measure
circle
as
fulfilling
refers
to
exactly
light
condition
the
is
simple.
According
Appendix,
the
long
simple
and
position
and
of
account
where
Microscopical
of
foci
length,
the
and
method
his
to
in
any
order
position
this
student.
and
the
method
sufficient
mately,
ulti-
found
perfect
as
principal
focal
Gauss,
is
concerning
brief
binations
com-
unsuccessful
which
problems
of
of
the
proved
two
to
For
discovery
equivalent
or
lenses.
problem
the
only,
lenses
mathematician,
determine
the
lenses
determining
German
For
thick
to
by lens-systems
all
thin
the
for
and
simple
separated
or
so-called
purposes
the
principal
draw
twice
rules
to
to
then
towards
elegant
image.
the
method
and
negative,
from
placed
the
this
important
solve
referred
is
lenses
positive
the
on
twice
applied
great
its
be
be
to
and
far
directed
this
fall
must
out
thick
the
when
required.
so
necessary
lens-system,
it
distance
produced
of
as
radiant
is therefore
obtained
convenient
distances
applicable
images
complete
several
attempts
solution
sunlight
immediately
however,
a
17
the
if
as
thus
fulfils
diameter
said
be
universally
that
distance
length
of
size
it will
carry
the
have,
all
positive
negative,
with
focal
cannot
time
to
the
circle
we
of
light
This
different
at
principal
length
let
to
diffused
of
this
All
is
plan
paper
negative
LENS
manner
length
especially
question.
diameter
of
same
focal
distance
of
convenient
the
NEGATIVE
negative.
what
at
the
the
positive
hand,
at
ascertain
for
what
method,
not
are
focal
the
the
Another
one.
length
of
the
and
by finding
that
be
in
just
principal
The
OF
LENGTH
FOCAL
will
be
CHAPTER
THE
Till-:
simple
glass
and
hand
certain
to
is of
In
opticians.
often
of
finest
results.
With
this
is
of
user
This
may
class
easily
be
is
eye
250
from
with
normal
is
to
given
looking
ascertain
later
Although
optician,
still
able
the
following
to
and
very
the
secure
five
from
varies
to
the
lens
the
observer's
with
complete
through
the
best
This
rule
is
the
then
of
position
on.
18
in
A
the
distance
fixed
the
at
theoretically
so
up
at
nically
tech-
is
vision."
to
person
that
for
of
the
in.
10
that
to
in.
20
when
fragment,
which
the
complete
distinct
be
is
"
when
fragment
d Stance
to
magnifier
do
distance
The
said
usually
will
and
eye,
distance
one.
himself.
placed
this
short-sighted
long-sighted
is
naked
for
possible.1
noted.
"
for
same
magnifier
as
nification
mag-
desirable
fragment
of
its
information
be
may
manner
image
carefully
in.
the
that
such
the
mere
and
with
seen
the
sharpest
near
it
verify
to
foot-rule"
the
eye
The
mm.
eye
is
foreign
two,
happens
known.
examined
as
vary
so-called
How
of
brought
and
English
usually
hand
been
glasses
it often
support,
as
it is best
more
chosen
power
in
yields
then
be
done
suitable
known
may
the
to
of
placed
is
which
one
by
consists
always
suitably
be
to
by
lens
that
foot-rule
or
it
microscope
required
ye
of
piece
on
"n
or
of
both
correct
The
has
and
but
to
lenses.
single
power,
years
magnifying
the
small
fixed
It
all
lens
adjusted
glasses
of
consists
usually
plano-convex
two
in
form
lenses
afforded
usually
at
of
recent
best
Its
or
amplifying
in
its
former
convex,
magnifying
common
diameters.
twenty
the
higher
three
The
composed
the
kinds,
two
inherent
perfection
great
is
it is
aberrations
.ifier
is of
crossed
form
best
its
MICROSCOPE
magnifier.
single bi-convcx,
in
SIMPLE
microscope
the
II
place
the
the
ASCERTAINING
other
said
be
to
the
at
complete rule.
the
sees
eye
of
distance
one
POWER
MAGNIFYING
This
is
Each
object then
for
one
be
may
and
eye
in
rudely shown
19
RULE.
FRAGMENT
SHARPLY
FOCUSSED
BY
"^^"
LEMS
TO
WITH
EYE
LEFT
TESTED
BE
THE
EYE
Fig. 15-
little
practice is here
itself to
at
the
the
the
mind
moment.
same
fragment
right eye,
the
for
necessary,
be
the
whilst
chosen
the
"
INCH
2x
example,
an
left is
OF
looking
one
half
measurement,
at the
the
on
complete
an
other
inch
ot
using,
say,
rule.
The
E"fUALLIMQ
rPA"MEnT
OF
IMCME3
of
unit
let
accustom
must
ENTIRE
RULE
Fig. 1 6.
eyes
and
images
fragment
in
Fig.
lies
6.
on
There
must
the
it will be
be
seen
so
that
half
an
inch
of
the
rule
is
fragment
the scale
of
5 diameters
has
method
obtained
result will
be
the
of
arise
if this
according
observer
avoid
To
the
to
at
that
of
results
of
of
arc
distinct
at
From
this
would
vision
distinct
of
of
power
with
evident,
it is
of confusion
end
in.,
10
long-sighted
magnifying
this, the
This
of the
lenses, no
distance
inches.
diameters.
instead
to
5 half
cover
"distance
vision.
distinct
4!
magnification
different
that
be
from
of different
evaluation
to
observer's
the
to
dissimilar
distance
means
appears
drawback,
one
for it is obvious,
2O-in.
in
only
inch
from
cover
magnifier amplifies5
the
according
vision";
the
half
the
as
then, that
iy,
apparently
to
as
of the
of
magnified
so
MICROSCOPE
SIMPLE
THE
20
each
all lenses
is estimated
10
in., the
to
him, and
the
long-sighted bearing
for him.
more
How
difference
the
Fig.
corrected
be
will
given later
how
and
cxplafn
M'mplc microscope.
"AV
No
mention
from
coming
t
placed
let
at
but
be
the
the
head
SS
to
of
focus
object,the
were,
in
the
focus
of
the
eye
arrow,
lens
placed
find
position close
it will
it will
be
magnify
and
is
in
the
the
eye
produced
what
to
as
path of
first
convenient
the
beam
emergent
focus
of
an
as
at
F,
be
withdrawn
would
much
to
at
to
the
sec
in
emerging
to
instead
of
beam,
the
the
S'S'"
the
observer
an
17,
were
eye
mass
provided
distance
of
the
of
\\
inserted
size,bcii.
without
lens where
Fig.
confused
observer's
once
reduced
If the
SS.
but
seen
equal
object OO,
air.
/;/ the
of
magnify less
easily ascertained
made
image
were
were
the
"
for
the
the
mind
in
is
been
in
will
vision
kns.
convex
lens
lens
magnification
placed
distinct
17.
on,
has
hitherto
if it
:'cs
of
distance
by using a normal
short-sighted recollectingthe
placed
the
it, and
will
very
image of
the
within
t\
readily
object
VIRTUAL
the
on
beyond
focus
of
of
lens
the
the
shown
passing through
fall
the
on
at which
this
real
and
one
would
so
the
that
is that
be
placed in
screen
if in
as
erect.
The
observer.
received
image
on
on
and
lines,they
apparently formed
cannot
an
dotted
distance
the
form
not
from
The
and
certain
situation
from
of
which
the
the
but
is
positionO'O'
indicated.
as
is not
mental,
For
eye
distance
image, however,
screen,
to
Ox
reach
photographic plate or
are
eye.
the
at
lie
to
seems
coming
and
O'O'
of
distinct vision
of
lens
image
is
image
the
be the
rays
by
obviously magnified
is
the
shown
the
O', forming
and
observer's
the
lens, as
the
through
pupil of
lens
21
In
it.
L
and
erect
eye
side
same
distance
the
his
to
appears
IMAGE
and
upon
this
reason
Fig. IS.
the
is called
image
lens
which
at
From
has
been
object
an
witJiout
the
focus, an
of
the
lens
side
and
be
can
is formed
be
on
the
at
the
being
1
For
should
the
virtual focal
the
length.
deductions
following
the
the
from
distance
be
may
an
same
placed before a
inverted
object
all"
distance
mental
clearness
be.
is
is
or
is formed
image
emerging
rays.
when
seen
lens, at
convex
placed within
Such
cast
upon
the
focus
other
the
on
is
image
a
point
real,
screen.
real
no
image
that can
image is formed
on
a
screen
emerging
; but if the eye be placed in the
be seen
if
and
is erect
as
magnified can
image which
side of the lens as the object,projected,as
it were,
at
shown
beams,
said
by the
photographed
When
2.
is called
the
and
one,
When
1.
virtual
it appears
what
enunciated
that
of
and
of
is to
distinct
not
vision
actual, is
rendering
no
say,
is
of
called
placed
the
observer,
virtual, and
farther
away
from
but
which,
only
can
OO
than
be
it
the
photographed by
remarks
It should
object to
to
the
is the
drawn
from
To
in
the
of
centre
if the
wJiicJi
eye
the
is
enter
fullystill
more
which
as
into
explained
is
magnification of
apparent
by the
contained
the
pupil
and
the
applied to
at
object is said
a
lens,as
in
rays
of the
ends
extreme
placed
now
the
so
to
visual
two
ab, the
angle
be
to
larger.
of
form, say,
the
form
object be
same
evidently greater,
the
that
angle AOB
the
object. But
is
eye
simple
as
eye
Thus
observer.
in
to
which, for
matter
considered.
be welcome,
may
manner
the unaided
object
desire
following
observer's
aQb
who
be
not
made
been
first stated
be
an
the
those
different
auxiliary lenses, a
hand, need
have
but to
possible,
the
the subject,
in somewhat
of
use
in
MICROSCOPE
SIMPLE
THE
22
the
object
Fig. 20.
is the
real
ratio of
the diameter
object, both
being
already explained.
To
at
of
the
the
make
virtual
distance
this
image
of
to
that of
distinct
the
vision
let
quite intelligible,
as
!"'"'
be considered.
.A I') i-
and
AB.
A'OB'
B//
a^ain the
drawn
arc
The
object,and
parallelto the
magnification,then,
divided
by
A'lV
the
is
the
axis
virtual
A
so
As
image.
a
b' is
evidently equal
angle a'Qb', or the length of
to
equal
the
A'B'
.W
to
angle
divided
Let
MICROSCOPE
SIMPLE
THE
24
focal
d the
and
of distinct
distance
being considered
C and K.
Then
of the observer
vision
figured as that between
the
the
the
at
object AB
proceeding from
pencils of rays
the virtual
distance
after passing the lens C to form
x
must,
divergence as though they proceeded
image, have the same
Fig.
"
21
"
Fig. 21.
A'B'
from
the distance
at
then, by the
the
If
that
object
the
without
is the
be
seen
the
eye
followingformula
from
the
(derived
*=-"+""
ot
AB
lens
the
the
well-known
vision
as
in
by the
to
but
Fig. 22,
placed
eye
and
that
"
is,
ab, because
at
observer, and
with
AB
unaided
be
for the
;
-^ -^-y).
opticalformula
have
angle aCb
observer
expressed,
be
may
it would
"
condition
viewed
were
plane of best
under
The
x.
in
so
would
situ,it is
the
lens
A'B'
respectively. They
Fig. 22.
may
be
.re
called
arcs
of
circle whose
centre
is at
"
5:-^?=AB:
1
sufficiently.
with
radius
OC
the
under
seen
angle ACB,
vision.
of distinct
distance
magnitude
virtual
MICROSCOPE
SIMPLE
THE
The
image.
CK
aby or
A'B'
ratio
and
CH,
to
the
to
of the same
consequently appears
A'B', the
really occupied the space
AB,
to
finallyas
the
then, is
that
referred
mentally
It
it
though
as
being
25
is to
is the
same
A'B'
as
expressed
of
measure
as
"
.
vC
that
shown, however,
just been
It has
d +
which
magnification of
the
expresses
follows,then, with
normal
if
that
the
and
if
then
that
has
20
5 be
be
may
magnification of
angle
subtended
in the
inverse
The
eye.
be
may
better
to
word)
an
individual
the
as
lenses
is
vision
whose
one
of
short
into
books
several
for lenses
if such
were
with
seem
at
all,but
as
the
owing
lens
of
worse
if a. diminution
distinct
vision,
for
of such
As
he
to
in. focal
rather
length,
an
be
to
the
5 in.,
of
at
of
5 in
6f
as
-y,
mission
ad-
length
inferred
been
an
result
were
enlargement
in.
having gained
the
in. ;
20
written
evidently is
focal
than
lens
is often
lenses, it has
still if the
eye
uses
this statement
all
the
to
short-sighted
the
expression
is
vision
his naked
with
see
the
object from
of distinct
length,which
10
10
following
short-sighted,say at
times
as
strong (for want
to
true
of
it is said
so
eye,
object, which
of long focal
even
true, say
magnification
as
instead
microscopist :
the
at all unless
; but
of
vision,
is
four
length
mind
directlyproportional
distance
distance
see
focal
correct
practically
it would
the
extremely small
might be just able
correct
then
long-sighted
which
no
have
cannot
For
is
pupil of
to
the
to
said
with
for
proportion
in
distinct
magnification, the
of
object
it to the
by
of
may
figure.1
interest
an
distance
power
bearing
"
numerator
in.
subject
with
"
the
for that
the
read
in
of
magnifying
the
in. distance
20
placed
substituted
quitting
remarks
actual
be
to
short-sighted one
Before
of
long-sighted person
vision
the fraction
properly represented by
be
the distance
object for
an
d.
of distinct vision
It
"
error
would
as
; for
be
for
longer,
place.
took
for positive
simple magnificationformula, however, is rigorouslycorrect
lenses of any focal length if the eye be placed at the posteriorfocal plane.
See Appendix.
The
THE
SIMPLE
Fig. 23.
focal
length,which
before
he
5 in. does
can
with
his naked
Fig. 24.-
DissectingStage.
"
he has to
means
examine
MICROSCOPE
it
as
well
eye.
as
As
use
the
an
lens to
short-sightedobserver
illustration,
supposing
at
we
have
:"
}"
5, and
d=
with
the
from
T5T in.
be
should
inch
an
this
By
Fig. 25.
"
for
in.
we
angular
short, normal,
by different makers,
The
the
show
the
of
are
needed
instrument
different
Figs. 25
for this
is held
varieties
and
by
of
26, are
in
two
as
the
more
tfoth
all
Image.
an
known
one
endless
variety
microscope.
especially for
the
arrangement.
among
is
hand
suitable
added
would
high powers
forms, the
there
for the
purpose,
20.
long-sighted, see
objects
and
distinctness.
facility
is used
preparing specimens
Erected
with
then
with
measurement
of
at
or
which
other
dissecting microscope
purpose
hands
and
distinctly,
individual
object
lenses
that with
see
formula
short-sighted observer,
question the
in
viewed
long-sighted
the
with
the
Dissecting Microscope
observers, whether
as
for
lens
focal
27
the
find
"we
"
half
of
lens
MICROSCOPE
SIMPLE
THE
The
Figs. 23
next
this type of
two
and
24
trations,
illus-
microscope
SIMPLE
THE
because
but
they
hand
microscopes
be
implies, to
for
diseases,
are
in
the
as
purpose
preceding,
instruments
reality compound
fixed
They
from
in
to
Mr.
times,
30
Nelson
with
magnifier fitted
the
upon
illuminate
object
At
it.
Another
after
on
this
out
the
the
by
fashion
Continent.
in
of
form
Messrs.
of
the
It
handle.
of
and
Fig
useful
most
magnifier has
Watson
"
Sons
"
Brucke
is
5 to
quite
with
it
the
but
it is
adjunct "to
room
or
Its
renders
hand
28.
very
most
useful
consulting
laboratory.
fication
(30
field
view.
of
to
90), a
designed
magnifier
great
large frontal
it
Lastly, Koristka
has
size,
for
the
the
said,
minimum
if in.,
inconvenient
10
tional,
excepis
magnification.
x
much
working-
being,
in.
very
type,
The
distance
use,
to
variable
"
in.
light
28.
diameters.
on
so
magnifies from
hand
reflect
of
powers
silvered
to
be
of
"
loups
same
lens
may
skin
27.
examination
times
venient
con-
class
form
special
magnifier
under
handy
very
brought
much
the
It is illustrated
arrangement.
the
extended
an
causes
Fig.
into
"
magnifying
dropping
designed
has
back, which
all
the
in
different
of
made
are
highest
are
shown
as
are
readily suggest
The
description
handle,
and
name
examining
which
reader.
this
a
in
men
their
as
only,
purposes
the
of
hand
medical
by
to
intended,
are
the
by
for other
and
microscopes
Zeiss,
used
use
themselves
used
same
29
erecting eyepieces.
The
been
the
with
the
for
used
are
MICROSCOPE
range
of Milan
compound
giving
of
distance,
ampliand
an
Fig.
27.
extensive
III
CHAPTER
THE
Tin:
compound
both
in
the
There
and
so
in
usefulness
the
embracing
nicnccs
for
save
be
uld
The
be
may
of
class
the
that
by
abroad
m.inuf
the
made
viz.
years
the
sold
now
to
each
for
case,
the
models,
short-tube
of
one
Xciss,
of
assistance
"
model.
a
the
oldest
illustrated
in
the
"
pattern
firms
Fig.
"
In
which
Powell
by
Carl
in-
explained
either
in
are
opticians
Knglish
Continental
typical
cl
shown
recent
hereafter
called
usually
that
arc
are
they
avoiding
distinctly
belong
say
arc
being
whilst
ind,
to
forms
different
and
be
to
in
by
many
tubes
microscope
course,
but
types
"
difficult
pattern
the
of
that
the
primitive
made
both
each,
to
of
length
long-tube
leal
of
peculiar
the
purpose
been
the
speak
although,
have
simple,
than
is
their
in
common
compromises
many
which
appearance,
for
designed
indeed
ordinary
in
used
intricate
more
and
use,
models,
dissimilar
both
is
term
two
arc
very
is far
microscope
construction
when
MICROSCOPE
COMPOUND
30.
name-
affixed
It
to
the
different
for
is convenient
bcdi
metal
Mechanical
of
the
of
instrumei,
foot
the
n
which
may
"rt, with
or
more
joint
includes
be
said
for
inclinrr
draw-tubes,
.ccc.
1 the
"
microscope
Optical.
entire
the
to
consist
carry;
"
the
tube
that
description
instrument,
"s
I.
sake
the
Portion.
portion
The
the
of
portions:
.o
The
parts
simple,
coarse
adjustment.
mechanical,
30
and
auxi!
with
its
32
THE
CONTINENTAL
MODEL
OF
BY
Eyepiece
or
CARL
MODEL).
(LATEST
MICROSCOPE
ZEISS.
Ocular.
Draw-tube.
Objective Changer.
Revolving
Stage
lifts off
when
to
required,
replaced by
i.ot
be
canite
vul-
slab.
One
handle
of Mechanical
btage.
Abbe
Condenser
and
These
the
upon
joint J.
beneath
out
of
optic
fur
ZEISS,JENA
Iris Diaphragm.
s\
is
to
centnlity
axis
The
rack
put
when
oblique light.
with
the
required
THE
6. The
The Foot
horse-shoe
not
33
5. The
1.
MICROSCOPE
COMPOUND
now
much
the
in favour
of
union
arranged that
Fig.
the
joint is
as
front
made
Fig. 29,
mentioned.
legs, it will
be
them
between
the
or
made, but
are
In the
the two
two
forms
Other
30.
in
shown
as
three-legged,
in
shape, as
so
pattern
be
may
mirror.
English
is
seen,
the
which
at
are
so
strument
in-
from
same
purpose.
be inclined
can
in the
through
Tube
entire
of the
draw
but
is limited
be
can
simple
joint when
the
increased.
or
the
short
tube,
than
supplemental
it, by which
within
lessened
The
is
"
means
extreme
usually about
Continental
or
one
model,
It is
in.
English form
long-tubed instrument,
of
about
the
in
model
is contained
"
that
longer
each
in
English, or
in., whilst
12
be
to
"draw"1
on
loose.
seen
draw-tube
the
called
the
is
Continental
the
in
it becomes
other
the
pivot, or some
usually provided to tighten
is
use
The
2.
handle
arrangement,
or
5 in.,a very
to
of
end
The
great convenience,
the
tube
provided with
is
that
'8 in.
out
to
casting
screw
thirty-six threads
and
thread
objectives,both
the
same.
within
the
The
should
The
of the
2
Its
use
of
will be
are
a
described
made
now
later
much
easilyand
"
draw
"
draw-tube
Internal
1*27 in.,or
of
to
microscope
the
end
diameter, small
32'2S
is
usually
measured
fit
to
lighter
on.
slide
"
is contained
millimetre
cloth
all
that
into
usually divided
in its fitting
within
the tube
which
Messrs. Bausch
fitting,
with
fitting,"and
very
draw-tube
is
of
Draw-tube?
but the
1
tube.
end
which
combination
This
of
draw-tube
threaded
and
Continental,
and
seen.
the
nosepiece,
"universal
nosepiece, but
the
to
the
inch.
the
is called
similar
is attached
kind,
the
be
receive
not
diameter,
to
English
will hereafter
does
fittingcalled
"turned
diameter
as
Lomb
from
divisions,
)Othly,
provide,is
the
sm
upper
end
of the
nosepiece.
size,'917 in,,or 23*3
millimetres.
Large
millimetres.
size,
addition, for it
py great
of
diameter
make
Continental
which
advantages.1
Microscopical Society
1.
may
Royal
The
docs
:id
eye
be
should
draw-tube
interchange of
other
fittingsthat
careful
sending orders by ;
being taken
impression in wax
Body articulates with
3. Tlu
in
of
the
the
of
f this
":
obtain
to
rack
the
to
forms
_;cd
about
to
of
to
loss of
use
of
of
the
in b
and
milled
hcsc
accurate
when
It should
the
is done
;t
attached
to
is
rack
cut
,c
be
the
tube
body
instca
upon
back-lash!'
in
becoming
was
largely brought
spiral pi-
purchasing
heads
by
turn-
and
exact
one
of
microscope.
adjustment
coarse
is
microscope does
Whatever
is
stiff,
the
tube
the
pe of
in
the
which
for Fault*
found
the
in
the
type
chapter
-ook.
'"sion of
.is a
of
"i
i.cn
Hints
end
constitutes
I.
"
red
manu-
the
remarked
:i
and
is made
istmcnt
taining
con-
different
"
milled
:hc
h, the
slide
present
and
adjustment
fon:
common
be
to
and
opticians
called
raising of
co.
points to be carefullylook
ihc
used
by
rack
one
is
are
Coarse
of
built
are
This
diagonally
30.
of
movement
what
movement.
an
instrument
different
all
the
into
diameter
exact
the
from
that
way
pinion
heads.
of
hence
dropped
are
corresponding
body. Several
future
in
recommending
of
movement
absence
an
lowering
the
by
smooth
certain
oculars
consists
but
arrangement,
manufacture,
the
which
fit into
that
other, and
i
old
tube
tube
forms
adjustment,
coarse
size,
mistakes.
prevent
the
the
Messrs.
down
stating its
Xeiss
to
in
At
when
means
laid
has
service.
the
intermediate
an
the
facilitate
not
purchasers of
the
of much
probably be
will
than
too)
draw-tubes, 'which
different-sized
for
measurements
in
greater
manufacturers,
adopted
have
to
seem
oculars
American
the
is
draw-tube
the
course,
but
Lomb,
of
and
get dry
not
usually supplied.1
and
tube
the
it does
seems
plain spring-brassone
Bausch
MICROSCOPE
COMPOUND
:K
34
"
whole, is furnished
.c
later
on.
Long-
and
Short
tube
STAGE
THE
possessing
of instrument
exists
doubt
and
rack
point,to
(and rack) are
slides
3$
motion, such
accurately fitted.
the
upon
if the
see
rack
coarse
description and
best
the
of
MICROSCOPE
THE
OF
the
It is
tube
filled with
should
be
well, if any
completely
heavy
out
grease
"
beneath
affords
so
it is
the
end
middle
by
large
manufacturers
make
the side
furthest
circular
the
the
serves
with
his
this
is to hold
In
the
simple
complicated
furnished
These
and
and
from
side
to
side.
with
its mechanical
square-
shaped, but
either
form, with
noted
fro
and
by
verniers
millimetre
or
of
and
How
to
to
do
the
which
stage is
more
shall
of
side
this
of slides
it is
the
to
two
be
screws
available.
and
all
are
inch.
an
two
of
to
These
a
explained later
in
the
capable
either
afford
devoted
used
to
In
ments
move-
of
being
portions of
specimen1
chapter
usually
round.
stage,
is
screws,
often
more
graduations reading
of
compound
highest grade,
side
particular part
this is
the discussion
model
Continental
from
these
sleeve
turning
motions
two
English
fractions
Besides
neath
Under-
use.
ment,
looking through the instruright angles to the optical axis and
at
in the
registeringsome
reference.
that, by
superstructure
with
seen
the
observer
an
down
and
be
in
estimate
diaphragm.
so
heads,
In
objective
arranged
to
mentally
can
often
or
instruments
to
he
of the
front
condenser
of
movements,
stage
of stage may
milled
up
of
form
is
with
the
the
form
are
from
substage
best
the
gently
mentioned
it lies from
distance
the
of
power,
very
perforated
light from
slit
broad
from
purpose
between
down
of
passage
it
hole
high
It is
specimen.
for the
hole
objective,that
little
on
the
to
the
takes
that
tube
the
support
Two
mirror.
the
of
convenient
in the
bad
means
for
future
very
the
best
purpose
by microscopists.
it is usual
of instruments
revolve
again added
To
turning
it
in
centring
the
In the
Continental
it
the reader
enable
acentric
being
movement.
small
no
the
instruments
to
apparatus,
to
regret
we
view
add
opticalcentrality when
to
stage
of
act
to
stands
English
vernier
opticalaxis truly is
the
the
specimen
say
this
ment
adjust-
is often
will
adjust
that
desired, a
of circular
amount
specimen
to
screws
necessary.
through
by the verniers,
notes
the desired
position,which
objects of
the
values
valueless
hunt
to
if the
again
in
to
indicate
the
over
away
hence
specimen
with
If, however,
stage.
places
consequence
practicallydoes
mechanical
becomes
stage
previously obtained
different slides
on
become
special
microscopisthas
the
it upsets
and
that
understand
to
use,
interest
the
direction
to
superstructure
so
of
instrument,
imperfectlymade
some
causes
the
about
turn
stage
and
matter,
registerthe
to
make
of
in any
round
turned
be
may
nowadays
opticalaxis
the
on
STAGE
COMPOUND
THE
36
of the
one
the
find
to
stage
can
"
"
correspondinglyuseful.1
Whether
or
of
the
rectangular shape
facilitates the
form
stages,
square
the
answers
The
size
specialuse
best suited
In
up
many
the
stage
wear
and
some
How
as
opinion.
circular
best
the
square
The
round
motion
about
English stands,
is
means
the
even
usually provided
the
microscope is
it should
later
for
somewhat
stage varies
the
with
which
on
according
to
what
be
be
when
to
special purposes.
instruments
and
also
tear
the
arrangements
in
the
loss of
of
or
purpose.
of
bacteriology
is discussed
in
of
matter
recording
opticalaxis, although
their
is
form
to set
the stage
different
If not
"
in
way
central
are
slides
the
screws
abused, these
"
is
provided
of
the
to
mechanical
which
are
take
produce
very
fullyexplainedlater
on.
useful,
AUXILIARY
BY
rectangular
Both
effected
vertical
(fixed
which
against
by
the
points
which
grip
is rotated
on
small
two
either
of
end
which
pinion
and
; the
upon
in
the
raised
bar
the
slip
order
to
it
move
slide
the
pressed
upon
cork
slide, and
the
the
bar
movement
press
tipped with
are
the
horizontal
the
is
slide
rack
the
BAKER.
movement)
is mounted
for
carries
horizontal
to
CHARLES
37
are
pinion,
which
of
one
as
movements
and
rack
by
STAGES
along
milled
actually
surfaces
to
head
rests
at
minimise
friction.
Fig.
but
to
many
have
manufacturers
been
have
unfairly or
so
By
31.
found
adjustments of
ignorantly employed,
BAUSCH
"
that
injury
LOMB.
rectangular
The
rack
a
this nature
pinion, as
and
in time.
surface
the
the
microscope
adjustable,permitting
various
60
not
wear
rests
upon
and
stage,
with
contact
The
will
that
by
make
to
the
if desired.
condenser
long
impossible
in immersion
both
are
object slide
The
of
used
be
may
it is
movement
worm-screw
loose
movements
The
sizes.
the
range,
the
the
slide
rests
extra
being 35
movements
is
of slides of
use
and
respectively.
mm.
The
is held
stage
by
in
solid metal
place
on
the microscope
clamp.
Fig. 32.
to
the
slides of
almost
they now
no
permanent
nature
to
has
resulted
sequently
con-
their instruments,
STAGES
AUXILIARY
BY
OTTO
HIMMLER.
BERLIN.
this arrangement
In
ment
move-
one
is
endless
whilst
by
an
screw,
is
other
the
by rack and
pinion.
clamped
the microscope
to
quite easily.
It
All
stages
stand, in other
hitherto
words
considered
are
fixtures
Bv
have
been
be
can
built
the
into
forming part of
the
instru-
This
and
arrangement
the
preceding
are
: ;
shape of
nt
milled
heads
:
by
some
is
the
the
pre-
micro-
scop
ihcir
circular
stage, make
the
Continental
top plate to
firms
how-
lift off to
STAGES
AUXILIARY
40
In
of
(made
attached
the
to
down"
diameter
without
or
unclcrsurface
the
on
further
from
the
into
of
the
of
sleeve,
or
receive
iris
which
"
microscope
It is
grips
The
wl
be
to
what
in
be
may
called
special
any
tlv
placed upon
the edges like
it
position by
It
in
movement
vertical
the
is
an
then
of
means
has
long
both
zontal
hori-
direction*.
is crude,
arrangement
with
a
fixed
without
general
scope
primitive form
somewhat
it.1
.1
rather
better
class
of
microscope, however,
\\;
beneath,
but
of
means
turned
which
':""(! with
down
the
convention
reader
"
who
motions
always
not
the
sleeve
.chcd
it
the
is
kind
of
thumbscrew
by
when
thumb
and
cs
commencing
the
ot
the
in
or
lowers
the
and
that
construction
con
of thr
means
to
in
it
fittingcontaining
The
is
incd
"
whole
accordance
stage
immediately
upon
in
and
mechanism
of
sliding bar;
of
range
and
specimen
this
thumbscrew.
the
be
can
clamped
of
bringing
special feature
ry
of i
and
SONS.
fitting.
Up
the
and
of
"
meant
slip containing
to
is sufficient
and
diaphragm)
is
it
but
Abbe
an
instead.
stage
The
any
English
stage
it,is
the
to
nearer
by
the
"
substage proper is
representative being
to
an
i"y
condenser
placed
only
all, its
correct
with
the
type
moti"
the
grand classes
two
either
at
the
condenser
her
up
evidence
in
not
sleeve
of
make
the
really
into
Continental.
the
and
kinds
all
!c
direction
substage.
confuse
The
the
former
up
by
STAGES
AUXILIARY
fittingis
of the
be
to
in
its
to
whole
aside
out
the
when
that
the
use
turned
and
such
of
the
original position
rotated
The
way.
is
notified
By
CARL
is not
condenser
be
fittingcan
41
by
this
upon
of
return
required
the
screw
fitting
click, by which
the
ZEISS.
Fig. 37.
The
milled
this pattern of
movement
The
the
be
peculiar
applied
to
effected
with
mechanism
of
the
the
cause
may
movement
which
heads
the
purposes
of
either the
this stage
sliding pieces
of
"
right
or
are
positionsin turning.
co-axial
The
in
lateral
left hand.
guarantees
fulfils all
sliding pieces
the
their relative
requirements
of
movable
in
stage when
finder."
microscopistunderstands
in
and
of
movement
retain
the
condenser
the
centringthe condenser,
such
as
we
is
once
more
replaced
Owing, however,
the
shall
means
shortly
of
to
the
accurately
this
explain,
"
"
regarded
is somewhat
of
this
Hard
rough.
that
design, so
is apt
wear
when
microscope
the
arrangement
spoil
to
only be
must
whole
the
effort,as
approximate
an
as
optical axis
the
with
centrality
to
return
SUBSTAGES
ENGLISH
THE
42
efficiency
the
is intended
to
be
Fig. 38.
employed
in
rough
laboratorywhere
t"" be
expected,we
a
known
We
have
and
shaky,
it
that
so
more
than
when
the
frequent
do
sometimes
recommend
not
once
and
become
fittingwas
its
adoption.
troublesome
very
"
rather
clicked
"
home
the
ATSON.
condenser
sufficient
to
objective.
lessen
The
"
.cnt
may
and
"od
be
40.
seen
of
things quite
performance
in
of
the
ENGLISH
To
be
then, is
how
SUBSTAGE
able
a
such
process
excellence
It is shown
Fig.
A
handy
in
stage
In
the
contrivance
ordinary
and
by SWIFT,
tube
best
mechanism
of
stands,
Son, recognising
a
for the
little
neat
special object
differentlymounted.
42
41.
arranged
fitting beneath
Arranged
to
the
of
cheap microscopes.
the
"
cheap
introduced
just suitable
Figs. 41
43
these
Swift
is,have
and
in
in
Messrs.
and
fittingof great
fit into
condenser
desideratum,
important
in view.
the
centre
to
ARRANGEMENTS
better
form
the
the
of
body
of
the
instrument
what
is
technically called
is
"
BY
type.
slipped into
understage
Also
the
sleeve
fitting of
by SWIFT.
the
however,
The
complicated.
(Fig. 43) to be prolonged into
is provided with
which
tailpiece,"
is
seen
cheap
be
instruments,
English
substage
to
far
more
WATSON.
Fig. 43The
Substage
fitted to
as
rack, the
carefully cut
illuminating apparatus
to
raise
or
lower
precision. In
some
the
the
Edinburgh
engaging
itself,which
whole
instances
Microscope.
substage
an
Student's
with
enables
ease,
the
in
the
operator
delicacy, and
auxiliaryarrangement
called
SUBSTAGE
CONTINENTAL
THE
44
added
fine
taken
iment
our
opinion of recent
fine adjustment,
own
this
extra
which
ring
they
into
serve
the
with
for the
purpose
of
of
the
the
handle
how
to
and
open
they are
suitable position.1
the
English
fixed
into
cannot
be
care
:
the
the
actual
model
when
iris
desired
so
the
by
iris,\\lun
the
to
ring placed
which
is made
The
iris dia-
be
is
little
show
to
found
in
usually rigidly
which
it
mean
we
instrument.
illuminatingapparatus,
coloured
microscope
pinpoint,shall
in
condenser
or
often
that
so
in the
drops
provided with
graduations
by
of
xactly opposite
of
the
vogue,
cut)
may
out
found
condenser
diaphragm
maker,
reduced
of
be
purpose.
It is
shut
or
this
optical axis
form
the
the
ring.
quite
(two
screws
additional
leaves, whilst
opened
exercised
the
.tout
the
in
the
in
it
Special diaphragms
be
to
illuminatingapparatus,
shifted
being
this
close
much
In
used
especially for
out
placed beneath
is
and
the
instrument.
dropped into
(not shown
condenser
in
turn
be
can
headed
of
in
recommend
to
to
the
change
accurately centring
which
design
out
still
of
use
believe
now
usually
arc
the
used
we
milled
optical portion
optical axis
beneath
Eig. 43)
of
the
with
motions
point
we
small,
the
pieces of glass
for
whereas
which
rticular
to
in
shown
are
shall
we
years
Three
expense-.
unnecessary
of
whole,
as
enable
to
But
the
we
of
case
which
is
plane surfaces)in
indicate
shall
show
the
made
nental
Conti-
entirely
English type
"ub^tagc is usually held to the tailpiecefixed in the body of
the instrument, by a double-jointed arm
permitting movement
the
of
substai
.illyadopted type
y different
is that
original:
has advanced
in favour
so
ufacturcrs
h in
rmu
de
1
by Carl
"
all Coir
in
but
(Fig.
by
45
it is
It
.
rrc
adopting the
cc
design
article
(notably V
upon
the
use
and
the
"n
abuse
of
"
Sons)
with
SubstagcCondenser.
arc
new
CONTINENTAL
THE
models
SUBSTAGE
45
of short-tube
out
; at
these
that they are
so
immediately
they have constructed
desired.
After
capable of receiving this class of substage when
of close acquaintance, we
bound
several
in common
are
years
least
justiceto
of
it has
certain
is
of
the
the
is
It
the
by
of
this
we
Abbe
firm, have
same
to
make
always
the
to
screws
achromatic
each
their
densers,
con-
self-
own
for this
up
are
bound
are
have
we
centring
the
is true
arrangement.
design, we
in its construction
centring arrangements
contained
of
neatness
absence
condenser.
made
as
omission
one
that
regretted,and
sleeve
and
workmanship
this
no
there
admit
satisfied with
than
more
are
excellence
For
to
we
say
deficiency
Fig. 44.
Centring appliance
of which
to
this
have
the
on
one
complain,
we
substage
Objective as
to
would
an
for, with
pay
for all.
do
Condenser
it is
surely
but
addition
in
for
To
(fullsize).
expense
unnecessary
each
condenser, when
this
remedy
omission
the
sell
"
just as
English condenser
R.
used
J.
"
for
Neither
years
of
great
Centred
with
these
Abbe
chromatic
too
make
Beck
with
well
as
similar
pleasure ;
self-centring devices
great
sold
condensers
diameter.
The
the Continental
Messrs.
objective(Fig.44).
class of fittingwhich
an
can
by Zeiss,
consequence
better.
nothing
want
we
have
we
be
used
because
is
microscope, which
they
seems
with
they
are
cannot
a
the
of
be
serious
ight and
to
one
Continental
of the
SUBSTAGE
CONTINENTAL
THE
46
which
we
very
earnestly call
the
attention
opticians.1
lowered
is raised
or
by
illuminating apparatus
which
actuates
a
turning a neatly milled handle (S in Fig. 45),
rack let into the tailpiece,easily seen
i a
pinion that c;
whole
The
in the
figure.
substagc may
three parts:
to
and
1
\\V
a
(iii)
in
Continental
th.it most
admit
mounted
mi;
"ranxcmcnt*
1
It
is
useful
^cope,
to
36*8 mm.
;
whilst
we
know
condensers
the
can
illuminators
be
purchased
forbids
their
mentioned.
have
the
chromatic
ti
.cter
"
; Rcichert
anil the
of
this sleeve
r"
is,in
the
similar,viz. 387^
either,being 50*5
mm.
Zeiss
ADJUSTMENT
FINE
THE
48
of
is
not
for
that
seem
what
(probably)
yet
the
on
other
C.
BAKER,
in the
micrometer
nulled
head
works
through
fiftythreads
socket
which
threads
two
of
The
with
the
different
pitch
fixed
the
is
socket
inch
the
works
attached
inch, and
the
to
other
through
the
to
the
nearest
screw
forty threads
to
and
LONDON.
screw.
has
screw
size
commensurate
are
consists of
This
the
where
hand
HOLBORN,
HIGH
244,
slow
high, too
very
depth of objects
BY
one
purposes
the
it
whether
to
as
exceptionallyfine. It
where
the magnifications
or
microscopist calls
the
troublesome
certain
opinion
of
screw
movable
body
of
the
microscope.
tfect of
raise
lower
or
inch,
whilst
revolving the
the
the
other
carrying the
body
to
the
inch,
the
turns
to
being iJ0 of
the
Fig. 46."
THE
milled
CAMPBELL
too
slow
difficultyis
same
met
pitch
an
milled
forty
screw
thread
the
at
of
speed
for
fine
possible to
I'scrs
"
have
fine
ment
adjust-
objectivesdo
"":
the
on
finer the
they
ground-
H.whcn
;nifi-
tu
.
the
of
SCREW.
is
or
fifty
-tphy the
ct:
"ul
the
ment
adjust-
rotation
every
to
socket
of
rate
felt
is
to
the
the
""i
with.
turns
causes
travel
inch
head
head.
DIFFERENTIAL
"uld be
with
first
Jters,
or
a-
it
by which
both
requirements
are
satisfied in
FINE
THE
that
by
quick
of
means
several
firms
Whatever
the
by
head
double
of
motion
slow
or
ADJUSTMENT
the
(one
49
is effected.
screw
adopted,
arrangement
of the
one
supplied
of I1ine
"
LOMB.
38, Hatton
yj,
section
Cross
leading pomts
BAUSCH
English Agent"
section
It is
large),
nowadays.
BY
Vertical
the other
and
small
of Fine
Garden, E.C.i.
Adjustment.
Adjustment.
Fig- 47The
micrometer
the
weight
the
screw
of
the
body,
limit
of
with
set
plus
subjected
motion.
spring
Lateral
is smoothness
when
at
it should
of
this
rapped.
of
rest."
not
By
go
book),
To
is
or
make
strain
equal only
between
the
tension
compressed
when
the
motion
action.
even
the
of
the
friction
spring
the
adjustment
is
resistance
or
and
brought
Another
of
focus
when
trial,Van
great
that when
by
the
feature
an
itself
(see
tube
is
Heurck's
is
nearer
does
"
in
the
of
weight
the
this is meant
out
to
is eliminated
their
springs, with
and
screws
to
difference
the
the
as
the
of
body
is thus
adjustment,
the
fixed triangularportion of the arm,
directlyupon
by a spiral spring, and
microscope being balanced
acts
screw
the
to
its
away
stability
object is focussed,
hints
at
the
end
ADJUSTMENTS
FIXE
VARIOUS
CORNHILL,
CK,
made
upon
method
patented
new
invented
Ashe.
Mr.
by
which
II
cradle
the
moves
lever
strong
carries
body
the
of the
microscope
which
is
with
slides
"
the
".h milled
through
with
by
outer
an
of "
distance
The
the
moving
complete
milled
or
,'" in.
me
the
or
other
the
fine
head
milled
adjustments
the
to
be
may
put
can
B has
limb
for
fine
adjusti
of
"
supporting
ally
|
tuali)
Is of
the
base
scope,
micro-
of the
the
upon
of
micrometer
rrn
of
the
the
upright
microscope.
ir
'ii
it
with
sup-
accurately
so
il
column
filtc"i
of
minimum
the
ment
move-
bcini;
at
screw
the
top
this
"
such
as
way
"
com-
"ugh ii.
of
.
the
tube
through
'_
mm.,
and
B, read
scarcely
moderately
as
powers
for
be
head
screwing
of
overstated.
A
it
to
either
moment
giving
it,
in
inch
an
volution.
re-
and
with
of
convenience
by
body
complete
movement
of
coarse
fine thread,
any
such
fine
provided
head
screw
sJ0
steel
works
is
the
only
milled
the
in
to
on
MC
inch
an
The
lenses.
out
of
used,
very
by
screw
comparatively
be
may
it
revol-
screu
this
which
At
;;ping
has
body
"nt
by clamping
revolution.
head
^ in.,
or
is moved
carries
adjustment
line
B,
screw
revolved
when
head
lever
E,
side
upper
head
when
cradle.
limb
the
drives
which
screw,
screw
.md
48.
in
the
the
upon
bl
the
of
milled
a
large graduated
F.
at
folding indicator
The
fitting
D,
on
The
C.
lever
in
acting
spring
of
means
projecting portion
cradle
The
by
the
$ in.
A
or
in.
such
or
an
Hy
milled
tightly down,
BY
ADJUSTMENTS
FINE
VARIOUS
(SpecialForm.}
LEITZ, WETZLAR
E.
Fig. 51.
The
milled
two
wheel
mounted
the
d.
gear
prevents
gear-wheel
with
heads
drum
are
mounted
on
portion is enlarged
and
any
is
lost
in
motion
heart-shaped
cam
the
On
this
The
the
cam
in
(Fig.50),which
latter
in
on
rests
the
the
drives
the
roller
the
axle is
shaft
same
steel
central
its turn
Mounted
gear.
worm
/.
axle
an
gear.
of
one
with
g, fitted
on
*ooi
mm.
By
no
as
the work
The
of
the
movement
screw,
which
and
accurate
reliable, and
is continuous
may
be turned
; there
forward
is
besides, it
absolutely
backward
or
requires.
movement
mm.
exceedingly
As
extends
another
in
an
exact
advantage we
specimen, for should
ratio
may
the
to
the
mention
revolution
it is almost
of
the
cam
for
impossibleto
distance
break
the
VARIOUS
"SRS.
POWELL
ADJUSTMENTS
FINE
"
GREENIIAM
EMSDALE,
LEALAND,
'.on
Road,
London,
N.
LONDON,
ROAD,
N.\V.}
1
Fig. 52some
adjustment, although devised
of the
modern
necessities
microscopist of
This
;is
itself, the
construction
being
Hv
KKK
so
siill seems
forty years
ago,
most
exacting nature.
to
the
exceedingly
HART,
the
meet
The
diagram
simple.
This
fine
of
means
adjustment
a
which
following
the
milled
:"
head
\\hich
of
which
spindle
cut
actuates
rotation
the
roller
In
this
of
and
ment
adjust-
feature
it-licacy
obtained.
the
The
micrometer
endless
an
a
fine
.
durabilityis
or
it the tube.
the
is
is raised
with
manner
the
By turning
is
screw
!, and
by
in
operates
manner
on
is
micrometer
new
\\hich
one,
of
nee,
as
the
only
required.
downward
!:ght weight
of
is
the
aluminium
tube,
the
i, and
excet
re-
injury
.ilmost
impose
should
e
Ail
the
into
come
bearing
surfaces
are
of
iianism
is
pro:
cope.
i
"
SWIFT
By
Model
with
first order
of the
engages
the
is
that
side-shake
slow
to
with
lever
with
stud
inner
the
top of the
and
is
the
near
of time
are
free
the
it
to
meter
microlever
running
box
hard
which
B,
sliding
The
taking
so
wear,
up
impossible in
the
at
vertical
fulcrum.
for
adjustments
loss
of
surface
on
LONDON.
ROAD,
box
horizontal
acting
head
D.
provided
bar
of
pulley fixed
steel
is fitted below
milled
is
53
used.)
soldered
; B
"
body, in which
still
has
A, A
of the
COURT
TOTTENHAM
SON,
(Old
back
ADJUSTMENTS
FINE
VARIOUS
this form
motion.
SWIFT'S
NEW
MODEL.
Fig- 54-
Fig-
(The
55
attachment
delicate
to
screw
hardened
to
that
raise
Fig. 55-
or
affords
devoid
by
steel
head
most
of all lateral
of
of
means
acts
depress
the
Model)." By
New
the
by
the
tube
fine
in
an
pillar, a
series
refined
shake.
the
point
of
of
levers
manner
movements
"
WATSON
BY
ADJUSTMENTS
FINE
VARIOUS
LONDON.
HOLBORN,
"
(Standard Pattern.)
Ixxly is raised
ft
of
milled
point, acting
Etecl
of
fixed
head
which
2^
in.
the
the
of
that
fulcrum
of
the
movement
the
weight carried
the
to
of
screw
trolling
con-
bear
to
instrument.
of
to
which
size
the
is
of
placed
body takes
by the n.
the
(5ft"*"/
The
ordinary
point
ts
at C,
fittings
and
the
touching
thread
coarse
of
parted
and
Icvrr
by
to
each
by
This
the
to
low
"
stand
-ml
severe
plete
com-
additional
one
F,
at
touching
the
"
"
rotation
is
about
arrangement
powers
threaded
each
ordinary
.
U-sr
of
spcr
An
-ad
eoaru
for
250*1
"
"
liy the
:':"or
of
bead
dhc.ulA.
70*.
ingenious,
use
it* in.
complete
about
mi,
e
milled
attached
G.
at
microscope
the
controlling
the
U actoated
will.
with
1-
about
arm
is shown
this
"
contact
with
to
revoluti
lever
lever
of
is
t\0
that rapid
brought about
screw
(the thrca
in.
cxc
is
for
showing
construction
Adjustment.
Fine
"
\"y
the
slow
the
as
\\
ably
ia consider-
56.
Standard
the
hardened
reduced.
Microscope,
the
This,
turning
The
a
the
had
h.-ngth according
.xjssiblc
perfect dovetailed
the
case.
actuates
screw
in
:ying
in
movement
body
of the
milled-head
surfaces
contact
polished)against a point
appear
important
not
(the
means
hardened
long.
sight it would
weight
by
a
lever
body-s'i lc,
tin-
to
this
entire
s"
and
about
fitting,
first
on
attached
At
to
lowered
or
motion.)
of
Watson's
FINE
VARIOUS
56
is
mechanism
the
This
the
will
always
be
be
to
best
ADJUSTMENTS
BY
figures
the
follow
that
ment.
instru-
the
of
body
by examining
seen
microscopes
ii.
in the
found
senting
repre-
the
towards
end
(Latest Pattern.)
/KISS.
wheel,
worm
of
means
situated
the
at
serves
in
head.
The
with
the
endless
is
and
all
the
both
depressing
and
in
the
for
convenient
of the
coarse
parallel, and
turn
to
movement
As
heads
and
most
side
in-
outside.
are
elevating
tube
the
carrier,
milled
fine
the
adjustments
the
two
protected against
from
of
in
in
the
is enclosed
thus
axes
used
of
crane-shaped
damage
the
screw
acting upon
screw,
the
and
mechanism,
exception
heads
milled
as
whole
is
of
end
screw,
sense
by
screw,
lower
micrometer
the
as
movable
endless
an
the
same
from
one
other
the
is
hand
operator.
Fig- 59of
this
m*k"
of
the
fine
inclusive,a short
'-59
bcin;:
t
with
fine
Addenda.
each
adjustments by different
illus!
adjustment by
Swift
The
"
Son
description
closer iwill
be
found
the
in
the
CHAPTER
PORTION
OPTICAL
THE
WHATEVER
part
its different
of
of
the
of
dependent
do
we
wish
not
the
of
the
objectives
effect
the
scantily filled,expense
should
student
he
the
the
part
ing
build-
its
good,
can
ever
It
is
if his
that
be stinted
the
come
over-
important
be
the
on
in
is but
part
objective,
purchase of
stand.
Objective
The
in
together
the
mount
fit the
to
in
speaking
of
the
mechanical
adoption
by
all
opticians
of
necessity
this
of
of each
special requirements
matter
The
is 7644
number
complete
of
fact,
diameter
in., the
of
of
the
effective
threads
to
specification
Soc.,
application to
p.
the
230,
the
inch
limits
1915.
Secretaries
case,
which
structed
con-
7822
is
36"
see
in.,
in
57
the
the
as
objective, by
is
the
in.
The
For
screw.
Royal
be
thread
core
'0277
of
form
may
to
without
days,
The
pitch
of
Dies
suit
to
olden
is '8 in.
the
Whitworth
Society.
The
microscopist
The
Transactions
and
when
constitutes
adapters
screw-thread
is
size
the
unavoidable.1
Sizing Taps
of the
so
Continental,
or
supplemental
objective
being
microscope.
it enables
English
diameter
and
the
regulation
that
frequently
was
of
portion
employing
day
present
of
nosepiece
the
upon
placed
"
seeing
convenience,
great
very
the
lenses
numerous
is screwed
universal
"
for
term
"
combinations
all
tube,
collective
"
brass
as
and
sacrifice
to
and
cally,
emphati-
so
with
objective.
not
compelled
be
may
do
that
this, so
the
rest
ignore
we
it
bad
recollect
the
whatever
the
by
produced
this
to
however
eyepiece,
no
that
merely
to
for
then
but
for
one,
but
ance
perform-
seeing that
saying
course
the
object, all
nothing
of
effect, for
final
In
complete
magnification,
the
of
thought
if it had
as
the
refinement
the
in
true
of
image
be
it to
ocular,
apochromatic
secondary
the
perfection.
its
upon
played by
up
of
utilityof
course
part
construction
and
beauty
finally rest
is of
greater
details
real
must
This
the
power,
beauteous
are
whole
objective.
separating
the
as
perfect
the
or
still the
MICROSCOPE
the
by
played
given stand,
THE
OF
adjustments,
taken
instrument
be
may
workmanship
and
IV
scopical
Micro-
obtained
on
THE
58
condenser
ige
in
diagrammatically
represent
and
K
simple
compound
field
lens
through it,fall
upon
the
or
cl
and
of
speak
it
as
in
to
threads
work
lens, called
furnish
to
to
The
least
two,
but
usually of
affixed
here
need
at
the
the
history
The
of the
of
is cut
is
called his
with
the
instrument
this
and
"
polished
English
; but
Fluorite,
of
of
out
it should
curious
be
mineral
being
an
inch
recoil'
in
by
in
now
often
found
itivelylow
hat
that, in
stated
the
the
very
construction
late Professor
modern
objective
of
hundrcdths,
the
alum
interior
in
index
of
any
is almost
refraction
as
the
greatest
ro
to
objective,as
he
semi-apochromats.
of
of
somctini"
"
:th the
are
which
scii
terms
; hen.
differing
possessing
interposed in
objectives invented
apochromatic
of
characteristics
vith
dispersic
for
or
lenses them-
glasses
order
lenses
the
as
arrangement
individual
various
and
urns
Of
is
thirty-six
screw
collectivelyknown
the
objective
di!
Fluorite
instrument.
already explained,
fitting. By
unique properties,are
incc
small
have
we
combination
of the
to
make, whether
any
possessing certain
be only mentioned
peculiar type
highest
tube
lenses
more,
the
attached
purpose
Universal
or
ground
definite and
Abbe,
this
several
enables
of the
end
Constructivelyit
will.
addition, lenses
the
to the
objectivesof
are
ties
brass, which
nosepiccc, which,
components
"
of
mount
nosepicce
used
be
present day.
bvious
can
the
ersal
having
of the observer.
eye
it in
fittingfor
the
called
bored
be
to
actual
The
at
suitable
whole
of
this
last
the
enter
eyepiece, and,
and
the
they
seen
find
we
of
composed
held
is
the
next
to
of
scope
be
illuminator.
and
as
the
within
not
them
transmits
'(^ns,which
of
dry condenser,
immersion
and
will
objective,it
the
from
with
combination
apochromatic objective
an
merging
is
60
Figs.
achromatic
an
and
to
on
off
that, reflected
rays
have
illuminant,
the
from
mirror
the
front
its
of
means
OBJECTIVE
and
efficacious.
This
an
peculiar
extremely
59
APOCHROMATIC.
ACHROMATIC.
(HUYGHENIAN
OCULAR)
N
Axis*.
'
ACHROMATIC
CONDEN5E.R
(COMPLNSATING
V
OCULAR
)
'
Axia^l
HOLOS
OIL
CONDENSER
Fig.62,
THE
60
afterwards
of
user
the
always,
highest
as
that
be
"
is
any
nearly
sometimes
"
treated
rudely
or
upon
cannot
should
careful
front, which
the
pressed
not
he
manner
said, hemispherical
already
have
we
Especially
be
powers
-hemispherical
himself.
for
correct
in
adjustments
its
easily upset
very
may
OBJECTIVE
break
it, is quite an
it, or
even
matter,
easy
damage
and occurs
surprisinglyquickly with but the slightestblow.
of magnification in
in their respectivepowers
Object!
for
to
direct
be
to
ibet,
adopt
far better
last-named
as
plan,that of affixingto
method
is decidedly the
magnifying
vision
distinct
of
be
course
for each
The
but
iblc
f
ry
for the
at
of
the
if the
catalogue
has
objective,which
is too
what
with
quantity even
objectivehas
high
is set
combination
(see end
of this
;ilthickness
"d
of
immediately
distance
focal
down
length
in
this
matter
and
and
and
be
later
search
unscientific.
how
to
it is
entered
of similar
perimentally
ex-
into
in this work,
on
distance," which
is
focal
length.
adjusted by the maker
and
to
be
lenses
(a
should
be
used
with
and
explained
term
exercised
nally about
the
contrary
be
can
it,with
that
the
.v-tubc
inch
being used,
or
in
to
ocular
being
To
i:
millimetres, so
be
and, if the
'!/ mm.,
made
the
direction
;!lythin.
cover
:i
be taken
"working
cover-
thereby by pushing
specimen,
venient,
con-
objective'smagnification be
objective
care
length.
cover
its
the
nomenclatures
it is intended
length later),great
some
former
especiallyif "dry"
powers,
be
the
by
of
and
conventional
"
be corrected
to
more
rational
then
use.
others
their focal
explained
those
draw-tube
of
length
and
letters
; whilst
is troublesome
an
in
them
the
to
long
fullydiscussed
is meant
by
it is
draw-tube
the
mm.
precise magnification of
11 as
with
250
done, and
obtained
here
or
means
kinds
on
so
can
power
either
using
in.
10
"
question. When
cannot
different
I, 2, 3, and
numerals
approximately, by dividing
known
of
the
suitable
some
objectives by definite
their
the
by
or
length,so
distinguish the
to
opticians call
Some
This
adopted
focal
their
with
accordance
the
correct
error
/;/ sr'/i/,
nearer
employed
of
certain
il to
find
that
it
can
it
the
to
if the
exact
graduated
be
set
to
OF
USE
THE
DRAW-TUBE
61
of the
objective may
require
length that the correction
will be then
the microscopist thereby knowing the combination
conditions
for its performance.
placed under the most favourable
the image not appear
clear and
After this is done, should
sharply
the
be
from
arises
it
a
objective
good one)
probably (if
defined,
thickness
for which
the
the cover-glass not
being of the same
any
combination
pulled
out
should
at
corrected
was
in,
pushed
or
the
render
once
and,
in
the
alter
to
to
is
manner
performance
existingcircumstances.
Objectives are computed
this,the draw-tube
as
fulfil three
orders
of
condition,
derived
are
distinguishing names
the apochromaticl The
and
first
achromatic, semi-apochromatic
in the present day, excepting
be obsolete
to
be said now
may
which, indeed,
from
for
perhaps
the
power
placed in
they now
that
of
of
the Schott
invented
of
consummation
the
indeed,
like
one
inches
two
or
series
chromatic
powers
glass")
"Jena
order
next
"
introduction
called
so
low
very
the
for since
their
most
the
by
theoretical
late
and
Professor
Abbe
constructive
represents
skill,all
lengths
wave-
different
1
types,"etc.
It will
be
observed
for
is because
This
no
introduced
objectiverecently
chromat.
that
mention
by
the
the
is here
firm
of
combination
made
Carl
is not
of yet another
Zeiss,called
for
use
the
lightrays
of
employed
with
275
use
2
their
light,
may
objectivebe
the
to
We
camera,
only
Rohr
only)
for
of correction
for
at will,the lack
wave-length chosen
because
be
to
being obviously
they are solely meant
monochromatic
light. Such
objectivesare at present only
aberration
violet
Von
definite
chromatic
manufactured
Mono-
but
visually,
The
photographic purposes.
specialfeature of this system by
described
union
of rays (sphericalcorrection
as
a
very perfect
is
type of
be
employed
correction
being
for
being
appliancesarranged
made
constructed
as
out
of
matter
molten
for the
of fact for
use
a
quartz, the
of ultra
wave-length
oculars
for
Then,
too, in
secondary
the
comment
bound
are
all
have
that
admit
Ilimmler,
recently
manufactured
images,
and
excellent
image
too
which,
the
at
of
moment
objectives is
of
orders
is
however,
Icntial
the
not
address
subject by
the
to
in
easy
do
to
attempt
an
difference
theoretical
the
demonstrate
beautiful
to
the
\ve
being
so,
the
Quekctt
elect,
very
of
production
way
the
furnish
focus, exhibit
between
simple
"
Watson,
that
semi-apochromats
deceive
to
secondary colour as almost
the
and
\ve
heartily congratulate them
upon
excellent
of such
combinations
performance.
To
of
and
Swift, Reichert,
little
so
colours
all the
our
mention
to
not
of
its
saying this,however,
Zciss, Lcitz, Koristka, Bausch
Notwithstanding
to
and
Lomb,
the
renders
holds
apochromat
absence
entire
the
spectrum
upon.
the
study of diatoms,
the
for
perfection,
to
OBJECTIVES
OF
CORRECTIONS
62
these
what
three
follows,
substance
of
Club
Microscopical
upon
Author.
should
master
commencing, however, the reader
(if
the
the
with
few
troducto
inhe be not
subject)
already acquainted
and
spherical aberration, coma,
r.iphs upon
chromatic
aberration, for by so doing the subsequent remarks
Before
far better
will be
Aberration
Spherical
inherent
understood.
in
every
is
uncorrcctcd
term
refers
which
which
lens, by
'"n
rays
is
condition
that
meant
63.
Fi"
the
to
focus
j-ortion,
tl.
than
through
T
,
lore
will
.,
eye
central
be
found
in
foo:
ig.62.
distinrilyout
of
focus, because
the
chemical
rays
;, loved,
""- on
the
If
the
:ined.
belt of
narrow
of
zones
for the
the
that
/91;
makes
angles
of the
the
a1
angle
II
SINE-
same
the
as
ratios
be
follows
more
measures
Here
58'
22"
and
"390
the
the
the
the
and
"195
11"
just
"
been
of
the
to
is
and
a2
the
as
to
of
the
To
"2, let
what
ratio
"fulfilment
that
out
points
of
of
the
is
that
said
\i"il
foints
///
of
the
of
tJic
'120.
the
mination
exa-
they
suppose
respectively
arc
viz,
"
sine-law."
It
outside
the
beauty
axis
of
the
fulfilled
object,it
and
.'nict
lation
'ti-fulfilmcnt
call
to
the
sue).
how
coma.
To
the
cau-cs
begin
with,
i
"
dt
I-
it should
it
has
confined
defect
lying
image
be
to
before
coma
the
further
which
as
55', is
Extending
us
of
sines
same
it remains
strictlyn
\vc
be
sine-
"
make
at
is
good image of
be)
the
ratio
of
speak
I.
sine-!
axis,
the
angle ft1shall
sine
/91, assumed
15',the
pointed
lens, but
"
$2 respectively
being fulfilled.
as
ratio
angles
from
of
bears
"
sine
"ailed
"ly
"**
sine-law
it is evident
to
are
of
whilst
10 ;
"
left hand
that
of the
sine
angle
being designated
and
equally proportionate, we
the
condition," or
The
Fig. 66.
of
sine
a2
of
two
LAW
the
only
"
the
side
number
great
very
on
this
is
the
to
AA'
lens
clear, a
considered.
called
are
extremely
an
is made
right
sine-law
bears
lens
axis
the
on
for ray
Now
side.
ich
a1, that
of
up
being
the
to
the meaning
made
are
refer
to
make
lighthouse
with
call
we
the
whilst
sine
being
as
present purpose
ray
the diagram
simply
that, to
so
like,in fact,
"
which
glass ;
considered
be
should
#*,but
ol and
between
included
CORRECTION
SINE-LAW
THE
64
muv
ted, and
r
be
!
hen,
it may
mentioned
the
V
the
THE
SINE-LAW
magnificationof
circumstances,
the
with
dealing
the
ray
II, does
ray
the
magnify
the
outside
the
the
ray
in
question
particular lens
magnify the object twice ;
the
same,
lens
this
strip of
narrow
magnifies twice,
likewise.
If,however,
of
65
of
the
the
and
hence
the
object
to
that
will
be
ing
contain-
observed
not
these
do
zones
from
coming
rays
focus
not
more
o2, containing
is that
focus, say,
lens
zone
the
been
be
to
or,
sine-law
come
may
and
have
we
the
under
the
on
same
F', whilst
at
ray
F".
II is at
In
that
with
I"
points
point; for
object
ol" that
zone
computer
not
so
would
the
accurate,
by
the
CORRECTION
being supposed
to have
been
fulfilled,
Fig. 67.
it is
are
quite evident that the two zones
yielding exactly the
same
both focussing at
to be
magnification,for they are seen
the same
point F' ; whilst in the next illustration (Fig. 68),the
are
having neglected the sine-condition, the zones
computer
shown
F'
the
and
other
at
coming to different foci one
"
F".
at
It is obvious
would
be
for
how
definition ; and
the
^^
disastrous
such
if bad
of
state
for two
zones
things
only
L
Fig. 68.
it
be
yet
the
not
ever
trouble
occur
is
not
quite
rendering
making
just spoken about
"
at
alone
confusion
their
to
end.
an
evil
of
class
genii
apparent
spread
out
more
defect
associate
confounded,"
worse
presence
be
other
This
their
by causing
and
does
selves,
them-
fluences
evil inthe
line
into
more
ABERRATION
CHROMATIC
66
like
something
wJmt
constitutes
due
Coma.
comefs
tail
effect
curious
the non-fulfilment
to
or
photomicrographs,Fig. 3,
Aberration.
Chromatic
of
Plate
appearance
probably
the sine-law
III.,and
Fig.
i,
is another
This
"
for the
name
errors
which
To
called
this
I V.
Plate
to
tail
is
in two
is shown
comet's
astigmatism
either
to
"
in
it is mounted
presume
us
such, indeed,
length
focal
short
Let
in the
occur
with
met
as
cell,so
to
having
ocular
focussed
and
colour
one
then
that
we
that
can
piece
of
an
the
eyepiece.
attach
of
it
finely
draw-tube, the
well-defined
object being
glass screen
succession, and
in
lens
this
on
first removed.
been
in
"
of another
sphericalunder-correction,
discloses
"
the
to
try other
now
that
and
colour
focus
with
also
a
of
colours
of
alteration
an
the
the
in
spectrum
focal
the
that
we
adjustment
different
is
required
coloured
tube-length, differ
constant
other
colours
largestimage;
by examining Fig. 69.
size, for
in
is the
each
in
the
red
smallest
it
yields
is better
stood
under-
simple uncorrected
lens
in between.
for
images, when
the
reallyrequires a longer focal length and furnishes
image, the violet having the shortest focal length,whilst
the
find
succession, we
This
If*
UNACHROMATIC
SPCCTRDM
HCVERSLD
"T
OVCRCORRCCTION
Fig. 69.
E
the
is
beam
of
white
lens,acting as
colours.
at
V,
some
of the
Fig. 70.
light entering it ;
prism, breaks
Red
focusses
other
on
colours
up
the
the
and
K1
white
axis
A A'
being omitted
the
point where
lightinto
at
R, and
its
ponent
com-
violet
for clearness
of
CHROMATIC
CORRECTION
This
diagrammatic representation.
A
lens.
simple uncorrected
effected by combining a convex
the
radii and
four
the
glassesenable
at the
for
To
correct
fulfilthe
demands
(2)
the
(3) To cause
nearly upon
the
words,
concave
two
to
of
rays
colour
one
focus
to
sphericalaberration
remove
is chosen
being spoken of
for
coma
of
once
flint ;
"
preferred colour
"
with
at
the
"
wave-length that
colour, any
one
the
as
"
lens
marginal
in other
point
same
is
of
to
and
performance
improvement
crown
computer
central
the
(1) Bring
is the
great
different
the
67
the
sine-law
the
of
rays
for
other
point
same
colour
same
this
"
the
"vords, to
preferred colour
colours
on
in other
to
axis
; and
concentrate
those
as
of
very
the
ferred
pre-
colour.
The
the
of
the
lens
is
word.
colour,
in
violet
the
red
so
have
call
If
we
the
has
shortest
this
total
examine
ordinary
sense
over-corrected
in
of
things shown
focal length and
state
the
assumed
we
in
computer
shall
has
longest ;
achromatic
the
we
aberration.
chromatic
be
to
If, however,
of
matter
said
now
over-correction
and
for
73
we
.,
ACHROMAT.SEBrcpQREEN
VISUAL
"oMBERCORRECrED*
SUOHTtY
ACHROMATISM
ORDINARY/ACHROMATIC
Fig
Fig. 72.
71-
shall
folded
yellow-green
which
"
objectives
and
point, for
and
orange
violet.1
blue
will
are
Achromatisation
be
have
the
green
what
"
said
colour
has
been
be
focal
shortest
further
to
visual
for
taken
together,and
folded
be
selected
usually
to
seen
for
the
is
preferredcolour
justly
may
should
yellow-green
"
length ;
that
at
over
of the
on
red
termed
we
see
slightlyunder-corrected
depicted
ordinary achromatic
in Fig. 72.
the preferred colour
has
Here
again the shortest
focal length,a blending of yellow and blue coming next, whilst
a
"
red
1
and
The
violet
are
reader
Objectives
"
which
is
seen
still further
especially invited
will
make
what
has
on.
to
read
been
lens
the
said
corrected
chapter
of
more
on
for the
"Testing
interest.
ACHROMATISM
68
blue
in
ordinary photographic objective is drawn
focal length, because
the shortest
Blue
is seen
to have
preferred colour; green and violet are joined up next;
ray
an
"
73.
the
"
the
whilst
shall
work,
best
foll"
ultra-violet
and
yellow
by
of all.
the
making
the
in
that
BLUE
ACM.OHAT.MO~,
ponents
thin,
very
else
or
by
^YWIT06HAPHICoBJICTIVt
carefully proportioning
comp
also
equalityof
focal
be
in
borne
will
images
corrected
be
the
of
be
their
well
effe
of
of
become
these
on
power
number
which
rent,
If
test
we
angu!
lure,
are
ordinary
an
colour
blue-violet
although
and
the
have
we
marginal
rays
for
from
to
computer,
troubles
lens
of
with
zones
of
It is the
sphci
with
which
the
optician has
moderate
work
the
to
most
in
suitable
curved
soon
powers.
considerable
find
we
"
of
the
lens
the
central
focus,
do
not
This
all
case
corrected
elements
lightof
the
of
the
in
be
is
with
scquc:
.ochromatic
so,
defect
formidable
to
pov
that,
same
do
deal, even
jorrcctcd
and
an
monochromatic
under-corrected.
by comb:
concert
on
aion," but,
of
in
make
his
limit
not
called
"
of
follows:
blue
be
objective
the
strongly
spherical aberration
to
come
by making them
found
corn-
imperfections
achromatic
.ic
tries to
the
th"
being generally
often
purely photographic
cured
rays,
as
selected
instruments, greenish
and
of other
previously detailed,
as
such
length,say
lines,where
rapidly place
condary aberrations
i
focal
when
aberrations
serious
directlythe computer
necessary,
bccoii
all the
have
relativelylong
but
lenses
combinations,
Such
size.
to
differentlycoloured
Indeed,
approximations.
icar
enough perfection if
first
objectiveof high
approximately,
very
the
that
means
said
and
:/.e
rate
any
same
best, are
in
at
for the
also
mind,
their
at
seen
produce,
length
the
thicknesses,
relative
tlu ir
v^iv"
ic-v
com-
wave-lei
acting
ACHROMATISM
of
that
the
preferred colour, we
different
from
for them
spherical aberration
the
approximation,
correction
for
secondary
aberration
importance
the
of
use
further
pointed
3. If
proceed
we
the
the
that
that
the
of
first
under-
This
been
of
could
out
kind
of
called
in
by the
tion,"
spherical aberrabe
not
properties
from
cured
that
of this remark
outcome
to
tint
focus, light of
of
somewhat
differences
we
find
without
which
the
was
was
starting
curious
have
the
sensible
no
colour
fashion
be
focal
shortest
shows
adjustment
light of nearly
considerably different
If
the
lens
does, and
be
will
for
found
before
have
explained ;
the other colours, focussing at greater distances, blending, and in
curious
pairs,bright red being united with blue, and, at a still
to
length, as
ence
differ-
corrected
preferred colour,
visual
focal
of
that whilst
preferred colour
the
as
for
test
colours,
different
same
in
even
blue.
has
and
differences
different
The
find
microscopical objectives,next
chromatic
of
for
shall
the
with
over-correction
"
glass
generally
last mentioned,
in existence.
then
in
he
corrected,
being
is, in
Abbe
which
is not
defect
and
the
to
Professor
late
of
red
69
is
the
only
as
This
has
been
defect
most
serious
an
indifferent
objective.
the
old
kinds
the
to
of
spherical zones
for
third
The
these
of
are
the
in
earlier
glass will
correction
in
see
indigo or violet, as we
called
the
secondary spectrum, and
ranks
in telescopic objectives,but
with
Fig. 71.
often
we
be
types
of
this
and
type
particularlywhere
oblique pencils are used.
class
photomicrography
"
at
large
It
these
chromatic
serious
any
rate
of
cone
is needless
lenses
are
the
as
for
scopical
micro-
made
achromats
secondary aberrations.
found
be reasonably
to
the
usefulness
of
with
great offenders
found
the
preferred colour, but
sphericalaberration
are
generally so
the
of
manufacture
In
well
with
regard
these
the
corrected
differences
greatly to
accurate
of
reduce
work,
light is employed or
to
say that for high-
simply
useless.
we
have
face
to
face
with
an
objective free
from
chromatic
ACHROMATISM
70
defect
no
These
made.
been
of
that
the
"heir
This
diatoms
with
and
spectrum,
is
drum
sccoi
table
of
vcment
modern
makes
aberration," the
"_; only
secondary
the
be
should
It
further
of
"cad
Powell
colour.
best
the
in
secondary
besides
the
This
tyj
the
as
highest
correction
of
spherical
entirely eliminated,
is
|L
un
are
R'Y*B
:niCOLO*
apochromatic objective,photobe
Messrs.
that
can
have
excellent
the
differences
spectrum
the
itest
colours1
three
for
of
most
of
it rank
chromatic
one
;y
as
computation,
as
Messrs.
shows
image
of
photomicrography
because
screen
the
"
of
for
course,
entirely eliminated
and
zones
"
type is reallya
apochromatic objective,which
They
we
"
Holoscopic
"
but, of
:icral purposes,
show
same
Sometimes
achromatic
new
just
achromatic
the
Type," being
the
"
hers.
the
"
makers.
scmi-apochromatics of other
such
as
entirely hew
names,
Modern
" Sons, or the
"n
has
should
made,
names
many
Improved
"
well
mention
secondary spectrum.
pure
under
market
the
which
objectives,if
new
except
in
appear
of
spherical aberration
of
differences
tak"
PART^APOCMtOHATIC
rtfMf
SYTTCM
COLORS
ht
"ut
alter
focus
or
improvement
of
If
glance
we
tmmatically rcprcsci
objectives necessitate
all
As
adjustment.
ocular,
it
may
be
well
here
to
the
certainly improves
better class
ot
the
special
function
its
the
of
use
the
pensating
com-
of
performance
the
omatics.
tic with
Hiiygcnian
of
use
describe
tood),especially as
c
Fig. 74
at
"
an
ordinary
an
object of strong
test-plate. \Vc
find.
of
to
the
fi"
excellent
our
in
immense
is, )""
the
of
amount
marginal
'ruing re
in
primary
parts of
in Apr
colours.
irs
rcrcnt
(irrinition
the
the
centre
colour
field.
nnd
(that
No
Addenda
ACHROMATISM
(6)
Should
be
computed
so
The
full
apochromatic
from
(7) Freedom
In
carrying
mind
that
given
entitled
apochromatic,
of the
be
achromatic, from
an
from
and
all
"
it is essential
should
objective must
an
show
secondary spectrum.
corrections
aberrations
the
further
must
the
these
out
when
; whilst
eyepieces
(d)
tions
give equal magnificaused
with compensating
to
as
be
free
corrected
the
from
first five to
the
See Addenda.
apochromatic.
in
Although scarcely
logical connection
the
in
in
order
first three
to
become
semi-
the true
merit
to
seven
bear
to
be
application
term
add
to
that
with
the
subject in
study of the
ing
follow-
above
To
deal
with
is the
axis
to
AA'
it.
make
a
meaning more
point of lightas shown
and
the
FIQ.
75A
it is
figure.
colours
apple
OJTSIDC
roc.ua
01
Tuaxy
P-.v
Figs. 75
green
(by
(by the
union
sake.
of
the
the
F, whilst
F', whilst
focus
of
the
and
orange
Yellow-green
at
red
of
rays
the
being the
yellow
focus
and
I;/ comes
yellow
being
blue
beams
purple
green.
into
green)
only
of
red
When
view;
are
and
purple
the
shown,
the
uniting
cleai
and
lens
at
F' ;
so
therefore
hence
and
for
omitted
coining from
seen
focus
and
violet) arc
and
are
Dtrinco
A, B, c, D.
of
combination
the
admixture
focussing
that
venient
con-
in the
The
lens.
BOTH
clear
our
if
obj"
section
were
AND
DRY
IMMERSION
OBJECTIVES
73
is
in
shown
focus
the
that
at
apple
to
purple as
within
made
be
possibleto
of
green,
in
shown
the
Fig. 750.
halo
is
composed of
lowering further,actually
whereas
It is obvious
green
in
why the
Fig. 756
centre
colours, apple
the
in
a
and
green
purple, as
figure),is owing
same
to
within
seen
both
focus
the
images being
focus
of
out
(in
the
situation.
To
witness
with
seen
All
telescopeand
objectives
into two
star.
divided
are
kinds, whether
they be
achromatic, semi-apochromatic
or
apochromatic
and
immersion.
the
called
"
To
dry
understand
explanation that
follows,
the reader, if a
beginner,should
read
what
is said
about
the
Fig. 76.
two
be
grasped.
Let
about
an
difference
between
types of lenses
will
of
the
easily
Consider
be
1-5, and
incident
following explanation
ray
Fig. 76.
of
the
#?zw-glass, having a refractive index
AB
L the front lens of the objective; also consider
fallingupon
the
cover-glassat
B.
As
it enters
the
of
air, a
much
bent
DIC, therefore, is of
any
lying
rays
have
cy
of
chance
no
be
DE
along
AB.
to
It will
now
consideration, that
of the
edge
figure)will
the
it in
the
and
DN',
previous normal,
further
much
case
normal
course
parallel to
course
DE
between
the
the
again into
passes
the
its
continuing
without
readily understood,
be
BN,
(as in
at
from
away
towards
lass, thus
the
dry lens) it
bent
is
so
it arrives
using
been
it has
as
enter!
on
when
medium,
rarer
When
BD.
as
happens
what
as
shown
path
the
to
towards
refracted
be
it must
down,
OBJECTIVES
air,according
than
medium
denser
IMMERSION
AND
DRY
74
lost
objective(where
the
to
microscope,
front
entering the
lens
of
the
objective.
the
index
refractive
same
A'
from
the
as
D'just the
But
D.
the
as
refractive
same
for similar
emerging
index
path uninterruptedlyin
the object glass to gather
its
the
lost when
the
on
//
is
ray
then
obvious
why
the
of
the
immersion
the
the
enables
that
rays
for the
sake
were
of
parison,
com-
of the
instead
system
to
fluid of
F, which
to
diagram)
starting
left,it continues
ivhole of the
(as shown,
the
refracted
it has
air
has
refracted
was
enters
straight line
up
side
other
D'
at
and
ray
be
AB
as
substance
entered
it will
reasons
ray
the
as
at
lens
Following
let the
right hand,
Arriving
and
same
viz. i-5.
"
the
oil, which
cedar
cover-glass
the
at
considered.
be
place between
we
fluid,say
diagram, commencing
the
to
of
drop
"s
if
happens
what
consider
But
much
gives
oil.
more
light.
Theoretically, then, it is
much
so
pass
light
be
must
why
seen
immersion
as
because
ones,
lost without
interpositionof
the
substance
opticallyto join up the
homogeneous
this reason
the objective and
Kor
the cover-g]
"s
often
are
and
arc
or
"homogeneous
as
obviate
vith
pr"
"
correction
milled
brought
nearer
that
out
bending of
it is to
or
a
the
so
often
turning
of
already pointed
have
thickness,
spoken
this
what
BD
immersion
portionof the
together to
vary
that
dry
is
called
collar,"which
mount,
systci
is
the
accommodate
in
cover-glasses vary
as
may
some
between
gap
,-
"
the
all
in
lenses
direct
of
ance,
accord-
high
power
"cover-glass adjustment,"
so
that, by
contrived
lenses
the
are
separated
system
to
the
THICKNESS
CORRECTING
well
for the
and,
to
facilitate his
of
stated
the
best
is advised
he
same,
Plate
4A,
enables
This
him
obtain
to
Carl
Zeiss, consisting
to
slip)
practise getting
of the
definition of the lines of silver deposit on
any
succession, whilst
all in
objective. When
the
collar "to
finest results,he
then
the
figures on
learn
if he
his eye
to
only by
to
he
reading
adjusts his
"
and
turns
thinks
if
sees
process
acquired
art
an
he
the
plate,and
educate
to
he
compares
repeating the
he will
the
learning
thicknesses.
or
the
to
I.) from
cover-glasses (cemented on
several
of
covers
It
is
cover-glass mentioned.1
practise the use of this adjustment,
test-plate(Fig.
Abbe
an
student
75
the
of
thicknesses
different
COVER-GLASS
OF
has
obtained
the
on
collar with
they approximately
is wrong,
which
by
the
spond,
corremeans
ment,
recognise a perfect adjustconstant
practice. Before
"
"
the
draw-tube
should
it is to be recollected,
commencing operations,
the objective
be set exactly correct for the tube-lengthfor which
if the objective
It need
is constructed?
scarcely be added, even
provided
be not
with
collar
It
be
may
the
figures on
arrangement,
to
interesting to those
learn that moving a
thickness
of
to
the
front
of
oppositedirection,
course,
for
of
extra
the
system
the components,
of under-
by
the
causes
cover
in the
correction
extra
objective with
of
combination
produce
described,serves
serves
cover.
when
to
the
collar
of the
on
the
the
details
upwards
other
plate.3
to
of
the
correct
components
; whilst
turning in the
separation. Approximating
to
introduce
small
amount
balances
Exactly
no
know
approximation
system, which
a
like to
of the
lens
manner
in the
thickness
an
who
those
same
correction
adjustment
is present.
by
Some
adjustment be perfectly
is introduced,
of rtk-centring
of the components
made, a certain amount
which
interferes with the performance of the objective. See footnote,p. 78.
2
from
the
distance
the nosepiece
By the length of the tube is meant
of the objectiveto the upper
shoulder
end of the draw-tube.
at the milled
3
be recollected
It should
that although usually the figures marked
on
still
small
the
that
collar '' are
a
occasionally
approximately
correct,
very
"
error
may
be
present.
this
because,
unless
the
collar
is caused
One
of
oil forms
cedar
the
small
any
so
point should
more
such
collars,althou
relate to
not
as
which
at
whole,
hence
of the focal
mistake
often
very
inch
an
is the
single lens
of
measurement
from
length,and
the
is
cover-glass
mention
we
the
this because
made
that
at
works
were
bination
com-
distance
from
the
cover-
Ti^-and -jj^
working-distanceis between
The
computation of objectivesby different
instead
is furnished
the
the
to
real
the
whereas
fact,it
hence
combination
but
component,
if,in
as
to
in
vary
be
this respect
borne
further
focal
follow
not
that
mind
objectiveof given
an
one
in
somewhat
length
all it
at
focal length)made
(although of the same
"1ij)'crcnt
optician. It is a subjectof regret that all firms do
for another
same
by the
is
who
student
.nee
is
handled,
cd
for if such
the moment
by the
making
objective
microscopic
as
shorter
be
owing
because
an
such
unusually
thick
es
"
to
so
"n
when
dealing
of
with
this
"
that
familiar
It may
speak"
the
and
to
use
the
in
possessed
which
accident
an
"
before the
indistinctlyseen,
of
all the
arises
course,
available
come
How
lens
with
occur
cover-glass. This,
up"
long
carefully
too
with
employed
i"efore it can
accident
not
short
be
of
laboratories, where
often
:itly more
"
long
overlooked
use
perhaps than
one
in
very
commonly
more
is
and
tool
free distance
"
The
purchase.
often
matter
particularlynoticeable
mien
at
and
great recommendation,
objectives,for
their
of
the
systems,
objectiveis composed of
length it is said to possess does
lenticular
one
exactly that
i
use
make
an
as
length mentioned;
focal
the
:cc
the
not
cover-glass adjustment
point out occasionallythey
shall
we
lenses,the focal
any
taken
not
cover-glassesdoes
of
in mind
borne
different
many
not
of
presence
it is obvious
so
using homogeneous
on
!d be
of
system,
the
of service.
are
so
As
not
are
homogeneous
when
difference
much
overlooked.
be
not
in thickness
OBJECTIVES
OF
ING-DISTANCE
KK
;6
to
a
are
free
focus.
given
Microscope,"which
WORKING-DISTANCE
should
in
obvious
is
"
more
such
very
less
or
attempting
to
and
is much
sensitive
more
consequently demands
of lower
one
high-power oil-immersion
front,it
/^//^r-hemispherical
objective
an
shock,"
using, than
in
care
that
by
accident
of
consequence
requiring
systems
before
77
(page 221).
powers
Further,
OBJECTIVES
by the student
carefully read
be
high
use
OF
where
power,
much
the
to
more
front, being
more
only ^mz-spherical,permits of being so much
tightly
This
is very
held in its mount.
seen
readily
by examining
On
the
hand
is
an
Fig. 77 (afterZeiss).
right
objectiveof lower
Fig. 77.
than
power
of the
that
"
shown
"
mount
in
left ; the
the
on
one
from
case
difference
in
the
the other
that of
ness
thickis very
obvious.1
have
We
previouslysaid that, as
objectives
"
Lealand
save
Powell
"
reasons
already given
certain
"
of those
some
made
; but
we
rule, no
with
geneous
high-power homo-
manufactured
correction
feel bound
to
say
"
Messrs.
collars, for
the
that at times,
have
found
on
the
recognising the
rather than
by alterations
adjustments by this means,
length.
in these
elsewhere
this chapter, and
Throughout
1
by
tion
utilityof using the correcPowell
Lealand
"
our
apochromatic, and of
of making
the
it affords
greater convenience
occasions, we
collar with
are
tube-
pages,
it
As
the
term
aperture of N.A.
numerical
of
1*40.
CORRECTION
TUBE-LENGTH
78
has
they will
the
(for
of
fear
dry
be
work
in
the
the
upon
of
case
be
when
first instance
lens
front
be
can
nearer
easily done
mount
whereas
length of
the
the
the
cell
than
the
before
wiped
of cambric
from
the
surface-clean,and
absolutelybe avoided, as
in
at
once
the
hemispherical
of
the
system,
further
screw
shall
be
of
the
an
a
which
to
the
increase
in
the
one
greater
system.2
should
Xylol.
with
be
fine
Spirits of
the
contrived
of
mixing
Index
ee
J
of
collar
brings
about
If this
be
alteration
(
from
of
sixth
convert
oil called
"Van
to
with
long
Nelson
"
collar
it may
to
necessary
into
be
the
tube-length
the
short
to
will
the
in the
ration
"i" ular
attention
innately,
in
long
the
book
tube
collar
tube-length
is called
unemled
be
all
to
the
be
from,
that
may
of
circulating amongst
it
to
be
employed
by
the
be
twt
so
moving
to
(which
required
no
more,
Vice
?v
result.
slight
by reversing
23,
to
components
;
required.
18
useful
thereabouts
the
effected
say,
matter
the
combination
is
that
can
times
at
separate
tube
short
sold
'transformer.'"
adjustment,
tube
has
oil.
cedar
Mersol."
Heurck's
it is only
m.'ikin
:oi
late, Mr.
from, say, 18 to 10 or
adjustment backwards
a
see
separation,
footnote,p. 75) produces
and
the collar will turn
not
quite satisfactory,
of
hungc
order
for reference
that, seeing
to
sufficiently
Of
lens.
immersion
new
using
When
recollect
the
the
must
cement
fluid
of
piece
wine
the
it dissolves
fully
care-
that
so
"
removed
systems
instances
in
on
new
gently touched
some
will
bringing
implies
rest
with
(moistened only)
as
correction
cell
it
lens
so
the
necessitating
front
certain
optician
which
that
finished
When
often
"
that
more
components
second
made
in
can
the
manner,
in
the
been
readily effected
objectives into long-tube
mentioned
other
wise
other-
circumstance
by
be
can
consists
the
mount
bearing
distance
is
by making
in
the
arranged
opposite
merely
to
of
short-tube
it
has
tube-length
one
with
corrected, or
are
mention
no
These
the
in
employed
text)
and
changing
understood
the
for
other.1
than
combinations
but
the
readjusted
they
their
at
systems
corrected
instances
to
for which
complicating
combinations
be
objectives must
perform
not
with
case
that
draw-tubes
length of
the
stated
been
often
the
subsequently
nere-
microscopies
its author
NUMERICAL
80
APERTURE
the
in
not
to
respect
diameter
throughout,
the
in
versd\ but
of aperture
increase
in the
lens
question, and
aperture
far
the
for
use
aperture,"but
focal
lens to the
To
ution.
In
it
by
gone
years
explanation
the
that
image
with
of
"
the
diameter
to
Thus
the
term
this
why
of
the
the
which
back
formation
same
and
way
by the
the
photographic
the
refraction
after the
fashion
In the
":;^cr hold
been
found
explain the
by
value
of
objectiveby directlycomparing
"
with
the
"aperture
y
good,
that
an
"
without
"
of
the
of
the
and
the
of
the
in the
the
to
have
to
it Ins
science
to
microscopical
th"
iiy
The
in
fications
quali-
compari-
far
function
the
distant
because
of the
so
in
shown
seems
telescope.
understood,
increase
be
error
would,
aperture
it
light,just
could
"
"
details
as
in
by applying
exponents
some
wing
laws
moon
image of
ordinary cam-
it otherwise
was
manner,
of the
an
It
looking through
of
than
convenient
and
compare
of
or
on
as
same
bee's
dioptric
same
ray
same
of
the eye
of
same
ground glass
lens.
the
displayed to
as
the
telescope.
structure
the
by
formed
upon
geometrically traceable
was
govern
with
delicate
formed
the
delicate diatom,
microscope,
dependent
of the
that
and
image
explainablein
was
was
formation
the
telescope;
hold
front
system.
into
that the
obtains
as
of the
microscope
the
;
the
assumed
thought
most
first enter
must
was
of
in
of the
to
and
improves definition,light-grasp,
so
this, we
method
and
lens
microscopicalimage.
of the
the
do
the
upon
offered
been
system
back
effective semi-diameter
of the
length
lens
same
different.
depends
special use
has
is
sufficient
the
lenses, or
(in a sense)
of
or
explanation
no
the ratio
in
increase
restricted
the
"
it
diameter
the
meet
made
only
is
the
the
of the
do
In
of the
of
part
the
focal
the
system,"
of about
are
semi-diameter
of the
ratio
or
diameter
most
"
front.
of aperture
of
for the
here
the
to
microscopical objective
Increase
back
lenses
increase
increase
the
with
corresponds
"
any
so
applied
speciallens
telescopicobjectivethe
system of
vice
is
term
each
NUMERICAL
APERTURE
81
But to
improves definition,light-grasp,and separating power.
have
the
student, as we
already pointed out, it
commencing
that forms
his first
is justthis comparison, improperly qualified,
stumbling-block.
Having then asserted that the production of the image by
is not
instruments
these two
similar, to what
then
is the formation
Professor
Abbe, whose
microscopical image due?
knowledge was
only equalled by his
profound mathematical
complete acquaintance with practical optics, was
engaged for
in vigorously attacking the problem, and
he found
years
many
that the perfection of the image produced by the microscopical
entirelydependent on the quantity of diffracted
objectivewas
light1emanating from the objectthat was grasped by the objective
of the
transmitted
and
to
the
observer's
He
eye.
his
proved
theory
silvered glass
of artificial rulingson
experimentally by means
that when
the
giving regular diffraction spectra, and showed
of
these
into the objective was
number
spectra admitted
and
diminished
more
more
by the insertion of suitable stops
behind
fell off
and
more
vanished
definition and
the
objective,
the
when
until
more
only
eventually
spectrum,
one
resolution
of the
all traces
the
or
rulings
of structure
direct
light only,
admitted.
was
So
fact the
1
diffracted
more
rectilinear
be
to
light that
held
be
can
propagationof light on
is the
by the reader
Emitted
which
and
trans-
geometrical theory
directlyexemplified
of shadows, is only approximately true.
in the formation
So long as objects
and
of
fair
the
size
are
concerned,
departure from rectilinear
apertures
propagationis small ; but when small objectsor apertures are dealt with,and
their size becomes
with the wave-length of
commensurable
especiallywhen
light(equal to about sTrfonrof an inch), it becomes
quite obvious that they
have
the
round
Familiar
a scattering
or
effecton
lightpassing
through them.
flame
of a small
when
seen
examples are the appearances
through a
of
feather or through a piece
material such as a silk-handkerchief.
fine woven
small
thus
which
is
scattered
by
objects or apertures is called
Light
number
of similar objectsor apertures
a considerable
diffracted
light. When
small
intervals
as
to form
at
are
so
a
arranged
equally
regular pattern,
still more
the diffracted
a
striking appearance
light assumes
by being
of
The
optical instruments
broken
up
into
is based, and
series of isolated
which
the
is most
beams, which
when
derived
from
white
light show
All
the
these
reader
is referred
for further
information.
NUMERICAL
82
mitted
the
by
the
the
angle embraced
greater the
olden
in
mistake
then
resolution
of
the
from
Abbe
of
judicious tilting
which
actual
on
led him
the
trial
the
be
to
the
objective the
shall speak of
we
that
was
thought
rays
the
by
made
was
object
showed
to be
not
take
sine
of half that
place
the
definition
and
in
should
be
the
the
do
His
case.
actual
likewise,
studies
did
improvement
angle
of aperture
increased, but
This
sine of half
the
angle.
the
back
the
; but
the
as
angle),he
another
mathematician,
was
equal to the ratio of the semiin the upper
diameter
of the emerging pencil,measured
focal
for simplicity
to the focal length, which
plane of the objective,
be said to be the same
and fairlyclose approximation may
as
(where
the
as
was
obliquity
high-angled
justlyremarked
for he
false,
to
that
This
again
in
objectiveor specimen
found
it
wider
objective in
the
to
was
better.
increase
the
to
definition
the
then, the
improvement
due
not
It is obvious,
resolution.
days, and
objectives. This
a
better
microscopicalobjective,the
and
known
APERTURE
is
ratio of the
lens to
half
the focal
length.
specimen by
whose
of
sin U
whether
it be
of
n"
shown
for numerical
of all
aperture
for it is evident
of what
has
such
been
whereas
its
whether
dry
places such
1
thos"
For
or
"
will be
In
read
formula
homogeneous,
to
at
concise
be
be
dry
the
in
Fig. 78 let L
Let F
object C.
the
way
into
of
with
no
change
desirous
a
lenses,whether
in
on
once
mathematical
form"
For
dry
convenience,
of
Abbe
homogeneous,
or
their
validity
the index
(as
values
enables
simple and
proof, a
for which
employed,
affects the
ones
the
at
all
of
all),
lenses,
be
a
into
final formula
not
comparison
argument
oil.
does
introduction
is,we
requires the
of the fluid
index
cedar
concerning
therefore
the
speak later of
we
introduction
this is the
introduction
said
dry lenses
construction
the
glycerine,or
water,
of
aperture
refractive
the
when
; but
demands
special construction
formula
some
for
ratio
complete
of the
lens
means
"
This
aperture
homogeneous systems,
effective
of the
semi-diameter
am
scientific basis.1
consideration
indebted
to
of the following
Mr.
Conrady
interest.
a
lens, or
the
point
system
where
of
lenses,producing an
focal plane
the upper
image
cuts
the
I of
an
axis
APERTURE
NUMERICAL
83
be
not
Referring again to the diffraction spectra, it must
imaginary or theoretical ; they can
easily
thought they are
without
studied
and
special accessories
by focussing
be seen
of N.A.
i'2O
or
a
1-40, on
high-aperturedobjective,say, one
marginal
is the
then, if CD
the
receiving,El
after
ray
same
of the
ray
is
the
capable
angles
of
of
Fig. 78.
the refractive index of the medium
n
refraction,
M
the magnificationof the image formed
in which the object C is embedded,
at I, and/ the equivalent focal length of the lens or
system of lenses,we
dioptricformula,
have, by a fundamental
divergence
before
after
and
I. FI
In order
to
demands
be
lens
aplanatic,the
/3is always
equal
sin
sin /3.
angle, and
small
its sine,or
to
FG
Introducingthis
sensibly
FG
II,we
get
"
FG
FG
as
of sin /3 into
value
III.
sin
its tangent
take
may
we
"
sine- condition,which
fulfil Abbe's
must
"
1 1.
Now
Mf.
is the numerical
sin
aperture
of the
emerging penciltaken
proof we require,viz. :
of
in the
our
^rrr
-j-
focal
of the
is the
FG
lens, and
upper
semi-diameter
XT
semi-diameter
the
forms
III
plane, hence
emerging pencil
/3 is always
objectivecannot
7 in. (with such
than
^
larger
hence
lens),
large
be
a
angle
small
follows
in.; the
this
the
tube-length
lens
back
less
is seldom
of
an
than
"
2"
"
"
from
52'.
For
'9987 ;
to
near
remark
"
which
enough unityfor
the above
purposes
proof includes
ratio of sine
is the
of N
any
sort
A.
to
tangent
measurements.
of
objectives.
"
is about
It is needless
DIFFRACTION
84
SPECTRA
when
central
six diffraction
occasions
many
whether
the
gratings
as
of the
the
grating
until
used
alone
beam
of
words
image,
"
Dr.
the
Dallinger,
and
to
on
prove
by obtaining
the
tainable
ob(which were
readily recognised that
off from
cut
are
entering
disappear from
central
dioptrically
the lines
the
this
do
so
tried
Abbe
last, when
at
not,
or
the formation
the
correct
was
with
surrounded
seen
into
formed
lightwill be
used
these
more
of direct
statement
from
the
beam
Indeed,
image appears
the microscope
it would
be out
if
as
has
to
use
the
lost its
of
place to give
referred
these experiments in further detail,although they are
be out of place to give
not
to frequentlyelsewhere, but it may
of these classical experiments more
the accredited
or
summary
less in the Professor's
of the rays
the reunion
of the
"
of
lightemanating
from
different
points
object.
That
to
the
through
the
is
an
small
words
own
That
"
due
diffracted
that
rays
objective,and
the
perfectionof
collected
are
not
by and
much
so
final
the
to
image
passed
direct
ones.
That
"
whole
of
of the
into
if the
is that
smaller
less
the
the
loss of
number
faithful
objectis
with
the
object unless
the
coarse
is the
the
the
these
diffraction
beams
direct
light that
; in
the
not
received
ing
object accord-
other
words,
the
compared with
diffracted light lies
of the
be
phenomena
the
as
whole
is of sensible
of
whole
then
by the objective,
to
identical
diffraction
yielding)pass
this
is not
image
an
so
wave-length of light,the
close
to
the
corresponding
all that
low-power objectiveswill admit
the correspondence between
brightness. Hence
even
FORMATION
image is
objectand
close.
very
the
with
IMAGE
OF
85
when
But
becomes
commensurate
or
in
more
image formed
dots separated by
the
lie further
phenomena
the direct
from
two
as
diffraction
interval,the
minute
objects, such
small
or
fact that
is the
point,too,
Another
of very
wave-length,
detail
the
rays
in the
than
of
case
in
out
objects
the
separated by larger intervals,hence
a
high
greater importance still that the objectiveshould have
in which
the details
N.A.
as
so
enable
to
possibleof
are
in the
made
details
to
respect
in
as
as
many
adds, speaking
further
"
easily resolved
"
as
as
case
of
too,
gather
and
all-important rays." He
these
especially with
more
catch
it to
that
course,
medium
have
regarded
as
immersion
the
be
of refraction)
can
requisiteindex
absolutely faithful reproduction of the original
also
an
the
object.
hoped the
it is
But
by
reader
the
why
will understand
now
increase
reader
N.A.
now
may
If
following question.
objective the
an
light-grasp and
of
image
their
make
to
half-inch
that of the
is
that
of
this
large back
lens
At
of
which
has
; and
highest
present the
were
indeed
even
largerdiameter
12-mm.
if that
could
were
of tube, the
not
got
be
over
It is
'65.
possibleto
such
demand
description,it would
know
we
Watson's
aperture of about
combination
make
for
; say,
an
to
faithful
manufacturers
lens
First, supposing it
of this
give
we
render
to
aperture of 1*40,
an
with
not
the
ask
of
ordinary microscope
instruments
aperture
it becomes
do
properly
very
the
higher N.A.
twelfth
Zeiss's
reason.
compute
with
best
holoscopic,each
for
of
powers
and
more
able
more
object, why
the
lower
the
its power
more
the
further
step
go
used
on
an
by using
suiting of aperture
86
to
has
power
highest order
objects" say
two
distance
and
of
which
lines
two
be said
may
be
to
an
such
"
of
of
po\ver
is
200
eyepiece would
an
With
overdoing
this
tion
magnifica-
as
the
lines
of
than
being
these, say
them
by
at
normal
interval
an
of
not
much
as
be
sufficient
be
of
^i^
as
would
closer
but
eye
microscope
so
inch, would
the
to
70,000
magnificationwould
the
because
by
seen
an
not
image "),but
good apochromatic.
for
probably
performance
capable
obtained,
most
the
resolve
to
of usefulness
the limit
rotten
as
be able
to
normal
held at
^J7 in. apart when
objective of i-in. focal length
beyond
(as
is known
what
about
"
Secondly,
supposed
magnifying
ordinary achromatic
cause
is
With
in.
10
eyepiece,
10
APERTURE
NUMERICAL
of the very
eye
TO
LIMIT
be
lines
invisible,
to
separate
inch,
an
the
be
It may
f in.
measures
(1)
N.A.
---
conversely, supposing
of
aperture
an
have
we
=y=i
(i
such
be
must
the
:"
A)
inch
an
2
focal
length
as
must
with
half-inch
be
diameter
would
of '3 N.A.
"). With
objectiveshould
an
used
the
We
".
have
now
"
'6;
\ in. focal
diameter
of
length
the
is said to
have
lens?
Here
back
"
viz. three-tenths
were
N.A.
diameter
Again
then
given objectiveof
'6, what
semi-diameter
(2)
the diameter
Half
across.
of 95,000
a
20
with
raised,we
of its back
10
lines to the
lens
shown,
must
-"$
hence
"
inch, or
the
resolve
|-in.
to
needs
be
at
would
it resolve
'6.
about
28,500.
power
least
made
But
be
do
i" in.
of N.A.
too
now
200,
50,000
to
of N.A.
If
the
"
inch
the
this
by (2) the
large for any
microscope.
1-40 as previously
lens
and
of, at least, ig in. diameter
requireaback
an
spoken of, it would
which
is
in
of
of
service
be
to
equal
meant,
eyepiece
27 to
resolving
any
; by
in. 1*40 with
of
the
in. with
or
a
a
f.2
|
eyepiece,
performance
5
power
the
would
It
then
lines sufficiently
only just separate
a 7 eyepiece.
of
the
view
in
field
of
the
in.
microscope the limit of
"2n
apart
appear
for it
normal
a microscope made
vision,and would
were
the
DRY
OBJECTIVES
of the
formation
true
have
we
AND
IMMERSION
OIL
88
angle of which
of efficiencywas
this aperture
increase
an
its
refractive
cover-glasses.But
and
and
the
the
was
this
about,
that led to
one
index
why
brought
was
lens
cover-glass of the
interpositionat first of
most
finally and
perfectlyby
glycerine,but
because
front
the
continuity between
specimen by the
was
remained
only
of
most
ment
improveof
matter
oil,
of
such
of difference
great deal
that
how
and
so,
by
cedar-wood
as
same
then
water,
surmise
opinion.
By
able
patient practice and computation with the glasses then availthey had brought up the receiving angle of the dry
objective to what appeared its final limit, viz. to about 170" ;
and
what
in this direction
they said,
more,
could
be
expected
made?
or
Yet
gave
results!
improved
indeed
Here
it due?
time
as
was
went
Why
on
was
situation
that
it?
And
which
the
about
170"
To
their
as
absurd
mathematical
upon
enable
the
gather
in
environment
reader
of
else
greater
practicalway
must
simple
follow
to
or
the
sion
oil-immer-
angle than
180",
of facts.
we
the
at
rays
the face
this
subject
declared,
computers
on
understand
the
able
insuper-
and
objectivesmust
was
was
another.
thought one
thing
some
dry objective did not, after all,gather the rays at
Either
which
of
seemed
difficulty.Some
what
to
what
digress
refraction
comes
without
and
of
after
for
moment
light
and
subject intelligibly.1
A, B, C, D in Fig. 79 represent the outlines
drawn
at
vessel,AC
being the water
line,and BD
any
so
to
as
understand
the
Let
it
to
passing
This
earlier
the
with
from
portion of
part
annoyance
the
of this
of
present
B
the
to
through E,
subject
work,
having
to
argument.
but
has
it is
refer back
which
of
right angles
direction
circular
is called
in
before
save
he
the
the
can
continue
LAW
SHELL'S
"
"
perpendicular
"
the
or
the
into
is incident
beam
the
When
undergoes
is
there
medium,
new
bending
water,
uninterruptedlyfollowing
it is incident
when
But
is refraction
there
"
the
strike
point
the
refraction
"
it passes
of
beam
the
at
will be
it is incident
m'
at
E, for the
at
into
on
position" say
E, for the
at
perpendicularly
the only instance
course
other
any
Suppose
n.
is also
there
then
at
for
"
to
refraction
no
it
no
along
where
line
ED.
along
found
to
along ?;/E,
will be
ray
the
found
"'.
at
Fig.
Snell made
of
the
have
and
discovery, about
day,
the
Now
angles
quotients, in all
viz. 1-333.
This
all
cases
was
to
vi
meeting
and
divided
what
he
were
explained,
of
with
lenses
should
we
which,
not
in the
familiar.
so
line from
from
obtained.
wherever
are
we
measured
were
be
to
grand computations
another
np
by which
the
So.
celebrated
first drew
He
and
his
had
present
o,
rays,
for
not
was
to
line.
this
m}L
89
BE
meet
ED
one
at
/.
by the other
discovered
taken, whether
using
called
water
the
and
right angles at
The
lengths om
at
was
the
from
air,came
Refractive
out
Index
quotient
fact
or
m't the
the
of
that
same,
water.
substances
Other
each
glass,for
Flint
1*64, according
to
1*54
OBJECTIVES
tried,and
were
index.
refractive
IMMERSION
AND
DRY
90
substance
instance, is found
its manufacture,
to
and
between
ratio
the
that
starting from
E
given point in
an
angle mEo,
BC.
the
of
can
sine
45".
It is
draw
nE
is,
good,
now
after
let
example,
of
our
that
4 to 3, holds
For
say,
we
the
the other
from
comes
45", and
multiply that by 3 and
tables
and
is 07,
speaking, it
that
of
sines
quite evident
will strike AD,
ray
so
will at
It is
m.
or
the
of the
out
where
angle "E/,
the
take
We
any
make
to
find
to
from
starts
the
upon
with
one
is about
"/, which
calculate
can
we
strike
om
the ray
whether
light striking E
and
other
that, continuing
definite ratios
certain
incident
the
wherever
with
on
all books
in
so
riEp respectively,
so
lines, vwy
BE;//
angles
and
special
be about
to
mathematically inclined, he
be
reader
these
see
once
the
If
subject.
its
had
;;/
required
correctly.
find, roughly
divide
by
4,
find O'5
Resorting to our book again, we
off from
be marked
D to
that 30" must
is the sine of 30",so
find the line nE.
Although, simply put, this is the maxim
in constructing
which
mainly pervades the optician'smind
which
gives
o-5.
us
lenses, as
new
refracted
lenses
law
The
when
the
the
problem,
pass
One
remark
more
ri
Seeing that
happens
and
if one
of the
to
for it appears
evident, which
called
kinds
Let
the
of
us
A, say
nearer
again
is the
"critical"
with
at
is said
z''.
"
or
at
to
This
is
allows
////////
'ng
ray
angle"
to
and
the
take
cannot
out
is known
air
place
get
reflexion
get
made.
into
angle then,
one
to
;//, what
to
will
ray
suffer "total
the
good
be
to
pass
true, what
~?
But
modifications.
yet
It will
xt
many
passing from
refracted
becomes
There
last, that
has
are
beginning
when
certain
subject
If this be
EC.
all,and
at
water
where
equally holds
course,
then
startingabout
ray
still
starts
to
colours
from
same
into air,and
the
on
passing
along
graze
is the
the water
one
ingly
exceed-
intensely intricate.
calculations
from
become
details
different
law, reversed, of
same
rays
the
calculations,as
becomes
concerned,
arc
fact
angles, and
different
at
underlying
end.
real
in
operose
of
matter
"
out
at
it is very
; this is
for
all
glass.
now
see
how
these
remarks
apply
to
our
subject.
DRY
Consider
it
follow
be
the
path
shown
again
DN'
normal,
DE
will
be
now
that any
rays
lying between
DE
touches
the
DE'
(where
microscope,
of the
readily understood,
it in
they have
as
away
BN,
the
without
much
the
air
previous
along
AB.
to
It
consideration,
diagram)
of
and
normal
course
parallel
course
our
into
passes
its
B.
(as in the
the
continuing
chance
no
at
to
BN
from
towards
and
objective.
normal
dry lens)it
bent
been
the
air, according
the
bent
refractive
cover-glass at
it arrives
on
to
is
so
of
the
towards
using
"
lens
upon
than
When
when
it had
as
front
ray
BD.
medium
much
as
the
medium
as
91
cover-glass,having
refracted
happens
rarer
"
the
denser
OBJECTIVES
incident
an
must
it
be
1*5, and
AB
of what
case
Let
about
enters
precept
IMMERSION
80.
consider
Also
As
Fig.
of
index
AND
be
lost
the
to
objective.
But
let
lens and
the
has the
consider
us
what
cover-glass
refractive
happens
if
place between
we
index
as
the
notice
now
cedar
the
oil, which
viz. 1-5.
cover-glass itself,
Follow
the diagram, commencing
at the right hand, and
sider
conthe ray
A'.
starting from
Arriving at B, it will be
refracted
D' just the same
to
and
for similar reasons
AB
as
same
refracted
was
emerging
as
the
in
up
D.
to
D7
at
ray
substance
air,as
shown
This
from
of
the
rarer
certain
up
they might be
upon
unless
to
up
to
happens.
which
in
the
sense
lightenters
digression for
think, to text-books
in
detail
oil.
be
explain
to
of the
mind
the
so
explicitas
stand
under-
difficult to
from
pared
com-
medium
denser
being
is
the
may
to
entered
ray
moment
not
subject, which
carefullyexplained
index
path uninterruptedly
the object-glassto gather
present themselves
this
the
its
diagram, instead of
when
As
refractive
same
lost when
were
of the rays,
difficulties which
we
enables
of the
side
leads
student, owing,
fluid of the
that
rays
bunching
one,
what
left,it continues
the other
the
F, which
to
gathering
with
enters
it has
straightline
the whole
But
commencement
end.
Startingfrom
of
another
the
the
ether
waves
dependent
upon
the number
is their
remarkable
of the most
beginning,one
extreme
effects,as
of such
seen
waves
motion
rapidity of
by
the
eye,
tures
fea-
are
entering the
eye
alone
in
light is caused
Red
of time.
second
APERTURE
OF
ANGLE
92
about
by
violet
and
miles
180,000
second,
calculate
we
waves
As
wave-length for
the
that
vri^jth of
and
urJwth
light is about
red
so
billions and
400
inch
shorter
the
is
here
just
become,
waves
that
for text-books
in
colour
instead
in
eye
by
produced
Bearing this
why
colour
no
of
when
bunched
in
up
remaining constant,
Seeing that
immersion
actual
medium.
It
of
flint of index
in dense
becomes
now
both
obvious, too,
evident, without
can
Lastly,
more
is
after the
formerly
used
the
"angle"
not
of the
such
or
number
like; or
of
waves
same.
further
ratio of the
the
with
same
with
the
the
relative
would
spoken
nature
The
merits.
one
the
in
It is
the
turn
equally
immersion
that
ones,
them
to
which
by
show
case,
"
the
immersion
"
angle
apply, because,
of in
as
dry
will
of these
not
gives
definition.
the
p.
explanation,why
diffraction
admitted
'35
latter
the
former.
consideration
introduction
to
systems
the
are
rays
possible
small
their
be
seeing and
compete
never
arose
the
as
than
systems
stood
under-
light traverses
shortened
it becomes
r667
improves
be
now
called
this
so
can
in any
given substance, so
in different media
is found
that
to
be
may
se,
by
wave-length
in
index
air by the refractive
of the
wave-length
D
Thus
light is "59 fi wave-length in air,but
dividing the
new
index
refractive
changes
entering the
waves
the
the
beginner,
wave-length per
films of oil
systems,
It
same.
that
when
is caused
alteration
differingrefractive index,
lenses
the
mind, it
in
the
moves
itself to
of
in the number
for each
the
of
glass or
as
remains
understand
to
alteration
any
only by changes
second.
him
frequently lead
are
of
the colour
but
an
as
in
angle in oil"
as
that
difficulty
systems
of
a
of
paring
com"
aperture
matter
air,for
They
as
of
fact,
example,
could
is
never
Continued
for ever
compared.
now
misunderstandings were
arisingin comparing the performance of the different objectives
"the
and
the cedar-oil immersion.
dry, the water, the glycerine,
SIN
refractive
if the
that
whether
"
be
could
index
of
the
with
Calling the
sin U, instead
of sin U
objectivescould
be made
taken
was
cedar
immersion
refractive
Professor
to
fluid
air, glycerine, or
compared
at once
manner.
93
brilliant
oil"
the
n,
into
sideration
con-
dry objectives
in
systems
index
Abbe,
scientific
equation became
the Numerical
only, and this he termed
Aperture of the objective. For air n is only i, for cedar oil 1-52,
and
on.
so
By this ingenious idea, then, comparisons of all
n
example
for
Take
Again,
because
.*.
sin
an
because
each
one
If
wish
to
opposite
the
half
2U
of
30
Once
the
2
-329;
and
19*25
From
therefore
X
what
1*52
1-52
"329
'5 N.A.
sin
dry
in
the
opposite
*5, therefore
"
of Natural
it must
Sines
be
not
is
has
oil immersion
N.A.
1*52 and
sin
sin
38*5",which
been
"
"
by
'5.
angle
U
is
really
is
required its
'5, sin
"
the
seen
of '5
is found
(which
forgotten that
has
19*25
find its
to
sin
therefore
i,
"
we
manner,
wish
-5 N.A., and
one,
Tables
Here
*5,
angular aperture.
=
oil)
of
N.A.
Because
An
more.
*5 N.A.
of *5.
30". But
19*25"
problems
*5
of cedar
that
compute
'5 in the
30"
"
sin
N.A.
objectivebeing
30", hence
index
oil immersion
has
sin
of
1*52
"
"
angular aperture.
Now
dry objectiveto be
suppose
The
"
readily seen
equivalent to
may
sin
of *5, because
oil immersion
it is
we
N.A.
(the refractive
1*52
scientific basis.
and
true
upon
has
I
an
Thus
at once
the
tables),
said,
it will
be
understood
now
the
essential
1.
"
aperture.
2.
Resolving and
the N.A.
Defining Power
; whilst
it will be
"
in direct
seen
later
proportion with
on
that
"
APERTOMETER
ABBE'S
94
There
homogeneous
the
thick
glass about
the
above
downwards
a) is
small
the
to
disc
of
be shifted around
are
one
square
view). To
angle of 45".
silvered glasswith
side and
this
use
and
the
of
now
stem
the
with
focusscd
used, and
is
called,
are
then
bevelled
the
the
objective
length
of
ordinarily in
placed
on
the
use.
the
tl
at
other
\ n
(see
b in
stage
the
of
the
of
edges
circular
edge
two
of the
the
the
side
with
the
portion is
towards
little ho!
ired,
draw-tube
The
the
/"/",
micro
piece backwards
to
(marked
in its centre,
which
that
The
hole
placed
the
manner
instrument.
from
is bevelled
platesof metal,
the
upon
or
of
the
on
apparatus,
chord
the
edge
pointed
thick.
inch
an
the centre
small
Two
outer
Near
an
the
piece of
81.
silvering is removed.
can
half
and
segmental
glass becomes
of
consists
This
Abbe,
Professor
by
purpose
diameter,
Fig.
where
for
two
lenses, is by using
of
types
for
in. in
the
part where
objectives,and
dry
(Fig. 81).
Apertometer
called
both
to
devised
special apparatus
The
OBJECTIVE.
AN
OF
systems.
first,applying
The
for
methods
three
are
N.A.
THE
factors),
it.
being inverselyproportionalto
ASCERTAINING
the amount
other
with
of N.A.
with
intimately associated
is
Depth of Focus
3. TJic
an
same
indi"
glass,as
eyepiece
when
as
7"
shown
arc
in
APERTOMETER
CHESHIRE'S
96
the
between
troubles
two
in
actually happened
false N.A.
our
when
case
followingmethods
about
To
obtained.
were
when
mistake
look
the observer
the
of the
one
results
different
low
let
powers,
first focussing,
after the
microscope
'3,
sixth, the
check
the
remedy
down
applying as
This
N.A.
achromatic
an
be described, when
to
inch
testingan
an
be obtained.
may
Another
the
use
at
and
method
(1904), to
other
which
details.
of concentric
placed
project
an
observation
directly.
values
of
the
into
small
5O-mm.
The
second
in
Leitz
the
docs
used
and
number
spaced and
so
which
they form
this
plane of
upper
on
The
focal
up
objective,
circles,from
visible,the
circle
so
the eye.
N.A.
corresponds
to
0-9.
is read
to
an
Intermediate
observation
of the
image
is made
cither
by (i)
plane
with
fittingthe top of the draw-tube
(2) by fittinga low-power eyepiece"
and
admirably
projectthe apertometer
circle of the microscope,in
also
smallest
to O'2, and
by
it to
be
of
are
diagram
of which
first and
the
the
focal
upper
number
eyepiece
peep-hole ; or
the aid of
consists
equi-distant,equi-thick concentric
diagram
removing
the
estimated
are
for mathematical
which
paper,
that when
of the
of O'l, the
on
paper
of
number
is referred
stage of the
usual
N.A.
in
Briefly,the apertometer
the
as
off
reader
circles,drawn
on
the
circles
the
in thickness
graduated
below
is described
ventor
by the int\\t Journal of the Quekett Microscopical
Club, Vol. IX.
in
is
of
"
with
image
which
in the
circle
stop and
2-mm.
it
high-powerpocket magnifier.
eye-ring
can
The
be
or
using
Kamsdcn
observed
draw-tube
with
may
Abbe
auxiliary microscope (as in the
apertometer) by fittingits lower end with an objective suitably
stopped to give a tclcccntric system.
as
an
CHESHIRE'S
The
sold
simple
circles
the
Holborn
drawn
are
97
of
form
of
by Baker
APERTOMETERS
on
the
modification
lower
in
Fig. 82A,
is
surface
thick
disc
highly refractive glass adapted for use with dry and immersion
of Cornhill, London.
is sold by R. " J. Beck
objectives,
another
method
With
only, there yet remains
dry powers
which is also exceedingly simple and effective.1
Lay upon the table two pieces of white paper, using a black
of
Fig. 82A.
Fig. 82B.
background,
with
their
Although
this
idea
may
have
occurred
to
others
angular aperture
microscopical objectives,we
suggested to obtain their numerical
aperture by Mr.
of
at the
South
Imperial Institute,
from
Photomicrography^
which
for
believe
Conrady,
obtaining
it
now
was
the
first
Professor
Kensington, being
paragraph is abstracted.
the
CONRADY'S
98
METHOD
look
down
the
at
back
will be seen
pieces of paper
objective downwards
along the edge
the
there
two
these
watching
apart
until
flicker
of
pieces of
which
rays
of
lens,which,
the
between
in the
intersect
To
aperture.
these
determine
distance
Then
by half the
pieces of paper
is the cotangent
the
therefore,be
latter may,
the
ratios,and
margin
inner
off the
edges
oblique
most
which
that
the
directions
the
angle of
distance
subtract
from
distance
of the
the
from
working
table to focus.
between
the
two
semi-angle of aperture
obtained
from
sine of the
the
is
objective,
angle,read
and
objective,
divided
this distance
directions,
farther
slightbluish
of the
as
and
receiving,or
this
lens,1so
of the
of
rule, always
extreme
that
direction
of the
principalfocus
the
the
the
of
slide the
now
the
only
in
indicates
in
are
side
Images
farther
where
objectiveis capable
enclosed
angle
either
on
course,
paper
the
is reached
point
visible
remains
the
of
last
at
of
will separate
They
images.
lens.
table
angle
same
of
is the
metrical
trigonoN.A.
of
the
objective.
Example :
Distance
between
Distance
of front lens of
Working
distance
piecesof
the two
0*2
objective,
of
33'Q
paper,
objectivefrom
mm.
of angle
cotan.
100
71" 49',as
two
or
great
care
units
of
this method
the
second
33-0
mm.
find from
we
paper,
200/2
=
mm.
32-8
Q'2
0*328
200
will
0^95
the
=
trigonometrical
N.A.
give results
decimal.
In
accurate
looking at
to
the
one
back
about
be at a distance
equal
objective the eye should
the objective is designed, but the
the tube-length for which
of the
to
error
caused
by
considerable
even
requireddistance, is
very
DEPTH
from
this theoretically
small.
OF
Focus
"
deviations
concluding
this
"
How
to
ascertain
"
the
working distance,see
Index.
DEPTH
with
associated
its numerical
following remarks
dimension
that
"
moment
same
not
very
easy
to
with
the
by
object
an
FOCUS
aperture
read
meant
of
superficial
part
be
may
is
First, what
OF
99
the
at
of use,
time
the
interest.
It is this.
term?
focus, how
is in
When
of
much
the
its third
well defined
at the
depth is sharp and
difficult one,
and
The
subject is a somewhat
of
"
explain, for
it
being up to that
and
inherent
time
distinctly mysterious
thought to be an
that
and
above
property possessed by certain objectives over
Abbe
Professor
to
be found
took
the
question
in
obscurity until
in
wrapped
was
hand,
combinations.
in other
Fig. SSB.
Fig. 83A.
let
a
we
have
an
Fig. 83A, where
plane containing F.
Supposing
us
consider
to be
reduced
of
lower
through
this
this
to
AB,
part of
point
then
object
and
the
point ; hence
of the object being out
the
it is obvious
the
F
objective OO
aperture of the
confusion
of focus
be
light from
that
A'
between
would
is focussed
with
mixed
owing
will be
to
the
equal
objective
all
B' would
and
to
the
lower
the
on
points
pass
image of
portion
distance
OF
DEPTH
TOO
A' to B'.
from
objective
Suppose
then
CD,
to
be
now
the
the
of
aperture
find
reasoning we
part of the object extending from C'
it is easy
sharply focussed
the
focus
of
our
that
same
and
diffusion
the
plane,
increase
now
by
confused
between
distance
we
FOCUS
for
the
to
that
for
and
some
see
plane
latter
given
other
be
must
D'
to
directly
of the object-glassand
ficient
with sufproportionalto the diameter
But
approximation to the numerical
aperture employed.
the above
figurealso makes it clear that with the largeraperture
much
CD
there is a plane GH
the sharp focus F where
nearer
the diffusion C"D", corresponding to the large aperture, is the
that (A'B') produced by the small aperture at a greater
as
same
from
distance
of diffusion
allowance
the
to
will
N.A.,
into
enter
we
also
may
the
depth of
focus
in
this form
the
and
that
say
is
for
given
inversely
tional
propor-
influence
of the
N.A.
The
dimensions
formula.
our
effect of
The
Hence
F.
magnification
is obvious.
of
"
cause
as
i.e.from
the
dense
at
MM
The
the
air
would
of
F, the
at
lengthen
entering surface
so
as
to
entering the
Fig. 831* had
in
of
have
media
denser
medium
its apex
at
F'.1
of the
the underside
(i.e.
the reasoning applied in determining the value
cover-glass),
of a given angle in a dense
medium
as
compared with the value
of
the
index
which
angle
same
is
very
of
the
has
medium)
which
at
The
F.
these
the
result that
the
cone
times
high
as
at
apex
flat
being
approximately
its
respectively
in
MM
objective OO
cone
dense
when
rays
introduction
the
in
possible
of
cones
if the
Thus,
in
N.A.
greater
refraction
medium.
its focus
seen
cones
as
distances
attain
from
a
certain
and
diameter
index
of the
mounting
1
See
medium.
Addenda
for
further
explanation.
OF
DEPTH
has
what
From
of focus
we
expressed by
be
can
said
been
FOCUS
may
depends
Constant
assumed
the
be
to
first figure we
our
the
on
usual
"
N.A/
thus
Let
N.A.
the
If this be
allowed.
diffusion
with
reason
depth
The
the
that
state
now
the formula
Constant
101
the
aid
(see page
82)
of
be
of
with
should
had
have
keep within
M
means
NA.
and
within
T\j-in.
no
in the
into
obtain
"f
gives
of
of
Tinr
incn
an
TV
TV
depth of focus
is allowed
the
object
in
we
order
mathematically
D
I,
iV
constant
our
in
air
r"
i
the value
the
us
is
cone
"
Constant
Constant
which
either
on
the
formula
our
10
we
which
image), which
obtain
TV" we
"
whence
F, but
^ on an object in
magnification (as otherwise
less diffusion
limit
yj^ from
range
Introducing
i.
is
allow
our
objective of N.A.
an
to
of
will be
i) provided there
total
It
5.
distance
the
; hence
depth of focus
to
in. at
in
in. in diameter
j-^-jj
below
(n
of
rate
of TJ^
diameter
side
the
at
converge
in the
"
rU,
inches
in
image,
when
diffusion
as"
D
100
So
far
have
we
assumed
distance
from
plate or
When
term
must
for the
1
implies
the
the
be added
uses
of
Because
the
to
N.A.
of
its focal
point
an
the
that
for
eye
in
at
As
various
sharp
image
devoid
focus
is formed
instance,
his accommodation
the formula.
to
eyepiece, as,
retina
the observer
N.A.
the
its diameter
twice
on
on
to
be
at
graphic
photo-
of accommodation.
a
further visual
accommodation
stands
distances, it therefore
DEPTH
102
formation
the
involves
of
the
below
distances
of
square
implies shifting
is
the
in
Dv
term
found
the
short
in the usual
Fig. 830.
"
sense
similar
by
line shows
the dotted
figure(Fig. 830) by
to
triangles,
in depth equal
magnification
The
that
find the
the
to
the
the
"-,
focus
of
depth
"
The
that
magnificationin
Where
various
at
the
differentiating
By
(^^f-^j1^
visual
the
hence
image
in turn
object.
is the
magnification in depth
diameter;2
which
the
in
magnification formula
usual
final visual
the
eyepoint,
conjugate points
of the
FOCUS
OF
conjugate.
of
square
the
of Prof.
pen
is the
the
magnification
magnificationin depth,
square
of the
magnification
in diameter.
apply
we
wili
the
formula
its
have
determined.
image
Our
to
point
at
distance
formula
distant
more
from
less than
by
the
a
lens
by dl, which
quantity dL. to be
gives
"
l+dl~"
L-//L
dL
multiplying each
equation to
of the
with
term
a
common
"
dl~
I*
This
we
is
L1
Then
"
and
we
the
in the
term
//L
limit,"when
dl
has
and
is the desired
the
more
1?
and
differcnti.il,
smaller
the
mon-
infinitesimally
small, vanishes.
/L\f
"=
magnificationin depth,
equation proves
smaller
the
"
L'
=
and
become
obtain
To
become
to
becomes
dL
"rr
formula.
(l)
magnification,
of the second.
CHAPTER
VI
EYEPIECES
EYEPIECES,
will
but
kinds,
several
here
the
on
The
Huyghenian
See
may
be
that
it
eye
being
is
in
object
for
of
that
strict
philosophical
in
eyepiece,
for
best, both
of
focal
but
both
for
telescope
by
is
three
a
or
other,
as
well
best
times
distance
be
for
the
fulfilled
that
of
(d) equal
to
of
any
it
as
may,
the
of
one
microscope,
the
the
dition
con-
field-lens
the
the
cyc-lcns,
half
the
microscope.
when
the
of
was
be
the
literature
result
to
the
as
of
the
that
seems
ground
much
the
than
bination
com-
celebrated
good
from
anyhow,
combination
achromatism
length
lengths
form
///""//power
the
rather
but
inquiry,
the
invention
actual
the
this
of
ocular
gathered
termed
towards
seems
an
fact
the
is
other
turned
there
with,
nearer
invention
devised
inspiration
some
the
but
the
seem
one
Huyghens,
be
can
the
Son.
"
the
by
(the
being
to
also
what
happy
lenses
and
met
Ramsden
The
it bears,
Campani
From
of
nature
In
ascribed
name
commonly
the
each
the
Ordinary
by Swift
type
new
whilst
of
in
microscope.
more
microscope.
subject, it would
the
the
the
form
^-lens,
convexity
usually
type.
same
two
the
on
believing
the
is
single
whose
astronomer
for
of
called
is
Addenda
"
explained
are
the
Ramsden
varieties, the
two
from
composed
use
of
distinguished
the
yfc/c/-lens),
the
for
apparatus
which
readily
forms
of
really
are
and
Huyghenian
special
be
called,
often
are
the
"
as
may
Ordinary,
The
two
auxiliary
Compensating.
the
only
they
as
mentioned,
be
chapter
oculars,
or
two
of
sum
their
has
being
focal
"
Aw-powcr
these
proportion,
focal
whereas
magnification
lengths,
for
medium
to
is
there
r$
being
power
usually
found
about
about
i
to
2.
change
the
of
right
ORDINARY
The
HUYGHENIAN
of
passage
the
OCULAR
through
rays
the
lenses
105
should
be
now
is the
O
consulting Fig. 84, where
objective,
E
F the field-lens,and
the eye-lens. Dealing with those
rays
which
from
emanate
a
point about the arrow-head, and presuming
xplained by
for the
focus
at
them
however, that
again
once
P, where
at
rendered
to
this
image
the
rays
the
eye
see
with.
the
plane
image
is in the
placed.
But
is the
It should
be
they
the field-
is formed.
Seeing,
focus of the
mentioned
eye-lens,
towards
the
the
at
are
condition
HUYGHENIAN
they would
of
interposition
are
is
the
A', where
which
parallel,
to
eye
monochromatic,
are
refracts
lens F
they
moment
axis
time
same
best
suited
here
that
for
the
mistake
E.YLPIECC
Fig. 84.
is often
made
the
to
lens
parallelwith
another.
one
the
evident.1
This
in
the
ordinary
causes
which
would
is upon
shown, the
but
beams
"
it
hence
the
passage
we
must
the
In
red
focus
at
refracted
to
pupil, and
not
at
as
focus
of this
chromatic
mono-
how
the
and
blue
before, but
see
pencil,
at
A'.
page
"
ceding
pre-
is alone
sively
exten-
very
The
piece
eye-
part
the
rays
issue.
again
be
monochromatic
of the
could
eye
for
rays
show
now
sideration,
con-
will hereafter
condition
to
parallel
little
axis, the
through
the
necessarily much
the field-lens F
How
the
path of the
but lightfrom an object is
if left alone
into
perfect achromatism.
a
issue
with
inevitably result, as
is
way,
such
diagram
with
they
is obvious
with
parallel
beam
then
beam
This
were
entire
incomplete vision
that
meant
leave
rays
often
for,if they
get
is not
parallel."It
the axis, as
never
the
incoming
meeting
If there
14.
io6
HUYGHENIAN
ORDINARY
produce
would
eye-lens,and
no
were
red
the blue
than
extent
drawn
as
eye
the
of the glass
dispersive power
be bent
less
to a
by the object would
out
sent
rays
107
single lens,it
colour fringes in the outer
image with
by the
used
were
virtual
OCULAR
to
and
ones,
into
each
point
of
the virtual
image
would
"
"
As
lens
any
of
seen
this
bent
reason
with
as
to
to
the
than
blue
than
than
meets
ray
the
red
one.
by the
(about
greatly predominates,
rays
with
sensibly parallelone
It is true
difference
of
the
1*52),
field-lens
and
such
to
some
is to
1-51
as
eye-
and
prism
of blue, and
companion
separation between
blue
meets
ray
its fellow.
colours
two
red
its
counteracted
cause
optical axis
that
more
for the
sufficient
first effect
the
is
advantage
refractive indices
but
the
separated
greater refractingangle
is for this
that
now
the
little consideration
but
of
is
still further
be
may
increasing from
with
become
and
extent
an
from
the eye-lens
emerge
// is this that proanother.
duces
to
is placed at the
image. A diaphragm
focus of the eye-lens.
The
Compensating
Huyghenian ocular is only an extension
the
of ideas
wish
image
such
things to
extent
an
to compensate
companion, and to just the right extent
other highof the apochromatic or
the opposite error
objective.
is effected
(as
in
the
formerly made,
again
in
the
seen
at
by using
now
half
exaggeration.
of
lens for
well
separated
or
It shows
now
as
the
The
tion
separa-
similar
one
by substituting
the simple eye-lens. On
or
is well
Fig. 85 this
holoscopic eyepiece.
greater
of Watson
discarded, by Swift);
achromatic
the lower
glass and
denser
holoscopic ocular
but
over-corrected
looking
are
of
condition
to
its blue
This
with
the
computer
of the virtual
crossing of these rays in the formation
seen
by the eye, the red image shall be made
larger
as
power
an
the
of
accentuate
by
than
the
"
further
that
achromatic
seen,
that
condition
rays
of
they arrive
the
at
although
the
two
crown
obtains
colours
lens
by
interval
sensibly greater
speak
the
becomes
which
purpose
is this state
diaphragm
manner
placed in
have
we
by
the
companion
used
be
cannot
as
which
too) the
been
furnishes
Huyghenian
compensating
said, it is evident
its focus
inside
between
hand-magnifier
work
for micrometer
or
edge of the
rapidly distinguishing in
lenses, it
Ramsden,1
red
"
the
The
compensation
eye-lens ; and it
eye-lens
that
virtual
if the
good
where
the
like
the
have
to
threads
be focussed
Ocular
Ramsden
of two
each
RAMSDEM
distinguishedfrom
once
it consists
as
towards
turned
being
be at
may
type of eyepiece
surfaces
red
already stated.
oculars
former
the
formed
focus of the
the
for
method
ready
The
that
by over-correcting
compound
of things that gives rise to the
"
simple
red
separation causes
if we
virtual image
so
may
parallel with the blue, but
the
is effected
from
former
the
explanation practicallyholds
same
the
"
not
eye,
in
of
crossing in such a
larger than that
diverging and
image
the
OCULAR
than
increase
form
to
by
seen
as
"
forth
issue
to
rays
This
ocular.
achromatic
HUYGHENIAN
COMPENSATING
io8
lenses,the
other.
The
the
convex
general path
EYEPIECE.
REAL
focus
or
man
OBJECT
GLASS
IrtAoe.
ut5
OCULAR
THE.
Fig. 86.
monochromatic
of
is shown
rays
theoreticallyis where
length of
focal
the
to
focal
lens
length of
It should
different
each
be noted
in the
case
"
is
either.
that
of
if turned
combination
as
"
But
d, that
as
the selection
86.
Fig.
is
the
equal,and
Huyghenian
upside-down can
the
in
to
The
best
say
where
distance
of the focal
for
ocular
be used
for
the
equal
apart
would
this condition
form
lengths is
///
throw
somewhat
that
such
indifferent
somewhat
hand-magnifier.
1
This
is
the
be
Huyghenian
is,it
can
ordinarily speaking,
entirely removed, and the
case,
then
be
used.
but
if the
eye-lens
in
the
focus
the
field-lens
made
to
RAMSDEN
focal
the lower
plane of
focal
upper
lens, the
the
would
field-lens,or
the
when
dust
ocular
and
The
of this
consequence
close
by the
overcome
flint
the
to
the
of
These
lenses.
Ramsden
eyepieces
may
remain
drawbacks
in
lenses
in
veniently
incon-
only
can
combinations
the
of
arrangement
planes still
focal
of achromatic
use
eye-
is to
painfullyapparent,
of the
substance
be
it to
in use,
theoreticallydemanded.
the
avoid
strictly fulfilled. To
imperfections in the glass of the
upon
was
and
be
all
slightly different
made
cannot
cause
any
109
the
arrangement
this, which
eye
of
plane
OCULAR
of
the
and
crown
best
be
form
of
the
same
be
as
with
regarded
suspicion.
is
idea of manufacture
compensating form the same
carried out, but to a higher order, by introducing a sufficiently
flint element
to produce a
chromatically overstrong concave
In
the
combination.
corrected
shown
is
in
Fig. 87.
The
Here
Zeiss
form
of
arrangement
is
of the rays
appearance
how
the extremely
it suffices to show
that
glass separates the blue and red rays so much
the
in the
is larger than
virtual
image the red component
in
blue which
is required to
the
correct
opposite condition
the objective. On
show
to
the other hand
the figure serves
dense
flint
not
were
be
might
eyepiece.
for
As
eyepieces manufactured
being for
form
those
up
to
the
by
the
ocular
matter
the nominal
to
be
used
the
x
as
the
lar
particu-
image would
an
ordinary
virtual
of fact,with
Zeiss
of this
combination
where
computed
purely achromatic,
Ramsden
dense
so
compensating
Huyghenian
6, after which
type
is in
the Ramsden
takes
their
eyepieces therefore
necessitates
scarcely
any
change
of
no
11
II
I,
I:
OCULARS
COMPENSATING
ii2
sizes
those
are
of the Council
Size
(
(
with a resolution
mostly in use, being in accordance
1889:
of the Royal MicroscopicalSociety,December
"
2,26-3
"
3,32'2
"
4,35*8
"
"
"
"
",
Sizes
Of
these
the
is
second
and
third, the
; the
whilst
last is that
other
are
odd
ro4
"
"
1-27
"
i'4i
"
dropping
are
of
out
23-300
for
"
32-258
35-8I4
"
"
long-tube
or
binoculars
There
binoculars.
largest-sized
of the
the
diameter;
for medium-sized
mean
use.
English
the
mm.
26-416
Continental
usual
diameter
mean
microscope
the
first is the
the
"
,"
"
'9173 inch,or
fitdraw-tube
to
i, 23-2 mm.,
sizes.
of
Ramsden,
and
Huyghenian
may
,.-',B
^..-""
Blue
"
ray
DIAPHRAGM
6lt"E
OF
Fig. 88.
EYE
THE.
Ordinary
"
Unochroniatic
Eye-lens. Blue
margin to field.
ray
outside,hence
blue
usually be distinguishedfrom
ordinary eyepieces by looking
held up to the light: the former
through them when
showing
red
the
to
the
whereas
latter
a
yellowish
margin
diaphragm,
produces
how
the
blue
difference
able
is not
fringe to
are
meant
point
not
bear
to
due
they
cither
to
are
not
lenses,the
is
to
field and
has
to
found
or
asked
writer
scientific
; hence
the
of the
few
ghenian
Huy-
coloured
as
the
any
Speaking
in
rays
whole
conjoint action
the
eye-lens,but
often
wherein
be
the
taken
been
explained, and
interest.
is that
eyepiece
due
be
compensating
in mind
the
It
text-book
any
point
of
maybe
of
form
to
field.
is to
this
upon
followingremarks
first
colour
point
to
information
in
the
by
of
the
to
the
question
which
two
is
ponent
com-
action
of
COMPENSATING
the
former
be considered
entirely. Indeed
may
and the effect is
a
condenser, for it may be removed
latter
the
merely
OCULARS
as
unaltered
Blue
ray
Red
r-~--*J
SIDE
OF
EVE
THE
If
are
taken) from
seen
Eye-lens.
in the
the
and
splitup
blue rays
of B, where
direction
the blue
together,hence
(only two
to
eye
the
lens will be
them
sees
lies outside
ray
colours
as
the
if
red
Blue ray
Red
"
SIDE
OF
EYE
THE
Fig. 90.
"
(or rather,owing
hence
the
the blue
case
of
Over-corrected
margin
the
to
its greater
to
the field.
achromatic
In
eye-lens, the
blue
represents
red
and
keep
be furnished
to the
together,and so a colourless margin would
corrected
in Fig. 90, of the overBut
edge of the diaphragm.
eye-lens(as in all Zeiss compensating Huyghenian oculars),the
red
is bent
image, as
thus
seen
so
much
by
more
the
explaining the
eye,
reddish
than
the
it lies outside
blue
at
that
the
in
virtual
the
arrow-points A,
DIAMETER
ii4
Curiously these
do
PUPIL
distinguishing characteristics
obtain
not
OF
cither
the
with
of
holoscopicocular
dering
colour-ren-
when
adjusted
to
is
eye ; hence
eyepiece is
the
when
do
rays
take
not
virtual
the
the
how
observable
This
an
adjusted
it is
some
either
in
that
case,
for the
ordinary or
the
diaphragm
is to
say,
compensating
effects.
The
the
as
red
edge
to
compensating ocular
explains itself by
Ramsden
the
the
of
cause
matter
needs
the
in the
further
no
study of
of
case
comment,
the
previous
figures.
leaving the subjectof eyepieces,seeing the importance
should always be the required diameter
that the emerging beam
Before
and
pass
the
show
how
to
enter
to
not
to
the
philosophy by
Of
the
course
different
individuals, but
according
the
to
To
variation
from
Taking
others.
the
under
whilst
with
any
to
the
formuke
diameter
point
beam
is affected
and
be
how
out
from
that
can
is not
ocular.
These
by
far from
of
the
primitive
of
with
that
mind
times
the
pupil,or
be
the
the
be
presumed
been
that,
the
microscopist,
one-tenth
of
an
be
must
discussion
Before
has
its
physiologists and
many
the
and
should
inch; but
understood
that
follows,
actually commencing
of
diameter
that
stated
the
emerging
such
diameter
(i) the
the
focal
same
lens
of
in
different
at
diameter
hold
ascertain
factors:
on
varies
pupil
different circumstances,
given
t\vo
at, for
handbooks
borne
empirically it
by
out
with
eyepiece, it
simple
the
interpolated.
to
point
is arrived
diameter
which
are
to
most
be
it may
the
lens of the
another
also
somewhat
omission
an
and
the
of evidence
circumstances
stating this
it should
consideration
working diameter
usual
of
under
mass
diameter
under
be
and
the normal
desideratum
subject in
its normal
direction
the eye.
on
from
varies
pupil
any
Addenda
normal
diameter
computation
the
to
it would
eye,
such
such
which
See
microscope.
the
ascertain
is made
little reference
the
pupil of
same
forms
as
the
objective
equivalent
are
taken
focal
and
length as
for simplicity^
EL
the
DIAMETER
in
and
objectiveOL
being
affect
way
no
focus
115
the
the
be formed
would
PUPIL
for purposes
excluded
arrow
at
OF
of
Half
description.
this situation.
at
The
the
Fb the
at
rays
rays
inverted
OL
Fig. 91.
focus, pass
side
F2
and
one
F!
the
as
Ramsden
the
the
on
to the
on
pass
to
on
eye-lens EL
other
of
and
axis
the
periphery of EL,
In
circle.
Fig. 92
the
same
one
parallel,
Those
on
argument
is
at
with
from
act,meeting those
union
one
focussing
one
parallel
rendered
point of
This
shows.
diagram
ad '.
the axis
towards
bent
are
are
issue
the
called
holds, but
as
Fig. 92.
the
eye-lens
power)
is
smaller
of
shorter
focal
circle
Ramsden
It is obvious
then
that the
needs
where
(2)
as
Ramsden
circle,
higher magnification,with its smaller
smaller
in Fig. 91,
a
pupil than the larger circle shown
the magnification was
Hence
the greater the magless.
nification
the smaller
the
pupil be.
may
In
before.
Fig. 93 let OL
Let
the
rays
be
AA
an
objectiveand
be
alone
EL
the
considered.
Apiece
This
lens
repre-
DIAMETER
sents
the
of
lens
low
pupil is small
aperture
BB
OF
numerical
as
by A'A7.
lens of
"
the
aperture, and
indicated
be considered
PUPIL
beam
Now
to
let the
largernumerical
enter
full
aperture
Fig. 93-
of
description and
better what
of the
is lessened.
the lowest
The
becomes
the
larger and
is to
then
problem
magnificationwith
mind
be put another
follows, may
issuingbeam
clear
to
so
The
way.
largeras
show
the
how
is
stand
under-
diameter
tion
magnifica-
to
given objectivethat
to
as
ascertain
permissible
^EYE
94.
to
allow
the
beam
from
pupil of tl
,
state
The
for convenience
for pr"
first be borne
argument
It must
at
the
eyepiece completely to enter
in. diameter.
This
magnification \ve
the
once
to
be
in mind
be
taken
equal
as
that the
to
200
times
the N.A.
folio
compound
microscope,
RAMSDEN
would
as
be
shown
and
lens
which
has
has
what
aperture, the
i
optically perfect
an
In
rule
general
the
the
in what
the
in
the
focus
follows
chapter
be
same
of
let
the
f1 be
numerical
upon
understood
this
aperture divided
that
follows
"
magnification (at
this formula
diameter
at
is necessary
is
'
posed
Trans-
;^="
magnification under
into
(i) we
get
"
or-NJL-2.
N.A.
the
required
to
magnification.
given
to
find
we
get
we
lens
any
being the
"
NJL--
by
in.)of
10
consideration.
(a)
f1
becomes
this
Then
94
of
N-A-=^'
The
N.A.
let/* be
P. ; and
will
(i)
given
lens
effect
same
Transposing
In
Fig.
said
been
half
^rj-or
clear diameter
117
length.
From
N.A.
by
the
magnification.
N.A.
its focal
of
inversion
the
apart from
CIRCLE
fill,
say, | in. pupil at
find
pupil
Example
of
What
magnification of
200
"
|oi2oo
=
20
so
N.A.
1*25 is
If, however,
pencil with
required.
desire
we
given N.A.
know
to
and
the
of
diameter
given magnification,
the
we
emerging
have
"
P=2oxN-A-.
(*)....
say,
650
objective with
An
Example:
; what
is the
N.A.
of the
diameter
20
-65
given
that
on
diameter
the
other
the
pencil
of
may
hand,
pupil,what
pass
the
emerging
magnification of,
pencil ?
i.
presuming
is the
pupil
^m'
-6^-
Again,
'65 and
given N.A.
and
magnification required
Then
"
a
so
RAMSDEN
ii8
Example
the
Let
CIRCLE
pupil
be fixed
-^ in.,and
at
the
N.A.,
say,
"65 ; then"
m
"
diameters.
130
"
iff
If
we
now
then
way,
20x^A;
"
200x
TV
shows
which
furnishes
and
that
shows
when
proof that
of this discussion
the commencement
also
the
the
made
assertion
the
is correct
at
formula
This
the limit of
emerging
employed.1
is
to
is
This
is the
Semi-diameter
circle?
eyepiece, of
focal plane.
on
which
Ramsden
the
by
in the upper
measured
objective,
N.A.
different way
the
This
objectivein
Ramsden
The
circle
of
full aperture
image depends
the well-known
the
the
on
manner
obtain
we
in its upper
measured
the
to
of
power
the
we
number
of the
'
objective
emerging
of
cone
objective,
any
plane
"
N.A.
forms
Focal
of the
length
objective.
therefore
have
focal
yepicce
diameter
the
the
diminished
diameter
the
of the
N.A.
"
length of objective
Focal
circle
Ramsden
This
be
may
modified
2;o
objective
focal
mm.
whence
|ength ;
Focal
and
introducingthis
Diameter
(i) we
get
circle
=
.
denominator
rule
of
the
nTitialTa^Tfication
'"
"
is,obviously,the
mm.
N.A.
Eyepiece number
Initial
The
magnification
by transposing"
500
of Ramsden
initial
obtain
we
length of objective
in
the
introducing
by
magnification
magnification;
total
"
hence
the
"
simple
"
The
diameter
of
the
Ramsden
circle
SOP
Total
of the
Imposition
re
the
the
focal
upper
depends entirely
anyhow
Ramsden
eyepiece forms
without
on
the
circle (or
the
plane
image
eyepiece.
of
construction
somewhat
eye-ring,as
of the
detailed
of
aperture
Its
mm.
N.A.
magnification
it is sometimes
of the
distance
computation.
called)
objective,slightly
from
cannot
the
be
top lens
foretold
MAGNIFICATION
120
EF
and
twice
dotted
and
and
equal
the other
there
four
GH
and
AB
to
be
to
EF
is
; GP
little
PH
four
"
ABCD
direction
from
above
to
Hence, when
side.
the
object is
said
attention
times
so
this
so
are
with
on
in what
is called
But
twice
twice
in
holds
magnification,
is
diameters
each
side
This
any
in
linear measure,
the
Fig. 96
square
is
it is
from
"diameters"
good for
that
object
"areas."
and
and
LG
it is evident
only enlarged
amplified two
be
and
and
downwards,
speaking
to
and
four
or
is
that
twice
EL
equal BC,
"
the
equally, dividing EG
equallingABCD
equally obvious
"
each
more
each
magnified
drawn
are
understand
to
respectively. Then
and
squares,
difficult
not
OKP
and
sides.
are
said
It
lines ; LKM
FH
each
AD.
little
magnified five
the
in
its
picture by
as
the
in
it, so
be
twenty-five
enlarged
side
but
largerdiagram has
twenty-five little squares
it
in
large
This
that used
terms
of
in
"
is
diameters
times
simply
however,
it has
magnifying
died
of
out
of
powers
in
the
oculars
in
of
refer to
straight. We
magnifies "times
so
much";
times
eight ocular
(written x
set
with
had
an
mistake
"times
which
some
the
initial
that
has
eight"
this
.vhich
been
meant
has
Used
made
not
arisen
to
for
8)
power
of
in
the
attached
had
we
used
was
what
the
is
in
different
in
spoke
years,
of
led
the
to
better
at
conjunction
stood
universally under-
eyepiece
in
eight diameters',
minds
diameters, but
simply
be
as
the
that
is
day
magnifying
present
has
that
manner
two
comparatively recent
in daily use
to speak
In
use.
the fashion
minds
times
expressed
passed along, this expression of
time
as
become
little confusion
once
the
to
hence,
to
"
simple explanation
be in vogue.
But the scientist never
at all,for his magnifications
were
always
areas
"
"
said
area.
of
terms
be
can
from
the
to
the
of
the
that
instead.
Of
unfortunate
word
but
was,
some
areas
question
mcan-
"times"
as
MAGNIFICATION
with
synonymous
whereas
areas,
it is meant
now
be
to
the
diameters.1
as
same
121
the introduction
to
of
made
to
apparent
of
eye
end
this
careful
object at the
an
in
inconveniences
difficultiesand
the
what
world
his
; and
has
method,
real
different
magnification
microscope, which
observer, led
obtainingthe
been
called
reconsider
to
standpoint, with
the
to
gave
him
thus
were
scientific
his
"
and
facturing
manu-
idea
new
the
"
upon
which
little attention
requires some
been
to follow, has
slowly but surely adopted by all,or nearly
all,the leading opticians both in England and on the Continent.
the Abbe
evaluation
Before proceeding to explain
method,"
evaluation
"
however,
first show
must
we
the
older
methods
which
obtained
now
are
question,and which even
employed
with
when
and
oculars not
dealing
objectives
by microscopists
arranged upon his specialsystem of nomenclature.
the
to
up
end
of
the
has
been
magnification of
the
obtain
To
in
time
object
an
in the easiest
microscope
is
way,
system.'"'It
as
seen
by
the
is based
the
at
of
use
eye
what
direct
upon
first what
use
"
is called
"
an
"
No.
or
eyepiece. Having
for a
only the name
I
10
in. from
5 to
10
used
to
above
mm.
This
short
of
and
times"
microscopistsof the
"diameters"
ever
seen.
See
dies
be
on
into
the
the
terms
found
is
now
ground
of
the
originaldistinction
hard
in the
minds
of
old school.
as
Micrometers, or graticules,
they
Co., 51-60, Holborn
Viaduct, by a new
have
because
will
compasses
seen
as
converted
(having been
pair of
here
explanationis interpolated
"number
between
certain
interval
which
ocular"
the
measure
glass,which
1
eyepoint of the
its eye-lens.
the
Addenda.
are
now
process,
called,made
are
by Rheinberg
certainlythe
finest
we
MAGNIFICATION
ASCERTAINING
122
order
same
of
much
those
as
inch, or
an
known
the distance
so
to
between
those
obtained
is the
exist
approximately.1
required very
eyepiece
must
by
meter.
micro-
stage
magnification
be repeated
change
that when
of
length
draws
To
accuracy.
give
their
appendix
an
his
again
magnificationsfor
objectives with
own
has
he
to
every
of
this is,
the
correct
tion
aberra-
magnification
recalculate
to
values
them
for
in
meet
table of
and
with
consequence
his tube
out
made
special"draw"
the
The
cover-glass,all
thin
extra
be
must
draw-tube.
observer
an
an
of
immediately upset,
are
each
it is obvious
in
with
the
linear
"so
say,
divided
then
on
process
to
and
This
is
that
"
millimetres")is
many
quotient thus
The
micrometer
the
on
show
to
much
of certain
combination
different
their
how
the
oculars, but
of
increase
also
of
add
amplificationis
by additional
For
tions
approximalengthsof the draw-tube.
this tabular system amply suffices,
but it is not
sufficiently
minds.
to pleasesome
accurate
it is really much
better for the
Practicallyand theoretically
caused
and
actual
values
for
objectiveand
each
normal
these
that magnificationat
eyepiece separately
', so
tube-lengthsis immediately found by multiplyingtogether
factors, any
two
increasing the
meant,
that if such
be,
objective
out
for all,the
one-sixth
initial value
extent
the
is
we
say
it
will
the
magnificationof
value
60, and
say,
in
increase
entire
at
tube
distance
increased
from
be
necessary
is
ascertained
this
is
thereby approximately
because
required. Having
objective. By
approximately
shown,
the
normal
the
ately
tube-length proportion-
this
new
hereafter
if
great
to
the
same
cation,
slightmodifiaccuracy
quantity, the
be
amount
RATIONAL
only
has
in the usual
How
to
manner
these
ascertain
to
of
Abbe
entire
the
proceed
to
the
put
its very
from
reader
objective consists
the object in that
computer
But
it is here
asked
such
of
of
as
this
located ? And
what
obtaining the
the
his
so
down
or
up
within
the
involves
whole
matter
power
of
If the
always
optician were
times
image plane,"as it is someits situation
as
being at such
the
which
draw-tube,
millimetres
above
distant
But
objective to be found
is the distance
lie.
"
shall
where
without
explanationsmight be cumbersome
many
an
amplification of
draw-tube
image
arise.
once
describe
not
of
amount
focussed
position of the
the
plane of
focal
upper
piece
eye-
operation.
possession of the
in
elected
distance
plane
values, however,
that difficulties at
but
unscientific,
focal
separate
particular plane
and
qualifications
certain
the
measuring
called,he would
and
complete
process
in
has
furnish
to
of the
power
commencement.
Theoretically, the
the
123
forms
fittingly
Professor
PLANE
explanation, and
littlethought and
some
IMAGE
be
to
METHOD:
it that is
above
the
where
How
and
upper
is this
it be
can
usually selected
text-book
Abbe
were
one
that
took
in
set
of
of
the
this
state
whilst
data
was
his
into
matter
chaotic
the
mentions
even
that
of
a
question.
confusion, for
much
chose
had
to
Professor
all these
consideration
second
When
one
chose
computer
another.
be
positions
The
presumed,
quence
conse-
and
the
that many
thought
objectives were
was
secondary consequence
less than
to
others, although of the same
or
magnify more
added
focal length ! To this confusion
was
yet another, which
from the fact that opticiansinsisted on callingtheir oculars
arose
by either letters of the alphabet A, B, C, D, or by numerals
of their relative
giving any hint whatever
adopted by convention
magnifications. It is usually now
Abbe's
influence of Professor
owing largely to, the masterful
writingsand teachings that the distance of the image plane of
focus from
the upper
focal plane of the objective,called "the
i, 2, 3, 4, without
"
"
OPTICAL
124
MECHANICAL
AND
shall
opticaltube-length,"
of
form
be
TUBE-LENGTHS
180
microscope, and
for the
mm.
270
short
for the
mm.
long
nental
Conti-
or
English
or
definite
form.
"
shown
be
It will
such
no
and
proposals,"
all
accepted by
real
the
that
that
hereafter
such
that
English
that
proposal
one
is
getting
Continental
and
magnification
of
of Professor
is
and
more
manufacturers.
objectivecan
any
Abbe's
more
Seeing
be
at
once
student
able
be
to
of
situation
exact
it is of
that
evident
than
more
accurately
this
interest
determine
to
with
plane
academic
and
for the
locate
the
any
examination.
has
what
been
said, the
practicalmicroscopist will
readily admit that the magnification at the image plane will
largely depend upon the length of this opticaltube ; but it may
it is also largelyaffected by
not be immediately
apparent how
From
length of
focal
the
combination.
the
This
will be
better understood
by
to
be
; if removed
rule
the
of
image plane
from
then
that
obvious
be
kind
the
yard
allowed
be
must
of
if 270
90;
this,that
135, and
mm.,
two
"
so
real
focal
remain
The
varies,as
matter
"
the
plane of
in
the
which
mechanical
interval
'when
describe
tube-lengths,of
given to the
the
objective
It
focal
to
the
focal
measure
to
jtoken.
the
of this upper
"jn
of
is
upper
proceeding
Before
name
then
mm.,
simply
magnification
by dividing tJic
given objective is always to be found
any
'iof the adopted opticaltube (that is to say, the distance
of
Hence
on.
to
180
that
reader's
shall
standard
is included
on
for
the
fact,very
discovering the
no
objective,
any
\vc
or
/;/ situ
of actual
method
mind
confusion
with
respect
betwc-en
the
microscope)
sensiblyin
some
shoulder
and
cases.
the
LOCATING
UPPER
the
of
eyepiece end
Continental
when
it should
the
and
the
distance
170
or
250
125
for the
mm.
by
now
short
or
10
or
mm.,
being
the
mean
distance
in
millimetres
of
the
where
; such
mm.
to
focal
upper
PLANE
understood
be
between
160
at
instrument,
But
model.
draw-tube
fixed
consent
common
FOCAL
the
would
be
for the
long
image
found
the
image
object
the
draw-tube
after focussing and
were
eyepiece removed
amount.
tube-length to its proper
adjusting the mechanical
have
for the short or
This length, we
just stated, is 180 mm.
plane
Continental
It will be
form.
20
Abbe
the focal
ascertain
two
measurements
two
L0
tube-lengths
plane
differ from
therefore
of
and
magnification
and
The
Lj.
we
do
this
taken
are
with
the
eyepiece
upper
will
then
quantity
-h
-x
**"
"
focal
length
see
(Ln
-f.
ri
focal
x)
"
m\
mQ
"
length
"
LI
reducing which
obtain
we
L0
"
focal
"*'
length
Focal
length
being interpretedmeans
T FMPTTT
J-iiLJN
\j J. rl
of
tube-lengthsemployed
"
,^
"
of
with
divisions
"ruling" should
the
on
stage
"
magnification experimentally
In actual
slip to place
......
"
r~z.
_-
difference
are
that the
difference
FOPAT
L/VxAJL*
J.
Lf),
;;/!
which
"""
"
"
L'
(i)
To
constant
ld
length
L,
or
first step
the
between
the
in
L,
x
~
we
ml
distance
placed
tion
sugges-
"
Ln
this
plane
and
mQ
tube-length by
have, theoretically
should
the
combination.
the mechanical
focal
From
the
was
type of instrument.
focal
upper
length of
micrometer
least,that
of each
case
the
English
or
opticaltube-lengthis usually
at
"
in the
"
mm.
that the
is to
focal
270
the mechanical
of Professor
In
then
seen
than
more
mm.
and
instrument,
in
of
the
rulings on
apart
mm.
of
*i
mm.
"
cover-glasses
mounted
microscope, and
separated by intervals
-"-
found
the
This
on
other
latter
glass of such a
diameter
that it can
be slipped into a Ramsden
eyepiece,which
be arranged so
must
to
as
permit the rulings being indebe
mounted
on
disc
of
THE
FINDING
126
FOCAL
LENGTH
ACCURATELY
must
the
on
made
focussing the
for
rulings before
microscope.1
The
between
distance
exact
(remembering
that
the
in
most
is
micrometers
the
eyepiece
cover-glass ruling
balsamed
cases
micrometer
these
in
beneath
placed
objective
measurements
that
must
follows)and
of the
divisions
of the
be
to
their
tested
be
now
eyepiece
so
us
example
Having
an
mm.
the
to ascertain
these
of
be very
must
in
as
equal,
say
disc
microscope, several
four
as
micrometer
Let
13*5
the
(say
taken,
be
to
on
made
mean
stage micrometer.
found
was
eyepiece-
the
using
follows
as
many
five divisions
say,
are
example
how
mm.
mm.
'05
(say)is found
'05
Ditto
53'!
Ditto
"05
Ditto
52'5
Ditto
'05
Ditto
52-8
Ditto
be contained
to
in
52*8
divisions
of the
eyepiece
micrometer, which
equals
5'28
....
5-31
5*25
....
5*28
'20
21'
Therefore
I mm.
The
the
observations
mean
The
for
length of
entire
happens, an
objective to
the
end
magnificationare
In
this
case
we
of
the
again
will suppose
260
mm.
from
draw-tube)
scale
hence
say
1 2
105*6 mm.
will
we
final
the
dia)".
105*15
(making,
the
shoulder
it
as
of
the
five observations
and
made.
"
mm.
mm.
'04
is found
"04
Ditto
'04
Ditto
"04
Ditto
"04
Ditto
54*0
divisions
....
54'3
!-""tto
54.3
Ditto
....
54'i
5*41
54'o
Ditto
54'o
Ditto
to
be contained
in
of the
eyepiece of
micrometer,which
....
....
If
any
difficultyari^-s
red
Chafer
XII.
to
the
in
the
section
on
the
equals
.....
iind
ascertaining
conccrnir.
the
size of given
5*40
5'4o
MAGNIFICATION
128
the
in., by
10
diameters,
the
be
found
by
length
"
them
using
in. away
from
eye-lens) and
amounts
the
sum
as
initial of
the
on
be
to
amounts
to
300,
responsiblefor
60
and
ground
final
the
know
we
may
which
the
at
magnifying
to
on
10
screen
above
mm.
the
final
magnification
objectivewe divide
the
the
by
class
of
power
and
amount,
the
If
ocular.
of the
objectivehas been
the screen
on
amplification
that
once
of
power
the
is
eyepiece
5, .because
divided
300
5.
This
method
furnishes
the
by
60,
power
with
previouslyaccurately determined)
the
shown
dealing
are
objective (of
eyepoint (about 5 to
much
the
measuring how
Knowing
ascertained
we
magnifies five
magnifying
any
for
by
If
the
to.
final
the
forth.
upon
been
2-in.
oculars, their
magnificationvalue has
and
projectingthe image
10
so
OCULAR
hence
"
ten, and
lettered
"
simply
focal
inch
an
OF
of
testing the
results
true
optician who
he would
have
tube
correct
magnifying
provided
made
the
them
arranged
the
eyepieces
so
oculars
constructed
are
for
objectives;
that
of
power
it is
presumed
they
draw-
planes shall
coincide with the image plane of the objective. Unfortunately
until Professor
Abbe
position for all
stronglyurged a uniform
the
manufacturers
always
the
that
an
is
more
or
than
that
magnify
same
have
distance.
adopt,
to
eyepiece by
that
this
of another
more
If
one
were
would
magnification
of
have
course
be
of
the
designation),
same
ocular
to
the
drop
two
in the
dropped
too
small,
too
to
appear
may
of
objectivealthough
because
to
now,
even
uniformity
apparently magnify
may
another
is not
of the lack of
certain
length ; obviously
and
not,
maker
focal
their lower
(although
less than
or
was
bne
objective with
an
that
so
the consequence
and
case;
focal
not
distance
the
manufacturers
similar
tube
far,
the
because
final
really the
optical tube
was
thus
again we
to
stop
Abbe
Professor
and
introducing
footing by
apochromatic
series of
which
with
set
matters
on
quite different
their
objectivesand
fault
OCULAR
129
Once
discrepanciesurged
to
system
OF
should.
theoretically
these
for all
such
no
it
how
point out
once
PLANE
than
amplified more
that
one
FOCAL
LOWER
LOCATING
his
new
compensating
pieces,
eye-
found.
be
can
distinct
for
upon
Should
the
object on
lines of the
equally
by
the
the
stage in
divisions
well
draw-tube
upon
This
plane
the
as
lines
ruled
he
the
sees
that
same
the
which
the
sees
means
the
on
when
that
manner
correctlyhe
focussed.
objective lies
such
have
of
end
upper
been
resting.
ocular to
rulings,the Huyghenian
and
be tested is gently slid into the draw-tube
a
positionfound
(without disturbing either the focus or the draw-tube) where
the eyepiece shows
the object on
the stage distinctlyfocussed.
removed
Having
The
tube
top of
the
of
the
the
latter
ocular
must
now
is the
level with
marked
be
position of
the
lower
the
focal
one
obtainingthe position
the
draw-tube
at
the
After
other.
best
measurements
were
focus
matters
made
should
have
been
must
end
focal
gone
NOMENCLATURE
ABBE
130
be used
of the objectives(tested),and
(tested)can
upon
any
multiplyingthe values together will give the true magnification
values required. Increase
of the mechanical
tube-length simply
alters the length of the opticaltube
and
so
proportionately
results
increases
the magnification of the objective. The
of
of
increase
an
the
we
before
earlier
stages
approximations
in
matter
the
difference
of
draw-tube
as
stated, when
of
the
and
true
not
considered
we
tube-lengths
the
before
and
argument
mechanical
optical and
really
now
are
the
pointed
was
out.
This
concludes
the
the
points concerning
values
of
before
adopted
explanation and
objectivesand
Professor
nomenclature.
new
of
methods
In
under
came
of
consequence
the
the
upon
his
leading
real
the
ascertaining
oculars
Abbe
of the
discussion
old
fication
magni-
methods
scene
with
his
in
the
researches
conception and
carrying
the
practical utilityfound
use
of his
have
adopt
to
of
methods
induced
his
of
To
an
nomenclature.
have
length
of
160
mm.
270
mm.
explanation of this
decided
at
the
to
the
12
their
of
construction
be
such
end
that
of
position.
the
This
for
tube-
position
within
inni.
Professor
that
the
length
their
was
of
the
Abbe
should
his
turn.
It
180
did
for both
is obvious
when
excellent
slipped
this
into
12
their
he
models
involved
for both
lie
and
mm.
mention
not
plane
compensating oculars
lower
focal planes should
the
microscope of
his
an
of
proposed
be
we
image
draw-tubes.
draw-tube
opticians
now
Continental
; but
English model
fix the
to
will
we
pieces,
eye-
NOMENCLATURE
ABHE
mechanical
objectives and
leading features
the
and
thought
optical tube
for the
of
up-to-date manufacturing
already stated
the
both
evaluation
THE
We
this
exist
to
most
lines
of
out
in the
mm.
models
from
working
ABBE
practicallyno
change
of every
what
it would
involved
to
NOMENCLATURE
tube
the
or
long
close to the
magnifier held
him
by
"
have
to
used
(250-7-2)whether
that
seen
once
he
here
convention, for it
the
long opticaltube
the
same
To
amount
made
of 270
a
on
the
of
if
that
180
he
magnified
his
to
gave
125
on
tious
ficti-
oculars
such
magnification values
not
all
from
not
mm.,
anomaly
It is at
possibly magnify
the
two-thirds
length.
it could
mm.,
tube.
departure
2-mm.
said
be
diameters
125
long
pronounced
singlesimple
would
2-mm.
or
as
method
of dividing
by the hitherto orthodox
focal lengths. He consequently called his fictitious
be obtained
would
their
by
250
short
words
values, in other
hence
as
magnification
tube
this apparent
correct
obvious
was
"
be if treated
elected
objective whether
the
on
Further, he
focus.1
of
eye
initial
an
131
figuresby
new
that
name,
of
"
angular magnifications,"the
actual
the
by employing
following
to
length, producing
object. Thus
the
reallyto
comes
large
distant
and
this
the
by
on
other
distant
distinct
lO-in.
focal
according
The
of distinct
distance
based
said,was
or
In
the
value, as
vision distance.
25o-mm.
with
accordance
the
vision
to
of
image
"
"
initial power
have
we-
Dividing
of
the
jective
ob-
his system.
image produced
object be made
the
by
objective
subtend
can,
like
any
larger angle by
looking at it through a telescope, and according to the power
of such we
should
less
or
cation."
naturally get more
angular magnifiOf course,
microscopes are not made
up of a magnifier
to
"
"
Abbe
telescope ; but Professor
got over
lens
that difficultyby imagining a compound
placed at the
of
lens being composed
focal plane of the objective,such
upper
the objective
to weaken
a concave
portion just the right power
plus
so
as
of
astronomical
an
to
Messrs.
turn
the
"
Bausch
and
Buffalo, N.Y.,
ordinary Huyghenian
real
projected image
Lomb,
some
into
of Rochester, N.Y.,
other
eyepieces
makers
in pre-war
The
adopted
times.
distant
Spencer
the
same
virtual
Lens
for
Co.,
their
ABBE'S
132
formed
the
The
OBJECTIVE
lens which
exactly compensatingconvex
imaginary objectivefor his imaginary telescope.
with
in contact
one,
IMAGINARY
the
mean
compensating oculars
of the imaginary telescope,
with its
angular magnifying power
imaginary but otherwise perfectobjective in the upper focal plane
of
numbers
an
then
the
on
the
length and
becomes
evident
times
1*5
instrument,
if he
uses
270
ocular
the
27O-mm.
explains
their
microscope
of
one
the
on
that
and
microscopist
tube
that
much
as
with
other
the
telescope
reason
why
the
as
now
be
the
on
on
180
tells the
he
eyepieces
must
It
length.
apparently magnify
must
short-tube
values
in
mm.
the
long-
1*5
times
considered
greater.1
1
As
the
above
paragraph
it
make
following may
consisting of
be
may
clear
more
objective O,
an
difficult to
Let
Fig.
understand, perhaps
97
field-lens
considered
be
eye-lens E
F, and
the
scope
micro-
is turned
97on
is
object I
intercepted by
an
objective alone
The
the
field-lens
III, which
IV
i
without
seen
the
ai:
upper
by
latter
the
eye.
F and
is
would
rhanged
i
Abb-
form
into
the
by
".
iry
objective
focal length of
the
into
lens
compound
ny
O"
II.
smaller, but
"
imngc
real
the
and
lens
is
may
This
sharper,
the
virtunl
is
be
supposed
placed
placed
to
be
ABBE
readily
It will be
strict
in
the
be
found
if
correct
explained, neither
appear,
of
powers
of
sense
tube
the
instrument
the
are
in
the
two
(if we
i6o-mm.
or
on
their
first
speak)
so
all
previously
manner
it at
at
will not
ordinary fashion,
as
may
initial
magnification
in the
But, strange
these
the
obtained
magnifying powers
have
already shown.
when
not
nomenclature
experimentally tested
mechanical
25O-mm.
ordinary
and
133
Abbe's
in
seen
objectivesare
of the
values
NOMENCLATURE
real
as
sight
we
may
fictitious values
the
question are multipliedtogether the result is nevertheless
true
magnification required. On
consideration,however, such
is not to be wondered
at in a different
at, if the subject be looked
in
There
way.
is the
call F,
may
which
we
four
are
third, T, the
evaluation
of
method
E, the
have
Magn-
Magn-
factors
focal
objective;
length of
the
; and
of
distinct
obtain
the
first,which
the
second,
eyepiece ; the
fourth
vision.
final
the
we
and
last,V,
In
old
the
magnification
we
V
x
-^
to
the
of
length
distance
The
employed.
optical tube-length
conventional
the
focal
term
may
factors
whereas
"
in the
Abbe
method
we
By this
if-
it ^s at
once
have
seen
same
multiplied together in the
fashion, which
For
explains the apparent anomaly.
example, let a 2-mm.
short-tube
Its Abbe
is 125.
If
value
objective be dealt with.
are
tested
on
short-tube
described) of
160
power
is not
length
it will be
say,
in the
usual
an
125
but
135.
8-times
manner
mecJianicaL
mm.
90
(by
microscope
; and
if
Still,if
we
on
the
methods
25o-mm.
on
the
mechanical
short-tube
already
"
tubement,
instru-
obtained
estimate,
each
other.
and a convex
neutralising
By
composed of a concave
component
of suitable focal length (equalto the opticaltube-length)
reckoning the concave
with the objective,
the latter becomes
a
magnifier producing a very distant
with the eyepiece,forms
image of the object. The convex
part of A, taken
astronomical
further
an
"angular5' magnification is
telescope by which
obtained"
lens
the
behind
i.e. whilst the
imaginary concave
placed
eye
would
the object under
it through the imaginary
the angle a, it sees
see
telescope" under the largerangle /3. Tangent a divided by tangent /3 is the
the eyepiece,according to Abbe's
nomenclature,
figure to engrave
on
proper
as
its power.
ABBE
134
because
NOMENCLATURE
the
reallyon
opticaltube the
180
magnification of the
be actually 90 (i80 -4- 2),and
to
the
objectivehas been shown
8 eyepiece having a focal length of 22*5 mm.
in
(which means
old-fashioned
of
language a true
magnifying power
iru)
produces
net
magnificationof
little further
"angular magnification" of
focal
length in
that
of
any
correctlyobtained
be
always
can
999'9.
the
figuresfor
tube,
by their
mm.
270
or
the
oculars
compensating
by dividing 180
millimetres
the
mm.
for the
long.
Further, it will be
of
the
understood
now
objectives(under
this
that
style)are
the
as
initial values
recognised
not
be
to
mechanical
reallythe true values either with the 160 or 250 mm.
are
not
tube-lengths,and that as the figuresfor the oculars
the real magnification quantities in diameters, why the term
has
been
nomenclature
writers
by some
fictitious
applied to
Abbe's
elegant method, to distinguish it from what has been
already explained. But in
designated as the rational system
for its general acceptance, it will be
be
to
seen
justification
of
arrangement
an
calculate
scopistto
the
two
the
two
always
270
mm.
said
of the
draw
of
the
real
the
magnificationat
break
to
without
tube
microscope
down
in
eye
microend
for
is necessary
initial power
final
at
"
If
convenience.
cover-glassadjustment,
at
the
these
under
an
extra
an
altered
once
flies to
once
magnifications
correct
to
glass,the opticaltube-length is
of
ordinary
simply by multiplying
values, that of the objective and the ocular, together ;
either
180
or
provided the optical tube-lengths are
But
it is just here at this point where
the system
4-mm.,
say,
final
ordinary models
be
may
the
for the
convenience
great
winds.
and
To
when
using,
additional
thin
the
cover-
validity
obtain
the
circumstances, it is first
length of
optical tube
by
focal plane of
from
the upper
measuring the distance
objective to the lower focal plane of the ocular, which we
the
to
necessary
stated
is
mouth
of
was
the
180
: 200
out
the
new
the
have
below
the
to be
12
mm.
by Professor Abbe
the
this
tubedraw-tube
(let us say for argument
found
be 200
the
to
mm.), and then, to ascertain
of the
a
ocular, work
proportion sum.
Seeing
fixed
values
that
find
normal
as
the
opticaltube
angular
value
is
180,
of the
v.
eyepiece is
to
the
required figure.
OF
LIMITS
136
USEFUL
shall work
convention
MAGNIFICATION
for
correct
obtaining the
final
tion
magnifica-
values.1
ON
THE
MAGNIFICATION
THE
LIMIT
USEFUL
OF
VARIOUS
\VITH
is
There
IN
GENERAL,
MAGNIFICATION
IN
that
the
to
mind
lay
the
feature of the
in its
microscope lies principally
marvellous
magnification: it naturally seems
of
be
can
thousand
constructed
and
the
unless
value
went
far
objective with
Abbe,
to
as
which
in
be well
attractive
most
wonderful
that
anything
power
ment
instru-
an
enlarged
it is obtained
of
one
his
explain
what
details
observations,
is of
he
panied
accom-
the
laconic
magnification
to
is
render
to
aperture
"Empty
say,
It will
whatever."
PARTICULAR
intelligent
microscopistmagnification
be
of
found
to
little
quickly
very
is
simple
Professor
so
ON
the
to
sufficient numerical
with
evident.
will show
that
But
diameters.
pure
AND
OBJECTIVES
doubt
no
OBJECTS
OF
service
no
To
meant.
do
for a moment
by way of a popular illustration,
presume
have
a
we
picture of a house with windows, front door, and
such
a
chimneys complete; and let it be further understood
picture
formed
was
difficult to
understand
see
larger,and
are
about
with
them
This
imparted
to
is Abbe's
objectivemagnifying
the
is the
aperture"
would
1
We
been
same
have
been
should
mention
devised
by
then
that
Professor
chapter devoted
to
if
we
had
found
with
of
draw-tube.
accessory
enable
to
any
It
in
the
chimneys
is shown
more
structure
the
object
time
that
added
other
be examined,
now
nothing
to
or
appearance.
if we
had
inherent
that
it
to
magnifies
"
its numerical
the
whole-plate picture
distinctlyfresh particulars.
littleinstrument
Wright
value
same
have
furnished
the
saying
as
should
we
at
stretched, say,
It is true
their
as
3].
magnification." But
"empty
in
4j
was
enlarged ;
If this
; but
detail
to
respect
be
is
details whatever.
the windows
are
so
picture
diameters.
two
further
no
the
support, such
its size
if this
that
6|,
words, it is magnified
we
that
india-rubber, and
piece of sheet
is not
stretchable
some
upon
the
called
the
"n
m;
with
It is described, with
apparatus.
Eikonometer
to
any
object;
the
method
has
obtain
"EMPTY"
The
a
AND
would
windows
and
knocker,
if
Further,
we
be
knocker
could
what
call
may
Abbe's
"
we
cracks
in them.
increased
the
tion
magnifica-
find
the
now
the
the
picture
window
is
pattern
distinctlyas
This
"
full
"
shown
137
curtains,the door
should
still,for
before.
see
never
we
and
requisiteshape, whilst
old ones,
as
they show
very
we
of
would
the door
the
into
up
be
to
have
aperture,
details
more
contain
to
seen
chimneys would
repeated the process
seen
on
MAGNIFICATION
the
provided with
would
been
have
numerical
the
and
"FULL"
curtains
visible, the
serpent coiled
chimney-pots
holes
and
illustrates in
minute
cracks
popular
dently
evi-
are
manner
amplification in contradistinction
to
magnification."
empty
the
to
respect
being of insufficient
used
the
diatom
the
objective having
is
actual
magnificationin
aperture,
result, unless
This
has
N. A. of
first
from
that
so
contrary,
their
sence
pre-
understood,
It is evident
such
may
may
be
the
then
amplification
magnification
empty
special cause
some
it
between
exist
the
aperture
is similar.
case
on
resolve
and
never
desired.1
been
sight it
called
each
should
relation
numerical
second,
numerical
higher
the
in
to
aperture
quite distinctly,although, be
seen
certain
dots ; whilst
into
numerical
the
not
may
converse
is
given to an objective is necessarily limited, to what extent
magnification justifiableby eyepiecing, so that fuzziness may
not
; in other
occur
(and
upon
contradistinction
aperture
"
words, what
what
to
Theory
theoretical
"what
shows
is
of useful magnification
is such
grounds
limit
the
of
of
point
obtained)
useful
indisputablythat, owing
is the limit
cannot
in
numerical
to
the finite
possibly be
rendered
but
by
regarded
the
combination
or
as
star
which
"
in the
this
by the
seen
that the
microscope
for
as
size of
be
shown
or
eye
this
the
in
purpose
disc.
point,
less sensible
or
that
illustration,
point, but
another
as
more
may
is not
"
photographic plate as
it is known
of
of
way
point of light
of lenses
disc
notorious, by
telescope a
CONFUSION
represented by
It is
of
case
lens
any
be
must
diameter.
on
OF
DISC
138
Moreover,
disc
spurious
convenient
more
to
lightemployed)
final
(3) the
; and
of
the number
say
magnificationof
of waves
Seeing that twice the number
l
employed
multipliedby the numerical
what
furnishes
is called
the inch
to
waves
to
the
inch
aperture
of
of
the
the
image.
of the light
the objective
its
at once
"resolving power," we
may
of the objectivebe divided by the final
state, if the "resolution
magnificationof the object,the reciprocalof the quotient is the
of the disc required. Take, for example, light having
diameter
"
47,500
the
to
waves
magnificationof
at
thousand
scarcely add
need
lightand
for that
and
its
what
objective N.A.
an
diameters.
circle of confusion
once
inch
of
always be considered
inch
an
said
image produced by
may
Simple
TJ^ of
have
we
1-40, and
arithmetic
final
shows
in diameter.
We
applying to a point of
lens also applies to a line,
as
nothing but a sequential
as
the
Although
mentioned
of
in terms
of
the
the
inch.
This
wave-length
measures
in detail
later on,
here"
reader
tenth-metres"how
is
to
easilyeffected
in tenth-metres, the
in inches
can
be
at
once
by
it may
convert
such
dividing the
being
changed into
result
convenient
be
usually spoken
are
that
to
into
measures
number
remind
of in the
books
textterms
254,000,000
by
requi;
tenth-metres
quotientis the
by dividing
sought
nine-figuredexpression
what
of
is called
after.
ivc
lengths be expressed in terms
If,howe^
be deprived of one
of its
pp. (double mu), the nine-figuredexpression must
in
of 47,500
Visual light then
waves
ciphers and then treated as before.
double
in
of
terms
inch
is
about
mu.
one
equal to
5347 tenth-metres, or 5347
the
"
same
"
when
the
amount
DISC
of
the diameter
the
always
power,
that
assist him
well
The
of
the
of
be
exercised,
in
then
of
given
47,500
and
N.A.
inch
Example
Then
"
3. If it be
to
obtain
the inch
the
N.A.
47500,
N.A.
95000
Then"
'65 x
to
table
be
placed
following
on
1000,
then
ro;
"
D.
the
*
=
30875 diameters.
N.A.
47500
arranged
magnificationwith
lightof L
employed
waves
to
employ"
we
is
be
that must
D, with
"005 in.,
then
in.,L
95000
The
aperture,
of
'005
magnificationmt
N.A.
of
inch.
an
means
'65 and
find
to
If D
number
"
2(L)
required
of
and
Example
N.A.
furnishes
objectiveof given
To
N.A.
"
produce a
specified number
of
light(L)
lightof
; and
magnification x
and
that will
exceeded.
objective of numerical
95000
formula
increasing
D
ascertainingthe diameter
magnification m ; an objective
1000
This
is not
of
L.
an
the
2.
oculars
of
aperture
with
to
waves
sequently
yj^ of an inch, conpracticalmicroscopist
adding
known
equal to
example,
may
2(L)
For
eye
agreed that
this
out
the method
first shows
the inch
when
has
given numerical
to
exceed
not
cognate
waves
that the
Convention
disc-diameter
carrying
other
two
are
shall
139
tolerated)so
of the conscientious
this limit
as
formulae
i.
be
can
this disc
care
should
as
CONFUSION
object distinctlydefined
the
see
that
of fuzziness
amount
OF
and
500,
1-32 nearly.
'004
to
show
different
at
numerical
apertures
LIMITS
140
to
as
so
white
OF
ensure
USEFUL
of
disc
MAGNIFICATION
TJ^ of
lightaveraging 47,500
inch
an
the inch
to
waves
being exceeded
not
is
N.A.
employed
"3
285
*5
45"
I'o
1140
i'3Q
1235
i'35
1282
i'4o
1330
mind.
in
which
is very
the
reason
arranging
writer
with
spent
for
the
expected by
then
is
the
time
in
this
delicate
most
and
this
was
perfectingand
monochromatic
especiallyfor photomicrograph
have
practicallyreached
resolving power
its
only be
can
of the
light beyond the violet end
of ultra-violet
usually called by the name
light.
Unfortunately,however,
the
was
insuperable: one
these
in
figures
of
use
which
to
veal
re-
thereabouts.
or
said,
obtaining
be said
may
advance
further
been
much
so
of
magnification must
light for
has
to
seen
array
aperture
ordinary limelight,more
N.A.
Seeing that
spectrum,
what
apparatus
an
illumination
limit,
from
obvious
an
The
numerical
be
soon
such
It is this.
the
times
looo
of
it will
work
the
borne
exceed
never
The
the recollection
law, by
be
carefullystudied
be
If this table
not
limit.
950
I '20
need
Approximate
magnification
when
till latelytwo
difficulties have
manufacture
of
glass that
seemed
would
in
how
to focu.s
was
question, and another
an
image formed by lightof this description,seeing that such is
invisible to the human
The
practically
great ingenuity of
eye.
transmit
the
firm
rays
of Carl
these
quartz, and
difficulties.
we
believe
by
the
use
focus
of
of
constructed
to
a
for
be
made,
character
which
for
length sufficiently
the
the
much
rays
eye
come
overdifficulty,
some
objectivesare
The
corrected
are
being specially
enable
Zeiss
formed
of
molten
is
screen
temporarilyemployed"
like that
are
to
for
see
used
for
X-ray
work-
increased
the
moment
the
image, and
hence
in
for
SHORT
USING
this
operation
whilst
the
command
inch
the
gelatine
of
blue-violet
rays
correction
of
needless
is
not
to
point
needed)
designed.
the
is
and
they
able
of
number
waves
the
by
of
and
explained
are
to
films
and
arrangement
an
be
to
screens
the
of
wave-lengths
greater
with
this
all
for
objectives
of
of
being
is
there
the
type
new
aberration,
as
the
microscopist
purpose,
correction)
lenses
out
illumination
is
of
chromatic
single
uncemented
shorter
of
circle
the
as
author
light.
features
(spherical
the
Monochromatic
this
removed
is
course
that
said
with
together
on
special
The
union
later
for
been
light
47,500.
used
are
obtaining
of
has
of
aim
use
than
described
for
what
the
141
taken.1
smaller
employed,
of
which
but
being
from
becomes
confusion
to
is
obvious
is
light
effected
photograph
It
be
to
SCREENS
WAVE-LENGTH
no
this
special
and
of
the
formed
are
light
of
the
of
wave-length
only
be
for
the
at
all
employed
which
very
the
perfect
lack
the
It
(because
with
of
from
system
material.
same
correction
can
selected,
composition
out
chromatic
make
objective
special
the
such
chromatic
mono-
computation
is
VIII
CHAPTER
CONDENSER
SUBSTAGE
THE
light
the
collect
The
object.
said
is
form
to
diaphragm
of
lens
impinging
light
and
chromatic
Several
from
that
devised
lens
upon
than
time
its
and
the
N.A.
simple
a
If
but
form
the
this
front
it
is
back
of
cone
by
sometimes
made
and
are
third
class
have
been
/.
(unfortunately
It
is
142
the
confine
our
fact
this
that
collecting
focus
of
of
its
answers
makers,
this
of
aperture
an
it
of
to
Carl
by
we
composed
including
performance
inferior
condenser.
other
some
made
forms
which
well
of
the
are
hence
;
substage
be
to
and
them
having
deal
disparagingly
cone,
of
aperture,
them
of
system
supplied by
the
the
condensers
Abbe
form
as
"ists
;
of
are
corrections,
many
of
unfortunately
'//
of
illuminated
numerical
their
supplanted
hemispherical
ro.
the
spoken
hollow
they
as
chromatic
of
low-power
specimen,
centre
of
Addenda.
as
Professor
late
special
this
is
base
be
to
base
cone
other
or
apochromatic.
gradually
to
said
and
in
time,
to
then
well
as
forms
the
by
has
remarks
In
called
different
made
which
length
achromatic
dubiously
has
illuminators
or
focal
in
called, vary
376
page
condensers,
These
being
See
through
is
iris
an
the
at
the
object
it, and
upon
light."
"annular
the
the
placed
passing
combination,
the
be
stop
all rays
prevent
to
as
so
If
If
upon
diaphragm
or
lenses, the
diameter,
in
stop
any
the
the
upon
impinging
light."
of
aperture
reduced
one."
narrow
of
cone
the
thereby
"
as
contracts
being
cone
solid
"
which
lenses
it
cone
of
intervention
the
without
of
concentrate
illuminating
the
PHRAGM:
DIA-
USE
system
and
illuminant
of
apex
specimen
the
the
from
of
consists
condenser
SUBSTAGE
ITS
AND
ABUSE
ITS
SUBSTAGE
THE
AND
LIGHT;
OF
CONES
DIFFERENT
THE
AND
not
light
more
but
purpose,
it
has
ourselves;
combination
the
l"
often
led
many
to
; but
of
CONDENSERS
144
must
apochromatic combination
free from
spherical aberration
these
condensers
!
cone
(although
ourselves
we
the first-class
than
instances
leading points
focal
better
be
to
length, numerical
with
one
in
of the
aperture, size
achromatic),
in photomicrograph
condenser
is of
satisfaction.1
considerable
considered
aplanatic
the type
readily admit
we
full
testify,having employed
can
in many
The
capable of giving
this
not
all
things be absolutely
sphericalzones, whilst all
and
even
Notwithstanding
useful kind
as
not
are
before
the
are:
and
aplanatic cone,
the definition.
With
this
with
method
same
similar
those
with
out
as
their
of
account
the
measure
made
made
in the
ordinary
way
; but
by Zeiss
and
other
great
of
size
the
putations,
com-
ordinary microscopic
in England, seeing
with
connection
The
size.
his
but
experimentally save
already given when
dealing
mostly mounted
the
of
result
obtain
of condensers
case
given condenser,
any
"universal
proceeding in
and
maker
have
we
as
inquiry in
objectives. In the
they are small and
that is
by the
it is difficult to
and1
the
length of
focal
usually furnished
is
by
the
to
respect
this
illuminant
nosepiece,
be
cannot
Continental
method
only
the
to
on
fitting,"
firms
know
we
such
(taking care
carried
on
is to
shall
be
condensers
other
of known
but
the
out
exceedingly carefully,or
1
method
focal
One
forward
point
argument
and
satisfactoryone,
to
why
mention,
so-called
the
of any
trulyapochromatic, is the entire absence
ocular
its
This
first
at
a very
or
sight appears
equivalent.
convincing reproach. On consideration, however, it is not
important part played by the compensating ocular is mostly
only
be
here
the
of
of the
areas
with
refinement
not
is of
no
lea^t
such
consequence
brought about by
of magnification
(the function
to
the
slightestdegree
so
at
might
in the
in detail
appreciable
the ground.
view, and
oblique light
extreme
matter
differences
field of
be obtained.
be
cannot
outer
conditions
requires carrying
ought perhaps
we
further
as
is not
similar
under
length
the
of
hence
the
centre
because
so
hence
ible.
it would
IJir.
the loss
of comic:.
non-adjustment
for
chromatic
"oe) is
comj"
the
entire
the
effective in the
;
!""
case
the
compel,
formidab!
objection
falls to
FOCAL
LENGTH
regard
With
145
focal
for
length
objectives of different
which
thereon
CONDENSERS
suitable
most
suit
to
as
so
the
to
OF
densers,
con-
limit
powers,
be
immediately apparent.
into the matter
will enter
somewhat
For
that reason
we
fully,
the
attention
of
has
the
most
a
s
subject
more
escaped
especially
writers in the text-books
published.
It will be noticed by looking through the list given on page
152,
made
that the focal lengths of illuminators
by different opticians
defined limits the higher
less and less within somewhat
become
To
their numerical
explain this involves a little close
aperture.
of
Consider
attention.
a
highly apertured condenser, say one
It has to fulfil two
conditions:
N.A.
to furnish
plenty
i'35.
have
of light,and
the
to
a
high numerical
aperture. Now
of light which
is another
of saying the brilliancy
amount
way
in any
of the image of the illuminant
lens is augmented
by
who
decreasing the ratio of focal length to aperture. Readers
placed
is
not
may
"
"
F
familiar with
are
the amount
times
by "j,
This
is
the
as
much.
Now
to
in terms
in the
of
square
obtain
of
what
the
diameter
the
value
we
may
full well
%",where
of any
call the
d\s
quantity
numerical
F
the
establish
To
(i)by
and
F ratio
diameter
both
further
dividingby
Then
N.A.
we
N.A.
find
"
we
times
forth
aperture
lens and
of back
lens and
in
the
4 in.
P*
=
4,
called
"
multiply both
quantities,
two
sides by d.
-jx
and
example
our
the
ratio between
divide
in
area
set
reasons
-j,
the
as
is four
of the back
TT
(2) Rapidity or
the
aperture expressed
ratio,for
the diameter
in use.
because
if I in. be
:"
knows,
great, and
as
the
so
divide
must
focal
the
also
reader
is afforded
footnote,1we
focal
is the
the
diameter
supplies four
"
what
arises, as
available
of
matter
no
photography
obtain"
=";
"
Ni:orNi'
10
sides
of
THE
I46
convenience
of reference
denominator
required ; thus
followingtable
the
1-40
CONDENSER
question, the
For
OF
RATIO
is set
out
:
"
=^F
1-35
=T
f.
roo"
77
this it is
By
that
seen
the
condenser
135
really works,
the
as
photographer would
at
say,
words
; in other
"
brilliant
very
is rendered, one
exceedingly so
image of the illuminant
by a lens, the aperture of which
comparison to that formed
in
is
restricted
to
which
"
only reaches
-0625
of any
aperture. In the manufacture
however, a limit is placed upon
lens, because
"
universal
otherwise
thread/' which
English opticians;
found
to
This
arise with
actual
obtain
combination
high
are
back
this direction,he
and
must
inch
to
we
find
must
is
not
much
be
the
actual
on
the
the
focal
focal
we
have
to
the
to
than
it
^////-diameter
the
somewhere
of which
scope
lenses
constitutes
imposed
the
the
But
inch.
an
larger indeed
ratio of
necessarilylower
consequently
microscopistthen
far
length that
limit
high-aperturcdcombinations
an
it is the
because
fit into
not
mostly adopted by
this, complications are
centring arrangements.
TV of
is about
necessary,
of its back
diameter
absolutely
as
of the
working
scope,
micro-
size
larger than
numerical
equivalent. Hence,
if
and
for the
would
is the standard
the
might be supposed,
the
numerical
of
terms
condenser
combination
limitingdiameter
these
of the
the
in
numerical
computer
length
in
accord-
length of these
about
J or \ of
spoken.
for selection.
The
It
of
1*35 condenser
the
intense, which
when
be
i8J
times
is about
case
one
question
theoretical
and
the
lightof
inch
an
"3,say
(125
lamp
is
is
hence
(10
40
direct
8). The
really,although
of field
larger area
when
If this
an
; whereas
with
4,
the
too
magnifications
only
to
amounts
with.
with
unendurable
other.
dull to
be
useful ?
How
final
relative
the
the
met
objectiveN.A.
in the
the
times
through i8J
is often
condenser,
image
in
is it that
this be when
can
which
is almost
lamp
the actual
mean
about
passes
low-power
true, how
by
brighter than
asked
be
statement
condenser
the
be
is exceedingly
illuminant)
combination
1*35
we
times
i8J
here
may
of the
the
which
'3, by
that
147
the
focal
light transmitted
the
of N.A.
one
the
seen
that
image
better
him
further
will
say
be
can
remind
we
so
CONDENSER
short
the
it is,the smaller
shorter
OF
readily understood
be
can
RATIO
THE
fainter
to
used.
small
eye
in
the
1000
light from
over
piece of which
than
this
case
latter it is
the
apparently,spread
not
the
the
is that
consequence
(only
in
4), whereas
first
the
In
is
the
much
very
and
utilised),
previous
where,
case,
the
owing
to
It is evident
be
to
then
necessarily limited
the
by
length for
of focal
different
objectives of
with
used
the choice
that
numerical
of
demands
condensers
is
aperture
optical construction.
limit the
further, these conditions
pressing the matter
focal length of the illuminators
for high aperture to about \ to \
of an inch ; for those about
with quite
N.A.
to " to f, whereas
ro
Without
low
what
From
stretch
it may
powers
has
apertured systems
afforded
flame
the
bull's eye,
this
with
as
be very
we
have
desirable
end, Mr.
inch
an
necessarily small.
sufficient,but
image would
attended
meet
is
f of
to
at
times
useful.
Usually the
it is often
This
can
Conrady
has
as
in
high-
diameter
felt that
larger
by use of
not
always
be effected
its
use
is
respects definition
computed
in.
even
been
is
between
and
Messrs.
hence,
Watson
to
APLANATIC
148
have
Sons
"
made
has
of '95 that
" times
condenser
of
CONDENSER
N.A.
with
ro
length and
Of
greater.
its diameter
lens, but
back
OF
about
image
CONE
just enables
hence
this
course
it to be used
is
combination,
and
the
be
for
employed
There
several
are
the
by
a
lens.
97, first
page
the N.A.
of
at
we
are
not
then
to
Mr.
proceed
rarely explained
their
of
account
on
"
the
of
the
in
"
point
(as
term,
by
altered
term
of
periphery
This
is
some
it to
so
he
lens
introduced
a
very
"efficient
time
some
happy
cone"
firmly established
100.
one
instead
with
described
Uncorrected
"
101.
ago
indeed,
by
nature
Lens.
Under-corrected.
"
the
Greek,
which
the
all rays,
axis,
Mr.
in
meet
not
may
that
been
thought
have
been
preferable ;
would
meaning
from
whether
shall
Nelson,
means,
optician
it has
in its conventional
but
used
involved
from
its
nearer
or
obtained
often
one
somewhat
word) that
the
uses
the
is
wandering," by
of
This
itself,derived
word
"
understands
the
The
method
of
First,
condenser
the
Fig.
Over-corrected.
reply.
be often
if it be
Fig.
Fig. 99.
performance
Conrady.
explain.1
to
course
explained.
can
use
of
more
now
is called
what
once
but
can
ever,
selection,how-
the
be
This
excellent
very
aperture.
test
to
special
remainder
; before
to
aperture.
suggested by
an
large
with
condensers, but
about
manner
It is best
condensers
But
good
student
of the apertometer,
use
numerical
their favourites
its numerical
large back
on
of
for the
the
in
combination
respects
as
well
be
it would
lower
makers
microscopists have
many
the
ordinary substage. It
by removing the top lens
objectivesof
furnishes
demands
fittingin the
centring
aplanatic cone
that
we
be
to
one
sidered
con-
have
but
hesitate
the
to
SIZE
ASCERTAINING
OF
APLANATIC
point in
what
the
is meant
which
in
Fig. 98.
As
marginal
"
to
come
rays
than
those
exaggerated
This
is the
focus
situated
at
centre,
as
seen
peripheralrays
he
if
and
does
it is termed
not
he
"
far
too
of
leaves
uncorrected
an
cone
the
on
and
as
the
usual
it in the
stage
illuminant
an
and
is
"
Remove
situ.
N.A.
the
now
brings
Fig. 99
same
that
as
error
possessed
in
largestaplanatic
ro,
the
is
diatom
the
the
look
the
across
is
obtaining
resulting image
just out of the
slipand
eyepiece, and
'6,
condenser
seen
This
the
light,and
N.A.
objective,using
rack
and
the
we
objectiveof
it with
portion of
in
it,
proceed as
the substage,and
place
on
Shift
image"
critical
critical
by
he
the
as
diatom
the
position
Focus
technicallycalled
is called
of
one
microscope first an
this
focus
(greatly exaggerated)
until
the
with
say
diatom.
the
down
field with
what
ascertain
nosepiece of the
on
up
Fix
"
degree,
shown
as
given condenser,
follows
To
"
less
the
under-correction"
"
combination
a
lens,
Fig. 101.
Aplanatic Cone.
of
the
in
outstanding, although
by
enough
on
overdoes
correct
(by
of
art
"
the
lens
"
its axis
to
in
ideal
point
nearer
or
149
ordinary uncorrected
spherical aberration
an
is called
to the lens
CONE
its
cover-glass
of
the tube
down
the
using. Return
objective,substitutingone
to
be
and
here
critical
again obtain
the
now
of
light by
the diatom
until the
edge of the
Once
shift the
diatom
out
back
lens
tube
more
as
before.
the
aplanatic
the
iris
the
remove
The
cone
diaphragm
size
exact
the
0-95, and
opening
place
the
flame
is
seen
across
of the field,and
should
be
of the
remove
N.A.
0*95
and
eyepiece
with
in its stead
look
field.
down
the
aperture.
seen,
pair of
an
the
and
Then
close
carefullynote
compasses.
immersion
Now
objective
ASCERTAINING
ISO
of
Treat
N.A.
1*40
SIZE
centre
and
the
two-thirds
APLANATIC
before, with
as
OF
look
of the
back
the
lens is
focussing and
to
respect
down
CONE
draw-tube.
now
Only
full of
seen
li"rht,
o
slightesttouch
fill the
to
black
lens
to
on
appear
becomes
appearance
side
of
so
to
try
dots
of
as
two
cause
the
the
of
largest aplanatic cone
cautiously close the iris diaphragm
Slowly and
visible,and
measure
If the
for
above
will
the
indicates
measure
each
upwards,
amount,
greater
condenser
then
lamp flame, which
last point before the
immediately recognisable. The
of these
black
dots (reallydue to spherical aberration)
to
before.
of the
diameter
little
aplanatic
experience
until
aperture with
and
it is
just
compasses,
than
slightly greater
the
O'95-
is
condenser.
the
as
previous
just
is,of course,
cone
will
thought
render
soon
difference
The
very
which
striking and
often
so
is said
be
to
exists
these
in
mostly due
to
condensers
being more
consequently focussing
aberration,most
(Fig. 101),
another.
with
condenser
one
and
their
in
seen
condenser
It may
condenser
should
of the
much
the
object.
all of those
serve
a
to
broad
be
If
lightof
now
which
The
the
all the
come
to
object of
illuminant
rays
do
another
it
and
corrected
badly
darkness
does
What
asked,
It is this.
cone
as
here
be
frequentlythis
very
as
not
are
is
matter
a
so
is
to
many
commen-
conspicuous
if the
small
condenser
possibleto
come
the
li^ht with
the
natic
apla-
is to
a
bring
focus
same
lost,and
be
be, when
even
possess
a
looking down
on
the
microscope with
eyepiece in situ, should
accurately focussed,intenselybright,whilst the field
; but
at
rays
the
surately dark
by its absence.
spherical
under-corrected
central
If
is
measures
errors
less
or
their peripJieral
than
ones.
greater distance
well corrected, the lamp-flame image, as
two
on
focus
only
i:
critical
LENGTHS
FOCAL
152
three
lenses
top
to
CONDENSERS
OF
the
of
one
high-angled
condensers
we
use.
With
N.A.
ro
dry-power
means
The
"The
of
correction
objectives of high
different thicknesses
of
the
performance
of
in
collar
the
same
way
fashioned.
are
power
as
By this
provided for.
slipare
interest
means
from
Carpenter
different
on
condensers
the
scope,
micro-
will be
of
23, and
25
values
of the
first sixteen
and
of
Nos.
22,
THE
have
been
from
the
in
the
actual
of the
makers.
is the
axis
sensitive,and
lower
deemed
the
it would
of
so
are
in
our
the
in
much
having them
substage is all
of
that
condensers
the
"
similar,for then
effected than
The
else
than
holes
that
The
first
working
To
understand
of
the
the
length.
that
it
of
size
and
numerical
one
was
than
sold
various
so
them
by
that
; but
is
the
that
they
the
great,
with
to be
the
quite
as
the
Continental
speciallyarranged.
different
two
Continental
small
be
cannot
"
could
of
types
made
be much
easier
its Abuse
and
its Use
in olden
which
to
this arrangement
indeed
be
must
of the
it is
of
aperture
semi-diameter
nearest
aperture of
the
is its
of
lens
its
infer that
the
limiting
which
to
remind
mirror
system.
is
importance
powers
upon
it is used.
the
reader
the
practically
back
lens
to
curtailingthe
promptly
"
But,
has
matter.
with
necessary
any
is closed
such
the
to
condenser
only
to
is of
given
mentioned
be
it is easy
Hence
is, the
to
this
available
it
of
aperture
numerical
that
present.
diameter
point
is
combinations
interchange of condensers
metal
the
that
the
little attention
some
than
condensers
illustrate
to
stage has
very
more
single point
day
is very
Substage Diaphragm:
The
; whereas
the
English
nowadays
pattern.
as
light
much
microscopy,
practical,rather
than
smaller
that
it is at
be
of
in
present
diameter
substage diaphragm
The
the
is necessary
great pity
will
different
space
the
English-made
much
so
single point
flame
Continental, which
convenience
thinking uselessly large. The
of
way
the
are
result."
of
smaller
of
edge
But
table
truer
much
too
occupy
are
the
opticians of
feature
main
in
others
aplanatic aperture
obtained.
construction
numerous
the
practicallyused
ever,
; the
condenser
for the
be
will
place
probably
actual
The
value
to
theoretical,and
the
source,
153
measurements
limit
source
as
DIAPHRAGM
from
obtained
estimates
The
"
SUBSTAGE
from
what
the
back
lowers
has
ratio
focal
lens
"
the
been
AFFECTS
154
N.A.
N.A.
the
objective
in
which
must
we
the
it also.
at
once
refer.
so
as
to, say,
N.A.
the
serious
Here
One
produce
objective
is
"65, no
be
would
it
This, however,
the
matter
curtailment
an
hears
given
numerical
in
question
down
to
to
that, if
to
similar
down
cut
were
the
the
to
in
'crept
aperture
for which
aperture
that of the
it stated
reduced
is not
has
error
always
cut
of
often
so
designed,
was
to
OBJECTIVE
involves
with
use
condenser,
amount
obviously
condenser
OF
objective
extent.
same
frequently stated,
so
call attention
it explains
to the fact because
particularly
without
certain little matters
which
otherwise
are
difficulty
any
not
Owing to a certain portion of the light
easy to understand.
and
we
coming from
the condenser
use,
up
by
caught
is
the
in
amount
falling upon
transmitted
through
extra
it and
the back
filling
an
upon
lens to
the
front
lens
entire
than
degree
greater
the
bination,
com-
would
be
first
at
of the
feeble
somewhat
point
of
to
aperture
cause,
of
the
lens
any
lower
give
amount
words
the
is that
is furnished
in other
aperture of
mind
to
to
illumination,
in
the
with
comparison
which
cone,
than
ascertain
to
in
in
bear
wider
this increase
Although
moment.
back
direct
lens
be
always able
estimate
to
used
equivalent,it
take
is
illuminator
This
of
The
ro.
is
sum
ivith
mean.
This
mean
of
1-40
2*40,
lens
and
the
this
conda:
to
the
order
working
necessary
and
the
only
the
apertures
rays
higher working
an
two
an
itself. In
by the illuminator
objective is thus increased from
together the
estimate
still the
beam,
is filled with
the combination
numerical
it is true, is
mean
add
is
with
r2O.
is the
to
used
working aperture of the 1-40 objective when
It is this increase
\\
we
conjunction with a ro condenser.
call attention
using
to, for it immediately explains why, when
1-40
in
better
of the
lens,
say,
resolution
same
with
1*30 condenser
is obtained
reduced
numerical
than
cut
when
aperture
down
to
employing
"
fact
well
an
N.A.
ro,
objective
known
for
EFFECTS
FALSE
the
in
A
question.
in
ro
when
lens
its back
the
admission.
It
far
So
reduced
when
the
of
shape
objectivesare
brass
of
mount
the
its
preventing
the
add,
object must
the
to
brilliant
lens-front
to
at
N.A.
to
the
the
substituted, the
ro
to
rays
by looking
light surrounds
objective oiled
have
we
only pointed
that
use
general effect
of
be
cover-glass in making
upon
the
effect
wide
solid
reduced
to
of
cone
The
magnification.
of
follows
puts the
employing
effects
the
of
image
limit to the
before
the
be
To
the
of
the
infinite
point
be
must
shown,
diffused
an
we
incn
may
is to
diameter
on
eacn
of
speak
show
the
too, that
how
of
disc
whilst
elsewhere
of
possibly
what
sensibly
very
wave-length
the
light
lens
have
for
to
but
of any
We
same
new,
different
increase
cannot
using
attention
number,
aperture
in
objective)and
called
to
light
actually
somewhat
of
employing the
nothing
light,the
be
another
more
or
less
usually accepted
of
T""j-
disc
is
sic^e "f
tne
of this unavoidable
reader
iris increases
still
of course,
between
suitable
confusion."
of
the
to
have
We
argument's sake,
now
perhaps
explain
now
cone
without
times
circle
owing
2,3-0
is
iris
indirectly
so
means,
example
magnification is
diameter
that is to say,
whilst
reducing
point,but
size.
ro
this
mathematical
mathematical
sensible
of
the
that
out
(with
of
in
same
"
for
130
cones
matter
is called
pointed
must
the
practicalmanner
small
using
of the
N.A.
evil
in his
has
danger
what
We
the
one,
N.A.
of, say,
one
Nelson
wide
of
condenser, and
at the time.
lowering
diameter
contradistinction
One
the
the actual
has
Mr.
how
out
of the
aperture
in
objective
the
the
what
the
easilyseen
155
experiment.
the
for
faint
CONE
additional
condenser
scarcely necessary
is
the
and
focussed
N.A.
different
and
latter
of
the
SMALL
These
entirely lost
is
the
and
changed
be
can
with
use
ring
which
beam,
direct
of
speak
objective we
-40
BY
practicalmicroscopist.
the
to
years
PRODUCED
an
object
"
inch
"
which,
question
point. The
of
lowering the diameter
as
same
tion
magnifica-
maintained.
ascertain
how
to
calculate
the
diameter
of the
disc, only
two
"
156 DIAMETER
of
of the
aperture
has
the
N.A.
if oblique
be
1-40, the
lightbe
used.
the
still
enlarged
if
the
for
apparent,
I00"
of
about
us
light
; and
which
means
inch.
closed
N.A.
to
N.A.
to
of
of
point
the
"
this
the
is
circle
is
immediately
Of
is
light
the circle
ro
'50
distinctly fuzzy.
the
numerical
say
133,000,
an
consequence
is
the
theoreticallybe separated
that the magnification
now
can
finallyclosed
object
circle of confusion
is
DISC
that is 95,000
twice
further
The
more.
inch
apart
be
diaphragm
increased, whereas
by
example, let
an
resolution
Should
SPURIOUS
Presuming
tfrecircle of confusion
diameters, then
is 1,000
is
As
the
to
waves
OF
light employed
two
any
of
SIZE
objective."
47,500
if the
so,
inch
the
to
waves
used
AFFECTS
this
course
really produced
by diffraction
and
the diaphragm
is more
as
phenomena ; hence
closed with objects of sensible
the image becomes
area
more
all
with
crowded
indeed,
scarcely knows
one
lines
White
may
divisional
markings
extent
between
to
as
To
it
of
especially,perhaps,
phenomena
light,one
between
with
the
in
phase
same
wave-length
"
other.
"
make
diatom
times
may
thicker
than
why
such
different
is very
caused
from
coming
that
in
come
of
additive, and
the
to
the
ances
appearto
effects
say,
(more
interference
same
of
source
contact
simple multiples
seem
they
of
difficult
by
to
grow
structure
are
"
believe
doubled-tipped,
all diffraction
words, those
are
"
to
so,
is false.
true
that
Those
what
appear
cause,
type)
the rays
other
same
this
so,
and
much
the
upon
suffice to add
here
must
may
several
appear
are
but
bacteria
portions of
effects, so
is real
capsules ; hairs
discrete
an
what
around
appear
they have
such
of diffraction
manner
in
the
of
the
strengthen
one
ahead
darkness.
Diffraction
1
To
in tenth-metres.
by
in
number
i
.
inetres
as
whole,
are
charac-
The
the
then, taken
phenomena
=--
intiiy by the
46,182
waves
in
into
these
convert
tenth-metres"
number
one
terms
rv
in
inch.
inches.
See
Addenda.
,ple,say, 5500
lenih-
OF
UTILITY
what
by
terised
they
but
may
be
These
of
star.
It is surrounded
would
as
been
thought
one
that
in appearance
in
eye
effect ; in other
at another
dark
words,
of
what
and
the
on
how
other
closing effect
this
the
at
be
in
diaphragm
when
ro
illuminator.
ocular
shut
lens
rush
removed,
use
off
"
of
to
vary
dark
places
some
cause
contrast
other
the
"
mum
mini-
and
bright band,
however, that it
be
due
to
slight
be
both
specimen
and
"
whilst
say
placed
an
Abbe
looking
just appear
objective. The
carefullywatched
light will be seen
refer
We
to
of
becomes
circumstances
the
of
use
the
say,
the
be
in the
only
may
it has
stray
Let
of
should
a
focussed
be
of
mentioned,
certain
condenser
it is in
Having
be
which
N.A.
place
light,
of
the
out
under
cutting
employing
with
the
of
ment
arrangetakes
from
sees
object,whilst
an
in
and
time
one
very
so-called
now
care
maxima
point
or
effect
remote
star
because
is
We
of
stated
same
assumed,
darkness
is
It should
one.
the
line around
recognises a maximum,
case
one
possiblya
"
been
microscope ; hence
phenomena
appear
white
existent"
unexplained
than
these
reason
be
hitherto
to
bands
"
in the
with
increase
known
has
Now
justly be
very
an
already
what
other.1
object other
the
occasion
from
and
as
the
sometimes
"
another
then
meet
brightness
focussed
on
telescope when
of
rings
brightness and
rings
with
an
"
of
157
the
it may
of
image
such
on
in
and
DIAPHRAGM
being arranged in
around
the
readily seen
be
can
phenomena,
the
bands
"
described
light witnessed
point
IRIS
understood
be
can
also
minima.
and
termed
are
darkness," which
CLOSING
at
the
microscope.
test-plate
"
down
the
on
the
tube
peripheryof
let
the
the
the
iris
back
returned, the
plate
the iris is suddenly opened :
whilst
field,spoiling
flooding the whole
ocular
being
its
sensibly the general definition of the lines. From
submerging effect on the image, this used always to be called
flooding the specimen with light." Repeating the process,
very
"
In
making
placed between
the
the
experiment
eye
and
the
it is well
eyepiece.
to
use
monochromatic
screen,
OF
LIMIT
158
but
this occasion
on
it is looked
when
at, instead
the
of the
iris is
the
light enters
CLOSING
watching what
we
USEFUL
happens
opened,
back
the
through
specimen
that
the
in
quite
tube"
lens
ocular,
quantity of
through the
coming in edgeways
is reflected off its edges into the
lens"
which
ocular, causing
the flooding in question. If now
the iris be shut, so
to
as
fair conditions.
this, the objective performs under
prevent
stray
is
Attention
especially called
be
may
due
simply
have
not
this
to
No
if the
the
as
for
bad
microscopist
of stray
had
condenser
of
handle
can
with
student
is
object. It
an
one
justifiable,
phenomena;
is not
limit
distinct
any
but
taken
be
that
as
third,by
its outer
the
back
lens
of the combination
the
instrument,
requires
more
the
cutting down
easy
exactly the
the
upon
to
matter
these
rule
true
furnish
closing of the
general
the
iris that
irregulardiffraction
for daily practice,
102.
moderate
ever
be
we
mean
which
say,
of
opinion
an
this
asserted, with
by,
tube
of
might
substage diaphragm
produce effects that may
introduce
objective should
no
was
his
an
to
Fig.
however, it may
which
light,which
been
bination
com-
objective.
then
otherwise
performance
irregularaddition
occurred
aperture
same
blamed
this fact, as
to
cut
of
amount
down
the
by looking
eyepiece being removed.
as
than
seen
this before
than
more
outer
good
tainty,
cer-
of
third
down
the
If
it
image
is
CHAPTER
METHODS
objects
MOST
the
OF
object, objective,
mirror
away
opinion
in
if fluids
employed
save
double
of
for
but
it is
light, as
off
beams
universal
racked
were
Carpenter
thought
same
The
the
opinion
Lite
prism
possibility of
of
instead
fact
all
double
and
to
the
light
said
in
our
be
cannot
for
objects)
with
away
of
use
the
to
this
ordinary
the
glass
think
"
direct
"
"
reflected
"
does
not
seem
that
images.
in
seen
When
to
focus
; the
; whilst
Sir
held
for
now
always
retk-ction
doing
We
have
ourselves
found
160
student
Brcwstcr
the
on
total
use,
"
Davit!
the
to
always
was
been
particularly pleasant
and
The
have
handle.
use,
focussed
be
been
field
their
Ouekctt
.perience
to
the
within
effect
"
the
condensers
say
was
better
whose
mirror,
is
image
should
is said
and
theory explained
the
has
fashion, it
placed
is
it.
that
reverse
ordinary
be
across
flame
the
the
should
any
the
light
consideration,
pure
cumbersome
in
and
microscopists
image
down,
without
Dallinger,
Dr.
corresponding
angled
and
of
source
do
there
in
flame
before
just the
was
the
declared
racking
it
maintained
light
that
so
school
by
obtained
the
"
the
stretching
up
focus,
the
mirror
that
however,
first used,
and
stated
ocular
the
the
opinion.
lamp
adjusted
of
view
without
"
the
to
the
this
observer.
course
media
the
by
to
as
be
as
Some
denser,
con-
with
mirror, owing
by employing
of
already
so
obtained
; but
mirror
is
thick.1
too
always
called, than
using
condenser
they
the
light
being
is
the
been
were
from
agreement
When
of
the
it is made
definition
better
purpose,
that
the
employ
of
stage
the
horizontal
to
(which
the
on
away
is little to
and
of
reflection
which
has
one
height,
method
used
are
do
instrument
There
lamp.
such
of
to
eye
of
of
rays
through
the
to
the
light, the
mirror
desirable
convenient
the
favour
the
eyepiece
setting
from
transmitted
by
is
it
illuminant
straight
and
however,
altogether, and,
raising the
by
reflected
being
Occasionally,
ILLUMINATION
examined
are
illuminant
IX
object,
time.
some
demands
in favour
but
the
away
the
with
li^ht
arrangement
the
markably
re-
is
In
ILLUMINANT:
OF
FOCUS
later
still,
owing
years
the
to
a
subject; but
Conrady, although arousing
with
hold
microscopists,for
his
believe that
arguments
the
actual
it would
the
as
appear,
back
These
is not
per
in
and
point
in
he
out
commanded
microscope
believed
that,
whilst
importance of fillingthe
best
practical position for
the
just above
the
the
also, in
ourselves
lens
front
past, spent
experiments, photographic
this subject, and
have
come
the
back
lens
definition,and
look
for
is
the
of
to
in
in
numerous
with
connection
filling
(i) that
best
the
obtain
to
is
have
We
use.
making
time
factor
focus
to
to
Conrady
objective,
the
conclusion
the
practical
Mr.
condenser
otherwise,
and
the
reason
lens
lens
much
important
that
back
the
at
is
with
objective in
the
of
agreeing
the
Zeiss
respect, used
great
back
the
really
se
Carl
of
the
to
us
objectiveis
tJie
of
sideration,
con-
lead
taken
mature
upon
lens
Mr.
by
filled with
details
re-arisen
has
first,
at
of the illuminant
long
maticians
mathe-
considerations
indisputable.
are
has
controversy
of
161
several
of
opposition
some
focus
actual necessity
', so
an
of
series
this
upon
researches
deal
others, a good
and
LIGHT
CRITICAL
of
the
fulfilled)
before even
examining
Ids
specimen ; (ii)that
Mr.
the
Poser
is correct
when
he
states
is
light
more
obtained
If
the
doubting
the
flame
use?
it be
mind
desired
consider
is
focussed,is
Presuming it is
if so, what
instead
Likewise
"
should
whilst
what
corresponding
the
the
to
so,
the
very
further, let
matter
the edge
following: When
realitythe actual edge that is
does
centre
in
the
pursue
the
it in
edge
change
to
is
it make
any
portion of the
still presented
definition
furthermost
follows
edge
difference
"
of
in
and
wick
be
focussed
to
the
mirror?
should
of
the
the
wick
II
light
be
162
CRITICAL
instead
employed
allowed
is
there
of focus
range
of
change.
no
exists
"
certain
either
from
play
"
the
preceding?
Seeing this is so,
the
granted, shows
which, being
viz. that
of
LIGHT
front
the
of
light1
backing out of
filled with
are
It
the
merely
that
of which
of
With
of different
with
focal
thought
in
often
"
term
the
N.A.
as
as
whole, but
focal
lengths
illuminant
anyhow
regulate the
to
of the illuminated
or
largerthe image
sort, but
definition
"
critical illumination
of the
size
all.
at
of
of the
is of
the
same
of different
use
the
Putting
of
image
area
illuminant
suit
to
less,the
the
well
as
course
illuminant
be too
small
at any
readily broadened
fidgeted about
be
better
definition,which
it may
filled
equably with
state
of illumination
is
that
so
light. In doing
so
it had
its
this be the
for unless
will be
lost,and
obtains
as
of
source
light;
just
ensue,
condenser
this
doing
in
taken
troubles
the
and
the mirror
between
be
the
having them
not
the
as
objective,or
is
we
objectives
already spoken when
dealing
it remains
to
explain the
is obvious, of
which
utility,
the
the
out
saying this
of illuminators
have
length we
condensers
//
"
production.
the selection
to
respect
said,
is admissible
broadened
have
have
we
nothing of
by the
actually meant
is
be
mean
researches
recent
its method
and
we
what
of the wick,
necessity,so
of
be
must
it is obvious
back
condenser
lens
not
must
truth
the
the
to
It
when
the
the
case,
consequent
array
ordinary
an
critical
of
substage
badly placed.
are
ordinary bull's-eyecondensers
poor
the best being not superior
examples of the optician'sart, even
To
condenser.
finest lantern
remedy this, and supply
to the
Most
much-felt
This
years,
Mr.
want,
bears
viz. that
illuminated
all of the
if not
by
out
the
dark
what
back
Conrady
Mr.
Nelson
lens must
spots ; if these
not
took
has
show
the
trouble
maintained
any
so
to
compute,
stoutlyfor many
area
unequally
portion of its
exist,the adjustment is
not
correct.
BULL'S-EYE
aplanat of
one
very
the
the
of these
of
"
Watson
Messrs.
and
time.
some
It
and
lift out
to
makes
the
163
made,
We
be
can
enjoyed
the
use
not
useful
arrangement
our
the
the
only as
light from
employed
in
optical parts
be
placed in
achromatised
an
have
perfect bull's-eye,utilisingall
illuminant, but
made
have
Sons
highest quality.
very
for
CONDENSERS
substage,
where
are
the
of
magnificent low-power condenser
great utilitywith objectivesof suitable focal length.
There
two
one
are
or
mountings for these auxiliarycondensers
aplanat
which
have
very
proved
very
useful
over
and
above
those
Fig. 103.
met
increased
give
One
with.
in
by
Fig.
is
by
leaps
and
103.
The
Fig.
Leitz
"
bounds
lens
firm
in
is
whose
recent
large, the
fame
years
mount
ordinarily
104.
has
"
which
very
justly
we
steady
BULL'S-EYE
164
and
likelyto get
not
is to
lenticular
turn
and
stand
We
-have
the
to
of
for the
much
as
ingly
exceed-
firm
microscopistof
service.
in
one
price
whose
all sorts,
up-to-date as possible,have
convenient
portable and
very
much
had
the
Sons, another
"
articles
out
introduced
ago
ball-and-socket
Fig. 104.
mounting
adjustment,and
Watson
otherwise,
while
some
of
out
Messrs.
moderate.
ambition
CONDENSERS
It
for
use
are
is
illustrated
time
some
in
the
as
quite satisfied
with
performance.
its
Bausch
Messrs.
"
Lomb
have
also
introduced
modification
Fig. 105.
which
the
arm
its
own
screws
use.
which
hold
to
It is shown
C. Baker
raise
does
it in
it up
has
and
also
and
completing
serviceable
most
one
of
useful
arrangement,
is to
with
away
but
It consists
one.
to
move
turned
combination.
end
of
its
with
being
for the
excellent
This
pattern
itself capable
bull's-eye,
a
the
position;
in Fig. 105.
a
down,
to
it.
supports
weight, and
it is, an
as
fittinga counterpoise
in
to
think, simple
we
prevent
lamp complete
it side
aside
to
when
This
rack
side with
not
is indeed
to
the
required,
a
very
BULL'S-EYE
into
and
use,
turned
equally quickly
firm's
this
Like
CONDENSERS
characteristic
carefully thought
without
out
when
aside
perhaps
and
required.
not
has
detail
attribute, every
although
"
165
originated
idea
the
ingly
exceedperfected by
experienced
skilful manipulator, both
as
microscopist and photo-microthe leading spirit
grapher,the late Mr. Lees Curties, who was
from
will
Space
allow
not
to illustrate
firm.
It
is
illustrated
in
Fig. 106.
us
of
more
any
the
and
sers,
bull's-eyeconden-
these
but
should
we
other
that
good
tion
men-
equally
arrangements
Powell
J. Beck,
them,
equal
"
Lea-
"
although
claim
R.
Swift, and
land, Ross,
others
are
Messrs.
by
made
of
of
department
this
in
"
the
been
none
believe,
we
to
be
optically
to
the
Watson-
aplanat
Conrady
which
of
have
we
just
spoken.
The
illuminant
suitable
pends
de-
much
very
the
of
selection
upon
and
requirements
dividuality
in-
of the microscopist,
for
a
like
some
bright light
to
others
whilst
as
soft
as
possible.
prefer
illumination
an
Fig.
For
work, where
ordinary
oil
lamp, as
light most
of
found
associated
price.
with
may
The
be
with
light is
shown
not
the
mantle
its great
available, the
in
frequently
procured
Welsbach
several, but
06.
day
everyelectric
source
cut, and
use,
with.
met
details
extra
almost
in
with
used
heat
any
is
coal
It
as
form
gas
drawback,
microscopist's
suppose,
the
is not
always
given
in
and
at
is
the
any
favourite
although
its
it
for
its readiness
dirt and
and
smell
from
freedom
GORDON
AND
BARNARD
BY
ILLUMINANTS
166
make
use
was
in
made
recommend
half
glass,or
illuminants, there
mentioned
Addenda
to
the
which
sing
for focus-
the
Besides
abovein
mentioned
ones
new
lamps,
the
is referred.
reader
introduced
illuminants
more
are
many
transparent
suitable
globe,is not
when
these
the
fine sand-blasted, as
even
Two
be
should
bulb
of the
of
procuring either
In
been
strongly
lamp by
general use.
thirty-candleincandescent
Zigzag.
the
called
Steam
Failing this, we
excellent
an
had
superseded
for
lamps
electric
other
furnace
and
if its filament
durable
more
five-shilling
lamp
few
years
ago
remain
to
Fig. 107.
although
be mentioned,
adaptation by Mr. J. E.
an
for the
a
not
very
delicate
believe.
we
very
handle, and
to
arrangement
will not
and
for
monochromatic
Charles
The
Baker's, 244,
other
W.
of
of about
It
a
an
said to be
apple-green. It
High Holborn, London.
has
been
consists,
Nernst
half
be
the
that
one
Gordon.
Fig. 107,
rod
is
that may
one
lamp
inch
brought
shown
as
close
in
first is
that
rays
shall
be
brought
to
focus
transit
through
exceedingly
almost absolutely
an
be
into
obtained
notice
at
by Mr.
diagrammatically in
proximity with a glass
filament
the
can
bear
suffer
very
fine illuminant
The
of the
Barnard
then
carefullypacked (and even
may
violent shaking),still it is unquestionably
unless
J.
used
of the
use
much
is lenticular
upon
the
the
nearest
in
mirror
form
of
so
the
HELIOSTAT
168
are
placed
at
upper
rod, which
right angles
and
the
positive or
than
the
by the
this
it
as
duration.
much
carbons
is fed
It
positive element.
attached
have
a
long arm
can
that
system
of the
smallness
desired
life of sufficient
well
but
that
the
so
of
matter
as
by hand,
more
as
it
to
the
made
usual),being
as
other,
cored, is thinner
is
position of the
new
the
to
one
without
small
no
ness
prevents the glareof the lightspoilingthe sensitive-
of his retina.
The
lamp
and
only takes four amperes,
in
conjunction with a
can,
suitable
resistance
order, be
to
the
switched
the
save
of
box
trouble
any
possible strengthening
the
to
which
fuse
is
when
it is
in winter
seen
its
prevents
is
ordinary
mirror
not
has
means
of the
shift,even
to
be
apparatus,
\\
one
of
Watson
the
"
different
called
used
several
most
do
but
to
which
earth's
ala'ays on
effectuallyso that it
This
believe
the
in the
little that
the
to
sun
convenient, is that
Sons, according
the
reallya good
we
the
save
owing
of
this
Hcliostat.
it be
unless
and
To
in
microscope.
upon
of
know
to
"
"
desirable
not
however,
difficulty,
is that
use
trouble
is great
there
rotation
in this country.
frequent
more
be desired
to
is
easily removed
sunlight,if utilised
; but
nothing
leaves
manner,
use.
lamp
illuminant
an
as
proper
fuse-
Daylight
its diffuse nature
the
in
required.
not
to
whatever,
bull's-eye condenser
fixed
owing
system
to
on
house
ordinary
without
supplied
is
expensive
use
no
best, and
manufactured
instructions
will
instrument
an
very
is of
one
the
the
at
all.
certainly
by
of the
Messrs.
late Dr.
MONOCHROMATIC
LIGHT
mechanician
was
theories
instructions
Full
need
wait
not
such
to
explain
the
are
how
the
image upon
time
are
without
stained
the
and
of the
quitestationary.
Those
warned
especially
not
using
one
"
of the
mirror
the
set
is used
the
upon
microscope, where
using the
place their
microscope, or
scope.
micro-
instrument, so
arrangement
sun's
it
sun
projects
it remains
mirror
and
parently
ap-
the first
we
; it must
lightfor
screen
knowledge
optics of the
the
protectivemonochromatic
the
intervening between
too
to
whose
with
once
expected when
ingenuity as
mathematical
with
issued
be
to
one
his
connected
mirror
only
eminence,
is
only equalled by
subtle
in all the
of
man
This
169
all
at
deeply
of the heliostat
else between
the eye
and
the
ocular.
ARRANGEMENTS
FOR
APPROXIMATE
PRODUCING
CHROMATIC
MONO-
LIGHT
The
one
colour
contrast
so-called
between
is of
the
second
twofold
nature
to assist in
(ii)
different parts of
specimen.
white
or
grating
in
some
form.
The
firm
of
Carl
Zeiss
make
AUTHOR'S
of
train
stage
hear
we
Mr.
prisms
using
it
it well
have
we
sulphate
2
using
of
Ifght absorbed
167)
page
be
these
of, but
have
the
tried
more
the
it ourselves.
but
when
about
3 in. in length,
the great difficulty
of
; but
If the
of
expected. Blue
especiallyammonio-
is the
arrangements
large amount
lamp (see
4-ampere
Argus
the solution
and
part
we
measuring
thereby.
employed,
not
success
in. in thickness
fluid
under
arrangement,
employed,
cells
in
the
to
another
with
also been
copper,
any
spoken
met
attached
designed
not
is
that
has
Nelson
APPARATUS
be concentrated,
fairly
Fig. no.
sulphate
be
can
with
or
so
far
of to obtain
an
copper
(ii)A
copper
for
we
seen.1
ever
absolutely perfect
The
blue
neither
; but
only
lightis
means
by
ment
employ-
special arrangement
by
several
Society
Royal Microscopical
years
which
Besides
details of an
can
ordinary nature
following formulae
nitrate 160 grains,chromic
two
saturated
pass
know
we
the
"
The
as
have
ammonio-cupric-
solutions
the
i ID
of
acetate
the
devised
of the
at
the
with
truly monochromatic,
called
reel rays
formed
li^ht-filtcris
favourable
solution
of copper
are
said
acid
acetate.
14
to
furnish
good
grains,with
results
water
to
7|
hibited
ex-
ago
be
(i) Pure
ounces;
SCREENS
MONOCHROMATIC
"
prismatic light
blue
the
which
the
for
although
Soc., December,
The
used, but
still much
films made
lantern-slide
two
56,
and
61,
all
if
but
a
No.
think
None
No.
of
end
44A
to
66,
chromatic,
mono-
spectrum
kind
blue"
of
rather
it wants
in
Nos.
truly
the
"
had
between
are
are
are
gelatine
be
to
are
we
red
but
how
and
screens,
best
the
with
results,
green
Blue
illuminant.
Greens
deepest.
little of
combined
be
perfect
very
the
being
passing
the
eclipsed by
Ltd.
Kodak
this work
of
editions
now
glasses. The
last
are
Pot-green glass 1
the
are
cover
the
and
previous
think
by
varieties,and
many
in
we
sold
and
by Gifford
screen
author
by the
described
employed,
1902,
fluid
F-line
be
can
to
lamp, as
five-shillingNernst
sufficient (see Journal Roy. Mic.
figure,is amply
the
in
shown
handy
the
purposes
many
lamp
ment,
arrange-
and
convenient
4-ampere
prism, to
this
replica. By
the
is very
Argus
the
leaving
parallel on
rays
in
limelight,or
use,
projected on
beam
furnish
to
by
to
green
constructed
is
of Thorpe's
employing one
glass prism speciallydesigned to
colour
any
and
incident
the
of
is attached
replicas,which
keep
machine
figure the
the
in
seen
171
strong
use
in
the Addenda.
(ii)The
second
in different
admit,
more
of
parts
of
of
use
service
several
of
exhaustion
in
for
this
they
are
is
much
so
used
of
but
purpose,
during
it
prevents
using
easilydistinguishable,although
The
softened.
with
is not
to be
particularglass, which
is
signal green,"
very
pot glass called
"
being
244,
often
fluid
will not
and
by Messrs.
screen,
the
after
called
namely,
readilybreak.
monochromatic.
"
Watson
author's
that
Different
it does
with
and
It has
thicknesses
fade
are
; hence
with
may
colours
other
cheap,
Sons, of 313, High
not
screen
green
mentioned
confused
name.
only
not
black
the
general illumination
the
specimens stained
This
detail
appear
glass above
green
materially
suitable
to
to
much
examination
very
this
example,
it is of
hurried
ready
are
; but
recommend
because
red, for
Baker,
the
for
We
eye.
objects stained
causes
employed
contrast
greater
is,we
use
photomicrography
specimens,
the
Such
specimen.
comfort especiallywhen
through
is to create
screens
; but
variety
another
sold
an
age
sold,but
by
Charles
Holborn,
advantage
;
be
moreover,
it is not
E.G.,
over
it
pletely
com-
DARK-GROUND
i;2
ILLUMINATION
especial directions
more
devoted
the
to
and
of the
use
details
microscope
Dark-ground
illumination
Dark-ground
the details of
up
time
same
somewhat
the method
rays
beautiful
is that the
only,and
by
no
of
although
as
the
remarkable
The
manner.
be litup
all.
at
ones
instrument
of
source
somewhat
microscopist to
idea
and
the
at
in
by extremely oblique
All
of
manner
often
are
show
entertained
are
chapter
Bacteriology.1
the
by
object shall
direct
silvery-lookingeffects
demonstrations
in
the
Illumination
is used
object in
an
in
given
are
in
curious
popular
greatly admired,
however,
investigation,
not
much
so
is
explained later
as
The
usual
on.
method
with
dry objectives
of low magnification
is twofold, either by employing the
Spot Lens
(or its
wheel stop,"placed beneath
the ordinary substage
equivalent,a
adopted
"
by the Paraboloid.
is merely a condenser
Tfie Spot Lens
less permanently attached
more
or
paper
condenser)
the
or
In
centre.
itself
some
rough
ground
and
disadvantage of this
black disc only reallysuits
it is
and
made,
of
method
the
expensive
in
paper,
the
lens
the
several
in
is
glass
situation.
same
diameter
of
objectivefor
individual
to have
its lower
the
is that
piece of black
to
using
painted black
The
was
instead
cases,
with
the
which
condensers,
it
each
affix to
to
paper
microscope.
like
made
are
rim
is also
"
the
To
"
By having several
of different objectives,one
carrier
beneath
the
of
1
can
Mr.
be
illumination
with
the "box
sizes.
the
this trouble
meet
wheels
thin, but
for every
condenser
"
"
depends
almost
equal,if not
used
spokes.
rays
to
pass.
this
upon
very
originalmethod
a
that
The
aperture
that, placed
the
The
of
in
direct
light,
peculiarity
fact,
little later,thinks
in
in different
is made
oblique
used
often
thin
usually be found
of his
Rheinberg, by the use
coloured
illumination,described
produced
are
very
of the wheel
wheels
can
stops
three
only
"
combination
the
and
arranging
contrast
ferential
dif-
effects
by the ordinarymethod.
ILLUMINATION
DARK-GROUND
effect
characteristic
thereby
produced
is itself
illuminated,
brilliantly
dark.
wheel
and
of
"
box
which
these
importance, if the
of the
wheel-stop
in
fact
of
point
conditions
best
effect
shall
be
exactly
be
be
to
it is
desired, that
of
both
according
have
fulfilled ; but
are
very
varies
condenser
of the
iris may
substage
object
perfectly
remains
background
the
the
that, whilst
is
raising or lowering
and
little before
more
of
amount
is necessary,
closed
"
certain
the
173
the
size,
correct
the
to
the
numerical
well
the focal length of the
as
objective as
in use.
condenser
Generally speaking, a wheel-stop is supplied
with
for employment
diameter
any
by the optician the correct
aperture of
the
given objective
the
make
to
for the
convenient
for any
combination
will
found
be
with
used
necessary
microscopist
of
explained
extremely simple.
First, with
about
"
to
"
be
be able
to
condenser,
respect
"
to
N.A.
to
per
cent,
larger than
that
of
example,
if
inch
objective N.A.
occluded
would
the
N.A.
Owing
correct
Traviss
It
an
wheel
use,
at
about
10
combination
the
in
objective
-30
the
amount
to
be
N.A.
be
the
out
is
"
con-
in use?
denser
that
of
be
to
using
"
box
"
stopped
rule, which
the
the
it
as
expanding
usually reckoned
is
the
also
Traviss
furnish
we
"
and
is
himself
this for
do
to
utilisingthe
when
be
stop
is
objectiveand
of service
and
particularcondenser,
any
little information
but
consequently
how
when
consists
iris,as
trouble
dimension,
that
could
can
the
to
be
he
should
increased
be
used
of
the
the
an
of
an
diminished
any
reverse
is
devise
or
with
handle
procuring wheel-stops
ingenious idea suggested
in
an
expanding
at
of
aperture
itself
stop,
one
the
to
Mr.
in
fact
the
low-power combination,
With
iris diaphragm.
turned, the
exactly
and
ordinary
an
less
becomes
really
and
less,
to be dropped over
provides a diaphragm of given diameter
illumination.
the low-power objectivewhen
it is to be used for dark-ground
If
Davis
iris.
the
This
the
avoids
a
substage
necessity of altering
Diaphragm" be used it may have to be closed a little to perfectthe definition
1
Carl
Zeiss
"
and
2
to
the
blackness
It should
the
Position
be
of the
background.
understood
that
Planes.
See
this rule
of the
Accessory
assumes
condenser.
the
See
Apparatus.
stop
is
Appendix
placed
close
concerning
THE
174
but
TRAVISS
Traviss's
in Mr.
EXPANDING
invention
is mounted
sleeve
stem
is
by the
arranged
wheel,"
"
little handle
the leaves
viz.
shown
and
so
be
to
that
in
in the
most
stop
Mr.
accompanying
under
figure.
part of
long enough,
beneath
both
the
whilst
the
the condenser.
forms
serves
The
to
expand
of
service.
of the stop.
few
with
Traviss's
instead,thereby
the diameter
cases
"
be
in the
figurein
increase
Fig. in.
if such
immediately
Seeing
in the
to
used
the leaves
(Fig. 1 1 1).
shown
as
other
In
on
it opens
of the stop
forms,
two
are
STOP
hints
dark-ground
Expanding
be
may
Central
illumination
Stop.
has
portion of the periphery of the objective in use
generally to be cut off by the substage iris diaphragm or by the
the background
if that be used
shutter
Davis
instead, to make
certain
the
sufficientlydark, it is obvious
in the resolving
less the reduction
Hence
the
leave
to
wide
found
have
we
open
to
iris
ascertainingthe
in
or
the
downwards
best
use
as
with,
with
illumination
Traviss's
and
to
is necessary
the
combination.
stop it is
or
extend
the
the
good
Davis
the
plan
shutter
leaves
of
the
far
correct
away
Mr.
of
power
substage diaphragm
commence
expanding stop
condenser
with
this
less
from
of
necessary
as
object coincident
with
that
the
produces
darkest
RHEINBERG'S
76
DIFFERENTIAL
attained, perhaps
confine
shall
subsequent
our
is anxious
who
further
to
well to consult
do
the
than
in
consists
using,
remarks
follow
colour,
other
the
others, \ve
; but
the reader
interestingsubject
will
footnote.1
in the
illuminator
of most
of
centre
this
is fitted
which
be
not
what
exact
be
to
about
it
as
called
one-third
one
with
For
some
example,
hole
is
of its
punched
in
diameter,
in
material.
same
be
might
loose
the
the
crackers)is cut
beneath
the substage
form
interior of
blue
so
may
equal
nounced,
pro-
with
used
microscopes.
modern
covered
whilst
blue,
red.
that
some
condenser,
say
is
well-marked
say,
as,
the
to
colour,
transparent
red
condenser
need
of
one
given
stop
gelatine (such as
fit the ring usually found in
of
the
this
up
central
as
portion of the
remaining
to
this
to
original papers
and
clear,
disc
by either
in the refraction
method
is nothing
principle involved
of ordinary dark-ground illumination, and
modification
The
but
better
even
ILLUMINATION
The
fit
"
imagined is necessary,
does
perfectly well.
"
for
This
denser,
dropped into the ring beneath the consimilar to those that obtain
adjustments made
disc is then
bi-coloured
and
the
when
Polycystina, Diatoms,
objects such
as
like Rotifers
are
of
Combinations
discs,but
the
best
the
central
colours
it should
be
portion must
even
livingorganisms
coloured
whilst
"
the
placed on
or
blue,
red.
brilliantly
having
marked
produce
contrast
always be recollected
less bright\\wc\ that of
Methods
is
the
the
of
colour
peripheral,
of
Microscopical Research, by a
Contrast
between
of Optically Producing Colour
an
Object and its
Way
the
Definite
Parts
of
itself,''
between
/('//;v/"'/
Object
Background, or
al Society,1896, pp. 373-88.
Coloured
"Note
Illumination," Journal Ouckett
Mi"r"\^'""/"ualClub,
on
1
On
Addition
an
to
the
.-,
on
New
Modification
of
Double
Special Reference
"tes
Suitable
pp.
44-50.
the
to
J//"v,'.s-"
,"//"//.
Multiple Colour
On
Illumination,
''^Journal
438.
Oitckctt
"
Colour
Percy Lund,
shape
Multiple Colour
of
Humphries
different
Illumination.
screens
See
"
Co..
of
Choice
p. 142-6.
Annual
.
1899,
London.
for obtaining
Adden
the
the
best
effects
with
RHEINBERG'S
a
DIFFERENTIAL
point often
of
process
best
results
overlooked
in the
illumination
be
cannot
coloured
is
out
an
discs
sold
obtained
under
result
177
by opticians for
unfortunate
effects also
beautiful
Very
using a
ILLUMINATION
this
these
with
circumstances.
certain
specimens by
of
quite readily. It
and
blue
the
usual
whilst
is obvious
inside,that
black
the
the
in
blue
the
disc,taking the
central
furnishes
one,
case
the
colour
of
the
place of
background ;
that
to
means
the
oblique
formation
over
and
rays
of structures
above
those
dark-ground illumination
presented to the eye
background of another
is of great service
object,and
from
vivid
one
it is
colour
realisation
different
parts of
by
; but
the
furnishes
organisms
obtained
by the
or
must
we
object
a
in
say
use
of
by its
ordinary
direct
the
contrast
colour
one
means
examined
of
lying on a
that
differentiating
of
when
of
an
the
disposition and
object than
results
relative
from
in
a
hue
more
thickness
examining
12
an
of
the
THE
"studies
in
black
"
white
and
illumination.
ground
PARABOLOID
We
obtained
as
might
mention
of
of
use
this method
be
to
appear
This
incidentally,and
gets in many
illumination,the
same,
as
by
cases,
benefits,or
same
arising from
those
in
the
use
screens.
Paraboloid.
to
seems
have
Shadbolt
Messrs.
the
he
ordinary dark-
"
monochromatic
(ii)The
of
with
been
something of a mixed
Wenham,
although each
and
WENHAMS
RAYS
PARABOLOID
PATH
SHOWING
FbsmoN
APPROXIMATE
OF
worked
of
on
5PCCIMLN
OF
invention
or
SPECIMEN
Fig. 112.
somewhat
separate
Fig. 112,
as
is drawn
paraboloid, but
curved
at
its upper
in
flat at
the
direct
follow
to
are
object
normal
the
to
seen
again
rays
to
of
be
from
path
first.
its
or
reflected
the
In
the
flat,but
so
lower
centre
It needs
on
not
be
glass shaped
end, and
of
this
as
so
in
is
to
deeply
placed
obstruct
explanation
consulting the figure
upper
that
shown
as
of
no
parabolic surface
piece
anyhow
rays, which
off the
consists,
larger or
illuminant.
the
of
It
section, of
extremity.
"
which
lines at
the
broken
into
the
extremity.
rays
up
may
into
glass
The
leave
coloured
SUGGESTION
GORDON'S
MR.
will
be
179
the
object placed
afterwards
focus
somewhat
the
scatter
F, and
irregularly.
carried
certain few, caught up by the low-power objective,are
to
the
ones.
in
They
is fixed
in
by this
can
It
should
here
and
be
the
the
Ramsden
that
the
viz.
that
ground,
can
would
of
at
in
the
this
with
in
be
Ramsden
the
shown
of
be
circle ; but
it is
is
"
Ramsden
the diameter
be
startling nightmares
"
circle is
is equal to
both
by
objectiveis
the
the
its
ing
proceedformation
best
is
apt
repeatedly proved
instructive
A.
Mr.
the
dark
E.
and
Conrady
vincing
con-
and
by
is
must
objective itself
The
been
Microscopical Society by
Microscopists cannot
has
as
illumination,
this manner,
at
in
doubt
no
bright against
illumination
stop
eyepiece
be
dangerously inviting
one
It
the
can
way
central
dark-ground
perfectlyrealised
it,that
ordinary
by
out
there
be
full aperture
the
understand
in the
stopped
out
direction
dbject and
obtaining
suggested by Mr.
we
Whilst
connected
J. Rheinberg.
numerical
for
above
or, preferably,
circle.1
experiments,
Mr.
arrange
arrangement
method
as
object standing
Royal
this
condenser
be
images. Dark-ground
yield deceptive images,
the
far
so
was,
objective
to
the
the
of
been
the
seem
to
as
with
has
false
to
of
to
which
lighted by
appearance
of
so
movement
case.
lightshould
either behind
disc
diameter
made
be
idea
The
so-called
the
paraboloid,
in its stead.
illumination
J. W. Gordon.
the object should
of the
the
in
is
sleeve
dark-ground
metal
employment
ordinary condenser
to be placed in the
Reference
axis
piece
shown
not
up-and-down
the
to
of the
the
in
the
An
objective,and
obvious
is
little cerftral
general requirements
the
the
although
beneath.
portion of
aperture of the
upon
in use,
right through
applied
be
means
darkened
the
to
little knob
seen,
stem, which
reallypasses
illustration
ending
as
convenience
For
eyepiece.
metal
of
impinge,
blocked
that
quite certain
most
fruitful
often
too
included
in
the
on
"
500
mm.
such
of
N.A.
Magnification
famous
page
false
that
reminded
fullyexplained
Total
source
by a stop in the
placed behind
out
effects.
the
experiment
118,
where
most
with
it is shown
OF
EXTENSION
i8o
Abbe's
TO
of
by
by
images so
be obtained
whatever
by any means
of the objective be left undisturbed.
Mr.
HIGH
obtained
were
diffraction-plate
that
and
USE
blood
corpuscles having
Gordon
by his method,
as
POWERS
the
of
use
if the normal
of research,and
means
extraordinary appearance
recorded
surfaces,"
sculptured
make
unless
upon
methods
the
think
one
amply confirmed
belong
It is obvious
arrangement
possible caution
greatest
result obtained
no
aperture
The
"
it would
with
be used
fact,
of
round
stops,
strict matter
"
he suggests
such
should
by ordinary and
be
as
depended
legitimate
more
of observation.
This
illumination
explanation how
the
concludes
low
with
all that
powers
obtain
to
dark-ground
hitherto
appealed
to
can
very
dry sixth
or
twelfth.
immersion
an
this extension
immediately
with
profitablyemployed
of
the
of the
use
it will
apparent,
high
Seeing that
method
in
well
be
to
furnished
not
such
powers,
the
utilityof
question
may
that
up
state
as
be
not
to
satisfactoryresults
the
when
small
refractive index
transparent objects,whose
upon
from the fluid in which
differed to any sensible amount
employed
has
not
they
or
other
similar
for
such
immersed,
are
fluid.
It
example
those
is true
and
to
consequently of a
more
identify with
distinguishit from
observations
it is
of dark
much
-ground
by
its
use
not
skilled
were
sufficient
with
amount
diffraction
certainty
still it has
another;
left very
that
in water
have
been
"
phenomena
well
nature)sufficiently
less
or
by these trained
even
extension
doubtful
living bacteria
as
to
be
illumination
most
only
of
can
one
been
observers
that
desired.
to
the
these
perhaps
to
species, and
the
ledged
generally acknowthe
method
Now
use
it is
of
the
and
by
this
lii^hpowers
difficultywill
be
come,
over-
little objects be
the
distinguish the organisms with cilioj from
the
darting movements
non-motile, and
naturally rapid and
the torpid and
perhaps irrc
peculiar to the one
type, from
is of far more
of other forms ; but, what
motion
importance still,
well
enough
to
EXTENSION
is that these
OF
USE
littlebacteria
can
than
TO
HIGH
POWERS
be studied
now
by examining
in their
181
natural
and
after
specimens
staining
mounting, a process
acknowledged to produce differing
results according to the stain used, the
length of time it was
employed, and the particular method
adopted.
It was
thought that this new
departure, first suggested by
and
that is
Herr
Reichert
in
lecture
before
Stuttgart,November
at
the
Congress of
1906, would
have
before
future
great
held
Naturalists
it ; but
this to be the
subsequent experiences have not shown
Details
are
case.
given, however, to obtain the best results.
difference
in the philosophy of this extension
There
is no
to
high
illuminated
be
to
rays
ro
that
which
with
employed
is
illumination
above
and
over
powers
low
obtains
due
difficulties to which
the
of
change
to
adopted
principle,but
the
desired
the
about
bring
to
reference
with
provided
this
To
purpose
have
Why
position?
suitable
stop of
reply that
obtain
with
fairlygood
the
ordinary
higher aperture
dark-ground effect
is
either
find
to
position,which
focal
must
plane of
should
the
be
further,owing
colour
to
images
of
bending
about
with
by
the
Several
of
of
close
the
rays
effect
rather
to
are
in
stop
purpose
realise
that
at, the
that
obtained
type
condenser
refraction
as
the
good
posterior
ro.
meter
diaStill
of illumination
far better
when
way
when
correct
its exact
N.A.
of this
proved
the
what
to
7,
it is not
the
exactly
below
using
found,
to
exactly
ascertain
by
by
the
asked
ordinary
Moreover,
focus
than
means
N.A.
been
impossible
to, if not
character,
to
is
been
for
the
in
sensitiveness
great
the
about
has
it
field.
or
effects,it has
reflection
usual
be
that it cuts
far purer
the
to
not
are
exceed
fix the
how
condenser,
so
to
the
over
of
that
required,it
all
be used
it is
not
but
condenser)
made
naturally be
very
made
dark-ground
means,
easy
does
N.A.
size,and
opticians
we
been
of
results.
Why
the
have
oblique
limit
change
to
objects
extremely
has
Before
the
dark-ground
the
hence
if
for
powers,
before, solely by
as
when
results,
necessary
is
brought
ordinarilyobtains
type of illuminator.
these
new
forms
of
condensers
have
been
placed
DARK
82
the
on
two
BACKGROUND
three
of which
the arrangements
by
above
such, that
are
that
aperture
by refraction.
Another
the
N.A.
below
rays
bacteria
be
is
never
above
be
of
interest
surface
with
to
they
under
in the
them
ordinary
happen
not
and
the
they
of
be
of these
case
cut
are
whilst
instead
asked,
of
If
all
extremely oblique
is effected
seeing
under
first traverse
the
oil
the
these
the
Leaving
upper
connecting
illuminate
and
at
brilliantly
so
bodies, by which
means
any
used
the
acute
very
in consequence
find
which
them
passing
cover-glass. As they arrive
angle less in point of fact
we
"
being unable
them
seen
entering
and
surface
this
self-luminous
as
fall upon
ro
condenser,
here
may
course
organisms
water
its upper
N.A.
by reflection
circumstances.
manner.
to
through the
at
how
appear
to be
enabled
are
the
each
off
cut
the
side
little
make
below
In
others,
fluid,and
slip. Quitting
the slip itself,they pass
through it to gain
the water
Here
containing the bacteria.
they
into
these
united
are
are
condenser
entered
admission
as
learn
the
the
having
ro
paradoxical
of
describe.
the rays
beneath
question
follow
to
to
apparently
strike
POWERS
the
by the stop, how can
with
a
dry objective,seeing that its aperture
In replying to this it will
?
-95 or thereabouts
seen
pencils,and
suffice to
it must
suitably placed
stop
those
it
HIGH
or
off
WITH
which
to
the
cover
the
enter
made
was
air,they suffer
The
direct consequence
again into the water.
of this is,that with a dry lens the only pencilsgaining admission
those
into the objective are
coming from the bacteria, whilst the
effect is, that
these
a
projected on
bright organisms appear
total reflection back
When,
background.
perfectly dark
of
twelfth
is employed, the contact
in
question
front lens
to
In
to
necessary
immersion
consequence
add
system
which
that
the
or
so
make
set
desired
of
an
immersion
permits these
enter
they now
the
means
of this,to
diaphragm
so
oil
the
cover-glass,and
quit the
of the combination,
longer dark.
however,
background
rays
the
is
no
it so, it becomes
diaphragms
effect
may
to
be
the
thus
obtained.
accrues
from
its shorter
the
focal
use
of
an
immersion
twelfth, is that
more
due
than
to
the
FORMS
SPECIAL
84
the ocular
throw
the
as
the
and
CONDENSERS
reluctantlydemur,
condenser
OF
of the axis
out
So
judiciouslyemployed.
the
at
time, unless
same
perfectlymade
goods of this
the
were
most
0
/
B
Fig. 114."
firm
that
device
the
at
allow
must
we
all when
and
has
to
be
might be
very
that
much
thickness
The
between
1*3 and
form
The
it is used
perhaps
sort, it is then
of
there
of
1*4
was
placed this
we
point is,when
Zeiss's Condenser.
self-contained
The
with
being truncated
to
lies
at
C), the
in
immersion
curved
such
an
upper
of
lens
surface
contact
as
the
to
by Zeiss
but
tails
de-
certain
to
J.
makers
the
use.
side, concentric
extent
"
reflecting
which
portion
of
R.
respect
respect
mention,
we
form
that
illuminator
upper
the
in
in
similar
facilitate its
claim
Beck's
of
of Cornhill, consjsts
that
slip,the
arrangement
by Messrs.
condenser
it is modified
the
some
mm.
last-mentioned
of
make
slip recommended
paraboloid
115."
Cond"
; but
felt.
Beck,
Fir.
stand
our
on
microscope of another
thereto by an
adapter of
of
want
condenser
centring
any
on
affixed
the
of
need
no
to
the
focusscs
(which
of
which
is
the
under
with
with
stop
is
apparatus
the
placed
face
sur-
foci,
all li-ht
from
SPECIAL
object which
the
reaching
the
By moving
ring (which
the
is
This
not
dirt
any
should
of
type
into
have
fallen
very
strong
may
A
brought
suitable
the
Or
It
economical
in current.
by Stearn,
is also
of
employed
by
the
microscopist had
as
Whatever
this
with
not
the
focus
little
made
now
the
The
Zigzag
service.
32
water
handy
; it has
in
to
bull's-eye
be
not
point
upon
the
recommends
the
of size ; whilst
the little
to
the
made
scope.
microdescent
incan-
ordinary
good
of
of
flask
the
of
being cheap,
Messrs.
Watson
and
lensbeing
mirror.
large
but
"
is
Sons
all in
the
lamp,
results.
is
bull's-eyecondenser
side
is
exclusively
Welsbach
furnish
is
by Messrs.
for
purposes
glass
arclamp,lamp
lamp,
stocked
of
and
oil
plane
advantage
voltage
(see Addenda)
is almost
use
and
supply,
the
to
useful
; but
enough
in use,
Sons,
profitably employed
attempt
to
the
to
available,a
not
"
candle-power,
usually
is
very
which
arc-light originally
candle-power
ordinary
be
not
hesitate
not
extremely
lamp
different
It
for
dust
ordinary house
Pointolite
new
illuminant
rays
up
bringing
by Watson
It is
to
do
we
the
use,
of
may
Zeiss
purpose
before
particlesof
required, and
nearly strong
the
show
special cleaning.
obtained
better
light is not
to
small
attached
current
burner
gas
also
microscopist should
just immediately
and
Author
If electric
its
to
"
same
has
particularlyprone
their
is
the
be
can
Nelson
resistance
the
about
of.
(page 167).
be
excellent.
Page
after
Argus
installation.
is well
the
continual
can
ordinary
spoken
any
by Leitz
convenient, for it
remove
some
The
the
most
both
on
to
be
Mr.
moreover
illuminant
out
called
and
thereon
after
recommend,
being
in
as
maximum
matter
use,
so
use,
in
held)
is
self-centringarrangement
arrangement.
is
blow
so
should
slip
the
ro.
milled
paraboloid
slips into
and
illumination
before
forget to gently
them
The
of
obtain
to
as
N.A.
means
the
apparatus
which
exercised
be
so
condenser
foreign
or
by
which
substage
Zeiss's
for
alcohol
with
the
parabolic
this
As
of
of
necessary.
as
a
in
than
obliquity
down
or
up
sleeve
piece
sleeve
thickness
devised
the
185
less
accurately focussed
brilliancy.
adjustable
is of
paraboloid
rotates
is
light
ILLUMINANTS
size
sary
neces-
For
filled
certainly
attach
onefitting.
TO
HOW
86
HINTS
USE
THOSE
TO
THE
WHO
obtain
the
HIGH
illumination
fullest
it is necessary,
The
of
layer
if too
of the system,
with
all
in
be
cases
grossly
field of
equal
object.
appear
may
black.
rich
obtain
to
tioned
men-
for,if this be
illuminated
brilliantly
background
of
instead
grey
impossible
fluid must
thick, the
POWERS
by the manufacturer
be found
neglected,it may
coincident
ILLUMINATION
blackness
METHOD
DARK-GROUND
USE
WITH
To
NEW
this
Should
light
be
appearance
time
of
piece
blotting-paper
using
character.
the
be
piece
of
cambric
may
be
mentioned,
objective when
layer of
The
fluid
mirror, but
the
be
cone
greater
if the
cover
be
focussed
the
on
If
it docs
if
not
sell
the
than
such
employed,
limits
the aperture
whilst
the
apochromatic
(in
an
of
light
at
the
to
be
the
our
perience)
ex-
sixpence
cross
combination
the
did
when
the
kind
or
from
the
focus,
or
preferred.
from
of
incd
recommend
be
the
use
its
the
supplied
into
purpose.
sent
portion
of
used
his semi-
mount,
own
can
funnel-shaped diaplv
is screwed
for the
Leitz
necessary.
nickel
is
mm.
which
objective must
not
always
of the combination
funnel-shaped diaphragm
Xciss
cone
of
side
not
position is
removed
It contains
which
is
which
to
twelfth, when
readily be fixed.
Carl
to
always shows
plane
of
diameter
specialmount
that
similar
apochromatic
the
by
or
be used
be
twelfth
to
sixth
in
means,
of
it
should
illumination
of
lie in the
mirror
shilling. The
may
condensing lens either before the rays
afterwards,but
cover,
adheres
that
use,
the
thick.
is too
light should
by this
of
union
expressed
beneath
material
is in
the
up
other
or
such
point of
up
removed
unless
to
It
immersion
drawn
prone
soft
the
it will soak
the
as
to
correct
amount
with
free end
(It should
works
limiting
the
to
the
of
homogeneous
to
be
be
of
tioned
men-
fitted.)
systems.
TO
HOW
After
oil the
to
possible,and
all
bright
the
mirror
with
focus
to
of
should
be
arise
before
hinted, from
of
of
instead
removed
and
required for
but,
should
The
first
directed
to
the
agitation of
"
has
of
such
of
remove
an
that
inch
be
large.
too
of the
points
found
the
the
smaller, it is well
side
be
now
cation
magnifi-
necessary
be
been
desired
should
be
now
mirror
have
the
that
usually
this
obtained
arranged
real
With
method
had
his
for the
motion
little
if the
of
examination
attention
previously
particlesfloatingin
minute
less
easily
by what
may
"
is caused
for
movement,
cover-glassand
direct
look
obtained
be
when
of
mentioned
looking
deep grey.'
for
that
some
the
at
It should
rather
will
not
thick.
too
mistake
the
peculiar
pedesis, or
is called
the
on
of
part
the
experience
observer
two
the
can
be
unacquainted
this peculiar form
let him
rub a little gamboge
of motion
for sufficient time
(to
water, and, having boiled the same
of living bacteria),
the possibility
place a minute quantity
beneath
with
be
objects not
with
is
difficulty
may
being
it
one
All
of very
speak
we
objects themselves.
with
background
may
these
usually
examination
five-thousandth
be
the
standing
thinner, notwith-
mirror
making
employs
who
time, and
fluid medium
Brownian
it
required, it must
who
microscopist
for the
be
fluid
until
previously explained.
as
purpose,
the
When
objects
starting,
at
the
low-power eyepiece
most
twelfth
of
substituted.
12
of
lightslightlyto
The
produced.
use
follows
it will
to
first
all directions
making
mirror
in its centre.
exactly
is
of
cone
carefullyattended
effect
the
(not
to
occur
obtain, such
to
after
improvement
no
in
layer
plane side
the
to
the
occurs
positions of
lighton
Presuming
often
may
impossible
improvement
cone
is best
very
all
as
mentioned
compensating ocular
carefully. If the field is
manipulated
seems
no
details
187
power
bacteria
black,
If this
If
METHOD
the
to
low
as
the
black.1
as
NEW
instead
objects are
THE
attending
sixth
apochromatic
as
and
setting up
omitting
the
USE
under
specimen
manner.
On
seen,
and
background
Dr.
Brown
when
microscopists find
if the
ciliae,
twelfth
examination
(discovered by
be
be
once
better
not
results
the
so
fully
are
jet-black,but
188
DIFFICULTIES
appreciated,
cannot
motion
proper
There
be
the
on
is another
call it
wild
bacteria
of
process
caused
often
the
be
any
themselves.
we
"
may
fluid
containing the
the
especially when
seen,
previously mentioned
equalising the
for
strikingcharacter
fro of
It is not
mistaken
or
little bacteria
of
and
to
very
the
appearance
may
ARISE
easily confused
part of
rushing
which
"
THAT
but
movements,
in various
pressures
rather
parts of
the
to
the
to
slide,
upon
form
of illumination.
very
There
We
or
is yet
refer
the
to
particles
may
pieces of
both
supplied
the
the
look
by Leitz
equally
make
be
lens
of
kept rigidlyfixed
for,if the
the
all
Supposing
of the
screws
be
the
condenser
to
of the
arrangement
and
its
said, this is
very
much
for
out
plan
we
do
of centre, and
with
turned
removal
ocular
stop
should
be
draw-tube
the
axis
of
to
appear
black
the
of
and
should
; but
held
and
be
it is not
the
distribution
to
be
be
with
of
the
light.
adjusting
little
until
uniform
the
in
ring of
brilliancy.
centring device, an
attached
to the objective,
a
object ; but, as
we
be
be
ment,
instru-
provided
similar
nut
the
unequal,
manipulated
must
easily
so
the
stop appears
kind
radical
eye
on
obtains
the
be
must
same
used
screws
be
occurs
should
a
tive.
objec-
illuminator
as
"
pearance
ap-
the axis
not
the
central
of
down
to
to
is not
the condenser
When
end
allowed
found
the central
lightaround
is
bands,
the
often
screws
the
case
looking
whilst
be
and
the
round
from
that of
lift out
to
larger
The
from
objective. This
with
effect
to
being the
such
head
little
; but
of
little distance
some
arise
condenser
necessary
illuminated
sure
the
"
disappear
back
of
that
direction.
troubles
one
organisms
diffraction
one
alignment
form
little
light,and
If
ordinary type.
centring apparatus
own
it may
the
at
be
to
at
its
wings
trouble
the
to
with
in
troublesome
the
of
one
arrangement
until
is
for this
commencement,
in
being
not
defect
as
Both
the
show
may
pointing
disturbing.
of the condenser
The
all
of
the observer.
annoy
of
wings
present
bands
is most
centred
matter
may
each
have
to
appear
and
which
that
possibility
foreign
wings
trouble
more
one
objectivein
have
already
condens"
consequence
has
to
SIEDENTOPFS
moved
be
illumination
dark-ground
called
Jena, and
him
by
throw
to
the
out
may
illumination
when
arise
there
distributed
in
are
not
of
relativelyconsiderable
small
other
See
in focus
difficulties
another,
particlesin
focus;
XVI.
dark-ground
the
object
that
thickness, so
is in
pectations,
ex-
think
Chapter
of
or
of
number
do
title,
we
sort
one
of
Siedentopf
by its attractive
great
form
great
condensers
by
to
The
ultra-microscopical."
subsequent experience.
methods
previously described
all the
made
Dr.
by
realised in
been
In
"
be
must
introduced
caused
however,
the
perhaps
Before
have
it is apt
amount,
ocular, which
189
definition.
of the
of
sensible
very
of the
alignment
METHOD
only
all
also
brilliantly
lighted,their
diffused images spoilthe dark background, making it grey instead.
The
this by
advocated
method
by Dr. Siedentopf overcomes
through the polished edge of
lightingthe object from the side
particlesnot
being
"
reduced
the
of light being
slip; for,the source
width
by an adjustable slit,only a most
object
this
slit
observer
illuminated
be
may
and
careful
may
so
of
focussing
things that
arrange
suitable
the
small
very
the
of
adjustment
lateral
of
the
condenser,
those
only
thickness
minute
fact,by
; in
to
particles are
objectiveand
with
the
sufficientlysharp focus
magnification in use.
By lighting the adjustable
slit with
powerful light(arc-lamp)the
illuminated
made
which
very
intense
so
method.
hence
method
the
be
of
to
to
the
had
resolution
ficiently
particlessuf"ultra-microscopical
objects
this
say,
been
does
rendered
not
rendered
visible
mean
by
that
the
by
this
obsolete
particlesare
minute
be
may
minute
of
name
for,although extremely
rendered
as
shapeless spurious discs of the
only shown
real shape and
prescribed by the undulatory theory. The
and
real size of the objects are
can
only
absolutely hidden
visible,they
size
applied
illumination
extremely
the
Needless
limit
accepted
make
to
as
luminous;
particles"has been
this
in
are
inferred
are
in
"
of small
visibility
preciseanalogon
which
is
minute
of resolution
them.
See
of
"
some
cases
"
by
under
particles
to
the
Theories
of
the
In
fact
the
of illumination
is
than
TQ^TJU)"f
the
or
easily sees
telescope which
Microscopical Vision,"Chapter
of
(probably less
or
eye
methods.
this method
of
visibility
fraction
the
indirect
limit
shows
XVI.
APPARATUS
SIEDENTOPFS
190
Fig.
116
Zeiss
we
are
enabled
to
show
Fig. 116.
Carl
"
of
Diffraction
Light
with
nn
of
Par'.icle.
Ultra-microscopic
f
^
'ianccs
Fluids, as
for the
I:
pro;
in
Fig. 117
powerful arc lamp,
illumination, and
including a
in
ultra-microscopic particles
"
"
complete
suitable
fluids.
for
set
the
of
apparatus,
observation
of
NARROW
192
VERSUS
which
from
it
LARGE
the
data
For
example, bacteriologistsseem
tuberculosis
under
the
is
made
was
probably
not
be
an
stained
encircling capsule,as
in every
appears
increased,
does
so
illustrations
this
be
might
though
many,
case
yet,
narrow
unstained,
clear
and
the
as
is
cone
pronounced
very
possible
as
whether
cone,
the
to
steadily and
eye,
slowly
feel
we
yet with
or
bright
extensive.
insufficiently
were
specimen
CONES
obliged
furnish
to
one
peculiar
more
effect of
is with
This
the common
using too small a cone.
object,the proboscis of the blow-fly. So treated, the exceeding
small
lobes
a
hairs
lie upon
which
actuallyappear
interveningbetween
the
two
of moderate
even
cone
the space
angle such
indication
is
with
entirelyabsent.
far can
reduce
the aperture
we
question then arises, How
of
the substage diaphragm
without
the
risk of introducing
To
false images ?
this we
reply that, speaking in general, it
The
must
be curtailed
not
to
greater
extent
lens of any
than
outer
down
what
From
that
strange
by the
should
we
object,especiallyso, seeing
an
of the
large curtailment
It will
diaphragm
between
Before
be
lens
necessary,
narrow
exceedingly
seem
and
resolution
produced
condenser
therefore, to
se,
removed.
improvement effected
is
of the
per
cone
to
"oblique light."
that
by the
Whilst
affect the
use
of
employment
full aperture
true.
back
that such
it is necessary
the
the
been
by
by
of
very
the
iris
ence
the differ-
show
and
the
this
interestingsubject,
narrow
beam
to
necessary
term
to
of the
by looking
seen
having
said, it may
advance
now
cutting off
objectiveas
of
use
been
just
the
of
mistaken
we
"
notion
of this class
of
beam
refer to
in
by the distinctive
has
often been
of illumination
"
meant
the
into the
means
by some
is not
obliquely. This
exactly
if obliquely placed does
mirror
this when
dealing
conjunction with
with
the
high-power objectives
Abbe
test-plate to a certain degree, still this is
when
we
speak of oblique light.
technicallymeant
of
was
tained
enter-
lightsent
condenser
allowing that
image
is meant
the
use
not
testing
of the
what
is
OBLIQUE
using the
When
stopping out
diaphragm of
placed in such
reflected by
into
passes
the
of
say
a
193
its restrictive
sense,
the
mean
we
by a
design,
that the light
greater
beneath
manner
the
the
in
term
LIGHT
the
illuminator
mirror
condenser
at
one
tJie
upon
specimen
as
If
Fig. 118.
such
a
diaphragm be so
placed (in the foreign
of
models
microscopes
this
is
readily effected
by shiftingthe partially
closed
iris
or
nearly
from
the
diaphragm away
in
shown
the
and
eyepiece
is
Fig. 1 1 8.
of the
centre
the
removed,
field to
observer
its
periphery)
will
perceive, on
lens of the combination, a
at the back
looking
small
illuminated
elliptical
or
oval-shaped portion of the field
to be the only illuminated
all the rest being in darkness
area,
in different
(see Figs. 120 and 121 showing the illuminated areas
down
the
tube
lens
of the
objective).
has
the
directly transmitted
hand,
one
the
according to
object caused
of the
minute
blendingor
effects
with
are
the
object
sudden
by
of these
union
are
and
on
the
other
union
illuminant
varying
minute
in
on
number
of the
structure
The
differentlyformed
of
the
the
phenomena).1
(interference
diffraction
structure
those
by
of
arrangement
from
one
is shown
by
beams
the
fact
that
if the
diffraction
artificially
stopped out, so that the ocular deals only
of the
details
central
or
dioptric beam, the minute
all of a
immediately lost,and the objective seems
to have
1
are
It should
be
borne
in
mind,
13
we
OBLIQUE
I94
mention
should
is not
such
apparent
so
but
LIGHT
of this
have
we
objects, however,
coarse
anyhow
time
hardly
assertion
the
into
the
to
speak in this
of the microscopic image
of the
formation
and
objective, focus
and
condenser,
iris to
the
closed
objective. A
image
of
central
iris will
be
the
on
homogeneous
the
at
blue
the centre
nearest
we
Fig. IIQ.1 If now
in its stead
slide, and use
for
this
ruled
the
violet
"
used
the
any
should
we
red
; in
distance.
other
other
purpose
as
these
apart-
by Carl
Zeiss
in
shorter
spectra
lights
question
the wave-length
are
say
"
less than
observations
are
from
away
diffraction
for future
convenience
three
further
coloured
different
used
lines
the
nearer
the
do
this distance
the
together the
words, the
More
that
centre
we
find
grating-
shall
particularexperiment, we
discover that the spectra always lie
right angles to the objects forming
them, and
if
change the
one
at
Further,
lens
of tJiefield"
in
soon
become.
back
white
dioptricallyformed
surrounded
by six diffraction
seen
ruled
brilliant
stage
light, centrality of
the eyepiece, having
look
and
enter
effect,let
potent
twelfth
now
amount,
put, however,
images do
Place
critical
Remove
sensible
of the
the
adjust for
forth.
so
To
diffraction
that these
proof
so
to
be
not
may
the
reference
here
if
set
we
less
than
forth.
diffraction
two
(i) The
spectra lie at right angles to the
objects forming them, one on each side of the dioptricbeam.
lie together (such as dots or
the fine structures
(ii)The nearer
in diatoms), the further the diffraction spectra arc
placed
dioptricbeam is seen.
(iii)The shorter the wave-length of the light used, the shorter
of the diffracted spectra from the dioptricbeam.
the distance
the dots
In the case
of Pleurosigma angulatum, inasmuch
as
the centre
from
In
of N.A.
Fig.
5,
of the
Hate
1*40 is shown
I., a
back
lens where
photograph
of
the
the
in siiu.
back
lens
of
an
objective
OBLIQUE
hexagons happen
or
the
for
be
both
purpose,
moment
(Fig.
together
to
fusion,let
placed
to
diameter
the
render
which
"
the
For
to
"
purpose
additional
an
placed
with
the
outer
lens
out
later
on
the
focal
length
Place
shift it
an
Fig.
same
blended
ocular.
For
the
as, in
beam
the
back
and
fact,only
to
looking
on
diatom
lens
such
will
now
consideration
small
too
were
of
way
unable
show
to
the
minute
(Fig.2,
of
explaining the
be
convenient, before
Plate
that
Numerical
of
the
for future
to
one,
the
back
let
downwards
in
N.A.
of
as
"
1*35
correction
low-power
lines
transverse
oiled
an
objectivebe
the
especiallyin the
possiblewith
using the
continue
we
existing details
the
If the
1*40
of
6 ocular
to
its
see
have
pointed
objective of
we
test-objectsfor
an
such
diaphragm,
illuminator
as
sented
repreZeiss
(or if
using a
stand, close partiallythe iris diaphragm
and
field to produce the
same
effect),
the
should
start
now
IV.),provided
diameter
of
use
convenience
above
understood
more
20, under
that
the
out
into
specimen
great
be
aperture
the
from
length
be
and
nature
proceeding further,to
Let the specimen be changed
question.
eighth moon-shaped
lines
and
exact
in
the
across
transverse
smaller
can
the
are
little further
if the
be
considering
Continental
diameter
of
these
would
the
when
now
in
another
transmit
add
good
one
only
It is to
it will be
zone,
other
evident,
(achromatic).
condenser
and
all
the
direct
or
structure
its greater
objective,but
same
spectra
and
one
twelfth, so
central
experiment.
field of view.
the
at
in
and
Amphipleura pellucida,
of
one
it be
it
is
it will
oblique light,
to
the
of the diatom.
structure
make
and
it follows
the
minute
combination
the
course
lens
seen
disappeared.
insufficient1
were
as
of
lens
of the
have
is sufficient to
in
back
image
back
the
over
found
the
light
distance
correct
direct
I.),hence
the
form
of
purpose
the
5, Plate
195
field of
the
in
seen
be
to
LIGHT
may
lens
of this
constant.
be
of
an
to
practically
its
to
objective
said
lens, the
less the
N.A.
be
and
the
distinctness
well-marked
focal
or
length
; hence
of the combination
semithe
if the
LIGHT
OBLIQUE
196
Rotate
the
diaphragm
positionsimilar
its
quarter of
that shown
to
in
turn
to
make
it
the
change
Fig. 121.
Fig. 120.
which run
eyepiece, the longitudinallines as they are called
Lastly,change
along the diatom lengtJiwise should be seen.2
the
"
"
the
now
between
positionmidway
the dots
green
should be
for
purpose.
the
shown
those
light be employed,
visible,provided the specimen be a good one
See
Fig. 5, Plate XII.; Fig. i, Plate VI.;
or, better
if pure
and
once
still,
pure
If,whilst
explanation that follows.
when
the amphipleura are
faintly seen
the
eyepiece and
employing
light),the ocular
with
cone
and
the
the
using
lower-power
(without
oblique
substage diaphragm be
in
seen
appearance
recognised.3
the diffraction spectra (here,as
blue portion)on
either side of
one
of
only
to
the
been
entirelygot
Of
solid
lines of
transverse
any
Fig.
122
will
be
difficulty
some
If
removed
trifle,the
veriest
the
closed
be
the
the field of
the back
the
stated, we
central
lens
could
of the
refer
have
objective,
course
into
above
means
that
the
crescent
moon
It should
difficult to
visible
3
ind
The
see
when
green
edge
the eye
of
must
illumination
the
lower
is used.
diffraction
be shifted about
Lite XII.
Sec
spectrum
before
it will
the upper
one.
OBLIQUE
inasmuch
but
small
of
lines
the
then
the
portion
have
been
absolutely impossible
of it into
this
view,
definition
imperfectionof
and
197
would
specimen
it is
as
LIGHT
to
bring
for
accounts
reference
to which
well
defined
than
more
the
faintness
been
has
made.
DIFFRACTION
CENTRAL
IRIS
BE
SEIKO
Fig. 122.
Now
what
formed
the
across
in
entirely at
definition
the
of
zones
of
the
the
with
iris
to
be
is
is rendered
objective
of
correctness
the
moment.
same
the
perfect as
as
dioptrically
spectra, further
permits
central
in
and
eyepiece completely
By doing this
construction
Abbe
sequence,
con-
beam
will
the
by
up
the
which
123,
closed, both
more
taken
and
one
Fig.
in
diffraction
the
Practically
central
the
shift of
shown
the
diffractionspectra
and
means
company
field,as
when
DOWN
SHUT
when
happens
beam,
THE
Fig. 123.
simply this, it
it is
AM,
of
the
proof
of
the
at
the
microscopic image.
The
the observer
edge
is
of
the
nearer
by
lie
the
in
lie
position
pro-
nearer
dioptric
the
back
124.
language, as
dioptric beam
the
when
centrally placed
lens, Fig.
from
field
looks
than
transverse
those
which
markings,
come
so
they
Fig- 124.
OBLIQUE
198
are
difficult to
more
is to
"
the field
across
Now
what
to
as
the reader
has
the
say,
get them
to
"
unless
see
LIGHT
its limitations
within
happens when
experimented he
locate
to
lens, so
dots
become
found
will have
the
beam
both
the
(Fig. I24).1
visible.
it is not
in the area
occupy
that the diffraction
longitudinaland
be
present
in
the
at
field.2
the
To
direct
of the
back
spectra
from
lines shall
transverse
and
one
to
easy
exact
If
moment
same
facilitate this
operation
employ blue
it is
to
mostly necessary
light or certainly a blue-green, because
by employing the shorter wave-length
it lessens
spectra from
gives
beams
real
then
use
simply this
is
also the
ocular
for the
From
what
final
has
the
back
aperture
to
the
lens
N.A.
'05
the addition
the
of
in
being possibly of
shows, with
should
dots
spectra
back
lens
utilised
by the
by the eye.3
seen
having
large
of
having
great
apparent,
addition
an
little service
the
of
words
is very
use,
be
as
necessity
the
into
to
as
image
lens, in other
of the diffraction
student
so
said, the
It further
image.
direct beam,
or
moment,
same
been
to
the
central
buildingup
aperture
even
by
of
objectiveat the
the
beam
diffraction
to
required,and
of
central
of the
and
hence
proposition (iii),
better opportunity of squeezing, so
to speak, all three
into the limit of the back
lens (see Fig. 125).
The
the
distance
the
in
of
perfecting
low-power objectives(seeing
them
spectra with
is not
of such
in the
If
much
the
circular
this
3
back
a
Fig. 6,
lens
that
specimen
the
means
In
they should
microscopist be
as
stage
the
move
of
diffraction-beams
the
other, although
quite as
compare
can
be
than
illumination
Plate
N.A.
shown
not
have
to
moved
be.
using
turned
interfere
of the
instrument
an
around
with
1*40 combination
the
being used.
of
is
that
provided
with
the
field is not
1.,a photograph
Pleurosigma angulatum
are
the
is shown
with.
appearance
when
the
"
presented by the
is changed,
venue
"
LIGHT
OBLIQUE
200
This
corrected.
optician'sart,
observer
any
markings
specimen of
numerical
with a low
aperture, why
i
n
difficulty persuading himself there
one
such
all,the diatom
at
Position
shows
field at
the
Position
is
time
be well
lines should
shown
now
noticed
to
so
as
the
central,
when
the
eyepiece
explains the
situation
when
THK
THEORY
and
are
the
in
transverse
use.
is
arrangement
of
it is
showing the
always more
LIGHT
HI
the
pellucida on
N.A.
objective in
Amphipleura
stage
it is
entering
the
"
OBLIQUE
OF
I'|.V;KAMMATIC:ALLY
be
is in
made
for the purpose
venue
changed and the
longitudinal lines,and it further explains why
"
the
poor
"
venue
beam
same
structure.
appearing without
changed and oblique light in
"
the
diffraction
One
the
or
has
the
use.
1-40
use.
circles
black
turned
central
beam
Circle
in
The
"
the
all
the
be
to
blue
the
end
towards
cases
the
presented
appearance
lens
of the
back
objective
light is used.
/''."Oblique light when
when
to
to
Circle
green
show
CircleC.
the
(seeFig. 119).
at
supposed
spectra,
being
diop-
or
whilst
beam,
are
diffraction
central
the
represents
trically formed
the
Oblique lightwhen
"
show
D.
light when
Oblique
the
arranged
lines.
longitudinal
the
"
show
dots
and
one
the
to
set
spectra (the
two
field at
blue
used
lines.
transverse
time.
same
Fig. 126.
difficult to
be
shiftingof
D
Position
lines, which
both
of
the
beam
back
this has
to
of
use
the
"
indicates
means
be
not
in
1
use
On
must
lens.
account
the
the
as
as
be in the
the
position chosen
much
As
from
away
the
will
central
much
").
"the
or
spectral beams, it
more
displaying
quite been
at
much
so
venue
spectralbeams,
central
because
considerably further
noticed, being
more
also ;
them
see
field at
in
for
dots."
displaying both
For
this
pi:
possible of each,
with
one
and
the
the
moment
same
it will
the
be
noticecl
diagram,
the light supposed
accomplished, because
time
has
too
long a wave-length ; hence
of the
seen
the
transverse.
LIGHT
OBLIQUE
blue
blue-violet
or
their
more
back
lens
of
the
This
use
is
at
mind
the
lest
semi-lunar
diaphragm
whether
question
of
large arc
latter
of
part alone
The
exact
the
necessary
portion
lens
back
in
these
two
relative merits
of
of
the
the
former
direct
the
course,
it
details),
of
should
view
little
the
is not
actually
lost
It is
of
image,
should
to
appear
allowed
the
the
for
the
an
open
the
extent
us
best
the
most
the
upon
practical
of
method
the
to
little curious
actual
that
also
requireslightlydifferent
oblique light demanded
closeness
the
"
effects
produce
object, lying in
admitted
with
advantage
"
to
outside
be
of
is for the
zone
our
details
no
be
intermediate
by
diaphragm
In
large one.
As
upon
be
be
may
conditions
put both
largely depends
not
borne
must
care
zones.
to
of
the
circle
be
position
large
amount
but, whatever
of
(which,
often
the
must
this that
middle
It
experiment.
of
half-moon
from
to
but
theory involved
outer
seemed
has
to
the
place,
part of the
the
and
outer
of
depends
cases
that
arc
outer
It is evident
the
of
the
small
takes
conditions.
have
to
distance
area
study
position
circle,or
employed.
between
field
this
When
seen.
the
small
; whereas
the outer
test
limited
rapidly changing
too
it is better
case
the
of
zone
by
fulfilment
complete
the
the
very
employed,
be
the
thereby allowing
(iii),
one
important, and
by the microscopist.
the explanation of the
concludes
of oblique light. In practice some
shown
in
beams
objective.
"dots"
shorten
to
through
passage
1^40
the
until, can
not
employed
diffraction
dioptric and
complete
between
be
must
201
real
as
unless
of
the
in
the
space
of
false
the
final
they
light,or
can
at
although perhaps imperfectly, with direct
of oblique illumination.
amount
rate with but a small
any
The
reader
now
naturally ask if it be possible to
very
may
of oblique
that
than
obtain
means
by any
greater resolution
be
seen,
light
we
used
must
obtained
or
as
remind
him
in
ways
two
making
by
so
much
described.
have
we
the
that
"
increase
either
wave-length
desired
can
by
To
of
only be
resolution
the
making
smaller
this
answer
hence
effected
by
can
N.A.
the
question,
only be
greater,
improvement
employing one
ZEISS
202
of these
both
or
by the veriest
of
N.A.
these
as
Up
has
lenses
is
placed
for
of
least
at
all
the
require the
active
the
upon
this
if for
of
ground
glasses
have
we
of
made
usually
"
for
expense,
flint
object
sion
immerto
restriction
combination
reason,
be
cannot
"
the
medium,
the
upon
informed
been
practical
system,
such
other
no
known
laudable
mounting
of
first
forget
refraction,a
employment
practical purposes,
for
not
whole
of
index
high
same
do
we
it is well
reached
with
the
present
; but
Here
Zeiss
by
the
been
r/p.
r6
to
adopted
limit
objectives made
; but
view
mostly
that
by lenses
purposes
N.A.
I '6
in
been
tyro
N.A.
expedients.
two
has
which
is that
OBJECTIVE
the
cover-
in
prepared
the
have
be
but
to
ground and
ordinary commercial
manner,
polished by hand.
Consequently the only improvement
possible
to
was
this
light of shorter
use
much
reason
The
service.
not
be
made
in
1.) Then
that
the
made
to
by employing
X-ray
instead.
much
screen,
the
objects
be
to
ground-glass of the
ent
any
when
blue
camera.
upon
illumination
was
Annular
Although
we
do
interesting
not
remarks
First,
lenses
in pre-war
had
to
met
after
to
be
focussing difficultywas
method
the
used
the
focus
to
with
time
them
did
not
obtained
appear
to
by ordinary
employed.
Light
recommend
will
the
was
had
arrangements
The
FCC
light of shorter
in
images
were
times,
be
sufficientlywell
seen
advance
great
violet
experiment.
produced
some
ultra
being, enabled
means
see
blue-violet, so
or
slight
results,why
(These
so.
commercial
cannot
them
photograph
the
difficultywhich
eye
blue
do
docs
were
next
human
the
wave-length than
on
if this
namely, the
making
prismatic
which
quartz
by Zeiss, and
constructed
in
arose
for
was
of considerable
out
suggestion that
"
these
glass transmits
no
met
wave-length still
difficulties
Many
rays?
fact
was
perfecting a
It turned
170.
page
outcome
lightof shorter
use
to
on
in
spent
was
It
green.
extra
as
time
described
arrangement
than
wave-length
be
this
found
form
in
the
of
illumination,
Addenda,
OF
ILLUMINATION
Illumination
The
light;
transmitted
instances,
by
which
on
other
some
lamp
in
which
Objects
illumination
there
be
must
effected
several.
are
of
method
upon
the
indicates
plan
203
the
these
simple
illuminant
other
or
Opaque
their
Of
the
by
for
account
means.
first is
The
of
OBJECTS
by
microscope are examined
this, however, is not
possible in certain
objects prepared
Most
OPAQUE
of
portion
the
lamp
and
specimen
SLIP
ARRANGEMENT
PLAN
IN
METHOD
OF
OPAQUE.
OBJECTS
ONE
OF
ILLUMINATING
Fig. 127.
ence
differinterposed. There is some
should
of opinion which
side of the plano-convex condenser
the piano side
be turned
towards
the specimen, but theoretically,
the shorter
should always be turned
towards
conjugate to obtain
with
condenser
bull's-eye1
the
best
the
condenser,
better
and
(although this
by direct experiment
be
1
reference
chapter.
have
to
the
may
shock
gives the
which
what
different
kinds
tried
in
that
found
statement
however,
mentioned,
frequently
have
We
results.
positions of
practiceit is far
readers) to try
actual
some
better
dissimilar
both
result.
It should
often
effects may
of bull's-eye is
given
in
be
previous
OF
ILLUMINATION
204
different
produced by
using
illuminant,
point which
falls
sun
obliquely
of the
surface
When
in
Hence
make
we
rule
always
the
effects
it almost
to
help
microscope.
the object
fall upon
try
the
to
seems
stage, the
to
much
up
considerably. So
very
it falls upon
when
before.
light from
effect then
the
the
its beams
with
parallel
it
show
moon
objects under
that
of
noticed
the
exactly, at
the mountains
so
situation
seen
of the
little shadow
different from
be very
to
moon.
almost
direction
upon
light is placed
the
never
quarters, when
them, than when
bring out
certain
low-power
with
the
third
and
delineate
it is
have
we
fallingalmost, if not
by beams
to
first and
the
at
OBJECTS
angles for
known
It is well
better
OPAQUE
appear
vertically.
whereabouts
see
is
of
position that gives the best effects by the simple means
direct experiment.1 The
position,however, in this particular
is necessarilyvery often limited to a great
type of illumination
at
degree by the mounting of the low-power objective in use
the
the
moment,
and
of
for
great
so
of
some
the
size,that
older
the
make
are
lightcan
get
blunt-ended,
so
the
to
object only
be
avoided
lamp is in one
position. This can
by
modern
manufacture
that are
not
using objectives of the more
so
constructed, having their brass mount
tapering off to the
the
when
lens.
front
purpose
question,the
or
combinations
the
from
sensible
much
specimen
with
otherwise
mounted.
the
these
the
permit
years
by
1
rubber
This
select out
ago.
stops
illuminant
than
is
hot
object
so
will
is
circumstances
will determine
of the
It consists
and
very
fashion, as
same
of
often
which
in this
with
to
such
the
on
focussed
rays
or
objective
an
many
that the
their
downwards
fashion, and
actually burn
to
surrounded
four mentioned
ease
the
conical
the examination
when
under
in
the
of
greater
bull's-eyeupon
specimen
then
the
after
made
to
as
fond
are
objectivessold
brasswork
distance
Sometimes
we
Holos
that the
is such
formation
away
this account
in
Sons,
"
On
by
injure
the
It is best
protracted one.
interpose a water-bath, an
small
arrangement
shown
two
to
type
at
plates
a
of
chapter.
the
of
greater
being that
Quekctt Club
glass separated
part
illumination
of
their
is the best
to
ILLUMINATION
circumference
OF
by
rubber
clean
to
easy
of their
own.
devoted
to
best
to
in
be
water
of its
because
The
the
empty,
They
can
powers
the
and
be
can
specimen,
when
using
there
bath
had
as
is
there
easily
better
than
usually too
situation.
usually answers
arrangement
; but
This
condenser, rather
the
and
last-mentioned
in the
diameters,
300
it
hot,
too
gets
less air.
much
so
illuminant
the
spare
the water
that
it is always
in, remembering
and
has been boiled
subsequently cooled,
containing
to
low
to
put
above-mentioned
and
200
that
the condenser
littleroom
with
fresh
between
placed
between
hand, for,if
and
out
use
fill,
easy
recommendations.
great
very
to
brass
stripof
ordinary bull's-eye
stand, or supplied on stands
These
are
more
fully explained in the chapter
Not
too large a one
serves
Accessory Apparatus."
"
the purpose
emptied
Easy
screws.
205
the
fitted to
be
are
OBJECTS
ring,supported by
OPAQUE
very
magnificationof
well
between
in illuminating
great difficulty
is
all.
at
ARRANGEMENT
SECOND
IN
OF
OF
METHOD
OPAQUE
ILLUMINATING
PLAN
OBJECTS
Fig. 128.
the
front
objectiveand
lens of the
specimen.
second
method
is
modification
of what
we
have
called
OF
ILLUMINATION
206
condenser,
these
is
placed
more
or
stage.
On
the
lamp
in
pass
of
surface
the
received
are
OPAQUE
by
to
less
modification
opaque
mirror, with a hole
third
time
its centre,
in
ARRANGEMENT
METHOD
OF
O5JECT5
BY
along the
it is to
OF
ILLUMINATING
MEAN6
OF
of
have
through which
PLAN
IN
them
returns
method
on
nating
illumi-
parabolic
the
The
of the
leaving the
parallel beam
constitutes
object. This
an
after
by experiment,
correct
Another
its rays,
position found
the object (Fig. I28).2
the
in
that
so
OBJECTS
front
lens
lightpassing
THIRD
OPAQUE
LlEBERKUHN
THE
Fig. 129.
light
"
object
the
that
How
be mounted
must
directly upon
obtain
to
Sin"e
the
late Secretary
the
the
proper
half, with
as
specimen
if for
mirror, which
from
lens
is
with
use
implies
which
"
transmitted
it to
returns
fullydescribed
in
focus
cailier
1 1.
publicationof
to
this
parallelbeams
the
Ouekett
is
worthy
one
position,it
Microscopical Club,
of mention.
side silvered.
is said
of this book,
to
be
It consists
When
quite as
mentioned.
has
Mr.
\V.
suggested
of
15.
a
as
of
cheap magnifying
effective
Stokes,
form
the
more
held
in
expensive
OPAQUE
OF
ILLUMINATION
208
OBJECTS
cover-glass placed
(Figs. 131
of
the
and
at
132) to
microscope
thence
into
to
on
other
the
optical axis
(suitable adjustments
to
first
latter
the
from
in the
it falls
tenuse
hypo-
the
on
prism
half
of
there
designed
both
little
objective,
total
before, on
as
reflection
the
to
difficultyin
with
it is needful
types
the
by
of
devoid
thence,
needs
whilst
mounts,
from
objective,and
The
object ; whilst
of
only
cover
passing
the
from
Vertical
into
view
objective C,
mount
has
mount
but
both
'1 he
care
Illuminator
expense
with
Zciss Vertical
in
to
use
with
forms
of
dry powers
p,
lower
the
tube
with
cither
directed
the
in
latter
tached
at-
the
and
short
reflecting prism
knob
for
purpose, which
means
be
cover-glass can
used
of arrangement.
of
these
mens
speci-
(Full Size).
for the
oil immersions
short
very
F'g- I33-"
but
use,
(partly sectional)
the
to
men.
speci-
employ
to
A,
this
it is
and
the
surface
which
objective
(Fig. 133)
45"
the
being provided), by
reflected
of
angle
an
into
the
illuminators
It
is very
obvious
little aperture
greatest exactitude.
To
requires particular
in
that
the
the
side
perfect the
of
light
the
illumina-
POLARISED
and
tion
furnish
to
gathered by
are
the
aperture
lens
to
enough light,the
bull's-eyecondenser
the
to
on
reflector.
is
lightis adjusted,no
it
as
Sons
"
Watson
upsets the
it is shown
directlythrough
cast
attaches
condensing
convenience.
the
tube
of the
evenness
have, however,
where
Fig. 134,
and
is
introduced
in detail.
for
(alreadyprovided
focussing is
form,
new
tube
the
upsets
provides
the
the
illuminates
which
the
ordinary
Watson-Conrady
134."
field.
working of
It is evident
this
little condenser)
described
metallurgicalmicroscopes
In
by making
adjustments of focus
is met
the
stage
move
be made
can
Polarised
of
no
of the
movement
little
use
with
hereafter,the difficulty
and
up
with
battery
down,
hence
any
impunity.
Light
he
when
questions asked by the amateur
the beautiful
rendering of objectsby this peculiar method
Polarised
is meant
illumination is,What
Light ?
by the term
One
sees
be
can
is
Illuminator.
arrangement.
lamp
lamp
supplied for
supply if speciallyrequired.
current,
house
but
Vertical
missible,
per-
illustrated
incandescent
with
the
Messrs.
illumination.
a
An
that, after
^
Fig.
illuminant
the
from
arrangements
of
movement
209
rays
Leitz
The
in
LIGHT
of
The
answer
how
most
the
first
to this is not
text-books
on
at
the
all easy,
and
subject
of
it is very
the
remarkable
microscope
shirk
devoted
entirely
to
the
subject
in
the
Nature
Series,
14
from
POLARISED
PLANE
210
which
words
celebrated
It is considered
medium,
ether.
The
established
as
in
which,
to
due
any
all space
with
consistent
mechanical
the
similarly situated
of
orbits
; and
of variations
to
of
although
number
finite
is
there
of situation
of
portion
to
consecutive
of
the
prevent
ray
the
ray.
may
be
The
the
on
suggested
ellipse.
"
the
not
are
ray
in
that
molecules
there
are
entire
the
But
all
general
be
may
a
sufficient
of average
understood
into
ray
of
of any
but
preponderance
polarisationis
any
various
sensation
ether
believe
to
reason
of
being assumed, the process
orbits
of
all
bringing
throughout the
the
the
been
This
direction.
be
constitution
the
of
molecules
an
the
although
of the
the
direction
and
"
considerable
molecules
none
simpler have
straightline,the circle,and
orbits at different points of
the
made
suppositions usually
possible are
only forms
in ordinary light the
all matter,
producing
of
is called
name,
and
by the
ways
the
own
vibration
the
to
better
vibrations
The
it permeates.
of
pervade
in different
affected
are
which
light is
that
absence
the
is understood
ether
its motions
form
author's
"
elastic
media
the
in
following
the
quote
we
LIGHT
similar
positions.
not
thoroughly
elegant description,however, may
to the
lay mind, for it requires,anyhow,
explain the matter
certain, though very
elementary, knowledge of the subject
a
this
Even
whose
light in general, not perhaps possessed by a reader
attention has been
previously directed entirelyto other matters.
To
him, then, the following remarks, though perhaps not so
of
scientifically
accurate,
certain
With
example
consists
say,
in
"
vibrations
of
all
in
paths
of the
stated
ether
to
bi-axial
that
ordinary
tJie
all azimuths
in
and
directions,each
right angles
and
uni-axial
exceptions
generally be
it may
"
directlyappeal.
more
may
patJi of
white
light
that
"
is to
of which
one
every
crystals,for
arc
itself. This
tJie ray
is
in
Fig. I35A,
which
"
by lightof
rather
manner
this
description would
feebly than
more
to
be
hereafter
usual
only
; but
explained,
if examined
and
about
:n
hcnomcna
hibited, and
mo"t
specimen
gorgo"us
so
if illuminated
ap;
to
illuminated
in
with
the
beautiful
behold,
and
particular
special
and
would
examined
paratus
ap-
curious
bt
is
PLANE
POLARISED
LIGHT
211
ABC
Fig- 135-
viewed
be
to
is made
further alteration
in
the
apparatus
be
explained later on, the object may
light of a different character, because
vibrations, instead
made
are
to
to
further,but
any
to
by
viewed
in
this
An
omit
not
still
fully
as
polarised
by
instance
in
the
plane,
one
object seen
in
this
polarised light.
should
we
circular
employed,
oscillate
to
orbit.
circular
be viewed
desirable
It is not
reduced
being
in
move
is said
manner
of
If, however,
to
the
that
mention
subject
certain
seen
the
Nicol's
furnishinga description of
prism,1 the
Nicol's
Iceland
footnote
spar
aim
of
as
long
as
this
is to
arrangement
is constructed
its diameter
from
;
one
is called
what
eliminate
rhombohedron
its
of
faces,
of
which
PPISM
MlCOLS
-ORDINARY
ORDINARY
RAY
Fig. 136.
naturally makes
so
as
to
give the
angle
an
new
face
of 70" with
an
the
inclination
blunt
edges, is
of 68" instead
cut
The
off
obliquely
whole
block
these, and
of
one
in
deeply complicated
is too
book
of this
produce
plane
one
convenient
the
for
produced
To
Nicol's
"
effected
held
mirror
to
revolve
about
the
by the
whilst
made
so
in
that
purpose
divided
is then
in
and
in the
other
lit
to
with
by
it into
the
ray
Canada
balsam.
extraordinary.
'
beam
But
between
being
;
loosely
so
not
the
A
of
unduly
axis, the
two
entering the
plane of polarisation,
ray
refractive
the
index
of
ordinary (i'65)
the
Hence
instead
kind
the
the
angle
of
thin
recommended
.
slides
on
to
the
Mr.
with
polished
the
SUi
perpcn":
45',quartz
52
glass
lies
is
off
of volcanic
prism, but
Nicol
suggested by
as
and
correct
is called
bundle
30'.
of
reflection
substances:
"
the
makes
Uao
angle,
entire
apparatus
device
to
that
is
refracted
most
respectively.
balsam
less refractingmedium,
is totally
and
a
of
for most
rid
practically
got
; whilst
purposes
a denser
medium, and therefore passes through.
This
reflecting surface.
different
the
different
the
outside
placed
case,
relation
in
to
fittingan
band
with
two, each
condenser
instrument, such
any
the
arrangement
such-like
or
plane polarisedby
1)6
diamo:
correct
In
the
the
or
collar
more
used.
also
can
so
balsam
prcivi.!the
manner
united
layer of
finds in the
is the
This
forms
sleeve
special
.md
the
the
it is
according
means,
extraordinary(1*48) rays
finds
arranged
prism, called
its mount
is 1*54, intermediate
balsam
the
ray
This
some
milled
into
these
lightpol'arised
of
position beneath
it is fixed.
drop
best
are
of rotation
permits of a slight amount
of adjustment.
The
polariser should
it
of
use
microscopist,forms
by various
within
of
cases
to
as
the
use
other
in
they
method.1
how
the
matical
mathe-
and
the
but
"
other
any
it and
much
requires
follows.
the firsteffect
polarizer,is placed
revolution
indeed
of
purpose
what
than
between
to
description, and
subject-matter of
is
polarised
rays
ing,
extremely interestbe thoroughly explained in
of illumination, and
specialforms
in
of
passage
philosophical reasoning
and
and
permit the
to
so
LIGHT
plane only.
treated, though
subject scientifically
one
The
POLARISED
PLANE
212
whilst
;
by
instead
tail-piece
for
is sometin
also
inconvenient;
Michael
employed
often
of the
j":.
circle of
Tl.
mirror.
at
the
PLANE
if it be
for
diameter,
in
small
POLARISED
the
the
LIGHT
it will
so
213
off too
cut
; hence
condenser
if
loss of
the
high
and
be
rotation
should
be
then
it will
large, for
cumbersome
and
the
employed
powers
be
too
inconvenient,
and
will
ringers
of
illumination
employed
consequent
aperture
felt.
be
will
Still, however, it should
distinctly
be
much
not
keep knocking
considerable
observer
of,
it
must
the
in
involved
peculiarphenomena
nicol
yet
another
the
analyser.
called
is
the
witness
to
traverse
This
eye.
able
be
to
of
action
the
Although
second
this
spoken
reaching the
before
principle
is similar
prism
different,
the
of
that
to
"
(ii)as
with
rotating
lenses
is used
which
of
instead
it is
short, and
end
and
the
rotate
to fit into
cap
this
kind
and
any
power,
same
but
(iii)Abbe's
constructed
we
have
the
No.
found
Huyghenian
the
the
the
previous
be
may
its colour
with
objective
that
analysing
if
top
for
the
ocular
by
the
one
collar
as
and
cut
revolving
ocular.
With
ocular
any
compensating,
this purpose
of
be
can
and
the
in
objectionable.
which
is
in pre-war
ends, placed
or
still
almost
one,
is sometimes
flat
shorter
of
at
ocular
effected
or
used
consisted
Huyghenian
is
being
about
the
over
spar
analysing eyepiece,
Nicol
above
the
to
used
Huyghenian
second-hand,
even
either
with
be
to
rotation
prism
whether
manner,
now
and
tourmaline
used.
analysing eyepiece,
cell to work
is attached
mount
differently;
whole
combination
ocular.
an
constructed
(ii)When
(Prazmowski prism),
cap
the
Abbe's
as
objective,
nosepiece
the objective at the other, a
milled
the optical axis.
the prism around
receives
somewhat
ocular, (iii)
or
is called
what
arranged
(i) When
serving to
over
cap
form
to
the
difficult to
times
of
the
between
obtain
specially
lenses
of
But
compensating ocular.
field and
eye-lens of the No. 2
a
be
X4
removed,
the
X8
be screwed
into the upper
compensating ocular can
analysing eyepiece, no field lens being required at
a
to use.
delightfularrangement
or
the
end
all.
Xi2
of the
It
is
POLARISED
PLANE
214
noticed
It will be
from
LIGHT
has
what
been
to revolve with
analyser can be made
equal effect ; in fact,it
is chosen.
movement
Should
is quite optional which
this be the
rather
the fingersin turning it are
against
polariser,
apt to knock
the mirror and so put it out of position ; if the analyser,eye-cap
the eyelashes may
eyepiece arrangement,
form, or the Abbe
get
thumb
of the fingers or
in the way
whilst rotating, whereas
if
or
these
to
difficulties
object may
the
fittingbe
do
arise in
not
sJiake
to
appear
nicely made
very
removed.
are
the
the
placed above
is
that
form
the
the
use
of the
as
the
so
that it revolves
is
prism
two, for
rotated, unless
in
its jacket
PARALLEL
CROSSED
DIAGRAMMATIC
OF
other
PCPRC
"pARALLEl"
AMES
PL
THE
SdNTATlOM
AND
"CROSS
D"
Fig. 137very
smoothly and
evenly
or
to
travel
about
inside
mirror
field,if the
the
or
the
the
prism
field"
is
around
opticalaxis
intervals of
lightand
on
will be
"l
"
present
beautiful
is the
to
variegated colours
^iven
objects,or to crystalsor
t""\\. good tfficts
in polarisedlight. For
name
portions be
(if such
such
to
like,that
short
list,sec
of
are
the
able"
"suit-
p. 510.
POLARISED
216
CIRCULAR
employed.
It is obvious
then
LIGHT
of suitable
set
specimens, called
with
polariscope objects,"reveal different colour phenomena
each
an
selenite,hence
by this simple means
enjoyable
many
"
hour
But
spent by those
be
may
form
is yet another
there
of gorgeous
fond
of
effects.1
scenic
when
in
polarisation,
circular
termed
is
which
plane polarisation,
blue
in
of variations
and
blue
into
merges
circle
complete the
of
of
order
and
utilised.
As
the
placing above
forms
in
into
the union
mentioned,
of red
with
curious
changes
the selenite,but
beneath
blue, to
plum
colour
the
reverses
brought
are
tion,
direc-
one
yellow, yellow
these
below
is revolved
turns
green
red, whilst
All
colours.
nicol
one
green,
we
the colours
green,
magnificent hue.
most
then
and
orange,
red
when
into
latelybeen
yellow, or
end
one
other, hence
the
with
are
to
explaining. The
of polarised light is that, instead
we
of this class
feature
curious
have
contradistinction
about
by
the
specimen,
what
is called a quarter-wave or quarter-undulation plate. This
is really nothing but
a
piece of mica, exceedingly thin and
mounted
A
or
Canada
in
position of
for the
when
and
The
between
effect has
maximum
length
quarter-wave
ascertained, both
for future
marked
balsam
best
use,
so
mica
to
as
be found
to
mica
and
avoid
to
the
who
revolvingthe
On
specimen
do
not
agree
lie upon
the
should
further
trouble.
be
selenite,
distinctly
plate with
by using the quarter-wave
rather
than
with
a
blue-and-yellow
possiblythose
pieces of glass.2
ment
by direct experi-
selenite
effect,we
plum-coloured
thin
two
with
a
one
us
rcd-and-green selenite
;
there
but
in this
are
very
Suit-
opinion.
itself
wave
plate may
slide
unaltered.
1
quarter
placed
between
of colour
quarter-
from
wave
slices.
two
One
or
made
grey
with
by splitting
of these
more
nicols,one
bluish-black
plate.
be
of which
to
can
fine needle
usually be
found
nly
shows
is
fawn-colour.
This
is
piece
that.
a
"
approximately
POLARISED
CONVERGENT
LIGHT
217
circular
"
"
not
are
We
used
to
yellow;
185,
A
find
we
making
but
an
great
very
low
ones.
think
the
Nernst
nowadays
unobtainable
too
as
suitable
so
his
concentrated
own
in
the
the
"
best
specimens by
the
with
the
peculiar
there
and
Polarised
called
the
to
on
cover-glasses,
circular
to the
Light
of
plane polarisedlight
slab
of
of
selenite
third
between
form
of
this"
polarisation,where,
plate of mica is added
selenite,a quarter-wave
yet remains, however, to be described
addition
166
pages
means.
have
illumination
on
slips or
on
be
to
microscopistin
of forming
simple method
soluble
salts,and
allowing
different
Convergent
far
believed
is furnished
amusement
of
"
substitute.
out
to crystallise
drops of them
finallyprotectingthem by suitable
So
lamp
Zig-zag, mentioned
excellent
solutions
electric
fourth
method
in
:
of
of investigation,
restricted
one
employing this interestingmeans
is called
the "rings" and
the viewing of what
to
"brushes,"
when
with
the special
viewed
which
certain
crystals exhibit
To understand
about
the object of
device
to describe.
we
are
in its component
be
the special arrangement
details,it should
been
that
hitherto
mentioned
have
we
explaining the effect
produced by the employment of plane polarisedparallel beams
1
To
prevent
complication,it
has
not
been
mentioned
before
that
the
tion
of different parts of the specimen also produces modificaof colour-effects
the nicol is revolved.
as
ground
Turning the slide only (back-
actual
thickness
CONVERGENT
218
POLARISED
marvellous
light,showing what
of
inner
of bodies
constitution
tension
in the
as
"
case
or
of the different
of
unequal thickness
Now,
however,
show
the
of
wish
of
interpretationand
in
is to
beams
in
such
and
The
although,
such
first
be
it
with
of
u
In
soda,
low
lens
means
known
with
plane
of
phenomena
not
both
the
be
David
are
into
variety,
necessity. The
for
no
point
the
numerical
If the
stipulated
entirely viewed
be
sugar,
nitrate
performs in the
extraordinary,"which
ray
"
laws.
neither
to
of the
be
one
not
are
we
more
in the
But
follows
"extraordinary," the
therefore
the
1.
usually well-
in"!
of the
Such
complicating
final
displayed by
of
is called
well-known
Urewster
the
wide-angled
calcite,quartz, borax,
is what
usual
vergent
con-
For
turned
important
although it
too
large to
as
the
on
being sufficient.2
70
by Sir
direction
Mate
power,
the
incidence.
"
called
and
follow
ignificence of the
the
enough
may
and
have
the other
discovered
laws;
varying
the
manner
it does
the
to
these
achromatic
power,
; but
"65
of
now
with
absolute
an
minute
crystals, such
"
the
high
very
required,about
ferro-cyanide of
ortlinnry
of
considerable
manner.
be
deal
their
wide-angled condenser,
of
usefulness
it should
too
is
it is not
obtain
to
practicallyto
necessary
be
very
uni-axial
the
offer
proper
it will
are
and
curious, and
in the
that
light
in uni-axial
very
that
viewed
be
the
not
the
than
much
microscope
manner
layers
crystals exhibit
object, then,
great
the
understood,
objective be of
N.A., the back
1
are
thing
in
recollect is that
aperture
case
nature
objective should
dealing
either
microscope has
believe
we
very
arrange
beams.
vary
The
when
"
called
collectively
are
thorough comprehension
microscopist
telescope of
These
unequal
example
distinctlyconvergent
They
enjoyment.
the
to
effects
of the
successivelyviewed.
be so arranged as to
of certain
sections
of
glass,for
are
apparatus
effect that
revealer
exhibited
phenomena
our
they unfold
of certain substances
we
this purpose
as
unequally cooled
when
intellectual
information
whether
interference
curious
LIGHT
effect.
them.
the
Some
Of
crystals
these
lead, gl.iuborite,and
add
phenomena,
may
some
be
very
much
fine
particularly
are
selected
of the
to
in
nitre,native
varieties of
l"
adui
the combination
Strictly,
the
crystal.
of
should
have
its N.A.
equal
to
or
exceeding the
CONVERGENT
through
the
nicol
is
purposes
nosepiece
the
of the
attached
the
to
in the
microscope
of
convenience
in
purpose
position
of
conversion
uses
For
usual
more
the
earlier
those
question,a
be
the
auove
microscope
one
be
draw-tube, thus
referred
to
when
219
best for
may
objective1(such as the
suffice in most
cases)should
will
apertometer
of
the
nicol
upper
2-in.
telescope, a
the
|-in. The
the
complete
To
LIGHT
or
in
eyepiece, or
POLARISED
most
above
the
objective.
into
the
used
with
screwed
ideal
the
to
on
constitutingone
using
for
arrangement
the
is
Fig. 138.
results,which
best
light,and
and
2.
indirectly due
to
4. Place
specimen
of the
The
form
dry beneath
for the
it is
cover,
is
piece
nose-
about
stage.
of the
"
or
may
found
In
be
cases
made
necessary.
where
combination
achromatic
Bertrand's
cover-glassproduces
attempt
subsequently if it be
called
crystal.2
the
plano-convex
compulsory.
the
the
until
draw-tube) by
it the
with
course,
and
purpose
the absence
the
suitable
most
instances
on
cover-glassor
the
touches
Usually
the cover
in much
in the tube
replaceit
adjustment
coarse
especiallymade
some
field is obtained.
white
(and, of
tube
the
Drop
all but
that
position.
its usual
means
denser
con-
iris wide.
open
so
tube ; centre
the
of
nosepiece
draw-tube, and
of the
in
get the
3. Add
5.
the
objective on
Fix
1.
to
Nelson.
Mr.
procedure
directly or
is
believe
we
of
order
the
by
followed
given, being
the
Lens."
best
the
first with
results ; indeed
crystalis
mounted
itin situ,removing
CONVERGENT
220
6. Focus
the
with
POLARISED
LIGHT
coarse
adjustment
entirelyalone.
be necessary
7. It may
to obtain
condenser
change
to
the
plenty of light.
It will
require raising.
If the analyser or
polariserbe now
axis
in the
the
ordinary manner,
be
well
Sometimes
seen.
position of
mostly
revolved
"
rings
on
and
magnificent and
the
be
substage
found
the
optical
"
brushes
curious
to
will
effects
are
produced.
append the following notes, which may assist the student
commencing to use convergent polarisedlight:
We
when
i. If the
higher ocular.
iv. If the brushes
it is
probable
respect
v.
the
to
the "best
useless,there
are
then
found
be
i. Convert
do not
the
cross
field
completely,
the former
Turn
without
or
old-fashioned
With
well,or
position"of
specimen.
selenite with
shown
not
are
binocular
being
of much
no
service
into
ii. Remove
iii. Put
"rings
and
It is
will be
brushes"
convenience
slide,and
which
at
concentricallywith
is very
to
the
the
then
have
same
axis
the
seen.
fittingmade
time
of
allows
the
the
to
hold
the
nicol to be
instrument.
en
revolved
good
maline
tour-
useful.
Addenda.
"
CHAPTER
THE
ON
EVERY
instrument
no
doubt,
to
be
"
as
been
his
work
much
as
in
explained
The
often
and
after
the
origin
tube
model
its
to
not
was
law
that
should
by the
at
either
there
its
medical
As
doubt
better,
discuss,
regards
the
short-tube
the
fession,
pro-
the
is
doubtful
although
system,
be
the
opinion.
the
seems
will
to
no
way,
others
to
matter
is
whilst
but
performed
magnification
with
that
by
Hence,
the
by
it
the
who
latter
longment
instruthe
was
is
was
the
as
was
objective
221
held
of
usually
as
and
obvious
placed
to
on
unwritten
an
of
little
as
the
ment
instru-
microscopists.
magnification
objective,
it
Continental
majority
then
all, of the
nearly
very
eyepiece.
received
fact
the
England
into
all well
the
all, or
be
individual
England,
introduced
from
arose
of
the
long
As
commence
which
buy,
his
instrument
entering
is
condenser
service
to
or
Oberhauser.
first
When
in
abroad
of
about
instruments,
two
birth
originator
ascribed
This
the
those
This
his
on
of
microscopist
beginner
first.
aside
laid
seeing.
very
shall
purchase
possible
the
using
intend
matter
originated
had
actual
difference
all is much
of
that
tube-length
the
is
those
by
been
be
may
found
adequate
of
centring
actual
thought
had
the
finest
it
the
asked
of
the
of
from
have
are,
been
time
because
way
hoped
the
that
the
and
having
at
marked,
method
even
is, Which
what
is
the
subject, especially
them
start
There
purchased
not
of
master
subsequently
purchaser
obtain
to
it
detail
been
have
proper
become
in
have
testing
to
so
question
and
that
the
intended
advanced,
more
of
indeed
as
and
badly
objective
is
to
specimens
and
ignorant
using
of
more
poor
endeavour
uses
the
to
art
far
are
rejected
this
the
MICROSCOPE
first,which
at
owing
in
there
has
"
splendid
experience
its
objectives
many
faulty simply
but
all
in
THE
OF
should
microscopist
the
or
USE
obtain
short
an
object
possible
as
an
equal
tube
as
would
and
could
necessitated
of
use
such
therefore, demanding
dictum, however,
This
It is,of
for
true
course,
of
long, it
the
to
ocular; "an
power
instrument,
things could
be
not
moment."
rested
on
with
the
that
attached
were
condition
tolerated
or
if it
higher
MICROSCOPE
THE
obtained
be
the
recommended
OF
USE
THE
ON
222
entire
an
misapprehension.
tube-length
same
higher
.tube, received
therefore
smaller, and
that, if the
object, and
are
of the
oculars
question that
the
profitin
the
and
advantages
size
also
actual
the
difference
the
of
specimens
end.
in
has
this
between
the
of
the
diameter
such
of
case
been
of
increase
the
difference
point of
instrument
to
long-tube
lay
in portabilityin the
think, is the great difference
the other, and
this is especiallyto the front when
be
to
carried
tropics,where
about, especially by
the distance
observations
have
chair,which
It
has
stated
model
be
with
also
has
difference
smaller
is often
is of sufficient
been
Continental
travelled
often
long-tube instrument
a
to
made
involves
the
height with
that
been
much
discussed, without
field in the
is
piece
eye-
dissimilarityin the
in
instruments
two
fuz/.y,the reasons
explained already
having been
objectives and eyepieces generally. But the
when
model,
optician'sart
disadvantages of the
often
The
(because of its
have
same,
Hence
form
either
the
equal merit.
The
the
the
course,
of
sharper, image
one
often
the
principal
of, we
case
over
instruments
the
in
men
Further,
great.
use
cussing
dis-
hold
one
medical
very
when
stool rather
Continental
point
instrument.
connected
overlooked.
than
It
with
is
of
that
the
a
effect
in
tube-length produces a greater
the adjustment of objectives than obtains
the longer tube.
with
t"" consideration
as
Although classified as a defect, it is open
to
whether
shift
this
is not
brings about
cd,
on
the
other
advantage, as a smaller
adjustment required ; but
an
the
hand,
that
greater
care
amount
it
is needed.
may
of
be
ILLUMINATION
224
It is evident
all
then, taking
things
into
consideration,there
This
purposes.
as
can,
of Continental
made
length by having
when
to
case
double
draw-tube, which
for
are
enables
instrument
if
select
to
of
them
using objectives
the same
time
be extended
they can
those
made
for the long tube.
This
ideal
short
strument
in-
an
length of
tube
in the
it
shortening
is, of
manufactured
now
for
corrected
with
done
required ; whilst
method
impossible. Microscopes
course,
a
of fact,be
matter
be
to
closed
short
the
then
required for
sufficiently
whilst
tube,
suit the
to
at
correction
would
the
with
the
seem
double
of
purpose
mentioned.
Illumination
The
and
observer, about
of which
surface
inclined
be
look
plan
six
at
into
the
for
the
mirror,
to
inches
seven
or
is turned
angle suitable
an
eyepiece without
actual
There
after
"
will
be
always be found
learn
move
in
are
the mirror,2the
The
the
observer,
On
mirror.
easily in
the simplest manner,
good
ocular
and
it will
directions.
two
the
its lower
towards
examination,
very
can
adjust
to
the
tube
empty
he
It is
how
both
removing
should
that
so
neck.
learning
in
concave
instrument
straining his
the
the
seen
to
these
what
to
beginner,
commence
from
uppermost.
it is best
To
affix
to
short
in the
"
usual
provide
two
sets
of movement,
(t
vc,
:"
with
The
disU
hi-h
power
of the
position,the mounting
obtainable
not
"
lamp,
of which
one
which
mirror
used
to
be
is termed
so
found
will be
much
"
to
the sidc-
cmplo\
"
r,
""f the
condensers
illuminant
is
(see p. 238).
an
impoitunt
matter
when
dealing
SETTING
"
to-side
motion,
in which
whereas
the
travel
exactly
other,
at
MIRROR
225
the
pointer moves
left to right, as
from
right to left,or
from
THE
called
the
"
rightangles to
former
an
arc
the
"
to-and-fro
the
in
stretching
case
be
may
direction, makes
line of motion.
"
it
The
to and
fro, and from side to side, is
object of these movements
obviously,by their combined
use, to find a position that ensures
the mirror
reflectingthe lightof the lamp into the instrument
after traversingthe lenticular
in such a manner,
portions,it shall
To
reach the eye of the observer.
perform these movements
quickly and yet with precision,it is best to place the right arm
the table
the corresponding side of the instrument,
around
on
the left passing likewise
around
it on
the other
side.
The
first
of each
hand
should
the corresponding
fingerand thumb
grasp
edges of the metal cell containing the mirror, and then with a
little practicethe operator will find he can
make
the lightreflect
into
up
the
of
centre
the
and
tube,
to
so
his
eye
with
great
facility.
Most
beginners find considerable
difficultyin "getting the
mirror
much
right,"as they call it, and often have to waste
time
in so
to suggest, if they will only
doing ; but we venture
learn to adjust its position in the simple and
primitive fashion
above
described, before attempting to do so with the lens and
ocular
in situ, their subsequent difficulties will rapidly vanish
when
they get a little more
experienced. Having attained
in adjustingthe
proficiency
on
a
No.
nosepiece and
I
of
mirror
tyro had
low-power
opticians,or
some
that
so
an
better
ocular
A
the
in
now
the
eyepiece
operation can
place an
draw-tube
a
or
"
2-in. of
be
inch
say
other
manufacturers.
In
it
screwing
off, many
injured.
method
of
doing
end
objective to
an
has
been
then
for
this
accident.
end
screw
the
one
It is well
mentioned
its
on
next
fingersof
as
which
Let
the
possible
that
the small
"
front
the
nosepiece,and in taking
dropped and perhaps seriously
the
learn a
to
beginner at once
will effectuallyavoid
the
abovefrom
objectivebe held as far away
is to
lens
"
say,
as
between
near
the
as
convenient
first and
the
to
second
fashion
in the same
a cigar is
as
right hand, much
between
these two
end
of the mount
presenting
refingers,the screw
the portion of the cigar that goes
into the mouth.
Having previously raised the tube of the microscope by the
held
15
SCREWING
226
THE
coarse
adjustment, the
against
the
nosepiece
of
end
screw
to
screw
"
screw
the thumb
position.
In
two
the
end
the
of tlie objective,
are
now
slid in
in
such
edge of the
milled
between
interval
thumb
objective
balance
to
first
to
is
and
placed
there
fingerof
grasp
it in
steady
the
fingers and
always present.
mount
OFF
the two
as
AND
as
and
manner
the
"
by the
ON
OBJECTIVE
the
screw
left hand
somewhat
firmly the
This
be turned
must
the
of the hands
of a
opposite direction to the movement
watch, the microscopist throughout the operation being supposed
that is to say,
the microscope
to be sittingor standing behind
in front of him.
The
with the instrument
should
right hand
"
so
assist in
to
as
the
half
good plan
turn
drops
into
"
"home
in the
thread
the
adopted, but
few
position.
the
order
"take
opposite
of the
watch
and
removal, the
of
everything
the combination
move,
it to
allowing
in
advance
begins
to
necessarily
and forefinger
the combination
the
the
fallingon
to
the
hands
nosepiece.
fingersof
free end
to
position allows
the
table
floor
or
should
was
be
prevent
method
is
first two
it
as
objective is
same
leave
to
far, the
too
for about
the direction
the
them
the
In
easily,
click
gives a
one
turns, and
turning
in"
direction
into
objective engage
back
in its final
its milled
Before
draw
to
the instrument,
towards
of the
screw
reversed.
around
the
nosepiece.
so, until
or
and
be
may
objectiveupwards,
making
of the
thread
it is
of
the
gently press
now
the
screw
operation
performed
be
can
understood,
dropping
often
out
turns
thought
loosen
and
freelypractisedover
very
or
it
might
to
appear,
numerous
almost
far
on
costly
more
trouble
of the
account
break)
actually to
lenses ;
an
for, be
for
expensive apochromat,
an
be
over
example,
than
jar being
one
accident
or
that
it
first
at
so
more
may
apt
to
of
its
quite
and
necessitate
its
performance of the combination
and
to the optician to overhaul
sent
repair.
inch
attached
the
The
to
being safely
nosepiece,a specimen
the
be
the
proboscis of the blow-fly should
placed on
say
spoil
being
the
"
"
THE
FIXING
stage in the
seen,1 and
duly
made
objectiveis
if it is
but
word
or
from
side
only
of
two
advice
the
slip,one
at
beneath
correct
should
thumb
the
thumbs
the
"
stage,
so
to
the
the
hold
hands
stage
the
get
until
other, the
it is
so
hold.
the
"
be
to
firmly
left
to
on
adjusts the
righthand
the
firm
is found
gently but
there, while
venient
con-
employed
the
position
slide
specimen
it
to
as
slide
most
be
at
one
so
the
in
clips,a
shift the
to
should
it and
ocular, the
moving
press
as
of
the
how
downwards,
of both
end
one
into
looking
on
above
the
purpose
of
couple
to
as
one,
positionbeneath
for the
be
to
mechanical
provided
screws
given
thumbs
The
stage be
having but
be
from
fingersbeing placed
When,
the
227
it is desired
one
may
side, or
to
manner.
upon
plane
STAGE
in which
If the
specimen
by turning
THE
that
to
there.
fastened
of the
adjustment
the
position
reverse
ON
SLIP
does
the
the holding, whilst
the right thumb
clip,after which
left hand
clip.
completes the fixing by manipulating the second
them
to hold much
causes
Pressing either of these clips home
To
find the correct
position
they work loose."
tighterin case
"
"
"
of
student, and
"
dry
as
sometimes
dodge
in
than
the
back
reverse
few
be
"
the
ocular
inches, whilst
Most
the
as
thumbs
frequently
however,
method
as
near
into the
with
move
high
equally well
as
possible
on.
to remember
the
instrument, and
object
Whilst
is
head
the
the
eye
; it
readily
to lower
can
then
position, to
this
use
is at
of the
tube
method,
specimen, a
the objective
cover-glassbeforeattempting
then, whilst
drawn
very
central
focussing
always
"
the
in all directions
to
example
off is better
be
can
It is difficult
with
far
down
approximately
an
powers.
to
the
it about
and
glances
eye
ing
follow-
The
for
"
advanced
convenience,
great
is removed
the
be
of
"
instrument.
seen,
found
the
to
worker.
experienced
often
have
we
the
to
times
at
even
all, is often
it at
powers
near
"
find
to
the
to
look
ocular, to
It is not
however
a
strictly
"upside down."
"
method
of speech, for it might be taken as meaning that the
accurate
slip"
face
the
to
and
the
turned
to be
was
next
to the
cover-glass
objective,
condenser
What
!
is meant
is,that if the cover-glass represented a watch
dial,the xii should be turned round, so that it occupied the usual position
This
is often
of the vi and
the
spoken of
iii that
as
of the
ix.
CARE
228
obtain
lowering
it down
expedient
those
saves
with
use
SLIP
frequent method.
more
that
be
With
cover-glass or
crushed
however, the
mentioned,
immersion
this
by
simple
front
broken
method
only of
safety
is
another
ones
is under
their use
plan will be given when
Fine
focussing of the specimen may
than
all micro-
frequently at work,
are
many
It should
lens.
the
"
scopists,save
THE
focus
sharp
REMOVING
ON
discussion.
be
now
performed
by
attempting
the
way
screw
raise
to
to
it up.
the
in
screwing
on
direction
opposite
it is
consequently raised.
should
such
long
with
taken
be
inch
an
off the
way
specimen
it is because
question,that
seeing
objective,
We
the
was
when
case
employs higher
follow
will
learnt
There
here, in
with
raise the
to
delicate
of
want
attempting
tools
the
against
the
and
the
to
slip happens
1
much
to
Especiall) the
less.
off the
simply
to
put
ringing of varnish
possibly scratching
whereas
accident
an
"
be
case
focal
on
length, he
the commencement
handling
"
jamming
save
stage
or
"
later
the student
which
advice
specimen
combination
addition,
and
very
delicate
indeed
as
"
is necessary.
may
be menti
remove
it is to prevent
instrument
when
"
be established
suitable
more
replace it by another
to
piece of
tube, and
to
the
lines,having from
same
is yet another
ourselves
this
to
answer
; for if such
consequently of shorter
powers,
in the
on
that
began
we
reply,in
it focusses
of the great
that
if for
the next
the
the
high
one
powers,
than
as
latter,
former
slide
If the
it away.
the
their
when
first.
working
of
lens
front
it
purpose
between
possibly occurring
thicker
with
so
it be
stage, whether
the
objective
the
If
second
now
distance
the
is
so
AS
ZEISS"LOUP"
which
a-
with
even
delicate
the
resume,
adjustment
use
may
little
this
raisingup
the
low
eye
learns
to
They
double
Zeiss
by
for
to
having
Watson
about
are
when
that
the
it
placed
diaphragm
down,
or
and
excellent
were
with
even
with
the
he
will
light equably
over
little further
resting
arms
this
mirror
justment.
adthe
on
the
image
requiring
ocular
"
student's
used
as
its
its
low-power
we
must
admit
by
Messrs.
made
one
formula
in
we
Mr.
in
use
are
place,between
until
fingers,
the
the
representative,the
the
the
eye
makes
whole
and
the
racked
is
up
the
iris
or
perfect illumination
very
Should
in
substage,or
specimen
position,it
acquainted.
into
condenser
this
should
On
rising up
condensers
good
very
lowest
of
is
market, but
excellent
manufacturers, but
most
with
hand-magnifiersmade
as
that
repeat
very
clear.
condenser
the
in
ones
employed
We
substage
replace
now
the
focus, fluffyand
the
good
very
loups
"
the
the
pushed by
is effected.
in
takes
or
service
proboscis
high-power
what
not
advantage, too, that, when
the best bull's-eyewith which
sleeve which
is in
after
mounted
Having
ocular
found, especially as
be
by
in. in
i"
the
likelybecause
can
made
Sons
"
the
concave
high
that,
requires
the
several
are
others
are
by the fine
matter
objective.
condensers
with
be
is very
There
inch
an
done
If the
no
This
and
it
done
the
to know
seem
nasty
and
see
tips.
required.
few
229
cases,
much
so
at
that
from
soon
appear,
may
reflect the
not
But
down.
or
of
hairs
be
arise
it will
one,
minute
hence
may
be
not
looks
does
explained.
before
;
these
student
should
This
is poor
is
mirror
the
field,and
whole
as
of
when
necessary
inch, although of
an
recognise that
table
in either
focussing can
be
It
low-power one.
ocular, directly the
the
CONDENSER
thereby avoided.
is
accident
To
previouslyraised
been
has
tube
LOW-POWER
grew
the
now
upon
light
be
appear
the
found
stage
too
this
be lowered
with
powerful, the condenser
(permissiblemay
be closed
the iris may
or
long-focallength objective)justa little,
a
trifle; but
especiallywith
it should
a
not
be
forgotten
are
high-power objective,
that
apt
both
to
operations,
spoildefinition
THE
CENTRING
23o
and
resolvingpower
the
reduce
the mirror
neutral
using
that
as
and
the
the
by Kodak
If,however,
has
it should
be
be
better still,
one
No.
be
need
recollected
interposed
of the many
useful.
is very
96
usually about
difference
inch, no
operations,only
lamp, or,
"-in.,which
of the
of the combination.
When
CONDENSER
the
in
made
N.A.
same
of the
any
it focusses
that
much
Whilst
specimen.
works
that
inch
almost
near
as
The
as
a
\-in.by
in this matter.
care
has
usually
N.A.
must
of
This
In
condenser
using a
objectives
have
usually a
of this
tion
descrip-
before attempting
operation has to be conducted
a
specimen ; it is called "centring the condenser."
that the optical axis of the
shall
illuminator
be
adjustment or in line with that of the objective. To
at
means
in
placed
this
do
"
with
fresh
to
varying
'65 (Zeiss's
apochromatic) to, say, '40, a different condenser
It is best to use
it with an
be employed.
aperture as near
from
as
maker.
another
be
properly must
of
aim
the
all
microscopist on
objective ncrcr
performs
doing the
It is effected in the
properly,especiallyif it be of high power.
by employing the adjusting-screws provided
following manner,
occasions,
cither
To
in
learn
all,but
at
1
without
the
for
the
condenser
the
art,
It is sometimes
objectives
use
above
not
itself
mount
anyhow
rack
to
""/the i!lumin"int,to
for
so
the
at
it
first,
condenser
condenser
this
up
to
the
to
focal
aperture.
"
advantage
an
by
the
same
makers
use
no
specimen
level of the
because
longer
substage fitting.
of
the
length
We
and
often
stage
lev
of
N.A.
'45
empl"
just mentioned, of
excellent
of
but
condensers
s"
performance arc
Mure,
when
of the
most
special care
using a
leading opticians. The
necessary
be
of larger aperture
the objective,
lest the image should
than
condenser
of the
and Abuse
to the Use
flooded," is discussed in the chapter devoted
Substage Diaphragm.
great
illuminator
of
numerical
the
is best
convenience, however,
a
in
or
as
OBTAINING
232
racked
flame
be
down
and
up
The
of the
should
specimen
little further
rapidly make
This
in
witnessed
placed
of
best
the
on
flame
the
bottom
of the
focussed.
and
stage
be
quite sharp
not
substage,
is called
obtaining
"critical
the
condenser
out
the
flame
seriously as
and
little
light."
the
upon
the
at
found
have
save
all
electric
of
pencil held
focus.
to
1
this with
do
To
motion
the
to
Of
later
( ci
tain
critical
be
It should
good
as
noted
expected, it is
"v2. For
nothing
condenser,
substages
some
used
to
believed,
we
of
times
at
worth,
was
object
Ncrnst
both
that
quired
re-
other
or
used
glass is
manner
as
lamp,
the
as
or
object
this
hold
provided
are
useful
most
shown
that
has
been
the
illuminant, and
to
so
very
there
the
is
vantages
ad-
positionof
this
recommend
to
fine
addition.
that
refined
ceased
have
with
addition.
that
a
upon
ease,
We
hitherto
as
it
mean
other.
any
especiallysince it
focussing the lightof
lightare not restricted
expensive
somewhat
to
in
condenser
the
using
however,
years,
of
greater
condenser.
freedom
than
equally well
we
confess
We
so
thing
very
"
obtaining
the
it does
however,
dense
very
spreads
illuminant.
introduced
gas
puts
re-obtained
edge
and
Wclsbach
the
trouble
bull's-eye more
a
quite
powers
When
the light possible.
light or
and
be
field ; this
be
the
screw
If
must
as
image
entire
Adjustments,
really
that
time
definition.
unexpectedly
low
with
will
specimen,
same
the
mirror
in
that
definition.
the
will
condensers
is not
the
It
higher, which
over
affect the
necessary,
to be avoided
of
shade
is here
spoiling
the
or
evenly
more
powers
be
to
care
wished
to
shade
bull's-eyeplaced between
Great
lower
low
with
not
now,
down,
or
up
If the flame
objectivefocusses the object to the eye.
considered
objectionable,just a touch of the substage
does
employ.
to
now
field,
it so.1
process
consists
the
being
be
adjustment
of the
mirror
then
LIGHT"
image
If the
a
the
until
stretching from
seen
flat surface
the
"CRITICAL
reasons
else than
the
with
the
not
mirror
the
"
flat
"
immediately apparent,
alteration
great improvement
from
in the
is sometimes
angle
the
effected
to
but
curved
"
side,
really depending
rays
by
"
the
impinge on
change.
this
the
OF
THICKNESS
When
using
less,no
different
making
the
COVER-GLASS
J-in. or
J-in.,having
is
treatment
adjustments
be
must
lowered
afterwards
last lens
the
but
hitherto
not
high
from
consideration.
thick
It
indeed
there
puts
of the components
lenses
dealt
the
is called
best
the
best
thick
the
into
if very
the
which
specialthickness
of
If
now
becomes
error
results
front
course
"
effect
pushing
is
in
case),pulling out
of
the
the
the
collar," by
correction
"a
is for
the
lens
other
produced
is the
obtains
to
is to
ocular
by
"
the
suit
push
or
it adds
means
have
to
the
pull out
if the
if too
to
what
the
can
drawuntil
be
cover
thin
adjustment.
sensibly
little increments
remembering,
correct
two
be
to
turning of which
the
special cover
in
; whilst
has
are
combination
different
remedy
which
There
the
being
employed of,
be
present
; that
cover
variation
cover
desired.
are
of
the
thereabouts,
or
objective
containing
the
these
personallyprefer although
we
effected ; whilst
tube
difficulty
bring
to
"
required adjustment
be
as
another
specimen,
system.
a
mm.
of
if the
of
cost
the
'18 mm.1
*i6 to
source
which
one,
use
First, because
enough
room
lens
with
work
is '17
say,
with
be
focus
to
of the
to
chosen
"22,
say,
dry J-in. or
dealing with
reasons.
the varying
everything ; and the second, because
the actual
in the adjustment
errors
glass introduces
of
between,
student
dry
cover-glass.
the
when
focussed
the
the
little
to
stop
mostly
two
not
may
sufficientlynear
their
for
is
lens
thickness
with
and
difficult to
that,
it is
with
to face with
in
much
so
can
until
near
or
care
^-in.upwards, to obtain
perfect definition
of the cover-glass itself has
taken
to be
thickness
actual
lowered
exceedingly
they
the cover,
somewhat
so
mentioned
powers
than
microscopist face
brings the
This
lenses
to touch
'9
of their greater
these
So, too,
one
objectives work
use.
is
about
both
rather
their
to
233
of
increased, because
almost
as
raised
by being
gets accustomed
TVm-"
so
N.A.
required,save
and
because
magnifying power
with
the cover-glass.Even
nearer
patience be
IMPORTANT
too
(rarelythe
Both
of these
the proof of
require practice, because
having correctly adjusted for any special cover, after all,only
lies in the eye
the
being sufficientlytrained to recognisewhen
methods
Zeiss
suitable
mount.
of
marks
for the
correction
each
dry high-power
lens
objective in question.
with
It is in
the
thickness
that
very
small
figures
is most
on
the
FOR
CORRECTING
234
finest definition
is
THICKNESS
COVER
of its
obtained, and
OF
direction
push in, or a turn of the collar in one
it worse
\ The
Abbe
or
another, improves the image or makes
and over
test-plateis the best thing to practise on, and over
be gained ; this,
it be done
until a real proficiency
again must
But
said that
have
we
however, has been referred to before.
a
pull out
or
thickness
the
of the
objectivebeing
has
cover
great
so
to
as
to focus when
sufficiently
lowered
short
very
be
may
For
distance.
working
the
prevent
the
tion
combinaand
this reason,
to
gradually
hence, should
certainlywill if it be a high
thick, as frequently found
will do
front is made,
because
fine-adjustment
it had
in
without
have
with
the
collar should
is arrived
works
work
be
to
at
used
see
that
the inner
smoothly
of the
and
latter
runs
"
the
to
its rack
and
the milled
1
Some
accidents
seen
sec
that the
the rack
that
head
of
continental
of this nature
fractures
occur.
outer
the
firms
;
is
coarse
have
reliance
occurs,
reversed, lest
be
cover
for
injury.1
causes
the
of
caution
instead.
as
and
one,
be
yet
cover-glassthickness
draw-tube,
may
disastrous
word
but
adjustment
tube
and
cover
to
in the draw-tube
by pushing
slowly.
should
the
it
"
be
when
stated
ago
Directly this
objective on
and
cover-glass in question
remains
this, to
tube
already pointed
the correction
"
it
as
"
years
between
quite
hesitation,the
the
turned
contact
become
cover
many
find somewhat
will
has
screw
moment's
weight of
we
he
moment
As
be
the
cover-glassabnormally
slides made
in
so
The
the
the
and
power
touch
it
It
that
The
the
"
rack-
downward
communicated
the
objective upon
results.
simply
it is called
loose, the
become
is
moral
covcr-
of
this
sufficiently
tightlyheld in
stiff in itself,
to hold
or
sufficiently
adjustment with the left hand, so
tube
is
introduced
is not
to
be
arrangements
placed
upon
for
preventing
them, for
we
have
THE
FINDING
that it shall not
with
on
the
with
beginner
the
Changing
power
the
of
say
high
the
case
obtain
specimen
critical
begin
to
find
to
This
one.
which
with
appear
that, in
the
when
said,are
the
quite similar.
In
some
so
the
all
troubles
when
cases,
when
is made
change
the
to
"
to
he
may
be
of
the
part
deal.
the
field
with
the
to
appear
in
that
of
the
two
especiallyfound
to
the
of
arrangement
the
adjustment for
found
to
revolving nosepiece."
cause,
same
has
centring
is
It
is called
using what
when
these
he
doing, the
so
because
arises
be
not
the
centre
"
"
If this be
use.
to
for the
light,changing
less
and
"
obtainingcritical lightare
the
powers
that it is better
carefully into
placed so
the
J-in. utterly refuses
has
"
high
by far
objectives may
be
is carried
difficult with
more
so
find
to
soon
will
the
he
specimen
low
then
will very
disappointed
very
much
so
all the
when
trouble
another
always
J-in.to
with, and
learner
the
ones,1
use
higherpower
is
Specimen
low
to
condenser
the draw-tube
in
pushing
235
right.
Finding
than
whilst
turn
SPECIMEN
using
revolving nosepiece,
the
considerable
difficulty
may
The
be in use.
high power
simple to employ, and may
of these little objects have
a
objectivefor one of longer focal length : Most
the slip,the
the cover-glass, cementing it on
to
ring of varnish around
the
material being attenuated
the
thin
at
and
edge abutting
specimen, and this
of the ring of
whole
forms
suitable
The
a
object to primarily focus upon.
in the
to be
entirelycontained
varnish,however, is too large in diameter
field of view at one
and the same
a portion only is usually visible.
so
moment,
and
This takes the form
be shifted about
of an
of a circle,
should
by
arc
bisected
be
is
the
it
the
until
so
accurately
moving
slipon
placed as to
stage
this
When
view.
of
field
diameter
the
of
horizontal
by an
imaginary
is
the
that
bisection is accurately effected,it is evident
object usually
seeing
if the
that
of
varnish
the
in
the
the
of
enclosed
centre
area
ring
by
placed
slide be now
simply moved
horizontally,the object will fall into the field of
be
"
"
view
without
varnish,the
edge
means
of the
further
same
cover
trouble.
process
instead
of the verniers
their Uses.
can
of
If the
be
that
is described
object
carried
be
out
not
to
of the varnish.
later
on
in the
surrounded
find
by
ring
it,by employing
Finding
chapter upon
specimen
Verniers
of
the
by
and
"DRY"
USING
236
for
it
is, and
never
with
true
For
another.
this
effective
they
Their
years.
All the
and
for this
In
the article
reason
that
which
on
J-in.and
them
teristic
charac-
in all its
here
made,
was
But
it
as
and
bearings, so
said.
systems.
subject of the
explained,
immersion
the
object of
nothing further
there
is
left to
was
ture
aper-
dry lenses,
as
immersion
as
much
higher
with
made
the
into and
be
for many
be of
to
"
possess
be
to
aperture
discussed
need
must
yV-in.
mostly constructed
fullygone
reference
no
their
little later.
the
say
numerical
score
with
so
can
"
are
the construction
upon
we
possiblefor
been
has
lens
of Zeiss, with
resolving purposes,
it is
than
are
powers
for
real service
if
truly, for
necessarily be
not
firm
the
is described
use
high
will
it
work
to
"
"
of
arrangement
be, made
can
reason
POWERS
of
desire
very
never
objective
one
HIGH
point
one
consideration
to
in
Seeing the
is for
design of immersion
systems
of admitting more
the purpose
light,or rather lightoccupying
be easily understood
of greater angle, it can
that the
cone
a
chapter.
this
of such
power
the condenser
constructed
transmit
numerical
is to
work
the
to
so
as
constructed
refractive
same
dimensions.
Not
to
be
must
for the
only
same
oiled
reason
better
focus
too, is
higher
index
too,
in
the
as
to
lenses.
then
as
fluid
of
refraction
that the
As
greater
than
to
nowadays such
fullydealt with in
as
the front
the
1*30
use
a
have
matter
of
the
matter
of the
fullyshown
of
depth
of
much
named.
It
has
yet somctlr
immersion
is
least
at
and
medium
lens
fact,the
aperture
very
with
what
medium
contrast
one
slip
to
and
true, but
the
or
microscopical student
this is
be
other
to
numerical
by employing
subject must
The
still,and
brought about
index
gathered
more
definition
is this
cover-glass,viz.
the
In
"
"
the
equally well
combination
of similar
advantage.
N.A.
ro
objectives over
of the objective is oiled
called
have
must
best
it be
cone
aperture
condenser
the
with
employed
to
be
objectivecannot
an
will
system
be
of
the
of consequence,
substage
condenser
can
be
pri-
CENTRING
HIGH-POWER
obtained
marily
with
the
the
inch,
the
"-in.,objective in
raise
to
remembering
CONDENSER
ordinary
it up
operations,and the
angle, the
approximately correct
When
the
condenser
lens
of
for
the
carried
is
change
condenser,
of
the
adjustments
we
because
necessary,
if it be
in its turn
will
is
occurred
the
when
place,because
using
order
and
raised
to the
level
the
flame
image
lens of
the^-in.,
It is needless
the
do
not
or
the
will
suggested, seeing
to
accidentally
any
the
computed
slide
in
in
which
one,
appears
use
focussed
be
may
case
used
out
the condenser
that
at
yet
with
general
down
The
rather
be found
by racking
In
trouble
another
was
raising.
just happen
it will
tionary
precau-
carried
It is this.
beginner.
to
adopt
been
attempt
motion, however,
take
would
with, it in
commence
of
not
have
arrangements
confront
been
far away.
too
instead
perhaps
exceptionally thin
slip,this
accident
be
slip, and
front
be
it
the
such
would
stage
have
should
condenser
the
"-in.,no
of the
may
the
strenuously avoided.
who
those
manner
unexpectedly
condenser.
to strike the
lens
when
measures,
in the
and
be
its front
Fortunately for
that
manner
the
raising
the
final
out.
if the
contact
Everything
specimen, previously
the
fine
work
iris is seen,
carried
be
If
denser,
light with the oiled conbeginner first to employ the ^-in.
cover
to
objective in
closed
the
can
the
overdone
cause
of the
the
do
be
of critical
on
accident
an
point out,
may
that the
see
should
coarse
lens
it and
"
stronglyadvise
urge
the
stage in such
the
to
on
to
is raised, and
opticalcontinuity between
which
before
stage
mirror
When
condenser.
the
oiled, is laid
This
the
"
of
that
so
by raisingthe
out
perfectionin
To
level
that
far
already explained,
and
for
raising method
adjustment should be used lest
too hurriedly,or
bring the front
so
with
purpose
complete.
it is required to
are
made,
this
with
this
is
the
near
adjustments
two
for
manner
the
to
commencing
until these
better
or
237
denser
con-
thick
be
to
an
that
the
con-
as
OIL-IMMERSION
AN
USING
238
denser
under-surface
the
in the focus
the
of
CONDENSER
instead.
To
this
annoying
continuity between
make
The
condenser
the under-surface
lamp
is
his
new
having
designed
such
of
little
"
the
with
his
"
that
they
optical
condenser.
presents
high enough
latter
to
actually touches
it
being abnormally
know
we
of
We
slip.
slips,and
not
that
of
especially
have
be
scratched
not
is
have
should
does
save
that
condenser
Care
are
If this
mirror.
thicker
greatest service.
of
three
often
taken
when
found
of these
put
away
use.
focussed
it
The
has
to
now
performed by
be
one
view
light is said
removed
now
the
presumed
field of
critical
"-in. is
be
now
the
in
condenser, then
lens
the
different-sized
proceed, let
been
is
through
lenses
top
of
To
to
the
even
alternative
to
of
higher.
try the expedient of bringing
now
front
the
up
when
to the
owing
slip,
other
no
work
work
to
them
Even
possible to
as
succeed, there
racked
be
requires liftingup
near
as
slip,and
opposite character
an
all.
at
microscopist should
The
out
quite
cannot
of the
thick,the condenser
the
of
the
covers,
trouble
Occasionally a
itself.
the
cover-
and
flame
by lowering
to
the
been
have
TVm-
has
image
raising the
or
obtained.
This
substituted.
oiled to the
or
two
some
little
practice
arc
necessary.
The
adjustment
coarse
the
between
will
easily recognised by
when
obtain
looking sideways
the
focus
must
be
mentioned
front lens
contact
be
be
can
"
little flash of
oil
ir;
fact
that
the
(when oil
is put
on
to
the
cover
and
to
It
the
ZEISS
24O
details
this
have
we
"OBJECTIVE-CHANGERS"
suggested, but
of trouble, we
source
invented
their
have
to attain
already
to
it,and
in fact to
mentioned
sliding objective-changer
remove
Carl Zeiss
have
simple arrangement
the purpose
most
answers
excellently(see Fig. 139).
To prepare a battery of objectivesrequiresa littleconsideration.
Before commencing
should
to do so
mention
that the slides
we
"
which
consist
of
the former
two
SLIDING
Fig- 139."
",
tube-slide;
the
"
OBJECTIVE-CHANGER
with
b. objective-slide
objectivc-s\\"t"
screwed
to
the
nose-
(/////
objectiveattached
; c, in section.
be
perfect alignment.
plan is easilylearnt and
in
To
is
do
this
effectivelythe
thoroughly effective.
lowing
follow-
ocular
"
"
TO
HOW
"
"
ALIGN
OF
BATTERY
OBJECTIVES
241
we
large and well-defined circular diatom, such as the one
the
Aulacodiscus
Brunii"
for
the purpose
usuallyuse ourselves
until it is in the
the stage, and
is then placed on
fidgeted about
No
oil need
be used
of the field and
centre
roughly in focus.
between
the condenser
the objectiveand
and
between
or
cover,
slip,as the best definition is not required just to place the diatom
the subto close
as
nearly central as possible. It is advisable
"
stage iris
sensible
hidden
missed, being
and
full aperture
laid
and
either
the
apparatus
that
the
affixingto
which,
tube
the
or
in
of
the
lens
is
The
thereto
not
for the
such
with
unscrewed
now
touch
to
/^^-slide
in
of
is in the
most
opening to receive the objective-slide,
is now
screwed
on
position. The
oftjecttve-s\ifa
and
slides united
the two
objectiveitself,
by slipping one
other.
probably
field.
the
be
To
few
effect
diatom
the
found
make
to
be
it do
no
so
is focussed
or
applied to one
b, Fig. 139, forming part
in
once
of
both
of
the
made
portions of a turn are
produced. The
objective should
turns
is
understand
the
the
until it is made
the
desired
rationale
of
the
to
into
it will
more,
what
be
quite certain
situation.
has
the
little
until
the
desired
slid
off
and
that
It is well
taken
screws
and
objective-slide,
or
venient
con-
is
apparatus
shown
a
When
of
that
manner
the
purpose
the
the
be
may
definition
this
implies,is
name
is attached
"
specimen
doing
stage.
its
as
The
taken
being
care
the
fluffystate
oil contact.
specimen
"
the
by
no
aside,
otherwise
amount,
place.
the
on
now
object
just to
The
idea
of
adapter of
diatom
to place the
was
actually in the optical axis
any kind
of the objective. After
the sliders were
the subsequent
united
and
adjustments with the little screws
watch-key were
merely
carried
lens to its original position. This
the
out
to
restore
its best possibleperformance.
ensures
The
lower
now
(each in their own
adapters) should
powers
be centred
the
after the other
is easily
one
on
diatom, which
effected by screwing an objectiveslide on
and
to each
adjusting
with
the
observe
It is needless
to
watch-key in succession.
putting
the diatom
manner
that any
objective on
must
not
be
to
the
touched, or
instrument
the stage
without
interferedwith
evident
the
low
16
in any
now
power
GREAT
242
will
be
central
can
be
understood
USE
when
it is
all the
to
that
in
centring of the
for the
changers
no
shall
or
three
is manifest
in
do
by the
more
objectivesof the
it is essential,to
the
be
not
focal
same
length have
that
thing fairly,
the
all
suitable
upset
of these
If
in
and
second
one.
far
time
another
to
the mirror
accuracy
than
ways
saving of
immediately
the
employing
afforded
of
kinds
Moreover,
use.
objective
one
it
with
and
out
great
hence
one,
of different
in
adjustment
and
first combination,
changers
from
changing
convenience
higher
were
it is
instrument
condenser
the
to
previous directions
more
easily carried
ALIGNMENT
changed
have
we
OF
objective-
supposing two
to be compared,
part of the
same
of the illumination)
refinement
specimen (and consequently the same
be employed
should
with
each.
this can
Now
only be
done
as
expeditiously in the manner
just related, taking one
the
here
be said
first
screwing
shall admit
each
lens is
and
the
and
standard
they
can
one
on
be
as
to
well
the
and
But
the
then
only if
this is sometimes
same,
exactlythe
the
the
If it
it.
other, by
against the
tried,one
is true, but
is that
consequence
alignment with
nosepiece
exactlysimilar.
in
other, we
centring of
not
the
same,
case,
portion
the
again
trouble
the
same
to
compare
one
combination
fairlywith
the
This
others.
effected
the
aid of the
by
more
the
little
powerful
being readilyexamined
objectives,no adjustments of any
combination
save
that
of
altering the
WATSON'S
Similar
CHANGERS
of examination
ease
revolving nosepiece, as
in
the
and
one
opticiansassure
the
on
fault
they
other
mostly
manufacture
can
adjustment
of
with
such
of
almost
the
obtained
for
with
the
tives
setting objecthat
aware
some
actual
of
the
that
combination
of
amount
accurate
special
some
the
means
provided.
low
only
are
this
primary
uncalled
243
amateurs,
many
not
is
there
When
their
mounting
in the
no
nosepiece, which
unless
possibly correct
occurs
than
itself rather
be
provided
alignment. We
are
made
in
POWERS
is
means
same
are
LOW
rarely
can
no
that
us
assertingthat
follow
FOR
for in most
battery,as
of
Under
be
may
each
indeed, the
cases.
Zeiss
the
centring
exact
importance
objective changers of
in
powers
these
found
objective
refinement
is
is
conditions
trifle
obtains
the
cumbersome,
Fig. 140.
and
perhaps
offer
other
in
better
than
disadvantage
especiallywhen
"
changer
made
and
is
in
to
changer,
and
be
causes
to
It
in
for
size,however, is
To
the
as
use
it is very
inversion
end
pence,
truly that
140.
and
with
it has
simple.
downwards
the
of
movement
to
of
to
tube,
efficacious
the
nosepiece,
the objective
"
attach
seem
used
given
to the
The
the
on
to
to
each
leave
"Facility" Objectivehave
We
powers
objectives,Messrs.
it would
the
suitable
not
it interferes
is fixed
few
is called
Fig.
heavily
screw
To
although commonly
exceedingly
an
the
grip
ring, sold
firmly and so
desired.
microscope,
its slides.
as
price.
in
different
the
four
not
This
magnalium.
is shown
weighing
introduced
low-power instrument,
Its
so
of
three, if
little
"
nothing
of
have
constructed
so
combination
on
filled with
Sons
protected by
time
rapidly changing
rotating nosepiece, which
the
the
Watson
of
means
by
has
use
too
one
us
for
every
Continental
of the
some
faction.
satismodel
tube
in
WHAT
244
TO
screw-thread
cut
aperture, and
carried
DO
WITH
upon
them.
directly the
back
their
to
natural
THE
EYE
NOT
varieties
with
of sizes,within
objective threads,
USE
The
their threads
spring, in doing which
engage
and
it
the
shoulder.
objective
carry
up to
the
IN
it has
very
small
been
found
the
threads
In
of the
of
consequence
limits,that
desirable
still
prevail
supply the
to screw
to the objectives,these
rings mentioned
having threads
of an
absolute
will be gripped by the jaws of the
which
gauge
nosepiece with certainty.
Before
be
quitting this part of our subject a few words
may
said with respect to the way
of using the eyes.
Of course,
only
be employed
with the ordinary instrument
one
can
at a time,
follows
and
what
the
other.
This
muscles, as
refers
especiallyas
more
should
be
never
closed
is
what
to
up
to
do
to
tightly by
its
own
spoil the
to
apt
very
with
Fig. 141.
perceptivefaculty of
be
used
this
shut
to
be
cannot
touch
or
close
It is best
it.
the
off
eye
addition, should
try
by the
objectseen
similarity in the
same
to
make
eye in
focussing
it open
It is best,
doing
By
this
brought
the
so
if it
as
moment.
the hand
if
; but
it turn
is
keep
to
shut.
use.
should
should
when
but
so
kept
not
learn
hand
duty,
Neither
use.
to
acquired, the
seeing anything, it is
said, to keep it open
the
in
the eye
means
about
we
have
observer, in
were
lookii
an
unconscious
at
lets his
as
and
one
"
the
off-duty
become
apparently
For
those
arrangement
sees
unable
blank, then
double,
to
is made
learn
to
this
perhaps, for
even,
to
fix
do
on
what
to
we
the
an
have
hour
aftcrv,
said, a
draw-tube
that
neat
little
holds
shield, effectuallycutting
small
in
Some
use.
of
users
the
off
"the
circular
shuts
the
Position
The
of
If
with
end
of
the
such
If
slip.
as
Brunii
placed
so
as
centre
of
the
to
in
slip
only
need
measures
taken
be
and
and
I
the
Method
marked
in. from
centre
diatom,
the
it,and
will
diatom
either
the
circular
to
the
approximately
for
the
called
with
diatom
show
fashion.
convenient
more
the
disengaged
its centre
be
on
dot, then
the
cover
it
size draw-tube.
may
burnt
in
of
sizes,one
exactly
This
side.
the
as
Stage
taken
be
should
has
part
from
Occupy
Circular
cover-glass be
this
parts,
draw-tube
two
English
Centring
Aulacodiscus
an
vulcanite, in
should
either
in. from
and
the
light
out
for the
dot
not
eye
two
one
over
Verniers
ink, this
of
dot
the
of
of
consists
middle
ordinary glassslipbe
i-in.
in
other
the
and
Continental,
It
slides
which
aperture,
seeing"
245
STAGE
CIRCULAR
CENTRING
VERNIERS:
the
All
these
correct.
"
a
square-shaped movable
centring slip upon
Placing this
in
of the ordinary milled-headed
screws
by the use
stage and
of the field
such
a
occupies the centre
position that the diatom
low
of view
when
power) and a x 4
using a J-in. (or other
are
fairlywell located,
ocular, it will be found, if the verniers
of their
their
length. For
midway
readings will be about
"
if
example,
be
one
readings should
from
much
the
used
with
the
verniers
if not
this
both,
we
be
the
low
the
diatom
one
be
slip having
will
not
will
be
the
placed, a
and
is
other
the
and
approximately
should
mean
long
mm.
the
returned
two
able
be
beyond
to
the
be
were
of
one
as
the
of
exactly
in
the
centre
of
both
of
when
the
the
covers,
graduations.
very
scale
exact
the
example,
makers, because
used,
reach
for
"
upon
covers
then
mm.,
they differ
the
to
40
If
"
figures,supposing they
these
instrument
60
verniers
field,a
before
are
By
the
ably
reason-
instead
taken
note
of
when
being
made
centring slide,with
the
on
which
to
at
now
the
the top
on
STAGE
additional
some
be
to
right-hand
in the
time
any
field of view
the
in
correctly recorded
having by
the
fault
the
occurred
centring
it proves
does
bearings of
its recorded
figures,by
means
the
that
central
of
accident
should
previous
mistake
the
or
in
contrary,
of the
centre
field,
other
has
codiscus
right,the aula-
matters
the field,according tp
in
the
the
on
no
some
accident
set
same
enquire
the
if,on
the
some
To
If
case
from
into
come
To
aulacodiscus
; but
themselves
verniers
is the
placed
it.
the
arisen
the stage.
made
be
upon
question
not
first be
should
which
in
unmistakably
most
upset the
after
evidently has
diatom
such
or, what
should
course
fails to
positions
the centralityof the
field,in which
the
of
the slide
upon
of
stage
centre
appear
the notation
the
the
"
failingto
"
vernier
seen
accidentallyslipped.
have
position as recorded
to
the
in
appear
"
we
particular
any
course,
upset,
centring slide
"
the
be
to
from
arise
been
means
must
method
set
on
desired
provided, of
"
it must
"
some
as
stage.
is the
corner
position marked
recorded
previously
appear
stage
the
on
were
placed
indication
ourselves.
employ
If
future
it is in the
way
capital letter
to
CIRCULAR
CENTRING
246
ordinary stage
should
screws,
released
be
from
that retain
them
screws
bearings by undoing the minute
situ.
A slightenlargement of the little holes through which
their
in
minute
the
figures noted
the
again be
once
With
has
to
around
be
circular
taken
the
the
field.
comes
from
the
the
highest of
revolving m"
and
into
the
slides
on
maker
the
set
according
This
done, the
will
containing specimens
stand
the
diatom
all.
watched.
low
the
in
revolving
the
"
should
field
power
be
by
and
placed
the
it
on
ordin,.
then
with
or
"
about
Revolution
If
whilst
motion
description,directly
of the
battery, taking
cd at
this
centre
first with
additional
remain
centring slide
the
an
; it is that
consideration
with
screws,
the
read
more
once
centring slide."
"
be
to
correct.
adjusted to
milled-hcadcd
graduations
Hence
the
the
verniers
on
optical axis
stage and
rr.dde
the
positionsof interest
recorded
now
that
so
enable
will
pass
aggin,
correct
to
screws
"
no
travel"
the
axis
is then
of
the
diatom
CENTRING
248
CIRCULAR
adjustment, through
the
of the
one
if two
two,
one
position,but
and
When
not
used, being
more
requires
turned
arrow-head
fresh
adjustment
be
must
than
or
the
frequently change
alteration
no
enough,
in
the
method
of
mentally pictured
each
made.
should
be used,
be, a higher power
perfect as can
finallythe highest of the battery. It should be mentioned
and
that
as
with
smooth
regular except
allowance
AMOUWT
Or
Tf?ltD
BE
must
OF
in
ADjuSTinCj
IN
BY
be
finest
for
of
grease
or
"
the
PLACED
appear
and
unexpected
AGAIN
OF
FIELD
OffOiriARY
BY
STAGE
SCREW*
Frews
Fig. 144.
presence
not
instruments,
made
CENTRE
THE
SPECIAL.
sc
the
will
motion
DIATOM
FIR6T
THE
the
then
even
9HIFTTO
AT
MEANS
magnification
great
and
certain
Fig
145.
making
it
apparently jump
"
thickened
little until
they
removed.
are
In
be
the
numbering
for
made
letter R
the
the
it is
so
they apply.
and
down
be
we
have
at
to
be
Thus
must
able
be
as
have
we
the
placed on
its position on
top
the
out
before, always
the
and
that
top
differentiate
placed
the
the vernier
means
at
of
the
always
suggested,
right-hand
stage
pointed
to
-3
should
cabinet, room
readings, and,
always
vernier
one
as
for the
slip to indicate
convenient,
reading of
slides
vernier
should
of each
corner
up
turned
in ttiefield may
arc
The
treatment.
time
this
being
screw
were
STAGE
to
put
other
verniers
to
moving
the
30-45, whilst
that
; and
the
neath,
underwhich
recording
READINGS
VERNIER
is to
motion
horizontal
suggestion because
in an
irregularmanner
in
microscopists
just the
in
their
have
"
verniers
being
vernier
in another
reverse
this
repeated
using
the
of
reading
one
"
have
most
upper-
led
them
So
recording stages to be of no service.
if
with placing the R
:
always at the top right-hand corner
future
be not
at some
always done, it is impossible to know
too
this
which
date
the
the
way
the
Reading
by
We
25-10.
mechanical
think
to
at
set
many
and
case
one
be
249
Verniers.
of
name
the
record
to
motion
indicate
scales,a long
of two
and
framework,
the
the
hold
along
of
edge
attached
in
"
the
the
side
to
side.1
point
fact
smaller
is
whilst
engraved
it
upon
the
of
division
simple
each
smaller
the
the
Each
one
consists
portion
to
contrary
of
both
of
of
division
the
of
some
frames
should
that
it slides
be
within
distance
scale
vernier)
equal
long
In
one.
to
has
exactly
this
then
that
called
mostly
one-tenth
divisions
; but
mm.
It is obvious
is
in
nowadays
portion
(which
is
length,is graduated
commonly
equal divisions.
the
the
in
mm.
movable
or
smaller
the
name
for
only
into ten
space is divided
each
arranged that
so
microscopist.
The
longer scale,usually about 50
length, more
throughout its entire
millimetres,
one
the
sight of
easy
to
scale, and
greater
1630.
being to
immovable
on
matician,
mathe-
about
in
some
known
French
seen
to
of
of
somewhere
affixed
one
The
specimen.
the
as
from
short
stage.
usually two,
are
down
one
is movable
part that
flourished
movement
the
on
ingenious arrangement
there
and
up
placed
the invention
who
microscope stage
the
other
The
was
Vernier,
be
to
"
Vernier
Peter
In
has
slide
less
by
than
principleof
the
arrangement.
In order
to
for certain
the
that
and
called
the
this
1
We
5.
Sometimes
stage
the
of
the
4 and
it is evident
position taken
about
of
next
up
the
divisions
vernier.
this
on
zero
the
In
into
is
marked
"taking
; let for
ten
ascertain
equal parts,
o.
This
position"
example it lie as
greater scale.
We
write
is
we
in
down
third is added
opticalaxis.
is divided
mm.
position of
of
first line
zero"
4, because
scale
the
"the
first note
read
to
indicate
the
amount
of revolution
of the
VERNIER
250
how
much
more
READINGS
add
must
we
the
to
make
to
the
reading
correct.
To
do
reaches
this the
eye
division
that will
is
"
the vernier
"
along
run
scale
until
it
of
millimetres.
the smaller
have
we
scale
vernier
is
this distance
equal
one-tenth
the amount
to
each
less
than
be added
the correct
the
to
of
the
each
of
reading 4-8.
THE
12"
the
of
(because
the
greater),so
is
of
smaller
learn
we
simply "8,which
reading happened
have
to
SCALE
FbRTION, USUALLY
THE
VERNIER
CALLED
WITH
divisions
If the
MOVABLE
SHOWING
eighth division
millimetre
prime figure4
FIXED
VERNIER
the
at
eight-tenthsof
to
already shown
was
makes
As
8"
DIVISION
SO
AND
COINCIDENT
READING
4'8.
Fig. 146.
shown
the
eighth, was
scale,then
the
in
alignment
have
would
have
been
alignment
should
we
4*6 and
of between
written
in the
found
been
with
we
that
should
So
far
"
in
place of
have
of the
have
the
so
on.
Should
and
and
occurred
only
added
to
the
if the
*i, the
understand
the
correct
in
zero
would
first division
it
were
one
reading
the figure
scale
have
of
been
but
the
case
as
may
had
scale
one
line,
continuous
reading appearing
fixed
whereas, if
subsequent alignment
the
as
the
figure o
the
at
the
"3 to
of
the
of
5, then
4;
division
sixth, then
other, making
it is easy
o*r.
arise
"
scope
using the stage verniers of the microthat
having noted the prime figure,a"
unple the
cannot
the previous argument,
we
subsequently find any
it often
indeed
to
4 and
other
some
at
scale, instead
vernier
only added
resting between
instead
the
with
have
been
had
been
of
division
third
docs
when
VERNIER
that
scales
there
as
seen
marking
the
251
the
reallyactually in alignment between
The
vernier
reading 8 is
represented in Fig. 147.
in advance
of the twelfth divisional
to be just as much
divisions
two
READINGS
fixed
the
on
are
of
thirteenth
scale
the
the ninth
as
fixed
of the
then
Seeing
one.
movable
is behind
the
advance
in
half a tenth or
question really means
"'S millimetre, so we
-%-$" or
the
to the reading,
difficultyby adding that amount
get over
The
of
scales
will not
readily admit
making it finally4*85.
finer
although
differentiating,
between
required
never
however,
be
can
in
such
the
read
to
of
inches,
instruments
for
example
the standard
BEYOND
THE
BEHIND,
understood,
desired,
so
third
usually find
we
DIVISION
12".
READS
I3TH
the
to
is
of
place
obtains
in
barometer.
8TH
THE
be
verniers, when
course
quite conveniently
as
as
DISTANCE
IS
of
refinement
should
It
distinguish
may
realitysuch
in
microscope.
SHOWING
VERNIER
practised eye
'075 ; but
passing, that
made
decimals
with
the
ABOUT
AS
THE
EQUAL
9"
DIVISION
4'85.
Fig. 147.
It
take
set
at
remains
now
up
them
be
4-8 is T8o of
millimetre
divisions
the
in
requires
set
more
"05 further.
with
the
to
it be
desired
to
until
the
its
to
thing required
be 4'8, it is evident
4,
the
to
nearer
the
graduation, move
shift in the
to
first graduation
4*85, we
To
do
movement
this
we
count
the
that
gently
turn
the
the
zero
whole
direction
scale,
great
vernier
shall
stage
smaller
the
required
on
screw
the
5, because
Accordingly we
(that is to say the
it in
are
rests
zero
4*00.
scale
upon
verniers
set
Fig. 146.
vernier
eye
the vernier
causes
we
vernier
vernier
numerals
than
more
the
on
to which
the
the
set
scale, and
stage, which
the
fixed
the
to
simplicity let
along
Should, however,
must
until
For
slide
We
at 4'OO.
is done.
eight
explained how
given reading.
required figureon
the
zero
be
to
indicated
wish
the
scale
yet
be
shifted
a
trifle,
READINGS
VERNIER
252
about
;on
object
for
centre
of
field
of
view
of
field
is
screws,
tear,
so
that
the
reason
so
that,
r.
the
course
already
should
:"
readings
the
been
of
out
on
stage
be
the
was
explained
is
of
stages
"r-set
how
should
ocular,
in
the
147).
The
lie
now
provided
object
in
the
central
this
the
figures
once
the
more
the
effected.
stage
the
slide
provided
time
they
of
were
made.
centring
and
wear
When
service,
shall
was
with
axis.
of
centre
itself
through
optic
be
the
the
eccentric
with
at
is
are
become
alignment
that
upon
make
in
appear
is
record
first-class
will
to
It
the
plate
upper
specimen
truly
"
necessary.
since
centre
the
for
that
thing
another
shifted
ivc
This
view
distance
same
(Fig.
taken,
the
twelfth
given.1
mention
the
in
the
thirteenth
are
the
over
about
say
the
readings
correctly
re
to
behind
is
the
which
fun
is
that
advance
"
division
the
the
make
to
much
as
ninth
1C
fact
in
enough
this
provided
taken.
It
is
of
has
XI
CHAPTER
THE
MICROSCOPE
BINOCULAR
VISION
STEREOSCOPIC
where
between
provided with
is
each
whilst
eye"
this
By
about
to
it is
arrangement
be
described
about
inch
an
ordinary book-shelf.
is usually printed must
his
line with
eye
will
eyes
just be
now
the
right eye
and
mind
of
face
able
to
observer
the
effect of
photographs,
depth
each
viewed
fact, the
union
dimension
and
that
one
the
by
thin
theory
book, say
placed
where
be
of
side
the
upon
fact upon
in
the
in
Each
book, the
the
left one.
an
title
exact
an
in. therefrom.
18
is
from
we
of
impression
behind
vivid, distinct
the
and
"
in
the
different
the
say
other
of
these
different
two
produced
speak
details
blending
from
through
mental
that lie
the
to
volume
different
right side,and
the
of, say,
see
Let
observer, and
the
distance
stereoscopicvision,"
it does
as
of
manner
both
When
looks
to be
simultaneously employed, the book
very
decided
in
the
confusion
to have
a
depth, no
arising
are
solid
at
nose
back
The
the
in
five in width, be
thereon
as
follows
as
and
thickness
in
"
for
one
one.
simply, according
is
is that
"
"
by Wheatstone,
propounded
difference
oculars)
two
which,
Fig. 148,
microscope
(and
"
in
leading
is
latter
the
tubes
two
the
seen
Monocular
the
and
Binocular
the
the former
is illustrated
THE
AND
standpoints.
of
vantage,
instrument.
in the
photograph
unequivocal
253
suggestion
appear
to
manner
do
The
two
taneously
simul-
are
Here, in point of
produces such
and
where
stereoscope,
point
in
images
two
so
and
strong
to
as
of
in such
that
no
the
nounced
pro-
depth
landscape
a
"
marked
possibility
254
Swift's
Binocular.
which
instrument
*.hc
to
in any
way,
deviated
the
two
of
the
The
left-
interfered
with
rigJittube
and
or
into
little consideration
But
observer.
the
d, after
c,
observer.
the
uninterruptedly
passes
of
of
eye
is not
however,
b,
a,
thence
corresponding
right eye
the
to
but
figure as
the
and
body
hand
in
shown
as
passes,
so
BINOCULAR
ZEISS
256
is
of rays
right-hand half of the cone
travel
those beams
proceeding to the left eye of the observer
much
a
longer distance than those of the opposite side ; hence it
is obvious
the image formed
magnified of the
by them is the more
sufficient to show
the
that
"
"
To
two.
magnifying
the
less than
be
this
correct
that of the
left
images are
nearly so.
be
To
is usual
When
using both
(See Hints,
by
of the
means
adjustment should
caused
be
the eyes
to
of
end
milled
the
be
used
short
different form
right
and
small
to
differences
out,
suitable
to be
tube
in
as
we
fatigue is
some
of binocular.
informed
To
unless
then
the
can
prism
this difficulty
meet
such
for
even
times, quite
in pre-war
with
form
inch,
an
Neither
made
It met
ordinary
half
are
desired.
Zeiss
its
about
instrument.
to
neglected.
is not
prism
the
the
head
the
made
Chapter XVIII.)
carefullycarried
if it be
Wenham
The
find
to
however,
eyes,
lowered
or
right. It
images,
not
noticeable.
not
are
power
good reception
them.
make
opticians now
In this arrangement
it will be seen
by consulting Fig. 150
stereoscopicvision is obtained, not by a division of the pencils
of light(one going to the right eye
and
the other to the left)
American
.lishand
through
ng
of two
in tl
each
,
of
of
tnce
"
fixed
to
(
it,rr.
or
its
ach
lowered
same
rotating these
as
an
style
the
as
of oculars
the
different
obtains
in
suit
to
microse
the
an
objcctirc. Instead
oivn
itic binoculars
By
by
different observers
nlina;
known.
having
being raised
pupi
bination
ingenious commicroscopes which are complete
tioned
ju
"
Me
single objective,but
intcr-
usual
the
erecting Porro
that
supplied
change
for
in
now
the
so
inter-pupilary
BINOCULAR
ZEISS
257
distance
for
stereoscopiceffects.
all
We
should
not
to be
suitable
observers
for
high
the
mention
stage
we
powers
have
in
certain
which
dia-
assist
in
already said, is
its usual
form,
performance of
focal length,Professor
that form
made
for objectives of short
Abbe
designed a special kind of stereoscopic eyepiece that
of the monocular
is
drops into the draw-tube
microscope, which
itself lowered
the tube-length the correct
to make
sufficiently
amount
some
for which
the
are
not
content
with
the
and
objectiveis computed.
17
ABBE'S
258
The
is shown
eyepiece
be
will
It
STEREOSCOPIC
pencilof rays
producing two
in
seen
in
the
EYEPIECE
Fig. 151.
illustration
that
the
two
*OI
mm.
of
the
"
of the tube
the
division
One
thick.
of
set
rays
passes
of air between
is
now
made
Fig. 151.
Abbe's
b and
prisms
other
passes
reflected
into
to
a
on
form
image in
the hypotenuse of
the ocular
B,
an
which
the
the
is inclined
ocular, whilst
the
To
axis
definition
of
the
and
microscope.
magnification,
so
to
fulfilthese
conditions
are
made
STEREOSCOPIC
ABBE'S
ocular
differently,
length of 45
whilst
mm.,
similar
focal
Abbe's
views
that
length.1
2
to
inner
the
is
It
cover
up
are
is of
stereoscopicprojectionthe observer
of
the
diaphragms
The
this
day
above
to have
of
Firm
struggled
have
to
see
to
This
the
eyepiece can
is
halves
outer
vision
the
so,
be
with
do
ingenious
to
one
faintest
for
used
for
at
not
was
double
image
of air above
all well
the
in
mentioned
entirelyremoved,
upon
the
one
the
the
of
for
of
high
it
powers,
optical reasons
have
the
the
second
but
cannot
not
the
present
kindness
sensible
was
of
ingenious
most
Through
ghost
removal
of
reader
examine
and
microscope
entire
the
probably because
oculars
out
been
appliances.
had
do
has
it leads
as
"
to
modern
compensating
as
the
uses
pseudoscopic
stratum
advance"
great
stated
we
entirelyfailed
The
arranged
occulted, consequently
only
brought
works
recent
nothing
convenient
the
be
must
two
objection
this
notice
objection
the
In the recent
regret that
to
is
objectionable
an
from
thickness, the
in
failed
of
arose
thick.
too
much
we
which
first
when
account
on
eyepiece B,
being
ocular, hence
These
for
; whilst
each
Professor
arrangement
received
of
of
form
out
carry
focal
are
of the
halves
ocular
of each
of
Ramsden
to
beam
each
for
rays
the
necessary
portions
provided.
portion of
259
ordinary Huyghenian
an
ocular
diaphragms
half-moon
so
being
EYEPIECE
and
of
time, and
image,
but
there !
achromats
be
only,
provided.
of
of the
equalising the magnifying power
but inside
eyepieces,as the focus
objectivelies outside the Ramsden
the Huyghenian.
in
The
lenses
Fig. 151 are incorrectly drawn.
2
Professor
Abbe's
theory of stereoscopic projection in the microscope
(for which the reader should consult his originalpapers, scattered, it is true,
and
somewhat
difficult to find upon
the
view
here
subject)is not the
of obtaining stereoscopic
referred to at all. This only relates to his method
vision with the microscope, and
his departure is merely that, instead
of
he
divides
it in a very
dividing the light at the back of the objective itself,
similar manner
in the image at the back of the eyepiece instead,z". at the
Ramsden
circle.
in
as
Opticallyspeaking the effectis absolutely the same
Wenham
where
the usual binocular microscope,
the
prism is used.
3
If an
ordinal
the table, were
like
"a
it
ily
a
s
on
object
jelly,"
appears
under
observation, the stereoscopicprojection gives to it depth, and it is
the dish ; pseudoscopic vision is the reverse,
when
it
to stand
seen
on
up
if indeed
sunken
and receding, as
the jellymould
to the eye
were
appears
an
way
of the
"
being looked
at
instead.
"
POWELL
26o
"
should
We
in
both
using
BINOCULAR
before
mention,
certain
by
LEALAND'S
although
instead
eyes
of
Lealand
to
which,
in
only
in
same
into
"
is
present
we
with
employed
Fig.
of
the
of
whilst
glass
the
It
is
beams
;
the
beam,
by the
Abbe's
of
use
but
most,
it is
other
at
the
be
can
short
shown
to
in
Part
one
eye,
it passes
being
into
totally
the
said,
of
which
of
moment
to
of
the
each
becomes
be
produced
just spoken.
have
arrangements
going
by
in
vision,"
well
the
used
are
have
we
of
halves
portions
equally
can
inter-
distance
inner
this
the
ocular
such
can
using
outer
pseudoscopic
"
effect
when
each
binocular
new
it
off
the
altering
by
diaphragms,
times
pre-war
devised,
press,
been
for
are
the
unobtainable.
time
A
the
This,
is
parallel-sided
arranging
that
employ
to
as
this
this.
stereoscopic
so
from
effect, called
reverse
apparent.
once
In
so
the
adjacent,
the
merely
that
it
of
simply
produced
coming
moreover,
direction
opposite
at
and,
is
of
other.
distance
pupilary
double-
effect
is
prism
reflected
that
said
by
prism
eye
the
"
that
througJi
prism
binocular
whether
upon
passes
immediately
be
the
action
portion
to
The
falls
right-angled
reflected
Fig. 152.
its
light that
plate
the
length.
and
152,
used
and
objective
any
focal
long
or
and
peculiarity
informed,
are
prism
carrier
stereoscopic
no
"
of
called
The
that
Powell
the
be
may
"
form
converts
what
rienced
expe-
by all
Messrs.
Wenham
instrument.
arrangement
comfort
special
manner,
microscope
visioned
led
one,
the
the
recognised
not
construct
placed
the
that
concluding,
observers"
PRISM
very
"
fine
Bicor,"
entire
by Watson
existing stands.
See
instrument
"
Addenda
Sons,
by Beck
be
can
for
some
is worth
arranged
attention;
to
fit
on
and
some
interesting information.
XII
CHAPTER
WITH
OBJECTS
MEASURING
UNIT
THE
AND
THE
MICROSCOPE
MEASUREMENT
OF
USED
BY
for
scientific
MICROSCOPISTS
IT
for
diatom,
These
the
obtain
to
purposes
as
in
objects, being
do
certain
of
amount
minute
extremely
the
example,
the
taxes
The
in
of
of
have
the
instrument
is
placed
be
in the
is
with
the
In
speaking
unmindful
Mr.
object
of
J.
W.
an
of
be
this
Gordon,
of
"
utmost
new
the
full account
of
light
"
the
is
by the
which
as,
for
of
use
are
viewed
usually
of which
is
that
simultaneously
which
employed,
given
It may
by saying
purpose
lenses
form
we
when
operation
ordinary ocular.
through
instrument
and
but
Micrometer.
wires
measured,
paratively
com-
extent.
measures
present
two
view
pellucida
the
bacillus.
some
wave-lengths
of the
the
which
as
entirely
attained
measured,
these
out
for
by
to
be
to
instead
draw-tube
contrivance
been
Spider-line
"
of
such
"
difficulty after
Spider-line Micrometer
sufficientlydescribed
such
by
called
the
much
very
to
operator
carrying
like
organism
Amphipleura
Fig. 153.
an
so
has
with
dots
given object
microscopist's point
offer
details
powers
method
the
required
of
minute
practice
commensurate
even
of
or
not
is
it
dimensions
exact
example,
large,
are
that
infrequently happens
not
in the
Addenda.
part
are
not
devised
MEASURING
262
of the
when
the
"
the
wire
inch,
divided
of which
circumference
the
divisions, for
the
he
the apparatus,
so, he
proceeds
the
to
on
of the
how
in focus
are
avoid
as
it is
comb
the
This
lens
in
understand
to
all that
at
into the
with
so
comb
of the
notches
been
readings
that have
through
and,
if not
of
detail
which
are
counting
by the
over
instrument
; but
mentioned,
not
the moment.
readily understood
fixed
to
as
arrange
wire
shall
enclose
which
over
is to
object,whilst
the
the
to
be
of
revolution
they
micron, whichever
threads
or
wires
to
obtained
the screw,
be
must
the
subsequently added
figures thus
so
are
that
to
into
those
is desired.
This
reduced
of
the
lie
the
other.
micrometer
Originallythey were
ingly fine cobwebs.
hence
threads procurable ;
the originof
are
made
the
term
micrometer
apparently
has
of
the
object represents
whilst
screw,
make
them
the
in
of
excess
ment.
measure-
terms
of
practical
implies
reallyconstructed
the
the
inch, millimetre,
conversion
in
is
travelled
complete the
necessarilyin
with
in
one
count
hundredths
of
make
to
movable
furnish
drum-head
the
on
The
The
being
field of view
passed
the
the
field to enclose
in its passage
across
of the
revolutions
of whole
the total number
the
form
it is
the
of
end
one
the field
across
or
looks
eyepiece,and
usual
is necessary
position that
contact
value
of
such
the
distinctly
wires)have
is the
entire
one
capable
observer
the
hundred
appear
is
stretching across
run
webs
drum,
any
measurement
in
the
actual
variations
many
for him
A
the
the
the
before
so
The
with
thread.1
to
them
in
figure,called
distinctlyin focus
wires
by looking
notches
many
movable
make
to
is known
(and also
make
that,when
the
sees
microscope.
screw
there
To
screw.
to
outside
pushed in,so
or
itself ends
in the
eyepiece containing
pulled out
threads
is
purpose
of the
revolution
sharp,
the
is
hundred
screw,
screw
shown
head,
hence
spoken of as
other, working in a separate
the
The
is immovable
necessary,
and
delicate
field.
the
across
in
eyepiece
by
when
; whilst
thread
or
these
being taken,
moved
be
can
of
adjustment
is
measure
fixed
frame,
of
amount
a
"
One
arrangement.
limited
OBJECTS
of
finest wires
question.
the
"
or
silk
MICROMETER
SPIDER-LINE
USING
264
be
example's sake, be
hundredths
on
of illustration
way
making
14,
shows
41,
quantity
must
equal
grand total of
The
beginning
least
at
should
the
on
with
the
Suppose
be
the
to
the
by
eye
it is considered
the
to
moved
resettingof the
the
as
14*41,
making
random
from
whole
fiducial wire
readings
thus
ran
process
"
repeated again
"
different
possible,over
the
at
away
and
micrometer,
Presuming
micrometer.
them
estimated
'005 is added
now
stage
times, if
four
add
by
may
not
then
we
14*41 5.
micrometer
lines
the
be
which
"
the
count
we
and
"
yet
14-41.
division^ then
-5 of a
to
the
to
any)
if the
and
the
finallyadded
and
be
But
14*41.
over
this
42,
of
total
Then
14.
in number
41
are
say
excess
an
reading
supposed to
the drum
(if there
rulings8 of
the
"
14-415
14-550
I4"452
I4'428
5)72-235
14-447
then
of
14*447
represents the
of
TTTTTtn
rulings
inch.
an
absolutelyaccurate
large as they at
Without
1
*
In
This
of
method
case
If it be
added
half
or
desired
lines
the
change
to
secure
show
deviation
interestingpaper
with
their
mean
from
the
upon
what
values
the
degree of
of
the
errors
not
are
so
if worked
than
more
intervals.
ten
vcrsd, any
vice
or
the
deviations
in the
by
Mr.
not
divisions.
accuracy
rulings of
Marshall
D.
a
In
reader
The
Nov.
..
of
the
mean
the
above
should
stage
Kwell,
series
measurements
from
is stated.
is ="= '043.
American
at
the
be measured
now
downwards
obtained, which
mean"
or
fresh place."
have
arrived
furnish
not
above
which
been
object can
of the hundredth
one
does
from
"
to
togetherand
"average
*!?,
means
being adopted
"een
an
course
the
either
were
; in
Sometimes
this
that
observations
the
or
intervals
-00006921,
figuresshow
above
(10
is
out
in.
"OOi
revolution
exactly equal
not
were
that
The
of
value
mean
therefore
in.),and
Ttf-JsiT
mean,
are
the
consult
micrometers
President
of
the
painstakingexperiments,
1908.
USING
and
its dimensions
and
estimations
out
this
diffraction
which
may
of
doubt
element
an
taken
of
extremely
tube when
using the
stand,
micrometer
have
one
to
As
touches
never
such
in
Then
too
makes
the
the
the
of
object,for
seen
of the
shake
settingdifficult.
separate
on
the
in
measurement
the
act
all,is
at
obtaining
the
micrometer
draw-tube
the
carrying
being exactly
exists
support
In
of
edge
always
objects.
it facilitates
found
accurate
valuable
one.
and
measures,
is
cordiallyrecommended.
be
have
we
The
Nelson's
Mr.
following are
objectiveswith as large
(1) Use
of the real
said
object.
of the
to
settings
exceedingly difficult
so
We
found
reallythe
micrometer
suggestion
taken.
mean
prevent
minute
265
estimated, several
their
be
is
phenomena
Nelson's
and
it will
know
hence
Mr.
made
being
to
of the inch
in terms
measurement,
cases
many
MICROMETER
SPIDER-LINE
suggestions :
"
aperture
an
edge
possible with
as
largestilluminating cone
procurable.
inner
from
the
(2) Measure
edge of the inner diffraction
the
the
inner
(3)
In
of the
of
The
were
of the
black
filament
seen
black
an
do
not
we
of
small
objects such
the like,we
it
admit
real size of
that
power"
his
imposed
must
comparable
it
by
to
seems
the
the
be
the
to
outside
it
edge
be
may
white
diffraction.
with
If the
small, there
black
the
and
one,
again.
suggestion of
quoted
with
No.
reluctantlyadmit, save
making
In
to
estimate
the
little consideration
from
"
the
position of
at
limit
attempt
uncertain
be
of
the
to
I,
flagellaeand
of
the
shows
once
resolving
consequence
so
measurements
holes, bacteria, or
arises
any
the
outer
is what
illuminating cone
resolving power
obvious
from
represented
due
are
side.
opposite
other
remarks.
chosen
to
in full the
is difficult
in
be
outside
minute
as
the
measurements
Hence
must
object,but
difficultyreally
this
side.
edge
one
have
we
with
agree
opposite
; in
the
and
faint black
authority,we
to
to
"
edges
diffraction
white
Although, however,
eminent
dot
band
it would
slender
another
perhaps
the
on
object
filament
is very
be
band
the
on
hole, measure
diffraction
black
"
band
of
diameter
the
These
edges.
diffraction
black
outer
of
focus
slender
may
the
that
termed
the
diffraction
outer
(4)
inner
measuring
edge
outer
of the
edge
band
within
any
limits
objective employed.
establish
hard-and-fast
USING
266
rules
SPIDER-LINE
which
by
the
is
for
is
it
possible
reallybe
cannot
of small
discrete
if
minute
object
an
of the
measurement
such
"
distance
diatom
as
admit
we
dots
of the
fluffy edge
all
objectivesis merely
around,
that
so
of
bisected
with
the
and
correctlyindicated
they
certainty that the only circumstances
might vitiate
the
result
bisections
The
the
or
objects
result, as
of
millimetre,
it be
desired
to
divide
of
obtained
be
the
object be
high
has
measurement
where
obtaining
the
The
will be
(or more)
are
explained
the
of
when
Figures
so
certain
convenient
to
that
say
is to
has
Nelson
set
a
arranged
value
taken
on.
to
of
of
/*,
one
the
microscopist
the
inch
in
revolution
specimen"
is the thousandth
metlv
accurate
most
measuring
the
lines
"
Mr.
described
arc
and
the
comb.
in the
more
distance
explains the
arise
I Living obtained
by
by multiplying\yya 1000.
inches
multiplyby '03937,
found
be
methods
number
oriented
special purpose.
the eikonometer
may
be
by '00003937.
and
yet requires for
given
some
said
other
Occasions
lines
line
been
into
one,
it will
power,
for this
micrometer
large
of notches
certain number
should
measure
into inches,
fiducial
the
the
obtain
to
in millimetres.
microns
readings
microns
to convert
What
micrometer
changed into
change millimetre
back
if
inch, but
further multiply
(//,),
originalfiguresin inches by
divided
stage micrometer
a
can
reasons
the
proportional parts
be divided
by '03937,
in microns
the
means
the
estimating
or
If it be
in terms
which
into
same
multiply by 25,400.
required in the first instance
"00003937,
of
terms
figures should
If desired
multipliedby 25*4.
the result by 1000,
or
If
the
convert
in
errors
be
can
itself.
is in
said,
the
then
or
To
personal
are
have
we
on
is
of the micrometer
errors
later
is,
"
to
position
apart
matter
resolving power
and
be
may
absolutely unscientific,
not
measure
markings
objects
with
The
objects or
however, another
such
quite useless
accurately
to
seen
of
size
true
correctlyestimated,
MICROMETER
is
of
desirous
given specimen.
of the
that
part of
screw,
is to
say
millimetre
five
one
it
placed
is
wire
'00006
As
in
If desired
of
turn
one
use
of the
the
interval
the
that
the
; let
little
are,
of
be
we
valuation
taken
of
every
upon
in
microscope
in the
purposes
removed
eyepiece
(which
the
if the
course
for other
employed
micrometer
that
always
mean
we
micron
millimetre).
it is obvious
must
are
inch.
the
to
they
say
"
the
3 to
over
us
number
on
be divided
figures must
roughly speaking, 3280
the
part of the
said
"
say
we
83,300
there
micrometer
been
has
ordinary
different
between
being taken.
measurements
of
Units
In
.mnhnr
millimetre
been
instrument
and
way,
thousandth
has
what
From
::
showing
is the
said
have
millimetre, and
the
to
second
the
and
Then
inch.
an
of
terms
25*4, thus
by
of
in *oooo6
contained
line
one
carefully measured
distance
the
six, and
number
on
267
MEASUREMENT
OF
UNITS
the
previous
section
inches
into
in
expressed
Measurement
the
of
means
of
terms
the
converting
millimetre
measures
been
have
for so
reason
given. The
doing is the fact that a growing
for all dimensions
in
feeling is rapidly gaining acceptance
scientific matters
Since
to be expressed in the metrical
system.
greater.
found
be
to
objects,or
the
have
sought
much
of
measurement
smaller
convenient
that
even
the
dealing with
the German
about
the
of
for
inch
object
an
than
that
unit
become
of
measure
mentioned
be
p.
part of
hundredth
or
the
savants
micron
an
has
been
the
small
surate
commen-
in
so
what
on
the
one
expression
an
letter
Greek
scientific
standard,
permit
figures,and
millimetre, or
be
may
it would
Selection
part of
of
some
fell
and
greater
suitable
more
the
power,
light. Consequently
less
in
hitherto.
thousandth
four
It should
as
"
is the
thousand
inch
has
much
so
separating
as
objects
wave-length
than
of
form
Micron
which
small
so, the
with
so
the
well
been
years
even
authorities
being
later
in
more
is called
//, (mu)
"
twenty-five
inch.1
of
mu
(written p.p.\which
of
measurements
employ
wave-lengths
logicalsequence,
physicistwhen
light. In this case
small
what
the
enough
METRICAL
268
there
Seeing that
system
readers
some
metre
was
whom
to
the
append
we
the
in the
explanation
A
be
may
immediately appeal,
not
may
UNITS
metrical
the
following
information
be
the
desired.
T^^V^ZRr Part of
distance
the
the
length of
the
speaking, is merely
given definite
standard
kept
in Paris.
the
Fig. 154
In
numeral
to
"
mm.
\i\*.roth
metre
is
"
seen
metre.
II
I
I' 000
the
represent
0000
OOO
Fig- 154.
be
to
The
cyphers.
third
the
indicates
cypher
because
(writtenmm.)
point from
decimal
the
separated by
it is the
the
following
ten
position of
thousandth
the
metre
milli-
part of
the
metre.
this
thousandth
(millionth) part
thousandth
part
expressed
of the
of
is called
whilst
metre,
but
metre,
then
it
is
in those
'ooi
as
the
being
decimals
In
of the
in terms
ninth
the
to
the double
mu
which
(written u//-),
cypher,
decimal
as
position of
of
unit
of
parts
millimetre
the
have
we
still smaller
"
in
in that of
o-ooooooooi,
measurement
"
becomes
metre
what
of
O'cooooi,and
micron
O'ooi.
as
The
the
last
cypher
smallest
unit
in
It is called
mu.
as
the
millimetre.
Continuing
to
of
millimetre.
the
'oooooi
as
is
quantity
of
of
Hence
of
ten
thousand
tenth-metre.
O'ooooooi,
position of
the
figure indicates
the
all in
oxxooooooo
micron
these
In
as
0*000
ten
million
millimetre
1, and
make
tenth-metres
micron, and
of
in terms
of
double
mu
double
one
as
mu,
0*1.
ten
millimetre.
is the thousandth
smaller
power)
go
to
mi
son
metre.
d'etre
of
the
term
being
that
iol"
(10
at
the
tenth
CONVERSION
As
have
we
said
is found
too
of
wave-lengths
that
too
double
the
positionof
for
both
but
metre,
this
In
whilst
four
or
will
has
make
our
in
been
the
have
the
with
dealing
mentioned
of
science
with
is
The
respect
the
to
quite clear,illustrate
expression according to the two
of
wave-length
be
microscopist,
tenth-metre.
shown
the
written
eight
by
line in the
spectrum.
approximately
hundred
and
4862,1
as
sixty-two
tenth-
486*2 double
as
double
two
reader
the
the
for
almost
now
meaning
of
readily understood
change
the
branch
this
Germany it would
appear
and
eighty-six decimal
in
hundred
be
units
thousand
four
is
it is the
England
it would
country
measuring
metres,
the
for
unit
difference
Take
standards.
in
these
the
moment
micron
measurement
the
might, to
we
269
mu,
of
unit
Germany
in
MEASURES
already, the
universally adopted
but
OF
mu,
This
mu.
the
remembering
point between
the
two
standards.
what
Although
follows
into
terms
convenience
of
by dividing
convenient
be
inch
been
already
at
able
once
vice
or
to
stated
to
tenth-metres, would
52,241
and
to
waves
forty-one;
tenth-metres
become
"
the inch
nine-figured quantity
same
in
measurement
written
the
of the
in terms
expressed
in
of
above-mentioned
conversion
way
"
being
divided
and
may
be
is
parts into
sometimes
Decimal
required ;
*
How
the
one
carried
hence
these
millimetre
convenient
portions of
of
the
the
exact
to
in
out
use
the
two
obtained
inch
"
hundred
in terms
of
of
the
inch, the
by
the
quantity
of
proceeding
similar
conversion
or
when
Fraunhoffer
4862-23.
figuresare
the
is shown
for
manner.
of the
vice versa,
it
following tables,even
added
are
wave-length
for
micron
or
tenth-metre
light in
express
those
done
the
When
mut
times
tenth-metres.
of
nine-figuredquantity, the
either
"
inch, when
double
to
in
be
must
tenth-metres.
terms
desired
written
measurement
in
thousand
i.e.fifty-two
if it be
vice versa,
"
in
tenth-metres
in terms
expressed
at
readily be
can
54,000,000
that
convert
This
versa.
elsewhere
repeat
by the expression
4862, the approximate length of the waves
Thus
as
be
to
the
has
in the Addenda.
great exactitude
line in the
OF
CONVERSION
2;o
if
only
be
made
check
as
that
conversion
any
upon
MEASURES
might otherwise
TABLE
CONVERSION
FOR
BRITISH
OF
METRIC
AND
MEASURES
inch
p.
1
2
'000039
'000079
-000118
3=
'000157
io(icm.)=
'000197
20
"000276
'000315
4=
'000236
6=
7
8
-000354
'000394
20
'000787
30
9
10
'ooi
50
60
'039370
"078741
'196852
'787409
'393704
Example.
in inches
=1-968522
50
loo
-001575
40=
j^
decimetre
p.
-000787
.QOOQ39
'002362
^""8^
'003937
looo
i"mm.
tenth-metre
double
micron
mu
25O
millionth
=a
25
millionth
=a
25
thousandth
MICRONS
INTO
ins
inch
AND
of
an
inch
"
"
"
MILLIMETRES
-028222
n.
irfcnr
I 'Oi-
si,v
nkns
1-269989
,J0
-031750
-050800
'253998
,'u
2-53
millimetre
centimetre
decimetre
2-539977
3-17..
5 '"799 5 4
(usually written
'":,
time
/i)
.-trc
iinetrc
""
2-822197
25'39v
micron
nearly.
"
^318
equivalent
p. ?
21
-003150
100
is the
What
"
to
20
'001969
80=
IN"
inch
mm.
l"1,5jmillimetre
,
"
*r
,'".-,
metre
5'"79954
9-5-4915
=
'00003937
inch.
"03937
"
metre
,.',,,
'3937O
"
J6 metre
3 '93704
"
272
XIII
CHAPTER
THE
DIFFERENT
FOR
THE
the
selection
of
different
suitable
classes
of
SUITABLE
PURPOSES
they
objectivesdepends
and
stand
for which
specialpurpose
The
OBJECTIVES
AND
MICROSCOPE
are
subject
intended
to
be
therefore
will
upon
employed.
be
treated
seriatim.
Botany,
For
these
and
as
an
purposes
Instrument
the
Fig. 155.-
for
the
simplest type
llimmlcr's
Stand.
of
Textile
stand
Trade
is all that
MICROSCOPES
LOW-POWER
is
required.
preferablyof
if the
well
A
the
not
coarse
powers,
do
"handy
needed
are
seeing the objectives
really
The
be
mirror
provided
"
Bausch
should
with
cap
as
above
have
of
Lomb's
Stand
i-in.,but
draw-tube
his
with
is
2-in.,ij-in.and
only
especiallywhen
cf coarse
adjustment
The
provided
will
rack
Fig. 156."
low
be
adjustment should
form, but the sliding tube
good
microscopist
adjustment is
273
takes
hands."
fine
all very
A.
it is not
to
place of
the
very
be
a
despised,
rack
form
stated.
concave
opal glass
and
that
flat surface
can
take
the
and
also
place
18
of
MICROSCOPES
LOW-POWER
274
l.'s No.
the
silver
the
when
1
surface
li^ht
Occasionally
chapter
devoted
needed.
when
it is u^cd
"
to
be
too
obtain
1124
Stand.
usually employed1
softening
powerful and wants
This
is
polarised 1
/.ion.
icd
in
the
MICROSCOPES
LOW-POWER
; but
down
botanists
some
between
the
instead.
The
tint film
preferto
now
instrument
studies,indeed
at
times
need
rather
Reichert's
more
not
No.
96
under
have
so
little
joint,as
by
Messrs.
whilst
Bausch
one
"
of
Lomb,
much
shown
the
in
an
textile
and
Stand.
than
an
inclined
examination,
specimens, temporarily under
(Fig. 155) used to make
stage. Otto Himmler
stand,
stances
circum-
these
it prevents
off the
neutral
Kodak
for botanical
convenient
Fig. 158."
mirror
and
illuminant
use
275
same
design
is
one,
for
slipping
cheap
provided
a
A.
LOW-POWER
2/6
R.
Messrs.
model
addition.
in
J. Beck
supply
form
"
MICROSCOPES
their
"London"
for
slightlyhigher
little
fine one,
production,
rackwork
no
by which
and
reminds
has
to
the
It is
cheap
fine adjustment
sell
to
perfect
more
firm
very
microscope can
an
required. It was
of the
one
type
adjustment,
coarse
the
means
when
powers
and
Stand.
1124
(non-inclinable)that has
has
No.
Microscope,and
Reichert
but
different
be used
excellent
original Oberhauser
model.
Those
who
desire
modest
I59-
to
with
one.
of stand, but
liaker's Plantation
that is easy
one
Alicroscope.
carry
the
"
form
for
suitable
and
(Fig. 159).
supply cheap
manufacturers
other
Most
stands
that
are
equally
efficacious.
objectivesrequired by
The
Textile
1.1-in., and
ck
need
Trade
a
make
i
a
-in.
not
arc
scries
be
that
this
Botany and
finest quality,and
student
of the very
all
of
the
is
in
necessary.
description,and
Messrs.
so
do
for the
a
2-in.,
R.
"
Messrs.
"
desired,
most
its
diameter, whilst
for
serviceable
found,
used
like
rotating it
ring
"
to
with
ocular
I,
when
used
with
the
If 'the work
furnishes
This
with,
in
is shown
former
I, Plate
forms
screen
no
inch
of
the
valuable
for
one
such
is
the
the
or
with
highest
that
a
by
pensating
com-
the
photographing
the
excellence
can
be
any
deterioration
of
employed
definition.
and
Pharmacy,
For
these
For
class of
instrument, for he
half-inch
or
even
Teacher's
Dairy
student
must
required, but
photographed
Abbe
An
with
more
employ
to
expect
Microscope
rather
requiresa
quarter-inch.
is also
too
frontispiecewas
The
as
the
purposes
of condenser
1
is 33
XVI.
of
limit
performance by
to
to
the
used
compensating ocular
objective that any
raise the magnification without
producing
the
magnifying
Zeiss
by
when
required,3and
is
Zeiss
objective produced
demands
upon
image
Fig.
the
and
years.
the
8, whilst
apochromatic
illustration
arrangement
as
the
An
ocular.
green
have
we
magnification being, of
ring in conjunction with
sold by Koristka
of Milan.
engaged
excellent
an
in.
exceedingly
Beck
for
caused
"
to
TV
by simply turning
This
It is also
is
student
of
use
intervening powers.
of
oculars
the
by
i^-in.of
that
is
suitably deep
the
5, intermediate
ocular
obtained
with
double.
about
The
0*24
it
great satisfaction
us
magnificationof
makes
\-~\
whilst
are
flat field,about
objectivecollar
an
N.A.
mm.
very
combination
increased
be
power
course,
given
useful
24
35-mm.
have
make
to
if used
combination,
useful
are
great aperture
Zeiss
Wray
of
2-in
such
photography
The
has
it
as
277
perfect combinations
equally excellent.
more
objective
Holoscopic
lens,
favourite
If
productions
opticians'
wide-angled
screen.1
others.
Sons, and
Watson
MICROSCOPES
DAIRY
AND
PHARMACY
this
objectives up
(chromatic)type
modified
elaborate
form
objective and
of
two
non-
green
screens.
8
This
It
photography,
owing
3
to
the
piece
increases
believe, unobtainable
objectiveis,we
the
still the
focal
under-correction
length being
of green-pot
contrast.
glass,
was
necessary
hand).
(except perhaps secondoriginallydesigned for
was
scarcely noticeable
great.
so
or
now
it
66, 56, or
61
green
Kodak
film
often
stands
in
most
made
are
list is not
the
course
DAIRY
AND
PHARMACY
278
particularlyconvenient
fulfilall his
requirements.
following firms, although of
cases
the
by
to
meant
MICROSCOPES
variety
be of
is
to
exhaustive
an
be
found
in
nature.
in
Fig. 160;
Fi".
the
model
superior
161.
'"^ical Microscope.
'ill is a!
with
by
the
swinging
In
"\vn
by
I.cit
firm.
same
make
useful
be
supplied
to
ngly
can
in 1
"
.62.
They
This
piece of apparatus,
and
quite equal
solid
is
cding.
it
old
by
more
Mc"srs.
elaborate
\Vatson
and
"
very
Sons, and
it
can
stand
be
the
supplied
28o
Fig. 163.-Watson's
"
Kram."
281
Fig. 164."
Zeiss's Stand
V.A.
PHARMACY
282
AND
DAIRY
MICROSCOPES
the latest
exceedingly useful type (Fig. 164). Constructed
upon
easilyheld in the hand for carrying about.
(1905) lines,it is most
The
specimens
objectives for the study of Pharmaceutical
be
should
used
; but
The
inch
really good
for
the
opticians,but
"
We
Sons.
in
have
if
Indeed,
treated
this
lens
down
the
employed
with
difference
any
and
manner,
have
by Swift, and we
the same
tests
applied
the
by Watson
absolutely cruel
an
but
image,
have
we
the
it
image
much
it
to
pleasure
the
to
as
break
and
the
most
unfair
conditions, which
Reichert
used
make
to
in
image,
desperation
objective(a
of
matics, which,
called
be
this
little over
sixth with
desires
pharmaceutical student
by
the
finest in
the
Holoscopic of
the
have
and
worth
performance
failed,and
opticians,as
1
\\Y
than
h.ive
equalled by
separately or
*
found
Those
better
who
that
the
the
turn
in
was
opinion
our
lenses
the
by
for
every
it
en
afforded
was
tried
Watson
guish
distin-
to
artifice
possible,
screens,
66, 56,
peting
com-
produce
is
recommended
and
of
one
the
labours, should
.ulassformerly
"
lens,if the
congratulation that
of their
See
have
We
length.
"-n
appreciatethe meaning
finest excellence,
amplificationthan
matter
t:
to
should
more
outcome
three
nomenclature,
adjustment
these
it is
conjointly.
will
of
first-rate
achro-
same
without
collar
as
an
in
absolutelyirreproachable
were
buying,
market,
the
was
low-power
of the very
them
produced by
magnification
to make
Zeiss's
modern
scmi-apochromats,"were
"
respect. Their
evety
with
pace
the extra
also used
all of
focus, and
keep
to
the images
and
Lcitz
be serviceable.2
times
combination
effects,and
in black-dot
just
perhaps
save
of sheer
out
an
have
we
as
a
seventh, which
quarter),called the 7#, usually
exceptionallyfine lens, especially for colour correction
at
that
listed
might
tinguish
dis-
to
produces
Holoscopic
down
to
loss of blackness
way
failed.
screen,1 it is hard
failed
tried.
were
in
we
mentioned,
rarely required.
series
Holoscopic
green
between
made
under
the
is
the
by
furnished
same
of
to
endeavour
our
is that
break
are
finest achromatic
examine
lot to
our
last mentioned
two-thirds
the
and
the
work
dairy
inch, 2, J, and
an
ones,
61,
more
used
chapter
of this
rei;
upon
the
"Testing
of
Lenses"
will
distance, which
is
provided with
being
used
which
is
The
magnificent results.
such
Berlin
(6A), was
the
If
desires
half-inch
the
Zeiss, but
it should
long tube,
so
of
form
Continental
the
extremely
useful.
Of
and
are
Zeiss
and
The
The
Brewer
needs
as
that
demanded
shortly),because
the
than
a
for
If he
that
the
former.
latter
uses
his
example,
good one ; such,
We
pharmaceutical purposes.
small
Lomb's
model
BB
Watson,
instrument
the
as
of
bacteria.
dealt
much
best
with
more
must
employed
following :
the
recommend
of
use
Microscope
very
in
fine instrument
be
so
the
to
book).
of the
subject
are
perform
purchase such
bacteriologist(to
for
The
reference
need
the
only
Koristka
by
itself to the
the
the
sixth
third
end
lend
into
carried
by
and
Zeiss
the
the
with
employ
to
third
the
at
for
recommended
elect
will
are
of
Himmler
by
the transformer
or
stand
think, however, he
not
studies
of
made
employed
Microscope
We
do
be
Brewer's
his
long,
particularly
very
twelfth, as
be
only made
are
must
(see Plates
indistinguishable
manner
be
both
by
the
the
combinations
these
is
objective
on
also
times
tube, the
short
excellent
most
sixth, those
to
(see Index).
for
Watson
instrument;
Heurck
by Dr. van
apochromats
the
as
and
deserving
lengthening adapter
working-
of the
should
pre-war
recollected
be
but
instrument
another
in
combination
student
recommend
and
made
semi-apochromat,
little extra
admits
Mention
by Koristka,
sixth
that
short-tube
the
on
has
283
sometimes,
adjustment
great convenience.
good
fine
well
Zeiss
advantage
an
collar
as
MICROSCOPE
BREWER'S
THE
of R. "
and
Bausch
J. Beck
1129
Baker's
model, and one
special Brewer's
No.
stand,
all of
which
respect
to
student
suit
arranged
are
almost
exclusively
for
"
by
the
purpose.
With
add
twelfth.
combinations
twelfth
purposes
will
be
objectives,those
the
brewer,
We
have
but
details
found
required by
but
the
already spoken
in
concerning
the
article
(Bacteriological section),and
student
of the
the
the
will
ceutical
pharmahave
to
first-mentioned
semi-apochromatic
devoted
those
to
medical
relating to
the
apochromatic
eighth
for
seem
Medical
has
in Medicine
student
critical work.
quite so
not
good
to
the instrument
use
that
as
have
we
of advanced
student
Pharmaceutical
might
Purposes
We
not
reason,
For
The
to
some
ninth
even
or
in that devoted
2-mm.
that
mention
MICROSCOPE
MEDICAL
THE
284
for
first
the
is
Biology,
two
required,one
for the
recommended
; but
type
his career,
The
we
are
about
now
consider.
to
Bacteriological stands
should
together
considered
be
"
"
have
for
"
they
may
very
needed
by the
larger than
what
be called
microscope. Seeing it has to accommodate
may
should
the mostly used size of Petrie dish, its dimensions
never
and
six inches
be less than
be of greater
larger would
square,
convenience
still. It is a subject of regret that manufacturers
in
fact
far
do
not
grasp
attention
this
it,for in
to
the stages
now
for
large
so
the
body
fine
the
of
far too
are
stage
to
this
we
to
our
has
knowledge
that
Since
been
made
greatlyincreased
some
in the
mechanical
of the
details
under
is
stood
readily undergrasped it becomes
taken
speak of has not been hastilyunderto
to
the cost
and
thought
particularlycall attention
are
reconstruction
it adds
considerable
We
alteration
; and
When
very
consequent
adjustment
arrangements.
small.1
a
we
of the stands
some
it demands
trouble, as
from
necessity,and
this
of the
trouble
matter,
in this direction,many
the size of the stage.
was
and
arrange.
We
to
because
students, those
of this work
instrument
who
it has
come
happen
published,considerable
opticianshaving in recent
not
advance
models
be
to
possessed
manufacturers
have
been
mechanical
of
"just
alter
to
somewhat
Baker's
possiblybe
such
could not
The
is obvious
difficulty
the
stands
which
order.
We
when
believe
we
Bacteriologist are
done
several
commence
285
their
"
annoyed
D.P.H."
with
what
are
in
with
take
to
stage
surprisedand
Fig. 165."
The
MICROSCOPE
BACTERIOLOGICAL
THE
at
dish,"
Microscope.
their instruments
we
Petrie
the
have
stated
suitable
number
that
"
for
in
question
is understood.
the
arranged
by C. Baker
purpose
in
of
betical
alpha-
(Fig. 165),
D.P.H."
called
the
useful
model,
Messrs.
agents
"
and
Microscope,
one
Bausch
"
Messrs.
A.
Fig.
166."
is also
Messrs.
and
K.
improved
^cnt
"
model
with
unstained
the
stage and
is
Lomb's
"
thoroughly sound
and
C.A."
Microscope.
have
of their
It
"
of.
has
provided
specimens.
the
is
has
Bausch
spoken
J. Beck
Model."
ebonite) which
(Fig. 16;
well
which
MICROSCOPE
BACTERIOLOGICAL
THE
286
"
with
London
stage
a
is
introduced
new
microscope, called
the
(surfaced
with
in.
4x4
Additional
base, which
"
is allowed
space
certainly
great
Ol
between
convenience
288
THE
excellent
for
BACTERIOLOGICAL
type,
we
bacteriological laboratories
numerous
vulcanite
stage
Stativo
modcllo
"
believe
MICROSCOPE
of
large
dimensions
grandc I."
abroad,
(Fig. 168). It
having
is
called
289
Fig. 169.
"
"
Dolken's
Microscope.'
2QO
:"."
Reic
THE
The
had
to
admit
as
firm
well-known
which
of
"
has
Dolken's
given
for
which
stage
by 95
90
which
in
Swift
Messrs.
It is shown
name.
represented
could
be
in America
after
It has
I IB
"
in
Model,"
with
fine
very
; it is named
selected
for the
fame, from
The
Fig. 172.
sell
No.
"
specialbacteriologicalstand
was
Antarctic
swing-out
large stage.
laboratory
which
it takes
its
substage arrangement
exceedingly primitive,but
is
added
there
is
as
doubt
no
it
to.
Watson
Messrs.
his
construct
ship Discovery,of
the
called
excellence, which
of considerable
of
Sons
was
mm.
Fig. 171.
"
ticular
par-
war.
was
sought
this
model
This
designed.
is much
shown
40," and
and
sections.
believe
We
(Fig. 169).
was
instrument
an
substage condenser,
The
Spencer Lens
stand
it
the
brain
satisfaction,especiallyfor the
great
very
furnished
vulcanite
supply a specialmodel
so
peculiarlyconstructed
to
size
Microscope"
improved before
Reichert
used
291
purposes
further
Leitz
of
stage of considerable
It is called
stand
MICROSCOPE
BACTERIOLOGICAL
"
Sons'
Students'
Model," a
Edinburgh
well-known
their
instrument, still enjoys a great fame, and
does
taken
its place
not
to have
seem
recentlydesigned "Bactil"
in the
size of the top plate of
manner
some
anticipated. The
the stage is approximately 3" in. square
and
is covered
with
vulcanite.
introduced
Everything is
rigidity(Fig. 173).
and
Zeiss's
Carl
excellent
"
being
one,
fault with
no
hold
take
Model
this
of.
firm's
the
in existence
best
It
seems
amongst
wanted
is
being
the
of
new
entirelynovel
fine adjustment,
of
the
slides of the
in
their
which
is
know
of
unpleasant
so
as
to
model,
1905
construction
form,
to
perhaps
acetic
stage,
seriouslyinjured unless
difference
considerable
whether
to
work
everyday
or
it is
most
was
of
one
(Fig. 174).
matter
hydrochloric
that
save
an
not.
or
objectionablebecause, if,when
as
steadiness
We
stand.
entirelyremedied
bacteriologistsas
for
produce great
useful
practicaland
arrangement
contains
to
This
which, besides
"
using
acids"
Some
upon
that
chemicals
the
fluid
is
it
"
runs
such
screws,
which
is
stage
think
corrosive
of
opinion
mechanical
finelymade
immediately cleaned,
or
the
any
of
is
such
into
are
nuisance
Fig
171."
The
Spencer
Lens
"
"
292
\
.
40."
293
Fig.
172."
Swift
"
Son's
"Discovery"
Microscope.
204
Fig
1 73."
Watson
"
Sons'
"Edinburgh Student*
Model.'
and
Others
such
care
however,
of
take
to
seem
work
everyday
the
are
should
accidents
always
of
forms
numerous
hand
third
class,
position,consideringthat
mechanical
at
happen.
never
intermediate
an
nothing
be
facilities should
of
WORK
standing
exactly opposite opinion, notwiththe objectionsjust mentioned, holding that with reasonable
hindrance.
for
MEDICAL
FOR
OBJECTIVES
296
is
required, but
place
to
that
the stage
upon
auxiliary mechanical
one
contrivances
the
advantages derivable
already described, so as to obtain
for
when
therefrom
absolutely necessary
example, in
; as,
count,"
blood
"
making
seriatim
through
when
made
for the
their
should
built
into
the
and
registerwith
may
work,
rapid
and
becoming more
the heavy work
37-4I-)
pages
use
we
medium
it is
the
place
in
are,
and
an
when
thirds,and
but
some
we
no
a
ought
best, unless
more
to
sixth
than
to
instances
remind
it is
be
verniers
continue
dis-
continued
their
positionsobtained
month
as
the
fact,to
the
hence.
to
Besides,
recommend
them
increasing
they
"
"
shake
submitted
are
to
the
when
the
instrument
the finest is
is intended
say
about
mentioned
the student
actually
the
selection
in
the
for
usually desirable.
have
of
abruptly
we
of
the
are
; but
microscope,
bacteriological
of
pretty universally acknowledged one
photomicrographical use,
The
performance
desired
is the
speed
recommend
appreciably alter
such
way"
manifest
previous
be
little use,
hence
a
stage
is not
loss of
more
of
no
remarks
register by their
tube, and
of
construction
"
the
to
on
likely be
mechanical
they
After
of the
axis
very
in
particular specimens"
putting
the
when
"
recommendation.
our
taking off
regularly
use
especiallyto
more
little to
leaving
microscope
positions in
important
As
not
purposes
proposed for
stage
hunt
to
the
in
are
for hard
be
kinds
We
they
their
different
the
overlooked.
when
to-day
of
occasional
for these
required
an
speaking
be
it may
specimen.
recommending
In
when
or
twelfth
is
no
object.
inch, two-
an
preceding
it is very useful
essential" to have
an
inch
"
sections
indeed
in
additional
FOR
OBJECTIVES
sixth,
this
WORK
employing
haemocytometer
the
not
Since
cause.
first edition
the
of
other
with
apparatus
often
do
book,
this
before
especiallylong working-distance have come
entirely for the purpose
being designed almost
is
by
Messrs.
by
the
Watson
has
combinations
with
; hence
obtains
either
useful
quite sufficient
purpose
do
for
This
excellent
resolving
very
counterbalance
but
to
by
direct
about
measurement,
true
these
although
"
mention
we
it
in pre-war
times
"
"
and
double
"
No. 6B."
corpuscles called
combination
of decidedly superior
of the
two
previously mentioned,
either
to
power
both
higher prices
at
blood
counting
of these
objectivesto compete
sold
made
other
ordinarily
of
but
"
these
the
inconvenience
or
small, it is
question
others
Reichert
focal-lengthsixth
is
in
with
greater aperture.
question.
which
aperture
is
intend
not
resolution
of
powers
with
makers
the
because
for the
lenses
notice,
in
millimetre, which
that
numerical
possibly occur.
remarkably cheap and
sixths
our
Each
accident
objective no
The
should
in
of
working-distance
be
may
"
occur
two
Lens
Spencer
the
purposes,
the
and
focus
of
One
make
microscopist
cannot
for
blood
from
It is for
to
the
blood-count, it
297
long working-distance.
extra
an
When
reason.
has
has
that
one
MEDICAL
find
working-distance is,we
'6 to
which
mm.,
cannot
we
in hand.
help thinking is rather too small for the specialpurpose
differs from
It is only fair,however, to add
Reichert
that Herr
in this opinion, considering it meets
the requirements of all
us
quite effectively.
cases
Lastly, it
dark-ground
the
and
use
study
to
illumination
substage
reflecting
new
to
is necessary
of
high
bacteria
add, owing
(by
condenser
that
powers,
in
the
their
to
the
construction
of
recent
and
and
numerical
high
those
extension
recent
who
wish
as
apochromatic
to
render
sixth
it very
to
their
objectionableto
use.
the
equivalent)
to
investigate
living state,
an
of
use
of
must
add
perhaps
especially
produces
spectrum
FOR
OBJECTIVES
298
MEDICAL
WORK
be considered
that for
true
as
regards the twelfth, it may
of the
the general use
laboratory the microscope is mostly
ments
employed to distinguish differences of form rather than refineAs
that
really a
conditions.
working
what
bacteriological laboratory
the
in
seen
ever
the
aperture
nominally
the
escaped
implies, of course,
of the objective be that
it
1*40,
or
ro.1
attention
of
We
some
fear
high numerical
their
working
N.A.
from
much
N.A.
at
i'2
1*30 to
1*40, and
rectifythan
less to
fact
have
may
dwelt
objectivesof N.A.
the
whether
use,
microscope, who,
in
the
upon
1-33 because
that accidents
with
matter
no
dry condenser
thought, have
much
so
is in
this
of the
users
aperture
are
that
its normal
that
with
only works
of laxity of
passing moment
advisabilityof having immersion
of
under
This
N.A.
at
very
the
to
latter,we
former
cost
so
help thinking
cannot
however, structural
When,
formations
under
are
the
sideration
con-
when
the highest resolution
and
professors,and
likely the highest magnification possible are sought after
of
very
utilityof
the
steps in.
We
In
may
be
able
to
have
at
remarks
variance
with
judge.
to
used
type.
be
is cut
usually at about
when
this
reader's
The
and
Abuse
we
so
feel bound
attention
of the
is
suggestions
our
agreeing
actual
down,
appeal.
by those doubtless
whilst
in
of
with
practice
be
it is true,
N.A.
by
ro,1
what
we
more
purchased,
the
that
better
it is
condenser, provided
To
held
real
condenser
court
semi-apochromatic should
of the
reallywork
as
1*35
the
out
oiled
the
fully aware
example,
combination
full aperture
at
to the
"Use
for
Some,
that it should
with
using
point
to
be used
are
the ideas
although the
we
economical
and
that it should
mean
these
making
venture
we
apochromatic
2-mm.
of
details,then, instead
semi-apochromatic,
1*40
or
of certain
and
dry
it
that,
denser,
con-
such
to
illuminator
demur.
be
It may
be
can
slip
of the immersion
be
advisable
to
WORK
MEDICAL
FOR
OBJECTIVES
299
do, and
would
i -20
its full
moment
to
working
hastily arrived
film
screens,
by
performance
experienced
It
of
the
the
with
desirable
times
similar
powers
of
of
absorbing
colour
one
might
Further, it has
they
have
that
opinion
after use (as
the
us
But
the
in
water
very
fatal
its
of
the
water
is
only
of the
draw-tube
once
"
1*33,
that
(or
collar
the
of
nuisance
and
has
cover-glasshaving
There
fallen
they need
the
has
cover
in
both
in thickness
definition
for
their
apparent
1*5, and
be
must
be
the
in
the
the
the
altered),for
objective
required.
and
cover
cedar
same
cause
that
length
This
one
circumstances) with
because
of
stain),or
objective before
Seeing the refractive
daily work,
approximately
with
wiping
no
any
effected
performance
hindrance
in
become
which
unusual
differences
is another
with
seeing
water
be
to
leading.
mis-
ordinary
inducement
adjustment
required (save
very
homogeneous immersion, simply
effect in the
of
suffice for
leaving
it is this.
alteration
an
all
light
case
possibly
under
small
without
considerable
adoption, and
by their selective.
have
to
objection,however,
differentthickness
employed
dries
done
immersions,
water
confess
practicalapplication
index
every
that
of i'2O, should
must
be
the
is it at
stains,in which
one
recommending
at
We
distilled
the
staining, for
; neither
aperture
specimens either, a
adoption.
to
at
mended
recom-
light,especially when
coloured
suggested
bacteriologicalwork.
colour
of
be differentiated
only
not
been
numerical
too
green
glass
always
kinds
monochromatic
different
be
this
can
suit every
employ
to
with
used
pot-green
different
many
will not
screen
green
But
disseverate.
certainly cannot
their
to
opinion
an
are
is
spectrum
allow
do
on/y tlien, we
be difficult,
to
save
objectives may
two
to
eye,
one
and
before, then,
us
the
F-line, or
Gifford's
the
mind
objectives
both
If
at.
for
brought
are
our
N.A.
or
of appeal is equal
secondary
the
to
no
think
to
court
corrections
possible,is
correction
highest
as
all
zonal
the
and
eliminated
aperture
but
agree
we
where
apochromatic
an
this
to
when
better
oil and
index
no
is
is
never
the
the
of refraction,
appreciable
of the
object.
objection to using
water
immersion.
It
300
OBJECTIVES
is this.
For
FOR
it has
years
many
MEDICAL
been
WORK
the
habit
in laboratories
to
it has the
because
refractive index
same
as
the
I f water
cover.
be
"
"
is
for
breed
to
as
certain
Hence
do
we
students, who
have
may
if not
of broken
is
"
certain
combination.
and, what
covers,
never
seen
microscope before
or
high power.
Swift
makes
twelfth
favourite, and
great
ment
instru-
daily routine
as
of this delicate
use
unfrequentlyhear
not
of the
use
of contempt,
amount
still,of crushed-in
worse
constant
pastime, but
tance
large working dis-
bacteriology,a
of carelessness, in the
amount
bacteriologicalpurposes.
apt
used
for
mistake
"
is
selecting a twelfth
In
very
is
immersion
water
with
long-working distance
their
Watson
"
new
which
"
Versalic
is
with
a
a
of '43 mm.,
having its front fixed by some
working distance
new
design to prevent it being easilypushed in. Combinations
"
Lomb, Baker, Beck,
by Koristka, Powell " Lealand, Bausch
all good lenses.
and
are
(parachromaticseries)
by Watson
All of these give good results,although varying somewhat
in
quality, but
most
at
with
the
green
as
the immersion
N.A.
ri
mention
Watson
so
those
as
result
finer
make
Watson's
binations
com-
Holos, which,
that
competes
with
apochromatic.
twelfth
with
which
by Messrs.
low
often
are
R.
numerical
"
of
J. Beck
was
aperture, such
use
by
and
in
ought
we
"
pre-war
reallyexcellent constructions.
bacteriologistscomplain of feeling considerable
moderate,
Some
an
thereabouts"
or
two,
"
manufacturers
same
: such
greater expense
illumination, furnishes
performance of
Of
of the
to
Messrs.
times
are
fatigue
specimens,
they have for long periods to examine
when
the
for
for example,
searching
or
as
presence
necessary,
absence
of bacilli tuberculosis in several specimens. The comfort
when
in the eye
of
using
suitable
monochromatic
screen
is
not
so
generally
FOR
OBJECTIVES
known
is either the
film
green
of which
glass
it should
fullyappreciated as
or
MEDICAL
we
field
the
afford very
contrast-screens
to
his eye
use
much
case
of bacteria
are
not
of
stained
with
An
the
in
washing well
(aqueous) of
allowed
If the
in
water,
it
for
say
the
Should
dry.
to
may
be
it should
formalin
five minutes
and
then
fainter.
To
meet
the
aurantia
made
with
with
gelatine plate
such
of
is
of
the
In
specimens
of
its
great
stained
with
to
place
an
box
into
an
hyposulphite of
soda
half
an
film
uppermost.
hour, into
by Canada
of his lamp
heat
of
formalin
This
dried.
it
difficulty
(of
after
solution
Left
more
gelatine very much
solution,and
consequently the
is best
and
in
screen
rest
this
use
melt
a
this
solution
for
about
much
solution
of the
will
which
the
of
dried.
the colour
water,
is
in
water)
make
to
and
is apt to
to
will
than
balsam
and
may
wine
the
after
fatigue.
spiritsof
observer
contrast-screen
(equal parts
the
these
next
united
screen
of
until
dark-room)
both
enable
example,
a
strength
any
makes
easily detected,
less
of
way
of
colour, two
Here
by using
pot-green
for
"
the
; whilst
much
know
we
of these
very
green
red
dye mentioned,
night, it is rinsed the
all
and
with
best
Either
preparing
side-plate straight out
solution
aqueous
deep
of
easy
lantern
ordinary
solution
not
are
is formed
aurantia.
course
and
use
quite so much
methylene blue.
convenience
and
that
The
and
great relief,
longer
301
Ltd., or
already spoken.
red-stained
be.
by Kodak,
screen
have
WORK
stain
simple aqueous
deeper colour
Some
lamp
for
Too
ordinary
work.
substitute,we
have
elsewhere
stated,
make
candle-power Zig-zag lamp of Steam's
of the filament)with
an
(because of his peculiar arrangement
intervening slip of ground glass, or the globe of the lamp
the ordinary oilitself
laboratories
sand
frosted.
Some
use
lamp, whilst others prefer an incandescent
gas-lamp to all other
is to
the
use
"
"
The
32
green
screens
glass, sold
by
with
is called
what
Baker
are
or
called
Watson,
of
"Signal Green,"
special green
No.
which
is different.
not
be confused
opinion, to their
our
The
remarks
concerning
both
them
student, and
from
them
saving
from
The
of
this
of
the
the
found
instances
in
the
mention
have
been
few
until
which
thought
however,
have
only
the
few
in
instrument
one
taken
up
the
highly complicated
recently
of the
been
put
upon
In
modern.
more
to
state
hitherto
have
we
the
years
not
are
now,
several
subject of
recent
which
it desirable
than
the
to
in
hence
thought
details
more
vision,
embodied
have
the market.
we
experienced,
has
microscope
"
stands
this
commencing
more
which
late ; but
subject somewhat
warmly
and
beautifullyingenious
doing
or
microscope
cause.
manufacturers
We
the
double
petrologist
been
never
Several
alone.
the
Petrological Microscope
special requirements
have
objection,
properlyfocussing
those
to
manifest,and
particularapplicationof
petrology has been growing of
"
with
perusal by
diplopia
The
number
considerable,
commence
be of comfort
itself
arise
to
some
to
worthy
having
occasionally makes
by
about
well
even
may
offers
only
also, are
heat
use.
those
to
not
MICROSCOPE
their great
; but
illuminants
in
PETROLOGICAL
THE
302
in
several
mentioned
figures mostly
explain
themselves.
The
first is
by Messrs.
Bausch
"
of Rochester, X.V.
Lomb,
Garden,
London,
"
Base, horseshoe
Pillar,finished
form.
same
as
base.
stage-plate,having scales
circular,revolving, with vulcanite
at
right angles for the location of the specimen,
graduated in millimetres
circumference
graduated to 360",with vernier ; centringscrews.
spring clips,
of the complete substage,with rack and
pinion
Substage, a modification
Stage,
The
polariserand
analyser are
extra
large Nicol
of the
lens
condenser
adjustments.
modify the light.
The
polarisingprism is
be
carried
Leitz
of
was
in
model
hitherto
thrown
to
Fig. 176
for the
boldly contrived
than
which
of the
commonly
The
of
firm
takes
and
its draw-tube
are
handle
more
room
deny
the analyser with
its circle
cannot
we
"
hold
various
"
carried
measurements
Bertrand's
to
hitherto
coarse
any
was
ment
move-
adjustment lately
form
more
for
better
divided
out
This
by its
to
use
for
the
curtailment
purposes
of
the
Further, it affords
designed fittingto
360",enabling the
to
be
more
easily
effected.
efficiently
and
the
by
risking
large in diameter.
very
when
convenience
the
considerable
very
The
for
room
for the
of fine
type
the
massive
convenient
arrangements
new
in
with.
met
tube
the
tube, but
by the
devised
in the
is made
change
larger
shown
more
more
his latest
and
the
No
of
Hence
be carried about
without
microscope can
injury to, or straining of, the fine adjustment as
in the former
likelyto occur
type of stand.
which
is used
microscope
much
be
may
so
when
previous instruments.
itself affords
arch
the
moreover
tube,
instrument
instrument
an
portion affords
upper
polariser
the
requirements for
purpose.
Dr.
Lincio
of his
any
manipulation of specimens
size,and
by
disturbing
in the main
the
the
many
speciallydesigned of
solid character
and
the
demand
believe
we
been
has
"
side when
one
opinion that
constructed
suggested
"
below
slidingprism box
opticalaxis of
perfectpetrological
microscope
size than
side without
one
is mounted
into the
thrown
polarisedlightis desired,or
in ordinary work.
Herr
to
iris diaphragm
An
MICROSCOPE
instantlythrown
be
can
of the
any
to
PETROLOGICAL
THE
304
same
be
in
See
219,
page
The
nosepicce, of
centring adjustments
The
the
very
the
\\hen
to hold
required
footnote.
solid
usual
universal
thread.
has
and
305
176"
Leitz.
20
PETROLOGICAL
THE
3o6
movements
present, and
are
attached
are
MICROSCOPE
different
to
verniers, divided
parts of the
millimetres,
into
instrument
so
the
form, but
that
be
can
made
to
as
so
screw,
of
to
operator
object during
an
We
measurements.
adjustments for
the
of
pleasure with
obtaining the
the
usual
the
stage
endless
an
ment
adjust-
exact
any
have
in
mentioned.
placed beneath
itself at
engage
assist the
is
record
to
as
been
not
able
find
to
which
substage condenser,
that
there
hope
we
are
be
can
easily added.
Swift
illustrated
logicalstand
the
This
attention
to their petropaid much
has been
built after
Fig. 177, which
"
in
B. Dick.
differs from
instrument
structed
petrolo^ical microscopes hitherto conWhen
of the object is required,
in having a fixed stage.
revolution
the same
effectis produced by revolving both prisms and eyepiece en bloc
The
the objectwhich
instead.
turn
on
spider lines in the eyepiece therefore
in posiremains
stationary,so that the most minute specimen is maintained
tion
entire
and
hence
the
the
rotation,
during
necessityfor delicate centring
of revolution
is altogether
ensure
to
accurate
concentricity
adjustments
circle rotates
A divided
obviated.
simultaneously with the prisms.
and
the polariser,
in the
A converging lens is fitted over
another, mounted
be combined
with it when
slide A, can
is required,
greater
convergence
the
horizontal
slides
H
of
in
the
tube
G
and
two
are
optic
microscope, each
of which
for
is furnished
with
most
lens
and
clear
The
aperture.
the
is divided
stage
to
millimetres
in both
directions
G, is
one,
upper
Both
is for
The
lower
one,
have
H,
ments
adjust-
for
recording the
tion
micrometer, undula-
it
G, and
can
also
analysing prism
out).
readily thrown
An
observation
the
one
the
fitted
be used
can
For
analyser
over
the
be
in
holder
fitted
eyepiece not
who
the
require
\oukl
being
stage.
the
below
mounted
those
on
to
be
suitable
slide
(which
photograph
of considerable
for the
purpose.
slides
can
be
under
advantage
Fig.
177.
"
(Mr.
Allan
Dick's
Design.)
308
i;S.
Sons'
Advanced
Slancl
Pctrological
MICROSCOPES
METALLURGICAL
309
"
they call
of the
The
bar
to
various
the
arranged, and
most
critical
stage
is
carry
contrivances
users
are
circular
brass
object.
the
vertical directions.
this instrument
In
of
constructed
petrologicalstand
overlooked.
be
not
advanced
an
have
Sons
"
Watson
Messrs.
to
finished
It is divided
dead
stage,
as
requirements
after.
black, having
millimetres
to
mechanical
separate
the
meet
carefullylooked
one,
what
late years
sliding
in horizontal
figured,with
and
divisions,
be attached
at once
giving a long range of motion, is included,and can
the
divided
The
circumferential
is
of
when
to degrees,
edge
stage
required.
is fitted reading to five minutes.
vernier
The
and
rotates
centrically
cona
stage
and
are
centring screws
provided for adjustment to
completely,
of different objectives.
the axes
The
be lifted
to focus,and
to centre, rack work
can
substage has screws
in it upon
in
when
aside with the apparatus contained
set
a
hinged joint;
of a clamping lever.
positionit is securely fixed by means
with
The
draw-tube
At the
actuated
one
by rackwork.
body is provided
and
end
lower
lens, etc.
it
of this tube
the. universal
At
end
the
analyser
an
lower
of the
is fitted to
thread
is
body
be
can
Klein's
carry
Bertrand's
instantlywithdrawn
above
when
not
required.
The
eyepiece is provided with cross
webs, and above it is fitted a rotating
circle divided
silver reading against a fixed bevelled
circle at the top
on
of the draw-tube, and
carrying an accurately adjusted analyser prism and
which
be
A
either separately or in combination.
used
calcsparplate,
may
polariserhaving a speciallylarge prism is included, the rotating circle of
silvered
is divided
which
a
on
being indicated
edge, each quarter-circle
A removable
by a spring catch.
condensing system of high angle is fitted
the prism for showing brushes
above
in crystals,
etc.
The
Microscope
for
Metallurgical Use
about
have
but
So
1878,
raised
an
much
by
followed
what
might
interestingstudy
is this the
case
and
Stead, Roberts-Austen,
have
into
been
an
called
and
exact
that within
in
the
olden
others,
days nothing
far-reachingscience.
last ten
years
consider-
METALLURGICAL
3io
able
of
has
skill
inventive
MICROSCOPES
been
brought
which
instrument
furnishing an
to
would
bear
upon
meet
the
the
subject
requirements
by the employment
the vertical illuminator, already described.
is itself
piece of apparatus
with.
end, it
Attached
to
receives
the
illuminant
by
one
or
nosepiece of
the
itself
is in
specimen)
be
not
adjustment
set
microscope
be
the
altogether different
of stand
and
tube
the
to
of
in build
lowered
raise
the
from
ment
instru-
the
be
of
construction
to
on
fidgety
the
of
use
cannot
made
the
(guarded
it is reflected
the
one
auxiliary
light exactly into
of
forbids
at
an
troublesome
order,
This
the
as
in
hole
Arranging
beams
deal
light from
small
little
to
microscope
(from which
touched.2
hence,
its side.
called
this very
other, the
through
the
is
arrangement
the
somewhat
once
it
have
to
specimen, arrangements
means
up to the objective,which
form
the
objective in
to throw
bull's-eyecondenser
this little hole just mentioned
the
But
troublesome
what
coarse
to
the
specimen
a
special
of which
any
we
the
that
so
lens
of
examination
the result
devised
is
shall
each
slices of
Other
pieces of material.
so
of
In
illuminator.
for the
back
by Martens
ten
some
have
is
that
be
to
also
made
of
to
seems
the
only
not
sensible-si/.ed
be
to
to
considered,
highly complicated.
ago
those
years
close
quite
metals, but
details
instrument
an
be
have
That
satisfied
of certain
faddists, and
requirement possiblesave
of technical
in a very
is used
indeed
large number
colleges.
have
constructed
Quite recently, however, Messrs. R. " J. Beck
the
Rosenhain
model, which is said to have improvements of
every
"
"
be ground so
Occasionally,for exceptionalreasons, platesof metal
may
certain
extremely thin as to transmit light" anyhow, through
parts" in which
case
they can be used on an ordinary instrument.
1
Messrs.
illuminator
"
Watson
which
Son's
meets
adjusted. It has a
bull's-eye.See page
this
have
difficultyof
self-contained
209.
recently made
electric
new
form
after
the
of
\"
light
focussing
bulb, a condensing lens, and
is
a
METALLURGICAL
screw
which
off.
teeth
from
edge
into which
the
of
a
the
key, which
with
slide by 0*005
micrometer
pinion Tr engages.
focussing screen
Is
"
Zeiss
bears
screw
(5 M)
mm-
This
of the
arm
when
is turned
the
by
scale, by
immediately read
of oblique
crest
in motion
set
of Hooke's
means
after Martens.
The
St.
micrometer
aside
divided
be
can
camera
rod
wooden
be
of
pinion
MetallurgicalMicroscope
joined to a removable
a
:
revolving arm
can
consists
screw
positionof the
Fig. 179.
moved
the
of
movements
The
of this micrometer
head
The
M.
MICROSCOPES
after
pinion
screw
easing
the
is
nected
con-
is to
be
screw
METALLURGICAL
MICROSCOPES
313
to be
to the
adjusted vertically
tions,held in positionby spring stage clips,
axis.
optical
The
to the tube,
illuminatingaccessories for reflected light are attached
and
the
action
rack
for
is
whose
pinion
focussing
preparation not required
for this
of illumination.
manner
vertical
With
of
illuminator
is
For
employed.
objectivesgiving
sufficient
object
is used, or a thin plane-glass,
distance, either a plane or a concave
inclined at 45" to the axis,is placed between
object and objectiveso as to
The
to the axis.
partiallyreflect upon the object the lightfallingvertically
low
mirror
plane
and
that
so
manner,
is
gimbal
The
end
upper
of
cylinder
at
by
is made
The
A
for
small
or
of the
The
It has
body
limb
which
cradle
to
to
it.
lower
movable
manner
vision
pro-
manner
mirrors.
the
as
object distance
to
and
limb
is
the
of
angle
and
provided
with
means
of
and
horizontal
which
base,
strain
no
horizontal
when
socket
the
is
down.
is almost
the
at
projection of
and
up
instrument
the
30",and
about
a
on
racks
stage
that
arranged
it rests
quite
on
front
so
Microscope
the
holding
an
visual
for
used
The
built
constitute
to
centre
support
when
joint fitting
Fig. 180, is
the
vertical
the
same
used, according
throughout,
positionfor photomicrography
forms
be
solid bracket
Besides, it is jointed on
from
exactly the
is also
this
In
slide-
mirror.
Metallurgical
designed
been
T-girder section
rigidlyattached, and
in balance
is to
in
seen
fittingupon
in
"Rosenhain"
has
of the
which
on
illuminated.
field to be
microscope, as
preceding.
opticalaxis"
clamping-screw.
movement
attached
are
This
the
by
extensive
plane glass
The
the
third
and
The
parallelto
very
plane glasses
large
extent
tube
the
is secured
and
direction
(Fig.Sp}.
by a clamping-screw at the
is verticallymovable
in a
stem
secured
by a second
clamping
This
illustration"
elevation.
usual
is secured
which
SI.
stem
in the
gimbal
in any
conveniently turned
rod,
in the
seen
to
on
hand
to
small
together in
mounted
are
be
can
joined
desired
any
screwed
they
the
not
"
screw
mirrors
concave
for
clamp
for
spiralrack
and
the
on
micrography
photo-
holding
bull's-eyes,etc.
The
lowering
raisingand
is
and
vertical,
horizontal.
is
to
is by
focussingadjustment
coarse
the
stage
further
for
in. when
is i" in.
fitting
distance
the
and
of
3!
in. when
instrument
fits
is at
the
a
of
pinion,
instrument
slightangle
broad
or
dovetail.
wide,
by
of a micrometer
which
screw
focussingadjustment is by means
it is claimed
situated in the opticaxis,immediately under the object,where
is not immediately apparent.
be of specialutility,
but for what
reason
The
The
fine
The
body
nosepiece
consists
for
of
very
thick
tube, at
with
means
the
lower
end
of
which
centringadjustments, by
is
which
Fig.
different
around
MICROSCOPES
METALLURGICAL
314
iSo.-R.
objectglasses
which
can
"
be
J.
Beck's
"
adjusted to
Rosenhain
the exact
"
Model.
axis
of
the
microscope
MICROSCOPES
METALLURGICAL
actuated
iris
diaphragm
nosepiece,by means
An
by
which
of
the
behind
aperture
object glass
the
the
behind
immediately
is fixed
lever
315
be
can
object glass
the
required. At the
is provided, so
glass
that
thread
when
using
in the
ordinary
low
very
can
also
thin
the
directions,an
amici
attached
these
be
by
provided
for
effect
and
provided
in the
arranged
that
axis, can
be
obtained
with
the
illumination
the
on
is in
object glasses
be
can
sated
compen-
and
pinions of
and
instrument,
the
is always concentric
used
are
for
in. of
designed
that, with
for
with
they
with
are
the
their
2-in.
so
optic
travel.
the
exception of
be removed, there is no
projectionto interfere
shadows
when
a very
oblique pencil of light is
stage
cast
or
of
motions
the
can
watching
placing
object in
the exact
optic axis of
the
body.
form
complete
when
adjustments
stage springs,which
the
the
complete rotation,which
of
The
angles
for
clamped
for
by spiralracks
directions,
in both
motions
Mechanical
and
of different
variation
any
be
may
rotation
of
centre
centring nosepiece
the
travel,are
different
at
The
required position.
instrument,
rotation,which
complete
illumination
of
by
or
power
way.
stage has
The
the
all
for
when
any
different
the
draw-tube
supplementary
in
into
simultaneously
for
glass screens
colours
illumination"
further
prism or bull's-eyefor
fittings.
the
coloured
object,also the
light of different
and
illuminatingwith
its
increasing
for
so
are
employed.
A
efficiency
same
the
fixes
on
and
movements
apparatus
stage
to the
stage
rotation
remains
bracket.
of the
level
The
stage, and
of the
whole
use
with
a
the
the
latter
instrument
standard
and
stage
is well
table
of the
partakes
while
itself,
is fixed
not
thought
objects
microscopes.
which
bridges
transparent
model
supplementary
microscope
possessed by
fixture,as
supplied
obtained
that
as
It fits above
it over
is
attachment
transparent
with the
the
to the
out
mechanical
illuminating
stage but
and
to
the
finished.
similar
Quite
forms, the
for
use
in
different
first
This
appears
class of
to
Microscope designed
and
instrument
being designed by
workshops,
be
the
for the
other
Royal
very
useful
is made
Mr.
a
addition.
by
Swift
in two
Arsenal,
Woolwich.
METALLURGICAL
The
first
where
laid
on
round
MICROSCOPES
l8l.
"
Swift
"
Son's
Compou
Metallurgical
Microscope.
forging
inside
be
the
or
tube
lowered
stand
metal
under
the foot or
casting, upon which
slides
the
glass
carrying
object
to
is
sufficient distance.
rigidlyheld
examination.
in any
When
fork
within
of
rests.
the
To
outer
effect
this,an
barrel, and
wire
can
a
By means
simple
strap
rope
position required on the massive piece of
in focus the positionof the barrel is fixed
317
"
Son's New
Microscope.
Compound Metallurgical
METALLURGICAL
318
by
side
one
(Fig. 182)
taken.
be
then
be
can
at
screw
camera
used
is
of the
rack
placed
When
in the
MICROSCOPES
and
the
laboratory or office,and
When
barrel,
in the
employed
not
pinion.
of
top
on
so
and
photograph
fittingshop,
is suitable
can
the
microscope
metallographic
for all
work.
second
The
Compound
the
lurgical
Metal-
Royal
Arsenal,
Woolwich.
The
adjustment
coarse
2^ in.
being
when
;
diameter
is by
the
spiralrack
draw-tube
and
pinion,and
is removed
the
it allows
of
optical tube
photographs
photographic
lenses.
of large
or
coarse
draw-tube
The
takes
"
mechanical
is fitted with
movements
object
in
rectangular
and
the
specimen
can
be
Metallurgical
the
name
Made
is
of
the
"Works"
originallyaccording
Coventry,
both
it
seems
in this country
to
student
to
appearance
Watson
by Messrs.
It
Microscope.
sold
Heathcotc, research
S"
"
differing in
pattern of instrument
preceding
WATSON
Messrs.
By
Microscope
have
and
to
met
the
Sons
is shown
specificationof
Messrs.
with
"
abroad, for it
from
any
the
under
in
of
Fig. 184.
Mr.
II.
L.
Rud:_ji"Whit\vorth, Ltd.,
pronounced approval
has been
supplied to such
very
PORTABLE
320
firms
Messrs.
as
Sons
"
MICROSCOPES
Armstrong, Whitworth
Maxim,
not
the
mention
to
The
what
The
is mounted
stage
fitted by dovetailed
their
into
the
several
of
the
Imperial Japanese
works.1
affords great
substantial
very
and
Vickers,
no
stability
matter
at
inclined.
be
may
on
Co., Messrs.
Mint
whilst
which
tripodpattern,
"
bracket,which
is
the back
at
and
pinion,it
body of the microscope. It is usually
motion
is provided with verniers.
and
supplied with mechanical
Complete
rotation can
be made
that specimens maybe
under
examined
so
every aspect
of illumination.
A slidingbar is fitted to a recess
in the stage ; this bar may
that either a levellingstage or metal
be instantly
removed
so
holder may
be
raised
be
can
grooves
lowered
or
to
from
or
the
substituted.
All
and
the
auxiliaryapparatus
necessary
are
provided
mirror,and other details are added, so
for examining extremely thin sections
transmitted
where
lightis used.
purpose
means
; whilst
use
There
been
seems
doubt
no
in
that
of
metal
or
considerable
for any
other
must
have
time
and
more
perfecting this arrangement,
especially in rendering it both a practicaland
portable one,
far as possible of additions
devoid
that
be regarded by
so
may
in everyday use.
as
some
superfluousand perhaps troublesome
spent
Of
recent
devising
years
the
especially for
felt.
much
been
that
the
sciences
home,
and,
well
has
This
being
be
his
on
originated,of
now
so
rounds.
the
of
one
use
somewhat
introduced
spoken
of.
new
of
the
in
arts
Further
still,the
that
instrument
superior type.
form
of this work
the
titioner
praccarried
Messrs.
of Metallurgical
of
similar
is not
For
and
from
of
parts
remote
fact
away
researches
diseases
has
the
profession,when
an
about
the
is
user
built
was
from
medical
first edition
horizontal
course,
used
much
when
wanted
respects the
as
demand
toy, but
have
purpose
microscope that
of being easily carried
a
character
Since
of
want
the
upon
the
often
may
world,
Microscopes
instrument
is
on
Portable
this
Watson
Microscope
the
mere
reasc
"
which
is
PORTABLE
portable microscopes
MICROSCOPES
of
are
two
321
classes, those
suitable
for
the
of
Fig. 185, by
find
no
Fig. 185.
"
Leitz
fault
Leitz:s
useful
most
:
have
we
with
it
of
for the
first purpose
for years
and
can
employed one
description. It is called
any
Fig. 186."
Hand
in
is shown
Microscope.
Baker's
"Diagnostic"
Microscope.
Abbe
condenser
with
microscope. A chromatic
handle
substantial
that
is provided, and
iris diaphragm
so
a
the objective
of a ring just above
the fine adjustment by means
be easilyactuated.
Coarse
can
adjustment by a slidingtube.
is the
by
Another
Diagnostic
entirely different model
show
how
C. Baker
(Fig. 186). Dimension^
given below
very
is
made.
it
how
and
portably
lightly
consequently
very
demonstration
"
"
The
dimensions
of
may
be
mentioned:
21
PORTABLE
322
of stage,
width
of
feet,7
is far
loj
One
7 in.
steadier
4
2|
in. ;
MICROSCOPES
depth,
in.
back
(from
to
front); spread
than
it looks.
It folds
into
of the
smallest
microscopes
Small
manufactured
ever
Portable
the
medical
is very
Microscope.
case,
3 in.
Fig. 187.-Swift's
suited
small
very
being
practitioner,
it open,
stage
and
and
admirably
of
MICROSCOPES
PORTABLE
malaria, anaemia,
in
blood
called
fairlybe
the
both
and
of
bottles
and
for
intended
are
the
not
the
by
the
requisite,
weight
arrangement
for all-round
may
use
not
considered.
be
with
we
desired, and
We
have
where
where
with
this
the
6J
measures
is
objectives
cordiallyrecommend
work,
reagents,
only
measures
microscope be
If the
where
two
clinical
hold
to
88.
amateur,
only
case
and
details
Ib.
made
case,
solutions
other
Fig.
the
as
It may
conditions.
inflammatory
pocket instrument,
instrument
323
under
to
the
ij
above
3^
Ib.
medical
additions
IT3^in.
This
and
is
an
profession
expensive instrument
portabilityhas to be mostly
more
arrangement
used
twelfth
PORTABLE
324
without
has
care
Of
the
MICROSCOPES
difficulty,
although we
to be employed.
the
more
severe
portable variety is
admit
types of stand,
that
certain
one
of
amount
the
most
of
extra
perfectof
MICROSCOPES
PORTABLE
This
is suited
instrument
being constructed
heavy ; but, where
of
advantage
hold
to
weight
for the
several
is not
greater steadiness
good
substage,
upon
the
but
mechanical
no
of the
addition
is
most
325
critical work, the
case
It is somewhat
accessories.
importance, the
readily felt. It has a fairly
relying
stage, the makers
of
auxiliaryform
material
when
necessity demands.
Fig.
190,
Fig. 190.
It
packs
ii
7f
Messrs.
they
the
call
in
away
x
in.
special want
instrument
and
case,
shown
in
that
measures
approximately.
Watson
their
"
Sons
High-power
of
one
those
that
have
recently introduced
Portable
who
can
Microscope,
which
model
meets
326
Fig. 191."
Watson
"
Sons'
High-power
Portable
Microscope.
INSTRUMENTS
SEMI-PORTABLE
328
Semi-portable
THE
The
for
idea
of
Instruments
MUSEUM
introducing this
MICROSCOPE
class
of instrument
is to
provide
series
a
a
microscope
of objects or portions of one
that is
object in succession, and one
so
arranged as to guard against the possibilityof any accident,
from
We
whether
mention
intent.
two.
ignorance or malicious
first used to be made
The
by Leitz (Fig. 193).
museum
Fig. 193.
In this instrument
from
rotation
left
"
the
to
twelve
Museum
to
The
interior
of the
correct
The
detachable
apertures
drum
for illumination
contains
mirror
drums
Both
damage.
in
metal
sheet
of
drum
are
observation.
and
is movable
which
the
of
for
provided with
supports
latter being separately retained
all directions.
the
twelve
capable
drum
right, and
perforated by
by Leitz.
stage is replaced by
preparations ; the
position by clips. Another
serves
Microscope
student
to
drum
under
coarse
in
ensures
tion.
observarack
and
SEMI-PORTABLE
the
The
powers.
which
figure),
is
accordingly solelyadapted
stand
is
supplied in
The
"
of the instrument
use
model
is shown
conveniently designed
several
specialcase
than
doing
for
"
in
the
Fig. 194.
former, and
with
use
(not shown
the
specimens.
Sons
It is
in
injury,whilst
any
studying
Watson
for
called
perhaps
is said
the
more
embody
to
important improvements
previous patterns.
upon
the
twelve
a
the
dust-proof case,
objects, mounted
on
all
Under
Fig. 194.
standard
solid
very
Messrs.
by
arrangement
Waterhouse"
free
allowing the
329
and
pinion adjustment
low
INSTRUMENTS
Museum
"
are
slips,
Microscope by
placed
construction.
The
upon
Watson
"
Sons.
revolving
surfaces
which
on
brass
drum
these
of
objects
are
the
case.
which
Fine
adjustment
projectswell
is inclined
at
out
a
of
is effected
the
convenient
case,
by moving
and
angle, as
the
back
shown
the
of
eyepiece
the
in the
ment
instru-
figure.
MICROSCOPES
330
FOR
Microscopes
The
the
of
class
whether
his
hobby
If his
be
to
of botanical
the
of the
or
elects
he
of
he
as
of
As
prefer
find
obtains
Of
from
Zeiss's
and
well
the
nothing
to
For
the
of
but
doms,
of
finest
consider
will
the
It
stand
be
they
as
Baker's
we
and
it be
nothing
of
very
discuss
be
this
two-thirds,
said
of
respect
short
objectives are
It will
the
be
of
lower
the
the
finest
demanded.
necessary,
for
a
type,
they leave
fine lens.
of
diatoms
mostly
are
power
the
animal
to
is
what
quality,as
mounting
to
but, as
best
excellent
Koristka,
is
class
satisfied with
well
or
authorities
most
two-thirds
new
however,
come,
whether
kind
all of
are
objective of still
an
highestorder.
the
will
animal
portable type,
need
more
the
the
in
especially with
diatoms,
the
"
often
kind,
any
student
Watson's
desired.
When
selected.
no
the
as
towards
one-and-a-half,
fairly
the
objectives necessary,
three,
be
required
never
selection, identification,and
J-in. and
hand,
recommended
objects
of
the
highest
well
as
bent
cheaper
by Leitz, Reichert,
be
his
more
first two,
the
achromatics,
those
as
study
said
very
already
small
are
powers
than
more
other
stand
the
regards
the
as
the
stand
have
we
somewhat
high
very
quarter.
enjoyment
already
of
be
the
But, should
life and
pond
rarely employ
and
such
have
not
respects
those
him.
may
necessary,
work.
need
as
of
suit
perhaps
may
such-like, \ve
instrument
some
probably
examination
he
and
extreme
or
to
kingdom,
entirelyupon
intellectual
vegetable kingdom,
from
apart
most
objectives,and
will
amateur,
almost
and
amusement
installation,both
good
the
to
the
specimens
objective and
class
from
reaped
Work
depends
man,
is for
WORK
Critical
suited
business
magnifications.
are
for
instrument
or
professional
CRITICAL
of
study
or
vegetable
minutii
kin"
secondary markings
possible stands
//
is critical
therefore, for
work
us
and
now
which
are
of
to
we
called
apochromatics."
is but
fair
remark
scopist
for
very
we
great
to
make
believe
number
the
that
has
been
of
typical Englisl
before
years
"
the
viz.
micro-
that
b)
MICROSCOPES
Lealand
"
Powell
Messrs.
objectives were
when
present
by microscopists
long
so
ago
as
high power
requirements demanded
One
moment
present
331
such
fulfils the
the
to
up
of
made
in
are
although designed
"
not
WORK
CRITICAL
FOR
at
would
be
the
of
One
aspect from
the
equal, none
could
had
former,
years,
and
performance.
The
several
is shown
in
surpass
the
earlier
models
their
of
two
Continental
the
of
of this firm
in
find
to
yet
latest
in the handle
especially seen
objection to their previous designs.
If the
draw-tube
extra
"
"long-tube
of
additional
also
"
and
Nelson
model,
designed by
a
one
the
claims
and
of
mechanician
is
their
in
sleeve
the
very
One
by
C.
Baker
considerable
greatest
only
excelled
used
for
designed and
highest order
our
arrange
be
to
we
of the
omission.
well
firms.
other
by
"
instrument
serious
stands,
generally of
made
be
firm would
centring adjustments
for it is
substage condenser,
finished
the
objectivesit would
enable
to
for
with
fault
We
improvement, which
which
for lifting,
removes
an
is
an
may
daily use
any
the
figureshows
others
in
(Carl Zeiss).
constant
very
different
so
Though
Fig. 195.
make
have
we
models,
beautifully
of
merit,
is called
attention
the
being
as
living microscopists
by his adroitness
are
who
as
as
an
observer.
It is
for all
it is
be
form
of stand, for it can
essentiallya universal
critical
low-power work as well as for the most
arranged
so
used
with
it
combination
feature
in
elsewhere,
and
lower
of
is
end
by
seen
rotation,but
it
by
which
the
wear
seems
1
We
learn
often
its
construction
is
body
most
screws
the
casual
in
the
for
that
of
in
besides,
is
plete
com-
able
notice-
one
with
met
never
is
"
placed
at
the
the
ordinary position,as
inspection of Fig. 196. Every
centring
eccentric
in recent
There
adjustment
mechanical
oversight.1
powers
have
we
used
objectives can
low
with.
met
fine
instead
short-tube
and
extremely
very
too
become
an
as
long
not
present
any
both
well
as
that
the
is
movement
that
be
do
The
models
the
not
stage
complete
seem
substage
these
with
have
is
be
complete
been
added.
present,
with
I95-"
Zciss
Stand
I.
MICROSCOPES
FOR
Fig. 196."
fine
a
adjustment.
horseshoe
can
be
C.
CRITICAL
Baker's
tripod
foot
substituted
"Nelson"
is
WORK
333
Model.
if desired.
We
know
this stand
N.Y.
American
(Agents:
firm
of
Messrs.
37-38, Hatton
Bausch
Garden,
"
Lomb,
London,
Rochester.
E.C.i), sell
MICROSCOPES
334
called
wish
CD."
"Stand
It has
for, including
although
This
are
has
instrument
(shown
adjustment
every
with
feeblest
the
as
novelty
provided
WORK
we
centring arrangement
regard this
we
model
which
CRITICAL
magnificent first-class
most
FOR
the
in
in
Fig. 197)
could
possibly
substage,
the
to
part of the
centring screws
micrometers
that
so
the
be
in
use
future
without
This
the
stage
movement,
is
We
transverse
as
very
; but
of
course
trivial
should
venient
inconthis
objection.
like, too,
adjustment for
condenser
size
large
upon
most
cially
espe-
"
its
as
look
heads
screws
for
were
should
we
milled
that
we
tion.
addi-
alteration
smaller
can
trouble.
useful
most
contemplated,
to
the
readjusted
further
If any
prefer
hence
be
any
is
registered
carefullyset,
once
the
the
in
stage
opticalaxis, can
stage,
their
ascertained
the
further
stage,
of
extent
once
centre
for
the
to
movement,
to
instrument.
the
the
substage
improved.
Beck's
"
London
"
scope
Micro-
197-" Bausch
"
Lomb's
"Stand
C!
'
".
good
The
stage
and
surfaced
four
is
removable, which
we
have
said
before
we
It has
travel
of
a
bacteriologicalpurposes.
iris is contained
and
extra
I in. laterally. An
of the stage, being placed there to avoid
any
The
a
to
body
can
only
be
extended
to
have
to be
lengthening tube would
with
be used
English objectives of
200
added
the
work.
in.
4x4
with
ebonite,
clip-holes being
vided.
pro-
mechanical
The
is
of
piece
object
in.
in
to
hnn/ontally
the
substance
accidental
(about
mm.
for
the
long-tube
injury.
8
in.),
instrumcn
correction
336
Fig. 199.
"
Leitz's "Universal
Microscope
Stand
I.'
MICROSCOPES
centring
No
far
we
as
FOR
are
screws
CRITICAL
provided
to
the
WORK
337
condenser
substage
so
aware.
are
The
firm
to
arrange
model
the
where
work
frame-
the
the
arrangement
an
Zeiss
new
model, the
use
of
the
handle
in
no
threatens
way
the
is
for the
arrangements
for the
It is constructed
condenser.
short-
tube
objectiveonly.
ingly
The
Spencer Lens Co., of Buffalo, N.Y., have also an exceedfine stand of entirelynew
design,which is believed by them
to
be
far
Fig. 201.
Swift
Son's
in
It is shown
well
balanced.
Portable
understand.
of
Portable
be
extended
It may
therefore
Zeiss
"
admission
into
the
class
claim
sliders
scientific
and
convenient
additional
draw-tube
"
or
of
use
the
which
can
it
of
use
just
revolving nosepiece,either
increases
the length sufficiently.
Messrs. Watson
Club
" Sons'
Royal and
Microscopes are
or
"
"
"
"
22
338
Fig. 200."
339
Fig.
201."
The
Spencer
Lens
Co.'s
Stand
No.
10.
Fig.
202."
Swift
"
Son's
Portable
Ilistologicnl
Microscope.
MICROSCOPES
to
of
mind
our
FOR
convenient
more
CRITICAL
WORK
pattern than
341
their Van
Heurck.
alike. We
describe
They are both excellent models, being much
instrument,
Royal" (Fig.204). It is a remarkably well-made
the
ing
be-
"
of very
easily believe
can
we
The
fine and
Van
the
to
the
Heurck.
The
of
of
outcome
adjustment
coarse
English form
the
tube
body
say
the
is of
this
and
"
experiments."
numerous
of
are
makers
the
as
usual
supplied
large diameter, taking
type
draw-tubes
Two
are
be used
can
provided (one having rackwork), so the instrument
with
both
Continental
and
English form of objective,seeing it
Fig. 203.
closes
to
the
to
142
substage
instrument
With
how
have
is
doubt
no
of the
screen
of
of
the
take
the
the
cut
off
advanced
the
expected
305
that
the
6"
believe
be
to
considerable
for
the
made
or
Professor
and
firm
of
productions of
Carl
this
and
power
the
leads
way.
explained
used
and
for the
Abbe,
practical
acceptance.
secondary spectrum,
student,
screws
highest
apochromat
semi-apochromat,
well
4! in.).
Centring
mm.
the
is when
the
(size,7-|
to
provided. This we
have
justly obtained
the objectives used
spoken already
critical work
by
to
work, there
suitable
must
are
to
respect
critical
We
and
extends
and
mm.
in Cabinet
Folded
shown
Microscope
"
but
minute
with
for
the
gation
investi-
expensive rival
were
originated
manufactured
Zeiss, it is only
firm
should
be,
to
as
342
l''ig.
204"
Watson
"
Sons
Microscope.
APOCHROMATS
344
displayed by
that
it and
and
short
for the
one
Swift's
with
HERR
direction,
same
that
finest
in
desired
HERR
his
the
combinations
its
performance
as
the
Zeiss
of
Speaking
for
the
His
minutest
and
the
green
they
lightand
appreciated
the
new
focal
objective
illumination
at
that the
hands
the
rather
and
than
not
St. Louis
than
so
TOtfijTOtn"f
We
in
have
Fig.
idea
can
is not
lens
that
mcn
also
others
2-mm.
passed
ever
of
lenses
the
of
take
taken
and
of
very
too,
by
aperture
by
four
these
Zeiss, the
and
manner
with
pellucida even
be
must
be
fully
graph
photo-
and
blue
to
seen
VI.,
I, Plate
of
images of which we
others)a Gold
(with some
of the
and
in
have
we
the
often
felt
manufacturer's
simple photomicrographcr,
photograph
although
"
"
superior in
no
made
as
placed
been
those
to
His
apochromatic
2-mm.
awarded
was
difficult
an
in
by Watson.
Amphipleura
some
have
in
has
length
Exhibition, 1903,
should
it
amplification
construct
in
Zeiss
photograph
honour
seeing it is
great
the
furnishingbut
This
speak.
dots
reproduction
with
dots
producing resolution
by
have
testing
combination
2-mm.
the
; the
taken
Medal
show
the
tertiary spectrum
at
spoken about
is
structure
of similar
a
the
the
It is a
crisp and beautiful.
apochromatic objective is one,
so
4-mm.
those
Koristka,
and
combination
of
with
the
that
attained
that
which
to
image being
competes
of
article devoted
a
lens.
of
highly.
so
showing
explanation
the
finest details
that
Whilst
hands.
in
of
neglectfulinbringing
of excellence
remarkable
length
remarkable
level
most
some
manship
work-
using
rendering
been
truly spoken
an
when
in the
of
absolutely nothing
justly and
"
world,
the
made.
attention
both
have
plate
the
much
be
critical observer.
most
to
our
the
leaves
apochromats
through
also
Heurck
van
with
the
of
specimen
ViENNAhasnot
of the
one
given
and
OF
we
should
with
met
REICIIERT
of which
is
have
for the
one
"
impossible. Comparison
twelfth
too, has
test-objects;
as
the
by
Zeiss
by
"
twelfths
well
realgar by Dr.
up
and
are
excellent
an
be
WETZLAR,
combinations
test-plateas
tube
apochromatic
OF
WORK
apochromatic
two
long
new
LEITZ
CRITICAL
FOR
in the
photographs
as
"
not
wonderful
of
the
to
this
compute
much
manner
same
at
mor"
hibited.
ex-
diatoi
APOCHROMATS
FOR
CRITICAL
WORK
and
2-mm.
the
of
appearance
and
difference
is
required to
distinction
possibly no
all appear
of
be
to
be shown
exists, and
the
equal merit,
the varied
are
many
that
employed,
the
reader
be
the
made
where
becomes
expert
the
microscope
readily understand
can
excellence,
him
to
only thing open
and
acknowledge
which
to
uses
XV.,
objectiveswhere
to
of
task
smaller
Plate
of
pitch
between
reader
and
6, and
selection
the
smaller
this
of
Koristka,
show
and
345
the
is
his
be
can
difficulty
should
that, fearing
by
we
do
have
attempting
so, we
whose
scopists
experience and
justifytheir speaking with the
to
our
have
we
should
upon
made
not
like
to
it not
regard
emission
on
We
the
replieswe
the
writers
as
met
now
for
individual
with
Hartnack
and
He
is
colour
this
it
;
us
which
special subjects
authority. Doubtless
of
list
failed
of
apply
ought to
but
admission,
simply
arisen
response,
taking
this
know
we
to
any
specialist
sought, he
of
merely as one
unfortunate
an
opportunity
our
be
of
substance
the
and
will
we
have
from
before
lay
to
inquiries,hence
to
we
hearty
micro-
of
thanking
readers
their
highly
ciated.
appre-
certainlya
than
several
four
better,and
more
of
name.
of
astray
to
upon
voice
aid
has
append
allowing
mentioning these
objectiveswe feel that we
illustrious
sin
experiences,
In
of Dr.
we
part, that
our
oversight.
have
any
must
add, if
student
written
work
exhaustive
an
the
we
very
are
twelfth
fine
accustomed
and
fifteenth.
The
combination, although
to
see
with
with
the
Abbe
twelfth
we
we
like
the
admit
it exhibits
Plate.
standing
Notwith-
admirably
Amphipleura, showing the dots
with
all the other
tests given later
satisfactorily
very
very
in this book.
in a most
It is sold
convenient
form of mount, but requires
fit
it
the
modern
an
to
to
on
adapter
microscope, which we think a mistake,
seeing the universal fittingis now
so
generally adopted.
well,and
performs
conforms
FOR
OBJECTIVES
346
F.
Mr.
SMITH,
P.
Club,
VARIOUS
formerly
"I
wrote:
Hon.
Editor
usually use
best
the
it
when
transparency,
CHARLES
Mr.
and
D.
SOAR
whenever
tions.
examina-
low
If suitable
powers.
mounted
and
used
for
as
J-in."
with
sometimes
and
|-in.,
scopical
Micro-
frds for
the
employ
Quekett
2-in.,i-in.,and
subsequently
be
can
the
to
examine
to
way
it with
pomade-pot lid,cover
object,using of course
opaque
preservation
PURPOSES
the
Hydrachnidae
used
i|-in.
Jth,employing dark-ground
i|-in. served to identify species
tion
illumina-
The
possible.
the
and
The
of skin
examination
his
WESCHE
W.
Mr.
upon
with
Binocular
great
as
three
had
only
anatomical
well-known
the
texture.
objectivesin
researches.
Microscope,
An
frds
working-distance
as
constant
he
inch
possible,for
as
employed
finder, and
for
use
-Ith,
of
details
structure.
A.
Mr.
HILTON
E.
"For
wrote:
these
of work
my
class
the
and
Capillitia
and
sporangia
use
sufficient for my
are
although
concerning the
"
I should
gather Mr.
in
have
Mr.
in
recommend
distinctive
authority, used
studied, I employ
his
he
say
on
a
binocular
J-in.was
stand, but
he
sufficient power,
apochromats
Mr. JAMES
and
will be
and
found
for work
low
powers,
He
preferredall objectiveswith
very
but
of
was
of
objectives
frequent use
sufficient if
had
to
be
not
object the
no
\\
For
the
employed
searched
for
always be of
higher power
serviceable.
Algae
on
occasionally a Jth
-jVth,
of
of insects.
added, may
was
most
found
were
details
when
set
organs
i-in.
if expense
BURTON,
sense
This, he
useful.
more
the
immersion
long experience
had
in.,all of which
dry "th,
diameters."
from
to
same
1200
who
Mycetozoa"
i-in.,and
preferencean
is of the
Massee
LEWIS,
RICHARD
be
to
require a magnificationof
we
not
are
and
of
mostly
as
great magnifications for
required. When, however,
purpose,
general
spores
2-in.
study
and
low
obtained.
and
Fungi, employed
Jth and rarely an ith.
numerical
aperture
so
that
H.
Mr.
at
the
length
some
who
FREEMAN,
with
Acarina,
sunk
of
because
powers
Mr.
the
R.
T.
He
difficultyin following
his
for
ROSSETER,
especially,
perhaps, the
2-in. and
J-in.of
well-known
avian
used
and
use,
his
and
been
having
second-class
mineral
frds
sufficient.
and
for
But
employed
with
length
inch, J-in.,
an
immersion
water
of minutiae.
his
at
favourite
2-in. of
ASHE
ALBERT
studies
an
directed
substances
for industrial
delicate
other
a
plain
animal,
such
purposes,
objectives than
form
work
of
stand
condenser
and
of
the
being
occasionally,he
arising
apochromatics, presumably
suitable
Jth, quite
unique,
especially to
more
as
convergent
vegetable,and
variably
in-
focal
same
critical illumination
upon
first-class stand.
E.
Mr.
of
two
of
a
lowest
drop
who
LEONARD,
mounting
"
inch
upon
employ
to
sufficiently
high
of rocks, reserving a Jth for
ordinary examinations
interference
the
the back
of the
at
figures formed
"viewing
objective when
Mr.
object
researches
Cestoda,
second-class
Petrology, found
for
power
moving
of
Entozoa,
study
studied
field of view.
the
about
cells.
has
history in general
life
the
347
in and
interested
was
PURPOSES
VARIOUS
FOR
OBJECTIVES
"
on
diatoms
and
J,|,J,J, and
were
powers
the
has
slide,the
given
their
TVth
much
so
attention
selection,said
oil immersion.
his
to
battery
the
sisted
con-
For
mounting, the
the
searching over
| -in. had to be
for subsequent work
of a more
delicate nature, the TVh.
course,
For "picking up" the best objective was
a
ij-in.,and for darkbest bristles for
a
added, "the
ground illumination
f-in. He
mounting with I obtain from the back of my fox-terrier !
for some
Mr. ARTHUR
the valued
Hon.
EARLAND,
Sec.
years
the
to
extensive
work
Quekett Club, whose
Foraminifera
upon
the
"
and
he
and
Radiolaria
is
rarely employed
a
J-in.
too
any
well
known
other
to
need
objective
save
any
a
remark, said
ij-in.,a frds,
FOR
OBJECTIVES
348
C. F.
Mr.
ROUSSELET,
VARIOUS
of
one
with
matic
35-mm.)
Zeiss
2'5-mm.
fine anatomical
C.
G.
Mr.
Club,
almost
to
immersion
and
highly
who
has
Secretary
and
amateur
an
more,
in
MORLAND,
to
select
to
be
his
as
did
make
not
Mr.
for very
need
A.
STILL
work
an
especiallyfor
G.
Mr.
asked
work
on
Fungi
For
by
add
(3)
and
In the
and
used
the
the
two
through
added
average
movement
for
of the
be
a
TVth,
Diatomaceae,
other
more
and
mounting,
than
quarterI le
purposes.
secondary markings,
and
immersion
high-power
objectives.
Microalgae and Desmids
upon
objectives I find
The
"
Myxomycetcs
are
useful
most
for
of
fungi
finest details
specimens
about
^th
takes
and
the
of
them
J-in:
latter
the
for
recollect
in
run
some
very
-/ah."
Rotifera
former
for
he
mostly
searching
examining details. He
subjectsare alive, and
my
an
inch
species
use
upon
should
student
so-called
in his work
a
and
Myxomycetes,
required,I
are
found
and
the
where
objectives,a i-in.
"The
of the
systematic study
BRYCE
DAVID
Mr.
most
structure
a
ij-in.
general aspect of the superficial
of spores, a Jth,as
histologicaldetails,measurements
is used.
consent
a
magnification of 400 diameters
special groups
close
sequently
con-
common
"
two
three, I
should
is
(four years),wrote
"(2)
the
said,
Jth
searching
Club
For
be
all he
MASSEE,
"(i)
many
Quckett
would
inch
an
say,
the
to
purchase they
upon
found
inch, Jrds,and
the
U-in."
especiala study
so
no
had
so
high-power, and,
very
experience
the
studying
"
it would
H.
esteemed
devoted
I had
Mr.
for
apochromatic
and
of
objectives for
Jrds and a Jth. If
one
confused
instrument,
livingspecimens in water.
M.R.C.S., L.S.A., formerly so
useful
yet
be
to
upon
every
almost
if
for the
long-tube monocular
KAROP,
amateur
an
36-mm. (not
the
structure
valued
the
years
the
the 17-mm.
water
authorities
greatest
our
and
for
12-mm.
PURPOSES
had
extreme
requireda Jth.
FOR
OBJECTIVES
ROBERT
Mr.
W.,
PAULSON,
speaking
Council
Technical
County
London
he
wrote
had
he
work
employed
immediate
difficulties of the
the
such
successful
and
Jth for
known
smaller
from
ranging
a
studying
finest
working-distance
thick
of
service
The
the
ocular) shows
covers)
the
1
For
effect
its
mens
speci-
suitable
to
that
the
but
their
2-mm.
yVth
the
of
use
all
colours
the
new
inch
may
for
be
of diatoms
screens,
for
require
much
reason
same
well.
longer
having
ago
useful
Addenda.
of
neglected
years
with
aid
quarter-inch
having
remarkably
of
primarily
the
than
sorting specimens
see
to
objectives
markings
more
(used
ing
possess-
Jth apochromat
with
is
most
author
of
apochromatic
blue
the
types
mounted
often
the
necessary
The
tube
long
the
immersion.
r5-mm.
or
Jth.
was
diatoms
secondary
well
so
straca
Entomo-
objects
powers.
upon
specimens
a
of
for
it
illumination.1
half-inch
i-in.
is
regards
as
binocular
especially convenient,
or
and
an
is
Diatomacese,
highest
employ
than
biology,
to
examination
to
the
to
on
one
the
as
small
Entomostraca
on
resorted
the
to
(some
; and
diatoms,
exclusively
use
apochromatic
admit
Zeiss
third
the
'28
of
apochromatic
3-mm.
2-mm.
N.A.
study
one
is
to
the
the
to
by
manded
com-
Zeiss
powers
attention
for
he
forms,
objective, and
the
"
(better still)blue
apochromatic
rather
life
apochromatic
or
green
highest
the
when
lowest
their
very
with
Occasionally, however,
excellent
very
the
the
employed
that
to
half-inch
is bound
work
this
to
he
his
the
upon
wrote
inch
an
respect
he
general.
pond
power
all
^th
ever,
occasionally, how-
mounting
seemed
work
details.
higher
With
is
for
employed
useful, but
in
whose
found
he
"
use
all work
objectives
dry
opinion always
say
much
so
pays
microscopists,
to
best
but
of
types
whose
to
selecting and
microtomist,
SlDWELL,
Mr.
but
Crescent,
situation.
who
HOLDER,
Mr.
biological study,
F.R.A.S.,
all
employed
he
Laboratory,
and
peculiarly convenient,
is
shape
at The
work
T\th.
for
349
Institute, Lalham
respect, used
(i5-mm.) objective
PURPOSES
f-in.
COTTAM,
ARTHUR
Mr.
in
of the
found
usually
had
his
for
required
VARIOUS
are
the
both
high-power
CHAPTER
XIV
TESTING
OBJECTIVES
THE
difficult
It used
subject.
lens
of the
this
besides
nowadays,
searching character
after
him
once
proceed
The
"
of
the
apparatus
contrasts
of
densely
deposit
and
The
be
these
little
piece
of
of
one
far
Professor
more
Abbe, called
of
which
this
of
clear
at
we
of
kind
on
dull
grey
light indeed,
to
manner
lines
of dark
and
it is difficult
offer every
film
to
being
under
Now,
object
an
bright
the
lines
imagine
fulfils
that
one
always absolutely
not
then
may
are
the
the
contrasts.
semi-opaque
in which
"
film of
remove
appear
grating.
and
taken
was
if
to
as
would
coarse
irregular-shaped particlesof
are
closely packed together in
sufficientlydiscrete
result
dense,
Abbe,
pronounced
it is evident
certain
having greater
the Abbe
plate is
of
piece
in such
the
full
as
advantage
glass,for
in
little
inventor, Professor
purpose
of
glass
"
its
useful
and
object
an
ruled
exceedingly
consisting of
black
aim
alternating series
constructed
although
very
excellent
required, for
deposit
test-objects,but
Test-plate
character
be
an
ideal
very
late
this
For
between
as
consisting of
could
leave
untouched
microscope
the
on
described
nature
left
special
opaque
silver
pure
the
of
possible.
as
of the
Abbe
artificiallyproduce
to
was
is
ance
perform-
furnish.
to
construction
the
called
Test-plate,"a description
The
In
the
the
examining
there
method,
interestingthough
an
specimens
originated by
Abbe
in
consist
to
certain
upon
been
be
black
described
"filling"transmitting
closely scattered
silver
the
deposit.
but
numerous
Although
still they
filling,
facilityfor accurate
as
appear
focussing.
TESTING
352
illumination
only
can
(appearing
the
OBJECTIVES,
the
as
objective
microscope)
as
fourth
or
when
seen
the
"
third
of
of
the
third
the
down
looking
arrangement
PLATE
its uppermost
through
enter
lowest
ABBE
back
the
lens
tube
of
of
effects
colour
fourth
or
the
becomes
entirely different.1
First.
The
lines
white
colours
respectivelyare
and
upper
now
the
purple is seen
Secondly^it
will
that
whether
is to
say
causes
any
light;
and"
no
opposite third
employed as we
be
It will
of
follows
what
be
it has
chapter
of
over
the
in
the
that
it is
white
of
alteration
placed within
alteration
of colour
the
cause
objective,
carefullyexplained.
For
do
to
the
in
72
chapter
of
at
spectrum
"
best
"
modern
the
have
and
make
of
these
before
referred
to
improvements
objectives. In this
in
consists
that
folding
selected
the
focal
shortest
to
the
particular colour
the
correction,
then
upon
is
that
to
purpose,
reader
achromatism
explained
been
the
so,
direct
by any
exactly
causes
that
focus,
using
produced
or
whilst
the
when
be
can
if the
understood,
construction
the
spaces.
without
or
it did
as
border,
upper
of the
no
effect
actually commencing
Figs. 69, 70, 71, and
effected
of each
one
found
the
at
of colour
better
effects
colour
of
whatever
means
lower
be
change
Thirdly, that
borders
no
lower
visually corrected
the
at
rays
by
the
of
length,the
this
others
This
be
can
the
by turning
iris and
closing the
with
done
illuminating apparatus
Abbe
the
milled
which
head
by simply
the
puts
iris out
of
axial centrality.
1
prism
rainbow
green,
formed
formed
and
so-called
The
or
colours, as
blue,
violet,and
by unions
by
violet.
the
they
of
are
those
of
which
white
often called"
come
into evidence
consisting of red,
oran-r,
joiningof
yellow
and
green,
and
when
purple by the
union
those
bring
of
red
the
the
longest,
353
blue
and
of orange
mixture
intermediate
PLATE
ABBE
OBJECTIVES,
TESTING
being
be
now
description. Let Fig. 205
the
here a point of light P situated
We
have
considered.
upon
at L.
axis of a semi-apochromatic combination
roughly shown
because
the yellow-green rays
In an
they
exaggerated manner
selected
in
the
construction
the shortest
have
are
focal length
seen
focussingat A, whilst the red and violet forming the purple,
for
omitted
of
clearness
"
"
of
a section
longest focal length,meet at A'. If now
should
of lightwere
see
an
applethe beam
possible at A, we
by a faint haze of purple ; whilst
green point of lightsurrounded
should
section at A' we
if we
examined
see
a
purple point
a
having
the
WITH
WITHOUT
Focus
in
Focus
Fig. 205.
surrounded
by
being shown
Within
an
to have
the
apple-green
focus
disc
crossed
at
after
plane
forming
marked
focus
A"
we
at
A).
should
see
an
of
light surrounded
by a distinct and wellmarked
halo
of purple, whilst considerably without
the focus
A"'
at
a purple disc surrounded
by a halo of apple-green.
Although in the Abbe
test-platea white line of sensible area
between
black
two
is the
ones
object,instead of a discrete
point of light,a little thought will suffice to show that the same
reasoning affords an equally correct
explanation of the colour
phenomena in this instance, as in the previous one.
Perhaps
the
easiest
the
case
hence
way
image
in the
Abbe
to
of
understand
the
this
point was
plate the image
is to
remember
formed
of
the
in
white
the
in
the
first
yellow-green,
is reallyin
line
apple-green also.
Now
the
when
of
the
objectivewas
lowered
in
the
first experiment
the
blurred into an
point became
apple-green disc
with a halo or fringeof purple around
it ; so
in the second, the
becomes
image of the white line following the same
course
blurred
and the purple fringe makes
its appearance
at the
edges
of it. Likewise
raised
in the first
also,when the objectivewas
image
23
354
TESTING
instance
outside
had
and
disc
apple-green
an
became
halo
it ;
around
the
described,
206
Fig.
conditions
is drawn
from
rays
as
the tube
the
of
edges
in the
apple-green
already
manner
white
the
of
lens
back
the
A A
line
situation.
shown
are
objective at its
observer
were
looking
in fact if the
an
would
be
of the
seen
second,
it.-
materiallychanged.
exaggeration to explain
leaving the
entering and
in the
into
were
in
the
blurred
so
and
blurred
When
third,
below
PLATE
purple point
line becomes
The
ABBE
OBJECTIVES,
THIS
..
RAY
14
D*Awn
T*"
AS
COlrllHO
um,
K*Y
-me
It
lower
down
removed.
APPAWtHTLV
---
as
IT
TKtK"V"l"
RCO-VIOLIT
MTAWM
"uti".
LOW
"T
COWING
Yecu
unn,Tt*
Fig.
The
at
appears
it is the
because
line
206.
AA
upper
is shown
refracted
most
the spectrum,
ray
because
of the
limit
and
case
of
brilliancy
the
of any
of
the
colour
colours
of
focal
very
lies at the
diagrammatically
of the
the
white
image.
The
apple-green in
red-violet
the
latter
line.1
The
exact
beneath
With
seen,
case
change of
of any
card
in this
no
colour.
reversal
the
of
colour
effect
condenser, and
however,
practice,
these
so
colours
of
notwithstanding the general brilliancy
be
distinctlythough faintly
the white
line.
TESTING
the
from
position of
and
vice
the
tinted
The
been
versa.
Abbe
in the
We
even
if
to
have
the
observer,
been
focus
in
used
been
seem
if
as
not
that
the
is
the
these
nothing
12,
ments,
experithan
more
field
the
same
the
than
of
zones
believe
for
out
far
that, so
present is known,
at
as
anything better.
is this
It
consider, in their
adding
that
effected
by
they
the
opinion,
the
do
hold
is
objectives with
which
replied that
all
of
at
effect of
in
be
can
they
school
than
or
now
to
in
that
say
they
has
of
of
this it
To
the
old
must
be
sation
past, the equalifield of view
the
definition
best
been
field of
the
some
in the
zones
is
is
required in
(occupied alone by most
If the
intermediate
and
that
moment,
same
acquainted.
in all three
compromise.
the
improvement
years, seeing that
times, whether
can
inabilityto produce
much
smaller
are
hope
no
objective is retrograde,
modern
recent
much
so
definition
the
central
not
optician
perfect definition
the
most,
if it has
and
one
throughout
flat
the
the
sharply simultaneously.
held
has
at
ocular
power
intermediate
and
even
examination,
lower
of
cursory
it would
Indeed
central
both
never
the
explanation, in general,how
with direct and oblique light
an
this
in
that
becomes
ray
strikes
has
so
tried.
the
focussed
which
supposed
be
about
concludes
view
It is not
is
This
before
field of
which
refracted
point
noticed
time.
least
next
whole
be
the
355
because
readily understood,
is
opposite side,
PLATE
ABBE
OBJECTIVES,
zones
the
be
must
one
microscopical interest),then the outer
to
suffer,with the possibilityof being immediately brought
of the fine-adjustmentscrew
focus by a touch
; whereas, if
whole
field be required to be equally well defined,it must
and
can
objects
left
into
of
the
central
former
the
of
state
cause
exhibited
by this
be
to
for they
objective^
cause
the
have
outer
contraction
zone
so
that
remark
with
confused
cutting off
outer
the
no
zone
the
three
relation
of
the
the
In
zones.
of
It is needless
not
intermediate
and
quality of
the
three
zones
of
one
back
in
the
with
lens
modern
of the
zones
of
definition
microscopists is
the
performance
most
noticeable
the
the
by
back
lenses.
fieldmust
lens
of the
other, otherwise
the
it does
iris would
not.
PRECAUTIONS
TO
TEST
draw-tube
the
objectiveis
side
of the
The
hence
back
of
lens
by
matics,
\YITII
distance
exact
THE
which
for
frequently engraved
N.A.
over
the
upon
of
and
approximately
The
scientific value.
of
an
carefullycentred.
should
test-plateto be selected
the
compensating ocular
what
matter
of over,
apochromats
used
be
light;
with
that
is the
be
thickness
average
opticians.
most
no
slip
observation
the
be
the
to
filled with
be
must
ro
thereabouts, because
or
4. The
the
objectivemust
the
cover-glassof
mm.
selected
OBJECTIVE
ANY
set
it is
oiled
make
to
should
condenser
and
corrected
condenser
3. The
be
must
objective
every
equal N.A.,
OF
TO
mount.1
immersion
"i
COMMENCING
BEFORE
TEST-PLATE
The
2.
USING
BEFORE
OBSERVED
BE
PERFORMANCE
THE
ABBE
1.
PRECAUTIONS
PLATE,
ABBE
356
is to be
their
say,
employed for
length, and
focal
'5 N.A.
apochrosemi-
with
ordinary achromat
the
; but
all
is to be such
that
of the ocular
magnifying power
the total amplification
multipliedby the initial of the objective,
hence
should
a
numerically equal the N.A. x 1000;
-j^thof,
5. The
say,
1*4 N.A.
6. The
so
far
of
the
from
as
requires a
illumination
12
light from
should
pass
N.A.
With
B.
With
With
A.
in the
the
the Abbe
ivJiite
brilliantly
very
is meant
centrallythrough
direction
the
obliquityin
no
the
beams
the
condenser.
Objectives
SEMI-APOCHROMATICS
OF
A.
be
mirror, by which
Testing
EXAMINATION
critical and
must
off the
the illuminant
be
must
possible. There
ocular.
1-3
iVIN-
TO
"-*"
OR
*4
Test-plate.
Special Test-objects.
the
preceding
examination
1
Test-plate."
Abbe
section
of
an
The
list of
of
qualification
this statement
precautions given
read
or
is made
and
1-4, say
later.
TESTING
OBJECTIVES
TVth, or Jth, is
carried
chromatic
(a) For
(i) The
aberration
(f)
being
the
visible.
the
observation.
Holos
If the
"
the
white
of
quite suiting
Let
the
former
space
must
will be
should
the
colours
These
an
2
sold
are
advance
are
magnifying
focus
or
raised
to
be
lines
instant
above
original.
caution might
critical
having
light;
it is
the
the
only
accurate
the
at
white
very
depends
Sons,
no
betoken
not
"
Watson
component
If,however,
mind
power.
bordering the
the fine
expected
Messrs.
in
after,for
The
the
does
borne
with
of
it.
correct
black
the
replaced by
the
appear.3
the
upon
position
series
improved
being
the
upon
word
Another
by
similar
to
be
compensation
objective under
and
appearance
carefullysought
focus
the
to
removed
found
colourless.2
appear
beneath
What
edges of
of their accurate
moment
be
due
individual
of
focus,
accurate
as
fault, adjustment
at
takes
improvement
place, this
good objective; but it must
the
the
be
eyepiece
been
be
in
are
nearly as possible
phenomena should be
colour
no
not
lines
occupies
space
present, it may
be
has
focussing of
definition.
black
field ;
the
compensating
ocular
poses
pur-
"
and
edges of
that
taken
ocular
for two
manner
light,
obliquelight.
If much
the
of
357
direct
diameter
true
PLATE
(testingfor colour).
sphericalaberration
following
"
"
(i) With
(ii)With
ABBE
appearances
(ii)
For
in the
out
the correction
to ascertain
WITH
of
be
We
mentioned.
have
spoken
of the
necessity
Too
of
great
stress
cannot
objectivethe slightesttouch
focus.
be
of
but
laid
the
it is
upon
fine
the
fact
that
adjustment puts
with
the
first-class
object out
"f
TESTING
358
by the computer
chosen
the
spectrum
focal
shall
formed.1
wave-length
exhibited
placed,
This
the
of
class
select
such
which
what
the
folding over
colour
shall
of
have
what
colour
the
is often
called
the
the
image
foldingover
the
and
within
purple
are
for
system
PLATE
the
colours
ordinary spectrum, and
borders
of the white
lines, symmetrically
5500
on
ABBE
consequently in
If he
in
the
words,
length,and
correction, then
green
of
other
in
shortest
be
WITH
OBJECTIVES
is
correction
apple-green without
favourite,but
great
the
few
focus.
makers
their
pitch
the colour
Sometimes
indeed, and
green
called
outside
quite
very
blue-purplewithin
it.
objective,a
slightlyover-corrected
is
the focus
lightyellow-
term
This
type is
also
needing
must
be very
explanation hereafter.
Lastly,an
few
and
rare
the
in
white
red-orange
within
only,
photography
of
case
one) the
with
met
yet
never
number
in
|th, for
or
lines bordered
it.
would
and
T\th
This
be
denotes
outs.
correction
wretched
blue
with
have
we
objective for
visual purposes.
objective has
(a) (ii)The
it is
and
manner
important
The
"
curved
removed
when
the
moment,
student
must
and
covered
up
white
the
two
can
furnish
of
image
really pure
white
unless
the
comparison
with
the
to
enter
by
lines,care
should
as
card
is
an
described
ocular
a
little
should
occupy
as
of the
coloured
objectmustbt
with
colouring is in accordance
white
It is
focal length.
image.
If the
only
the
performance
wlv
objectivesbe
by
tube
the
spaces
following
three-fourths,preferably one
that when
so
shape
looking
looking at
different kinds
oblique light,
in the
"
of the
one
with
obtained
the
objectivedown
lightonly appears
ocular
apochromat
of
the
returning the
The
or
crescent-moon
limit.
that
be
be
must
its lowest
exercised
be
should
two-thirds
"
of
for the
portion at
On
edge
lens
back
the
at
this
condenser
its lower
throughout
with
that
be tested
to
now
closely compared
The
experimentallyput to the test.
from
image not easily distinguished
above
be made
at
the
moment.
OBJECTIVES
TESTING
36o
is
placed
WITH
the
whilst
the
colour
eye
eliminate
to
colour
the
keeping
be
the field,should
that when
lines
the
zone,
rigidlycarried
little aperture
the
bright reflectingsurface
in
the
iris is
ill-defined.
of
of
lens
front
the
portion of which
ihusfogs the dark
silvered
and
small
the
As
illuminated
back
of the
remains
the
is often
line with
be
of the
over
or
the
green
utilityfor
and
under-corrected
of each
placed of
a
it will
thus
in
colour
iris,the
three
is
whether
becomes
redder
the
to
found
case,
This
diameter
quite
slight
instead"
violet
blue
zone
of the white
point of
the
whether
the
border
is
jective
ob-
fringed
or
green,
be
line instead
of
of
more
distinct
then
coloui
it beinj
"
the
if
very
If this appeal
movements
"
this
guided by the
w/^r-corrcction
or
in
accurately
so
border
upper
be
redder, perhaps
that
the writer
perfectly corrected
are
finest it
very
means
of the field.
the
the
of the white
practicallyto
to
of
of the white
throughout
and
objective shows
change
border
zones
objective,
zone
the
indicates
; but when
be
in the true
course
purple
lower
the
inner
pinhole iris)
border
corrected
illumination
beginner, in this
presented by
the
have
spectrum,
; hence
the
passing
the
outer
dark
of
(caused by
especiallythe
is not
zone
difficult to say
very
by
cover-glass,the
into
"
point of light,the
becomes
with
and
oblique light,we
folding over
central
When
from
the
in
the
rays
again
objective,the colours
outer
the
rest
small
area
"
lenses the
in
silver.
reflected
slightlyalter in some
lenses,but
nearly if not actually constant.
line may
as
of
back
of
is caused
the
upon
by
diameter
lines.
the intermediate
many
again
them
turns
traverses
lens
back
ocular
usually found
placed
exact
This
the
explained,
the
It will be
out.
of the
dull and
are
of
compensation
of
changes
any
precaution above
observation
under
PLATE
ocular, noting
the
in
error
any
at
ABBE
pinhole
the
red,
purple
then
the
if
whereas
over-correction
present.
Sometimes
intermediate
1
These
terms
the
and
colours
outer
of under
and
are
zones;
violently different
this
07vr-correction
is
bad,
will be
for
in
in
the
a
ccntr;
reallyfine
explained very
shorf/y.
TESTING
WITH
OBJECTIVES
stated, there
objective,as before
anyhow, not of that violent
change
should
the
Seeing
explained,
yet been
further,to do
It has
mentioned
is in the
normal
in the
the
nearer
slip of
6
for
chosen
for
; but
if
red
end, "?zw-correction.
it
is
half size in
off
dots
seven
the
achromatising
in theory, for
the
line
it
be
at
about
the
three
now,
long
the
When
at
what
method
draw
the
if
follows
take
to
of
space
of the
UV"
Y
be
and
plainly illustrates
how
over
immediately
of
which
line
along
in.
apart,
it
as
the
lines
one,
the
point
second
at
by
the
with
of
G
"
to
words
at
paper
this
obtained
was
inspection
mere
has
colours
been
dots
made
caused
in
other
secondary spectrum.
drawn
at
right angles
at
it
the
to
right angles
at
Fig. 71
has
be
affixed
slip
different
of the
ing
line,let the follow-
G,
indicates
mention
additional
horizontal
third
the
z^rtfcr-correction,"the
and
make
to
of
bending
of
over
wave-length 5500
takes
folding over
place
marking
made,
folding together
blending
objective
the
To
right-hand end
the
proceeding
folding
convenient
R, O, Y, G, B, V, and
between
succession.
Midway
how
as
Fig. 207.
at
Visual."
the
length, and
8 in. in
some
in., marking
"Best
not
whilst
z/Tzafcr-correction,
letters"
this
before
once,
the
now
end, it is called
Commencing
in
at
have
visuallyconstructed
violet
paper
shown
well
the
in
easily understood,
more
"
over-corrected
spectrum
the
towards
be
it may
position mostly
spectrum
"
and
little if any
but
so.
been
the
that
under
"
terms
be
361
nature.
"
"
PLATE
ABBE
to
slight
being marked
slight 0zw-correction,"
"
B, "photo correction."
folding over
of
the
slipis made
at
"
as
occurs
in
362
TESTING
OBJECTIVES
slightunder-correction
and
follow, whilst
left
outstanding.
for
Abbe
the
human
the
perceived by
will
border
have
have
pronounced
With
at
be
purple,and
a
or
powers,
fringe,whilst
lens, where
now
exhibit
its upper
margin
colour
sideration
con-
line
manner
objective,its
its upper
the
will
one
folding over
of
and
lower
takes
if bent
show,
red
at
with
of
margin
nearly violet
more
fringe composed
of
than
almost
folding-overpoint,the slipwill
and
green, whilst yellow,orange,
the upper
mixture
border
of the
Arranged
these
of
the white
under-corrected
an
feebly
so
yellow.
With
is
left out
when
violet
ultra-
and
tint.
green
line will
the white
pure
red
the
in
of orange
(UV)
and
with
over-corrected
an
it may
Hence
purpose.
reddish
PLATE
observed
latter colour
that
plate illuminated
prescribed)is looked
lower
The
ABBE
it will be
eye
present
our
of
union
violet will
are
in
"
WITH
in
of the white
three
the
of
different colour-effects
Exhibition
White
Manner
of Colours
Line
at
with
described.
red
are
line shows
colours
form
indicate
union
of
blue, and
Upper
and
as
Lower
Oblique Light
violet
and
the
high
the
with
follows
one
of reference,
Borders
obtained
lower
red.
is
yellow, orange,
in
of
in
tJte Ccntn
the
Special
exhibited
the
and
one
time
same
363
been
said,
and
valuable
the
of
borders
lower
information
to
three
things
The
colour
in which
(2) The
(3) The
colour
having
(1)
has
exhibited
colour
what
manner
most
PLATE
objective.
of the
the examiner
afford
line
white
centrallyplaced
at
from
table,and
that, when
The
this
from
It is evident
ABBE
WITH
OBJECTIVES
TESTING
the
image
is formed.
shortest focal
the
length.
of the spectrum.
folding over
0z^r-correction.
be yellow, it shows
if this colour
of
point
Moreover,
"
"
"
"
"
"
green,
it shows
^^^r-correction.
shows
apple-green,it
usual
visual
correction.
shows
blue,it
"
"
"
purely photographic
correction.
exhibited
colour
The
Purple
Orange-red
the
whilst
much
deeper
look
we
as
at
correction.1
The
understand,
that
visual
both
1
Owing
spectrum
the
shortest
borders
the
when
matter
the
the
of
this difference
focal
lens
exact
5500;
shade
the
of
length"
system
white
illumination
but
few
an
this
objective
selection
of
underled
are
be
colours
line when
is direct.
to
used
for
strenuously
who
by different computers, one
readily identifythe
plate can
very
observation,this
under
produces
decided
is, we
are
have
to
has
chosen
the
of
we
being
presented along
placed as they
view, oblique light being used ; or
of the
field of
"
for
reason
experience with
of the
noting
the
this selection
"
of
can
they think the combination
Others
well as photographic purposes.
as
to
extended
opinion exists
of the
the folding over
decidedly leans
very
difference
some
opticians prefer
their shortest focal length,which
as
green
correction.
photographic correction.
"
saying this,that
aware,
"
visual
for
position to choose
The
generally accepted one
apple-green, wave-length about
spectrum.
towards
proper
best
the
to
as
mentioned
before
have
We
under-correction.
"
"
"
over-correction.
shows
Blue-purple or blue
Reddish purple to red
if it be
turer
manufac-
fairlyeasilyeffected
the
and
upper
should
be, in
within
and
the
the
by
lower
diameter
outside
an
of
focus
364
TESTING
and
emphatically repudiate
OBJECTIVES
lessened
greatly
is
there
degree
the
of
performance
by
"
the
photographic correction
It
be
may
is
mentioned
those
with
that
who
objectives,a
mistake
combination
the
They
used.
colour
the
of
for
sensible
photographic
blue
at
be.
it must
made
of
use
of
the
shown
corrected
of
to
be
lens
of
not
the
shown
within
line
the
case
the
Abbe
the
and
scarcely exhibit
made
stated
are
by
the
is
gets
rid of
these
well
better
innocent
of
possessor
as
said
observer
to
hide
has
been
fact
the
well-
the
the
computers,
extent.
same
whole
congratulatehimself
kind,
field,that
leads
so
being
upon
the
from
free
"remarkably
so
even
zones,
lightof
the
the
under
circumstances
the
white
over
colours
objectives
all
to
semi-
corrected
those
to
form
the
and
the colour-effects,
combination
fine
to
the
this
in all the
not
fog extending
the
outside
plainly,too,
known
residuals
be
may
show
all under
at
"
in
recognised
or
should
residuals
admixture
which
the
trick
"
of
Moreover,
colour
any
matter
very
leaving heavy
preferred colour, although
their
By
mentioned.
conditions
consists
as
and
test-
when
said, however,
mentioned
type
that
with
for
place,
oblique light is
exhibits
apochromat
no
an
been
secondary spectrum,
different
which
has
what
red
semi-apochromatic
by assuming
white
the
suitable
more
the
From
the
"
is
purposes
to
the
the
seeing that
reason,
suitable
correction
colour
of
the
refinement, whilst
anyhow,
"
for want
is often
edges
all of
visual
towards
commencing
are
less
the
at
or
for
that
small.
so
here,
focus,
made
advance
"
PLATE
assertion, declaring
corresponding gain
of rendering it more
way
ABBE
usefulness, quality,and
seeing that
purposes,
this
objective so
in
the
not
WITH
colour."
If
such
carried
an
out
"
"
be
off
the
although
the
fog
the
period, that
"absence
in
of
plate,the
fog, unless
the
iris be
intermediate
zones:
great
is at
of the
Some
the
and
outer
separating power
also.
in
the
old
colour,"
time
were
large
made
black
shut
lines appear
down
so
which
by
reduced
by
received
extensively
to
as
means,
measure
same
been
has
trick
the
with
examined
positivelybathed
cut
where
objective
measure
in
this
very
the
considerably
best
of
makers
of
praise
way,
and
for
their
give
the
TESTING
student
the
If
of the
iris to
The
these
student
taken
the
show
the
that those
effects
to
are
the ordeal
of
regarded
an
examination
border
upper
with
one
pure
of the
be discovered
his
but
not
with
suspicion
at
its central
one,
and
simple
the
1
and
centre
clusions
con-
facturers
manu-
devoid
should
colours
primary
they
plate.1
show
line tinted
of colour-
have
objectives
passed
corrected
with
with
JTHS
AND
the
of the
outer
intermediate
whole
:
of
But
to
If
ones.
adjustment
zone
is sufficient
examination
zones.
of the fine
SPHERICAL
FOR
ETC.
time
same
intermediate
touch
and
one
and
definition
the
up
as
conclusion, that
Tyrns
THE
in focus
good
general
until
Abbe
the
"
of the
vaunted
are
by
white
the
and
any
to
by reducing
by the
exactly at
ABERRATION,
is not
on
orange-red.
an
TESTING
to
difficult
that
repeat, in
photography
is rather
of
shortest
or
point is very near
that a good semi-apochromat
turn-over
be
in
the
combinations
should
We
which
class
the
ascertain
to
remarks,
hold
to
and
for
these
together,
for
computer
"
this
studying
it can
fog
of
then
for the
of
desired
"
of
TWELFTHS
pinhole.
summary
be
objectives
greatness
almost
AND
opportunity
should
it
of
length
account
good
very
correction.
focal
EIGHTHS
objective be
if the
is sufficient to
very
the
sharpen
be
of
second
the
notice
very
light
"
was
so
often
because
failed to furnish
the
indifferent
objectiveof
more
good
image presented by
in comparison with
modern
construction.
results
them
that
when
even
used
in the
"
say
with
green
preferred colour
readily obtainable
with
the
TESTING
366
FOR
quality, no
will
black
The
not
dense
so
be
must
It is
just here
with
the
of
case
looking
back
the
is due
true
is
of
lens
of
the
as
will
this it is evident
From
N.A.
over
to be
seems
with
to
down
avail.
zonal
with
all, of
the
the
fog
at
on
the
iris,to
by
old
lenses
(jj)(ii) When
of
for
a
so
very
doing
error
was
colour
one
pass
light of
contrary,
nothing
to
something lacking
that furnished
by a good
In
light
disappears.
such
great
the
case
that
will
sharp image
its
when
the
show
is
of sufficient
once
principal cause
It is obvious
an
fairly,it
ro
condenser
happened
used
aberrations.
the
of
performance
found, if monochromatic
be
fact that
screen
ones,
the
test
central
properly.
Sometimes,
compared
is due
cutting
be
colour.
always
This
off
the
the
induce
the
that
particular
there
being
expressed
the
only, and
to
immersion
an
nearly
the
III.).
aperture
use
back
all,or
from
arises
to
to
objectives it
some
used, that
due
in
stopped
and
others
the
as
is,that
numerical
fill the
to
aperture
This
ocular
is best
portion of
2, Plate
and
contention
our
absolutely necessary
be
is
when
seen
appearance
intermediate
this
plane
same
Figs. I
objective with
In
as
"
instances, be
describe, but
of the
from
rays
the
II. ; and
bow
zone
The
class
whereas
diaphragm,
objective,the
bad
in
second
improvement
an
of the outer
little.
the
to
focussing in
Plate
firstand
are
improvement
an
sharply defined.
perfectperformance
and
all ; but
former
the
crisplydefined
II.),provided they
of the iris
of
is difficult to
look
the whole
field of view, which
fog lying over
off when
the diaphragm is shut sufficiently.
This
is due
injuriouseffect produced by the outer zone
spoiling the
clears
more
the
whole
lens
lines look
appearing like
to
with
sometimes,
must
the
I, Plate
between
touch
slightest
the
definition
bad
for
"
before
the
at
removed
fine
the
with
improvement.
should
lightat
no
direction
is exhibited,
effected
of focus
area
transmit
to
as
this
sensible
any
expected
objective
about
bring
ABERRATION
in
coaxing
lines in the
full
with
even
of
amount
adjustment
SPHERICAL
ance
perform-
computation.
nothing but
extent
too,
will
resolving
power
of
Some
of
the
in
the
terribly lessened.
this fault to
perfection.
oblique light is used, being arranged
TESTING
368
be
(6) Should
OBJECTIVES
computed
for
so
all colours
to
as
when
used
with
compensating
eyepieces ; whilst
The
D.
full
apochromatic
(7) Freedom
(i) When
the
towards
the
small
focus
above
as
intermediate
the
(2) In
of
central
the
as
iris
is moved
opening
outer
part
returns
of
presence
the
of
the
zone
periphery) and
to
centre
secondary spectrum.
with
out
tested
certain
the
periphery.
(4) When
in
focussed
increasingly
goes
to
from
further show"
must
focus
to
coma
or
focus
the
near
margin.
image of an
be obtained
by any
can
up
from
passes
distinct
no
field
at
of
object
means
whatever.
(3) When
the colours
mixed
both
is best
(5) This
in
and
intensity
detected
of
filter is used
or
made
test
are
usually
(i) without
correction-collar,whilst
tint well
out,
and
width.
by repeating
change of tube-length or
any
be
can
pronounced
folding-overpoint
obtained
up
very
definite
no
contrasted
with
the
screen
folding-over
colour.
(6) With
lower
and
upper
direct
either
edges of
right across
the
oblique light,the
or
test-platelines
the
the
of
this not
blue
faintest
and
usual
the
In conclusion
a
then
fluffyjumbling
of
sufficient
visible
the
and
varies
very
may
the
very
often
the
of
the
of
or
much
fault
to
edges
but
tints
more
sum
up
what
lines with
black
of
If
when
the
focus
has
very
should
be
light,and
faintlypale
of
been
outer
the
even
the
prc
general absence
the
particles when
for
the
to
the
use
of
zone
without
general over-correction, or
said, that
oblique light in
the
sharp definition
nebulosity indicates
correction.
direct, the
there
of
want
fluffiness
much
we
of
up
objective,whereas
of
obliquity
sphericalaberration
excessive
shows
any
colour, on
secondary
be
of red.
sort
some
of
trace
should
the
on
field.
the
same
nearly
D (7) With
oblique light of
only
colours
mixture
of
the
perhaps
of both
zones
to
in different
TESTING
of
OBJECTIVES
369
the
reasonable
extent.
this
Although
when
omitted
it is well
applies far
in
more
effectand
to
make
the
This
trial.
is
with
must
be
never
especiallythe
more
case
rather
than with the Abbe
dealing with test-objects
plate,
lie in the medium
the object may
because
distance
below
some
the underside
of the cover-glass,thus increasing its effective
when
without
thickness
who
naturallyis
and
hence
of
indication
any
believe
led to
the
to
same
is in
object
thickness
the
of the
the
observer,
with
contact
it,
cover
his attention.
It remains
curious
to
be
pointed
out
that, further
sometimes
phenomena
there
still,
noticeable
in
are
certain
two
lenses.
to
They
shown
in
ascertain
the
are
used
to
considerations
be
exact
thought
have
led
present, however,
it is not
to
find
little
the
arise
to
to the
come
focus
at
from
peculiarappearances.
astigmatism, but
belief that
subject must
curious, when
into
these
this is not
non-fulfilment
some
the
will not
of
cause
all
the
be
and
case
of the sine-law.
At
sub
considered
phenomena
outer
the
recent
are
judice,for
well
marked,
sharply,but
"
ance"
appear-
perhaps limited
also,so far as can be discerned, to outside the focus (Fig. 3, Plate
III.,only not anything approaching this amount), no difficulty
alike !
to arise in focussing all parts of the field of view
appears
Before
concluding the testing of the -^th there yet remains
be
It is to
another
which
the Abbe
to
use
plate can
put.
all properly
combination
the
if the
lenses
of
ascertain
are
this the lines are
centred.
To
ascertain
put out of focus, using
be
restricted
medium-power
objectivebe
raised
to
the
faintest
ocular.
a
little
It
or
trace" and
if the
matters
lowered.
not
that
to
do
Suppose
this
it is
if the
lowered,
24
SEMI-APOCHROMAT
370
TyrH
the
purple fringes
that
arranged
so
width
the
of
if all the
all the
but
a
ones.
This
so.
components
it takes
confirms
of
the
of
are
taken
lenses
the
well
same
Even
this fault
be
very
to
experience
or
very
to know
returned
fringes
and
will
of the
more
good objectives
triflingdegree,
wJicn
the
to
as
centred
optical axis
one
see
width
same
are
the
to
of the
the
are
suspicion that
to
of
centring.
existence
lines
be
tJie limit
maker.
is
But
are
good.
One
caution
condenser
In
although
In
be
II.,Figs.
actual
and
Figs. 3
been
and
Plate
in
Apochromats
apochromats
because
their
using monochromatic
the
an
and
light
the
the
alteration
presented by a
oblique light are shown,
appearances
and
4 #;/"kr-correction
photographed
B. Testing
direct
to
succession.
of
due
2, the
with
apochromat
the
easily be
very
illustrated,whilst
has
might
Plate
first-class
be
must
should
in -appearance
is
where
be
around
focus
eighth
to
ones
so, the
discovered
objective should
the
point
are
turned
great deal of
and
passed
the
the
the
the
an
is then
below
plate be
out
are
show
but
is
be
position will
they
Let
about
are
Notice
and
TEST-OBJECTS
view.
If
may
fringes
lines.
is to say,
into
come
the
black
upper
become
will
fringes above
; that
width
AND
with
direct
III.,Figs.
with
direct
have
been
and
2,
and
over-
correction
oblique
chosen
light
instead
precludes
construction
oblique light
the
of
in
semi-
necessity
light.
^th
with
Semi-apochromatic
Test-objects
INTRODUCTION
the
Although
lens
any
there
are
reliance
sometimes
their
in
Abbe
test-plateis perhaps
the
severest
trial
used
undergo when
by experienced hands, still
much
do
not
some
place so
microscopists who
of
this
it, partly because
great (and they
upon
of
account
partly on
say, needless) severity,and
can
lacking
fact, to
sufficient
employ
some
experience
pet
slide
for
its
with
use.
which
prefer,
They
they
are
well
markings or such-likc
acquainted and which
presents certain
that experience has taught them
ought to be r;r// shoii'ti by the
best objectives,
fairly ivell by moderately good ones, and not at
INTRODUCTION"
by those
all well
with
do
the
for
objects has
been
the
until
its
the
only
English opticians who
allow
case
objective
an
performance
on
the
explain
to
appearances
presented
feel
we
test-objects,
attention
several
to
their
it
duty
our
little considerations
being carefullynoticed, as
of specimens^we
think, than
use
is not
many
of
deserving
in
This
371
test-
tried.
proceeding
objectives with
reader's
the
TEST-OBJECTS
extensively,still never
testing-rooms
Before
good
that
know
we
plate very
their
leave
OF
decidedly inferior.
amateurs,
use
to
USE
call
to
which
they apply
in the
by
much
of
use
are
more
the
Abbe
test-plate.
first is, what
The
when
know
has
he
this, how
of
idea
has
his
been
obtained
is
it
experience
critical
he
possible
purchasing it ?
advantage before
the
experience gained by using
; if so, what
half-inch
attention
his
The
twelfth ?
He
finds
soon
the
to
of
use
fact
is,he
out
that
does
he
of
much
how
do
to
so.
difficultyto discover
made, or
certainly frequently felt, that
the
given by
All
proceed.
ideal
hand
at
text-bocks
these
to
obtain
Having
him
to
said
to
obtain)
to
easy
done
is the
with
about
instances
the
same
it
take
in
styrax
best
then
him
to
comes
is often
he
fact that
he
he
has
obtains
in
is
student
better
try
to
is
is desirous
to
no
his
real
should
(selectedbecause
or,
of
reallyto expect.
The
made.
nobilis
recommend
we
equals
the
whole
time, as
this, however,
also
mounted
it is
still,in realgar.
get what
appears
result
employing green.
the
photograph
whether
Pinnularia
turning
which
difficulty,
been
or
little information
image
this
meet
XVII., has
of
the
to
has
been
possible (recollectingwhat
altering his tube-length or using his collar adjustment
and after
cover-glassthickness),using white lightfirst,
suit the
that
so,
to
try
specimen
with
no
that
to
on
Complaint
the
from
has
only had
when
point : yet
arise
questions
compare
microscope. To
Fig. i, Plate
one,
this
upon
he
objective
learn, and
his
will
one-inch,
success
what
to
he
has
later
know
not
has
he
two-inch,
sixth, and
his
test
can
his prospects
are
If
image?
Perhaps
a
how
and
he
the
He
shown
should
then
the
in
illustration.
field may
not
usually obtains
must
particularnotice
regard
that
with
as
all
plate mentioned,
He
be
his
compare
will notice
quite in
a
at
first-class inch
impossible
but
and
that
focus
in
one
see
both
and
objective;
he
can
results
should
be made
INTRODUCTION"
372
to
focus
into
come
USE
if the
fine
TEST-OBJECTS
adjustment
objectives,
especiallytwelfths, will
Some
central
and
intermediate
ocular, but
outermost
This
The
best
will
results
will be
more
been
should
so
the
rapidly.
The
the
of
should
seem
as
valve, using
Faint
lines
When
they
laid
out
also
be
to
in
try
now
if
realgar
in evidence
fully
care-
them
instrument
his eye
called)
so
the
if necessary.
should
gemma
obtained
be
and
commercial),
finest image possible,his
the
the
if all is in order.
possible (they
obtain
to
do
in
floor of
the
them
the
reset
sometimes
are
in
on.
accustom
upon
ought
to
as
the
images
settinghis
at
(as they
were
the
in
is not
this later
and
well
mounted
must
if
seen
combination
about
expert
specimen
as
adjustments and
as
results,
best
recognise them
tongues
his
become
to
as
the
obtained
upset
well
sharp image
said
manipulated.
very
field
the
shows
be
focus
produce
once
having
he
compared,
at
but
possible;
of
zones
focussing
no
one.
the finest
to
OF
are
he
former
If he compares
first with
at
experience coming to his aid.
Fig. 4, Plate VIII., using green light,he will not experience
much
difficultyin getting as good an
image ; but to get as
fine
result
find
he
obtain
its
The
lead
the
same
as
that
room
in
green
is,that
unless
the
2, Plate
and
screen
Addenda.
powerful illu-
light.
the
observer
be
in
looked
when
has
been
at
in the
evening
the
occupied by
or
in
well-darkened
little
microscopist some
which
This
peculiarity,
observations.
commencing
is undoubtedly
probably from the
true, arises
inherent
perceptive faculty of the retina is much
eye
is
kept continuously
even
the
It is thought
by
immediately
retina.
for those
in
fact
that
the
the
less when
after
rest
in
illumination.1
subdued
1
practice
constant
of
before
time
difficult to
It is very
his eye
testing objectives,
possibly
may
very
amined
object, for instance, exastray in his opinion. An
just
by day in a well-lightedapartment rarely appears
art
him
Fig.
blue-green
with
equal
next
the
in
explained
as
in
seen
employ
must
minant,
that
as
who
It is
some
before
moot
express
observers
that
commencing)
admit,
point,we
belief in
is
its
smoking during
apt to spoil the
and
one
that
observations
sensitiveness
is not
acute
easy
to
admit
(or
of
decide,
that it
INTRODUCTION"
if
Then
student
The
disaster.
phenomena
human
continued
and
in doubtful
always prefer to
combinations
the
only by
dint
the
of
pitfall is the
final
exact
do
of
of
one
visual
extensive
very
so, and
he,
even
produced by
opinion.
illumination
of
courts
that
state
to
of
evidently patent,
so
with
image
gives his
he
performance
impression
professional can
compare
before
Another
retains
mind
where
cases,
upon
attempts
he
it is
the
373
making
badly that
practice a
so
there,
which
with
others
more
or
TEST-OBJECTS
test-object and
and
first
OF
examines
then
opinion,
an
pass
USE
will
other
the
at
is of more
observing, which
importance
paramount
with
with
a
a
test-object than
test-plate. A fortunate and
of the light may
show
the
exceptionally fine arrangement
up
of
moment
details in
"
"
believe
make
it is
the
may
reverse
these
"
the
of
performance
for the
This
remark
is
power
on
performance
of
details
But
word
that
all
this
very
it should
that
of possibility
might
not
does
not
do
may
be
one
this cause,
necessitate
ex
at
so
who
so
that
sightbeing
all times.
is,or
he
may
can
other,and
the
the
as
limit
breaking
difference
serious
other
But
if the
lenses,
here
must
of
objectives,even
account
range
his
of
the
when
probably will,affect
defects, although
so
to
as
vice
of
versa.
resolving
into
up
dots
of
objective.
caution
of
combination
Amphipleura
make
that
and
may,
for
so
such
amount
may
with
"
good
strongly applies
the
expected ; whereas
point a bad lighting
very
probably
lines in
so
of
to
as
was
the
to
reveal, so
may
Now
all
strongly against it.
cleared
are
by comparison with the
objectives; for if the lighting be extra
smallest
light and
than
more
being approached,
The
light.
lens
poor
one
fine effect
it is
very
well-known
the
is
other
one,
better
microscopist
judgments
erroneous
good
even
which
just
impress
that
specimen
the
be
be
the
be
merely
become,
avoid
it is
in
from
suitable
here
a
in
to
of
fact
zonal
one
any
lens
It is adviscase
the
prejudicialmanner
the value
alike.
degree, still on
the
quite within
another.
to
of
the
to
suffer
minute
mentioned
affected
misjudging
temporarily affected.
type,
parative
com-
its turn
Owing
given.
lightingso
suitable
so
in
one
forgotten
exact
It is
to
apparent
performance is
faulty arrangement
each
finest
likely only
not
in the
lens
reader
from
owing
to
USE
INTRODUCTION"
374
too, is
eye,
with
so
on
which
has
attention
used
separate
strain
that
rest
As
with
experience
with
the
about
growing
observer
the
in
the
to
expect
of
case
On
generated.
from
is
with
then
in
felt,and
those
other
hand, if the
mind
and
so
know, is
to
so
on,
It
the
are
make
is
Lastly, an
examination
opinion
of
one
some
should
other
not
of
it,
dislike
or
been
has
an
led,
ference
indif-
adjustment of
much
that
so
and
more
the
more
anyho\v, direct
recognised to be good
the
plan
and
which
one
at
attempt
tributed
dis-
student
far better
an
exhibited
this
observe
disgust
careless
objectivesthat
perhaps
of
limits
exhibition,
poor
to
tested
by being
fails to
to
who
effect
the
beyond
question) and
feeling akin
not
other
be
microscopist is
exceptional (perhaps,
even
light,focus,
we
the
weary
it is well
"
to
one
our
If the
very
the
comparison with
by
lens
or
as
in
never
lost
and
with.
dealt
other, to expect
leads
engendered which
objective is
evident
be
see
the
cause
some
details
is
binations
com-
protracted
tired
that
insensible
something
is
beginner, what
the
possibilitywith
disappointment
rather
so
three
or
rapidly grows
eye
will
or
group.
to
to
strained,
great is this
somewhat
objectives,the
become
whole
two
otherwise
of
is
eye
is true, but
well-known,
are
than
the
"
rulings
objective will
without
As
be
series
fatigue may
over
view
nothing
"
in the
experience, so
our
more
extent.
an
that
the
test-objectsit
the
others
In
object in
such
especiallyif the
whether
see
time
same
know
The
employed.
examine
other
to
change
be often
cannot
this
powers
especially
the
at
the
mean
the
that
instance,we
an
we
weary,
greatly strained
series.
given
we
So
to
grows
in
of
state
overlooked
eye
not
changes
The
question
no
the
as
very
also,to
with
ones
is
not
is
There
the
glass,which
be
be
performance
opinion.
not
must
off
be
to
final
its
try moderate
others, to
expressing
perception rapidly go
the attention
to
the
fatigue.
to
and
"
of
any
factor
respect
if the
and
as
before
details
the
of
good
so
TEST-OBJECTS
testing a lens, if
quite
OF
forming
vioitnl
other
;""
lime, and
person.
be
pet specimen.
it subscribes
the rays
is
final effect. That
this is so
the
that
when
the
iris
flash
such
contribution
diaphragm, the
all
out
of
Traviss's
of
out
the
placed beneath
box
of
central
its back
at
the
through
the
opposite
internal
the
the
of the
zone,
method
observer
hesitation
in
these
from
effected
the
in
better
the
or
to
zone
of the
aperture
"
the combination
than, it does
now,
the
might
asked, if the
nature
when
1
This
mention
rays
added
to
is usintfwhat
the
in
the
perform
not
and
as
till then,
in
others, why
are
is called
be
annular
of
adding
then
used
as, if not
well
zones
are
it has
they
See
not
be
the
when
at
been
full
better
alone
reallycall
we
such
light.
to
attained
objective,that
can
two
improving
thus
full
justly
the
be
no
and
the
from
so
passing,
of
zone
be
can
when
ever
central
be
this
poorness
definition
in the
objective being
however
from
of
area
inner
and
there
can
lie
mind
first instance, is
improvement
must
shall
when
by closing
The
two.
derived
those
and
in the
present
future, if such
the
"
produced
area
in the
are
issuing
middle
doubt
Hence
The
existing knowledge,
performance of this offending
is added
When
that
the
the
when
seen
suggested, may
deteriorating effect"
mentioned.
lens
of
the
fallingoff
our
its contribution
of
second.
the
outer
off
stop
removed.1
with
no
pronounced
the
"spoiling
already
ones
can
the
to
with
in
to
the outer
be
be
occluding portion
being
of
attributed
inner
"
affirmingthat
is used
rays
there
for
1/3), should
objective as
ocular
(cut
metal
in
size
the
tried.
of detail,so
introduction
aperture
of
is the
absent
conspicuously
the
"
which
definition
its
exact
be
diaphragm
page
critically
compared
the conjoint action
sufficient amount
-the
lens, the
is
of
ment
experi-
may
made
see
"
zones
iris
those
to
zones
in this way,
outer
way
substage condenser,
intermediate
additional
wheel
illumination
wheel) being
image formed
the
of
the
and
looking
the
or
similar
An
another
in
Stop,
cardboard
definition
obtained.
matter
Expanding
black
the
test-objectimmediately
fog entirely disappears, and
the
once
producing dark-ground
(or
still ruin
details of the
true
is at
with
dealing
is cut
sudden,
definition
excellent
TEST-OBJECTS
others
the
with
by
OF
USE
INTRODUCTION"
376
an
often
deteriorating
always
Addenda.
cut
by
off
suitable
read
or
will suffice
to
has
student
would
the
by
But
the
by
the
from
coming
of
form
idea
an
numerical
on
be
cannot
will
add
may
the
question ?
of
spoiling effect
TTroVotf"f
of
if alone employed.
lens
the
in
in
zone
the
those
of
gather
when
outer
inner
pellucida,only
shown
be
cannot
intermediate
and
question
then
and
marked,
performance
as
it varies
in
ene
offers
another,
in different
lens
of
one
in
of
at
the
of
means
that
with
all
of
areas
retaining this
manufacturers,
comparison
to
come
will
matter
and
theory
reader
in the performance
improvement
make,
by objectives of modern
the
exhibited
as
zone,
forgotten
we
now
this
from
rays
present
Amphipleura
in
be
zone
the
issuingfrom
never
understood
The
here
aPart, which
action
by the conjoint
to
still it must
that
dots
incn
an
added
the
We
"
better
of
in
area
"
ones,
be
exhibition
talk of the
about
zone
produced by
are
we
outer
already said,
have
we
images
be
ture,
aper-
tolerated
it demands
illumination, seeing
when
intermediate
and
the central
outer
bination
com-
so
of the bad
employment
allowing the
reply, that whilst
the
chapter
such
that
show
selective
This
the
will refer to
oblique
this
what
of
back
the
at
377
of the objective
doing the resolving power
the advantage gained
be thereby enormously reduced, and
of oblique lightentirely lost.
use
be the advantage of emcan
the querist may
add, what
ploying
for
moment,
placed
diaphragm
moment's
TEST-OBJECTS
OF
USE
INTRODUCTION"
so
will
of
the
is very
its better
exhibited
by
distinguishing first-class
to
computations from those of inferior design ; but it remains
be hoped that
eventually improvements will be effected of so
will be designed and
made
high an order, that a combination
will
that
work
all
exceed
must
we
find
we
Some
full aperture,
expectations
It is evident
then
at
them.
from
content
For
of
what
in
the
moment.1
has
been
ourselves
this
and
said,
with
purpose,
attention,especiallyof late,has
such
at
the
examining
in
been
addition
manner
as
present
to
time
objectives as
to
the
plate
Addenda.
SEMI-APOCHROMAT
378 TVrn
AND
previouslyspoken about,
for
selected
threefold
combination
as
of
the
images by
the
by
object :
whole,
outer
combined
diatoms
certain
to
of
test
employed, being
the performance of the
are
satisfyourselves
as
only, and
definition
zone
action
to
TEST-OBJECTS
to the
middle
the
the
to
internal
and
rendering
produced
alone
ones
employed.
Test-objects
pellucida.
Amphipleura
indicate
outer
the
first-rate
compensating
from
oiled
an
IV., for
honestly
have
test
the
one
to
as
selective
of the
use
of white
cone
the
approximately
about
conjunction
critical
N.A.
same
"f
yWoinF
with
distinctly rendered,
light
the
as
incn
an
apart
in
Fig. 2,
requiresoblique light,but certainlydistinctly
not
found
never
fail us,
this test
examined
world.
the
in
the
But
make
to
as
and
this
test
we
of
performance
y^ths,representativemanufactures
of
large number
full
lines
have
we
say
in
of
visible ;
that
We
visible.
makers
to
also
and
the
image by
ocular, and
transverse
just be
Plate
whole,
objective is employed
condenser
objective,the
should
the
diatom
only.
zone
When
x
rendering
of
this
use
objective as
the
of
performance
We
"
may
a
very
two
one,
first to have
:
a
precautions are to be observed
good specimenf
and secondly that the lightshall not be inany way oblique. With
for the student
obtain
the
to
respect to the first,it is best
assistance
of
friend
some
objective,to
wanting
marked.
They
are
pick
and
"f
Ttnrbinr
absolutely
Concerning
the
an
^ncn
him
out
One
the
be
second, seeing
that
any
see,
not
still nevertheless
should
It
to
lines, although
are
not-found-
and
extremely difficult
apart,
distinct.
well-tried
kinds.
of two
has
who
than
more
well
mounted
in
the
and
marked
realgar.
objective,if it be
^th
oblique light,the
di;
is distinctly
that the illumination
be exercised
to
care
by this
simply a precaution to prevent a poor combination
for a good one.
and
unfair assistance"
accidental
being mistaken
worthy
of
will
the name,
the
show
lines
with
"
We
admit
the
test
is
severe
one,
the
but
it has
second-class
the distinctness
remarkable
not
objective,
with
which
i;
only
it docs
so.
SEMI-APOCHROMAT
T\TH
; but
quite so
it
them,
will
combination
good
true, fails
is
them
379
almost
type of
perfectly,if not
manufacture, while showing
that
particular of furnishing a
depict
second-class
TEST-OBJECTS
AND
just
in
will soon
learn
to
crisp definition which the observer
immediately recognise. A low-power ocular should be used.1
for testing the performance of the outer
To
the diatom
use
and
neat
specimen
zone,
the
by
him
by
sought for
discreetlydefined, when
follows
the
make
what
intelligible,
and
To
remarks
the
read
the
condenser
oblique beam
spectra, in
at
1
This
the
of
component
any
such
same
not
may
occur
at
for
years.
be
taken
for
to
ascertain
time
is
the
to
to
and
the
slip
of
the
diffraction-
lie in
the
field
use
of
"
for
of caution
word
requested
two
quite unknown
objective suddenly
an
well
experimentally whether
to disintegrate,
commencing
granted, almost
in its components.
commenced
any
If then
dots
direction
the
green
drawback
well-known
commence
lines,it may
now
apochromatic system
decaying being
It may
If
service
of great
an
the
and
beam, shall
direct
moment?
is also
test
the
is
cover,
arranged that
with
the
tioned,
men-
particularmanner.
reader
the
to
explained,
light so
of
company
and
one
there
as
oiled
be
show
to
in
before
purpose.
should
examination
under
to
the
to
friend
and
obtaining
upon
chapter devoted
the
ascertained
been
has
that
selected
be
must
this type of
the
to
or
show
to
ceases
certain, that
bination.
com-
user"
trouble
must, however, be
has
added.
should
eye
be
for
in
some
the
every
eye
the
so
to
is
"
effect of this
central
by moving
met
object to
in
others.
The
only
which
It may
the
the
mirror
has
is troublesome.
objectaround
substage arrangements.
is astigmatic,
by
than
is that
which
beam,
the
observer
better
"
the
axis, instead
drawback
is meant,
to
The
sees
happen that
ideal of having
to
this
objects
the
the
best
three
in the area
of the back
lens at one
and
dioptric,
in
which
the
meridian
moment)
particular
same
astigmatic eye
be astigmaticthen, this plan suggested of moving
observer
If an
worst.
of its utility.
objectinstead of the iris aperture loses much
beams,
sees
the
of the
meridians
positionfor the
the
shift of the
usually be
interferingwith
is when
exposed
immediate
The
moment.
same
altered
can
difficulty
of
never
operations : doing
commencing
the
be
two
spectral and
one
is that
SEMI-APOCHROMAT
380 Tym
dots
should
outer
zone,
show
them,
AND
TEST-OBJECTS
be
in
and
to
the
skilled
XV.,
to
of
that
different
of
learner
the
remark,
deliver
another
objective they
light it
is recommended
with
reader
an
when
circumstances,
form
in
shrewd
question by
well
lens
before
that
even
judgment
any
the
to
of
light
will enable
opinion as to the
mere
glance, but
performance
its
compare
without
know
idea
blue
amplifications.Practice
will do
master
the
to
will
in
furnish
correction
is this
lenses
VI.,
the
under
see
the
is but
never
Plate
with
of
who
true
I, Plate
to
Fig.
tester
excellence
so
2,
expect
employed
with
in
magnifications
is
one
but
nothing
as
Fig.
different
what
and
well.
performs
with
comparing
To
obtain
blue
the
prismatic illuminating
by
(page 170),or to use the blue-green films made
apparatus
which
Kodak,
are
plained,
are
fully exexceedingly good, and which
with
the
employ
to
illumination
Navicula
the
aperture
outer
this
the
as
the
this
we
when
mean,
objectivethe
The
zone.
denotes
diatom
"
objective. By
superiorityof
test-objectis
using
is
for
one
full
be
tc
of
zones
of the
cone
closed
to
cut
an
same
off the
one
to
excellent
an
Addenda.
intermediate
iris must
needed
amount
the
required,in
the
show
to
one
chromatic
correction
of the
elimination
explanation
It is
planes
These
to
that
arc
two
have
called
the
respectively. Some
better
dot
than
the
image,
equally well.
It is
to
"black-dot"
and
that
another
a
matter
is,the black-dot
to
seems
of
some
white-dot"
the"
always
objectivesseem
other"
whilst
apochromatic. S
an
V.
well
focus
in
secondary spectrum
Plate
matter
of
diatoms
be
t".
show
effect
able
difference
to
of
or
im;.
die
im
the
white-
render
opinion
b
which
finer
the
betokens
this part of
it is worth
for what
finest
this
opinion.
Navicula
the
perfect if
and
the
mentioned,
the
of
the
outer
is indeed
combination
zone
a
with
for
difficult,
to
make
practice and
of
home
opticians at
its
"
several
at the
use
"
'called
are
areas
walls,
shown
as
appearance
in
"
is made
Here
is
with
in
us
if any,
arrived
at.
great favourite
; but
its
is rather
use
considerable
is what
by
has
by
amount
shown
with
in
Fig. I,
focus";
black-dot
"the
been
obtains
if covered
as
those
to
that
questionably
termed
little
six
very
in
which
example,
many
also
focus
exact
the
valve
is mounted
ourselves
"
each
little white
dot
appears
as
of
requires much,
very
similar
Fig. 2, Plate
especially noticeable
realgar,and
of this
indeed
bounded
seen
taken
"
indicative
perfection is
the
to
for
dots
effect,"where
white-dot
foreign
is
accordance
abroad
utilitya
appear,
black
minute
conversely there
the
different
"
It may
XIV.,
being
diatom
as
appearances," according
circumscribed
"
it of real
that
One
plicates
experience is necessary.
thing that comis
the
that
it
first
fact
anyhow, at
presents
moment.
Plate
well
as
structure
that
This
"
these
in
iris before
with the
closing down
Pleurosigrna angulatum.
further
involve
one
poor
would
of
effect
are
many
381
leaning ourselves
black-dot
the
to
"
have
we
computation, and
the
With
but
book,
our
minute
diatom's
the
representationsof
decide
formation
the
upon
TEST-OBJECTS
To
computation.
discussion
theoretical
to
AND
SEMI-APOCHROMAT
Tym
of
; there
is
which
we
exceedingly
this
no
minute
because
six-sided
white
errors
certain
focussing.
curious
and
of which
and
space
personally believe
in
minute
are
no
really
More
the
distinct
diatom
black
due
to
dot,
very
especiallydo
we
false
be
exercised
show
them,
and
the
magnification be sufficiently
an
great. For this purpose
enlarged negative,obtained with an
excellent 2-mm.
in Plate VII.,
apochromatic by Leitz, is shown
several
where
be plainly seen
in the boundary walls which
can
to
SEMI-APOCHROMAT
382 Tym
in
white
arc
TEST-OBJECTS
particularinstance, because
shows
negative photograph which
this
of
is that
AND
the
ment
enlarge-
them
better
than
objectivewill
no
shows
the most
be grey,
the
by
but
render
black, and
the
smaller
the
black
the
perfect rendering of
It should
dot.
of
amount
not
cutting down
diaphragm
It is very
be
may
called
trust
can
with
several
are
the
that
upon
to
diaphragm
viewing
mentioned,
the
of
its
disquieting matter,
the only
discussion
; but
the
against
by
which
to
hexagonal
own
furnished
the
the
is
of
wrath
papers
reader
the
focus
exact
then
seen
'20, because
on
effects
that
by
this
reference
in
mounted
specimen
think
we
It will be
i
hold
is
several
upon
referred
the
for
information.3
When
but
and
appearances
to
very
layer ! This
good deal of
seems
opinion. It will be
considerably closed,
really good
black-dot
explanation
form
to
are
images
means
the
to
previously
realgar,as
white
true
1*40
appearance,
really performs
chapter
the
on
strongly ;
at
of
use
as
aperture
an
the
substage
with
used
Londcnscr
that with an
N.A.
ro
diaphragm, it will be understood
an
objective of greater aperture, the working aperture is found by adding
the apertures of the objectiveand condenser
together and taking the mean.
Thus
this
becomes
2*40, the
1*40 -f ro
speaking of a 1*40 objective,
of which
the real working aperture of the objectiveunder
mean
1*20
=
consideration.
*
It
is
not
certainlyshow
years
of
little curious
the
white
"
effect
observation, however,
no
the
Journal
that
we
"
some
better
otherwise
than
feel bound
better
the
the
rendering
Aftci
that, on
the
of
the
limits,of the
R.M.S.
dot:'
black
to assert
obj"
good
very
"
black-dot
white
one.
AND
I'jTH SEMI-APOCHROMAT
384
illuminating
the
When
arc
oblique
lightpreviouslyreferred
axis,
moment
these
which
light,offers
The
they
of
to
lines
the
assistance
the
use
of
should
obtain
than
Surirella
be
in definition
is
gemma
It should
be
It affords
fine
shutting
of
the
optical
into
up
vicing in
sharpness
employing white
from
mounted
some
to
as
have
in the
Plate
VIII.
is afforded
think
some
binations.
com-
realgar,and
explanation
that
by
Addenda.
see
useful
inferior
in
Amphipleura,
polarising prism,
the
broken
are
distinguishinggood
upon
around
especially when
seen,
specimens
easier
were
are
means
the
article
of
those
with
smallness
to) is turned
when
arrive
dots
minute
extremely
with
will
TEST-OBJECTS
easily obtainable
and
marked,
well
mounted
diatom.
in
realgar.
substage
required before
combination
is
with
seen
blue
colour
it for that
purpose,
it
centre
be
correction
of
an
as
zone
its
use
is well
this
show
still,the
1
think
we
and
white
it
outer
as
is
obtained, the
It is best
art.
optician's
Plates.
to
favourite
in
England
for
like
do not
objective. We
be misleading, seeing
may
well
as
the middle
lying lengthways
marking
"
note
constriction
interior
effect
zones
cut
and
of
carefullyfocussed
well-defined
If much
necessary.
Hence
perfectimage is obtained.
as
a
test-objectfor ascertainingwhether
for
corrected.
In good specimens used
the white
purpose,
of each
centre
so-called
examined
the
to
well-defined
merely regard
the
of
used
off before
we
scale
testing the
that
specimen
poor
be
to
black-dot
good
ought
Podura
The
iris
should
exclamation,"
with
around
not
end
down
when
the
closely
good objective,should
; and
its neck
abruptly,
but
further
be
seen
with
specimens are of old date, and consequently mounted
rather thick covers.
r
for several ,'5
The microscopist is warned
of this,
"
work
not
being too small
through this thickness, their working distance
with
It is usually necessary,
before obtaining a well-defined
image, even
to get over
homogeneous
objectives,to considerably shorten the "draw"
Most
of these
"
this extra
thickness
of
cover.
SEMI-APOCHROMAT
ATH
prolonged a long
it almost
fades
focussing (Figs.
be
3, Plate
and
This
away.
should
notes," but
"
385
delicatelytapering off
the note,
down
way
imperceptibly
all the
with
TEST-OBJECTS
AND
in
seen
careful
with
some
See
VIII.).
visible
be
not
may
until
explanation
to
Plate.
what
mentioned
have
perhaps may
the
classical
the
still
of
test-objects,
following
some
them
little profit,
used by us with no
enumerate
we
so
in the hope they may
be of considerable
peculiarities,
in the subject.
those interested
Although
we
obtusa.
Nitzschia
that
obtain
to
light,the
in
all the
getting
shall
dots
the
that
so
When
with
show
these
power
of resolution
be
well
white
ordinary
afforded
by
illumination,
the
to
saying which
the
to
as
small, the
so
in focus
dots
do
we
is
very
refer
not
of
resolution
Inasmuch
these
this diatom
to
green
I, Plate
of
their
service
to
specimen is
of oblique
but
the
extra
light is
needed
taken
with
excellence.
See
IX., was
great
is
the
not
but
flat,and
to
expect
the
see
It is
moment.
same
to
resolve,in
but
showing of the striae,
dots.
exceedingly minute
anything
the
and
one
diatom
difficult
strise into
microscopist must
at
with
Plate.
Boeckii
Brebissonia
of
use
Fig.
exquisite definition.
Reichert
2-mm.
apochromatic
explanation
been
for very
a
have
difficult diatom
good
called
resolved
is needed
care
marked.
is
first-class
transverse
be
should
experience,this
our
well
is
with
examined
In
"
be
details
of
many
an
are
the
exceedingly
taken
with
photograph. Fig. 2, Plate IX., was
See explanation
apochromat by Leitz.
superior 2-mm.
difficult object to
a
very
Plate.
to
Synedra
crystallina.
"
This
diatom
is
fairlyeasy
to
see
in
these
broken
into
sharply
interrupted lines ; but to show
up
well-corrected
defined
dots
quadrangular
requiresan exceedingly
taken
with
a
remarkably fine
objective. Fig. 3, Plate IX., was
See explanation to Plate.
apochromatic by Koristka.
r5-mm.
test for
Cymbella gastroides {small variety)is an excellent
purity of
the colour
1
The
c.d.m.
late
=
Van
'0003937
Heurck
combination.
the
says
English
in.
10
The
lines
dots
a
are
microns.
fine
26
'01
mm.
should
or
27
be
to
25
shown
c.d.m.'
386
less
or
more
as
the
portion of
off to
taper
little
apochromatic.
dots
See
with
The
"
till the
Plate
in
shown
as
apochromatic by
Koristka
above
the
white
Hartnack
light.
2-mm.
Plate.
to
of
the
zig-zag rows
of
of first-class homogeneous
using
combination
be very
which
X.,
using
excellent
an
advent
when
even
nature
true
distinctlyfrom
very
haze,
These
photomicrograph.
"
out
explanation
discovered
not
was
taken
was
Smithii.
Navicula
stand
be free from
IX.,
Plate
the
in
seen
"
should
and
background
well
point
TEST-OBJECTS
in the central
rectangularnearly everywhere, save
and
the median
diatom
near
raphe, where
they
markings
Fig. 4,
AND
SEMI-APOCHROMAT
T\TH
that
is
circumscribed,
distinctly
taken
was
mentioned.1
with
See
the
1*5
explanation
Plate.
to
firma
Navicula
is
rather
them
than
the
in
require a first-class
with
oblique white
round,
distinctly,even
in
seen
as
by
taken
with
2-mm.
light. See
chromatic
apo-
explanation
Plate.
to
Epithemia
turgida
plainly visible
is
rows
Fig. 2,
the
the
matter
When
about.
of
; but
is
their
have
we
test-objectin
exact
shape
never
been
slightlyout of focus, as
Plate
which
in
their
able
in
the
the
dots
very
are
doubly arranged
quite certain
right-hand portion
to
circular,whereas
be
in the
centre
of
angular
trialmost
they look sharp, they appear
of
end
in the left-hand
; but at a third plane, as shown
photograph,where they are just going out of focus, they appear
specimen
where
attention
to this
paying some
lean towards
the opinion that they should
be always
matter, we
shown
angular
circular, although it is difficult to explain their trias
in the
central
A
photo
portion.
appearance
1
for
whose
markings.
whose
power
calls attention
Hate
After
Mr.
it
and
part round
to
The
is characteristic
Dr.
Van
of the smaller
stated
type.
the
shows
photograph
additional
shown
in
the
text.
The
severated
and
guide
to
as
the
See
in
of
account
on
the
Plate
their
Messrs.
rhomboides.
Navicula
they
able
could
be
do
so,
to
of
"
We
"
have
no
seen
3-mm.
with
Fig. I, Plate XII., taken
apochromatic by Zeiss. This diatom
colour
correction
Eupleuria
Diatomaceas,
found
the
this
fuzzy edges.
lens, and
is
irreproachable
well
semi-apochromat, hence
in
little black
exhibits
is very
the
useful for
explanation to Plate.
pulchella (Arnott). This diatom, which
does
"
by
when
many
books
devoted
examined
by direct
object, giving
the
to
light
subject
appears
but
faint
a
exceedingly transparent
With
secondary markings with full aperture.
very
white
adjusted
oblique light (of great obliquity)at
meridian, very
minute
pronounced, extremely
of
studding the quadrangular sections
seen
2,
and
See
mentioned
seem
the
in
this purpose.
focus
Fig.
belief
great
well
of
Blakeley respectively.)
of
They
photograph
to
been
have
into
up
diffusion
; any
closely
however.
This
dots
as
of
roughly ruled,
in one
point, viz. that
test-objectsave
without
look
should
distinctlycircumscribed
betokens, in our
opinion, a finely corrected
diatom
for, if
broken
difficult
interest
Herbert
2-mm.
entirely invisible.
be
may
micrograph
photo-
Leitz
series
if
as
appear
great transparency
they
objective,and
XII.
(Further details
photographed by
light,a
green
extremely
are
fine
carefully searched
when
been
never
delicate, and
very
are
have
we
The
the floor of
that
afford
whole
the
dis-
be
can
Plate.
to
They
belief
effects
objective.
the
oblique
lines.
arranged transverse
and
engender the
dots, but
of
to
exceedingly
seen,
of
aid
the
with
explain
these
an
In
be
may
narrow,
better
which
explanation
solea."
Cymatopleura
necessary
with
taken
387
chosen
of
excellency
TEST-OBJECTS
been
general sharpness
the
was
is very
with
neatness
apochromatic.
has
effects
three
the
showing
the
AND
SEMI-APOCHROMAT
Tyrn
of
the
as
an
trace
of
carefully
a
points
which
not
the
certain
may
be
object
with
nation.
illumicomposed, but they are better shown
green
Excepting with very well-marked
specimens these can
be easily overlooked, and
to
they are
especially troublesome
photograph. Fig. 3, Plate XII., taken with an excellent
2-mm.
seems
apochromatic, manufactured
by Hartnack.
See
explanation
to
Plate.
Nitzschia
sigma
is yet another
SEMI-APOCHROMAT
TyrH
388
objective.
We
do
refinement
of
the
large),but
intermediate
The
defined, no
stand
out
Plate
XIII.
the
should
See
explanation
from
varies
adds,
striae,about
a
but
yVh,
fourteen
sixteen
to
of
^w^tn
these
up
each
to
combination
their
having
of
axis
lines
"dots"
in
will
resolve
see
them
illumination
and
show
be
according
to
the
Fig. 2,
Plate
at
end
the
unusual
illuminant
made
to
in the
to
this
obtains
the
Navicula
From
finely
or
more
be noted
instance
with
that
by the
most
between
"
dots
these
them,
"
in the
black, whilst
in
those
illustration
one
this
diatom
with
Jth,
and
as
photograph,
some
instance
one
breaking
diatoms
"effects"
not
resolve
to
secondary
white
or
look
centre
specimen
able
"
one
These
shown
are
approach thereto,in
objectives,apochromatic
spaces
in
"appearances"
two
the
been
never
It should
in
usually about
secondary markings
Synedra crystallina),
black
as
appear
Those
due
course,
of
these
necessary.
both
white, the
are
are
nearest
several
with
difficult. A
shape, some
focus, and
XXI.
have
We
easily seen
are
segments,
(as
verse
trans-
Green
ordinary acceptation of the word.
light
well
if
but
them
used
to
fairly
strongly oblique ;
really well and
neatly defined, oblique blue-violet
transmission
about
tenth metres)
(maximum
4700
can
being, of
(see Index).
apart,
length,
The
the
markings
one
its
measurement
their
to
powerful
and
found
valve"
Owing
striae.
Heurck,
into
form
being
common,
line,is somewhat
should
greater
the
Van
inch
an
distinctly rectangular in
as
and
central
Plate.
to
50 c.d.m.
to
20
break
to
corrected
fairly
are
especially under
more
is very
"
he
the
be
of
perfection
objective are
dots
Lealand.
"
the
extreme
one
as
examination.
Powell
when
of
TEST-OBJECTS
requiring the
oblique light (as the dots
of
use
zones
it
regard
not
one
as
AND
are
up
of
not
think
the
due
to
lines
to
be
"
usually
as
resolution
the
case
of
with
cuspida.
what
has been
that
Synedra
TESTING
is
have
light,we
clean
be
for
object
test
APOCHROMAT
2-MM.
the
outer
of
zone
is
always found,
sharp.
and
PLATES
WITH
TVth only,
oblique
as
image should
The
imperative.
389
be
used
for
specimen can
suitable
and
is perhaps more
i^th, but is mostly employed
a
it is fullydescribed.
for a Jth,amongst
the test objects for which
of
Pygidium
the
Flea.
This
"
"
"
REMARKS
APOCHROMATS
TESTING
ON
LENGTH
FOCAL
VARYING
with
formed
by
true
practically
when
images
Abbe
J-IN.
with
dealing
of
test-objectsof
remarks
TViN.
TO
apochromats, to
absolutelycolourless, and
are
OF
1-40
Plate
speaking
them
TO
1-30
FROM
the
when
It is customary,
N.A.
OF
with
the
believe
the
upon
this
all kinds
Abbe
the
say
is
if the
plate the
Professor
Abbe
achromatisation
of
apochromatic system, only claims that seven-eighths to nineof the secondary spectrum
tenths
are
entirely and completely
his
eliminated.
an
the
When
possibilitythat
one-tenth
eighth
or
matter
of very
it
of which
considerable
be
seen,
felt.
Some
whether
or
consider
able
have
we
this trace
it would
be
all colour
show
to
this residual
just spoken.
difference
be
might
of
should
faint to
should
seems
opinion amongst
of colour
too
It
be
make
be
onea
those
possible
its presence
absent,even
this microscopical
of
obliterates,or
the
by
lay
law
any
apochromats
of
of
the
with
the
the
in
repute
the
firm
of
manufacturer's
of
that
powers
the
upon
nearly, if
very
world, and
plate,whilst
same
classes
the
When
eye.
down
the
covers
others
opticians
"
we
do
both
be
of
find
unobservable
differ,it is hard
We
matter.
not
"
have
absolutely
some
do
tested
every
show
this
the
maker
trace
Two
from
specimens even
magnificent representations of
not.
to
all
in
APOCHROMAT
2-MM.
390
this
WITH
particularrespect when
examinations
image
produced by
is that
"
if
"
rather
to
always
such
support
be
the
visible ; but
one
it is
be
can
the
that
such
degree of refinement
positive in one's assertions.
the
question of chromatic
speak than ourselves.
always
not
better
than
bination
com-
goes
of colour
sJiould
difficult matter,
very
of
which
we
At
this
point
speak,
for
the
one), which
residuals
correction
repeated
colour-rendering
colourless
obviously a
called
minute
to
theory
plate. After
thought (although
the
(in contradistinction
the
on
sometimes
the better
perhaps)
other
have
we
used
TEST-OBJECTS
then
quite
leave
must
we
those
be
to
better
with
able
to
As
of the black
lines of
regards the definition of the particles
the plate,nothing should
be left that is desired.
Of
the
course
field is not
flat anymore
sometimes
we
the
absence
of
amount
of
the
have
of
with
thought
the
the
loss of
having focussed
scmi-apochromat, indeed,
flatness
when
fluffiness,
even
lines and
after
all
than
definition
curtailed
more
than
more
the
and
is
absence
when
returning
moderate
of
all
doubling
direct
to
with
and
; but
light
be
spicuous
con-
REMARKS
FOR
DEFINITION,
TEST-OBJECTS
APOCHROMATIC
TVTH" ETC., OF
1*30 TO
USING
ON
THE
difference
itself appears
diatom
colour
most
cases
for which
light be
if the
tinted
exact
is
to
behold.
enthusiast
must
the
It is this
in this line
and
that
makes
of research
With
their
; but
so
use
whilst
the
over
turn-
in
an
apo-
little valve
object
an
the
; hence
is corrected
colourless
The
with
distinctlyapple-green.
perfectly white
by the
remarkable
one
accordance
N.A.
monochromatic.
not
combination
the
it appears
in
1-40
produced
When
WITH
ETC.,
beauteous
coveted
saying
is
by
the
so, still
we
if
duty point out what wo have mentioned
tion,
with monochromatic-green illuminamicroscopist be content
the
details and
in the actual
difference
definitionof the
in
object,as
is not
before, that
shown
always
so
immediately apparent
and
scmi-apochromatic,
distinp
from
be
they
\vhich
in
of
and
in
takes
easily
for the
object
the
"
little
is
"
and
light
an
"
tongues
the
If
tongues.
It
marked
light
does
invisible
to
diatom,
the
Plate
XXI.
tongues
so
as
to
be
The
student
employed,
source
the
the
itself: it
apochromat.
An
good
of
that
linear
itself between
in the
field,are
in mind
of
source
image
vary,
however,
has
up
of
oblique
made
of
his
his
he
with
no
of light
matter
find
case
the
on
student
fully,
care-
very
the
3,
hand-
in
field too
optical system
what
so
car.
this
mirror
one
Fig.
The
condenser
will
the
at
in
them.
easy
down
all in focus
been
quite
quite
nearly everywhere
in
the
well-
often
and
photograph
that
ana
mission
trans-
with
it is not
markings
bear
the
ings
mark-
plainer still.
perfectlyflat and
the
portion
possible,otherwise
green
seen
Further,
attempt
seen
each
especiallywhich
blotchy blemishes, very
portion
cone,
as
that
diatom
positions between
shift
oblique light must
should
can
much
in
test-
central
more
filled as
brilliantly
as
aperture,
them, and
upon
and
occasionally
"
with
show
several
his
union
Using oblique
now
this
examining
shown
markings are
in
and
the
common
aware,
are
sufficient
On
arranging
seen
one
time.
same
magnifier, the
in
we
of
light that
the
or
of
case
is very
XVII.
illumination.
the
with
restricted
more
If viewed
striae upon
some
direct
arrange
entire
and
with
the
sharply defined,
should
be
and
show
not
in
light (maximum
powerful blue-violet
obliquelycast be employed, instead
specimen,
also
noticed
styrax
4,700) very
all the markings in question are
searching to find
requires some
green,
so
several
have
frequently to
are
as
and
condenser
3\th, however,
immersion
in
nobilis,Fig. I, Plate
oiled
the
i\th.
clean
appear
Pinnularia
in
"
"
is very
to be
colours
to
far
so
of
zone
be
diatom, which
known,
outer
tongues
three
mounted
ready
difference
The
can
difference
the
to
semi-apochromat.1
This
"
procured
realgar
of
the
refers
only
contradistinction
place with
major.
Navicula
called
of
expected, however,
fault, seeing that the image
It is
union
by the
apochromat
be
may
that
used, and
apochromat
true
difference,however,
one
images.
two
light be
what
formed
which
the
the
and
is
and
illumination.
is not
is
spoken,
brilliancyof
monochromatic
There
merit.
not
striking if white
TEST-OBJECTS
semi-apochromat
equal
have
we
the
the
of
performance
if
WITH
APOCHROMAT
2-MM.
392
bright
it is in favour
of
the
APOCHROMAT
2-MM.
dark
to
TEST-OBJECTS
satisfactorily.Different
see
and
performance,
observer
the
best
the
obtain
to
WITH
objectiveswill
393
in their
vary
will
results, for
satisfactorily.
Navicula
lyra
should
magnificently defined
look
may
the
especiallywell
otherwise
show
the
of the
(Figs.2
and
Surirella
ought
remarkably
little
but
or
With
respect
it is
light inherent
of
form
to
more
about
an
effect
with
made
in
should
the
neck
secondary spectrum,
interior
of
the
note,
be
to
formance
per-
especiallywell
iris
than
proper
(Fig.4,
Plate
the
be
seen
performance
to
apochromat,
perfectand
in most
dots
without
VIII., and
Fig.
compared).
afforded
that
the
focus
further
no
test-objects,
reasonable
only
defined,and
their
at
it should
the
well
tinted
apparent
white
additional
with
; but
apochromat
the
furnished
in connection
possible
for
definition),
not
of the
appear
black
which
the
to
be
can
them
to
closing of
I.,with
XVI
2, Plate
colour
as
to
VIII.).
gemma
intensely and
any,
semi-apochromat,
3, Plate
cone
constriction
of the absence
because
which
ought
white
pure
fine
with
dots
readily produce
very
the
and
full
as
consistent
the
(PlateV.).
should
scales
of
course
use
objects
of
to
iris may
little
minute
these
and
be
colour,and
no
recollected
be
it should
but
in
show
when
speaking of
semifirst-class
of the
that
expect
its
mation
infor-
usually
in every
cases
the increase
perfect
more
all
way,
bine
com-
beautifully
more
rendered
image.
Nitzschia
singalensis.
This
"
tests
severe
and
for
for
taxes
is difficult
know
-^th that we
semi-apochromatic.
the
to
of the
resources
obtain
mounted
extremely
faint
and
diatom
with
severest
it too
amphipleura,
to
The
see,
the
that
experience, more
our
lines
inch;
the
but
in
our
they
measurement
object is
regarded as approximate only. The
lines
into
by employing oblique light,using a
be
the
think
some
It competes
this account.
difficult to
of
one
of; indeed,
in this medium
110,000
is
best
screen
men
speciare
so
must
resolved
of
TESTING
394
SEMI-APOCHROMATS
transmission
maximum
Limited, and
for
tenth
4700
in
the
sold
metres,
with
Addenda,
-95 TO
illuminant
powerful
very
effected
improvement
by
without
or
of
the
in green
equally
required. See
is
use
-65
by Kodak,
light,he has a
fine specimen.
Addenda
of
spoken
of No.
addition
at
N.A.
nicol
the
over
ocular.
the
XXII.,
be
photograph
the
In
at
markings
transverse
noticed, are
nearly
not
When
Amphipleura.
side by side, as in Figs.
in
becomes
appearance
of the
latter, no
clean-cut
objective
of the
is
be
this
obvious
lines,it will
sharply defined
so
be
borne
imperfectionin the
a
in
mind,
performance
the
test-object is
their
ever-increasing
an
fact should
case
alter
to
seems
Nitzschia
This
to
3, Plate
in
of to
instead
or
enlargement
down
put
2, Plate
more
whilst
itself.
objects are
and
of
amount
shows
spread
such might
much
appearance,
lateral
as
the
Fig.
These
shown.
are
pronounced
so
in
as
in
2,600, reproduced
difficult
very
and
one,
It
only
broken
into
up
dots.
SEMI-APOCHROMATS
TESTING
N.A.
Semi-apochromats
length
there
between
is
in
fact
and
raised
us
upon
above
after
this
with
numerical
these
'8 at the
examining
of most
-95
AND
-65.
dry TV inch.
nothing gained
aperture
forced
of
N.A.
BETWEEN
We
focal
in
vary
help thinking
cannot
most.
a
aperture
very
This
conclusion
of
great number
their
been
has
objectives,
face
is
specimens
"95,
with
or
the
even
belief
at
of
'90.
that
in
the
\Ve
the
arc
therefore
existing
state
to
even
brought
of
face
to
knowlc"
construct
dry
approximately
N.A.
TESTING
so, with
of
any
what
it
merely
is it for
is it for the
it,or
much
when
by using
immersion
an
system,
circumstances
actual
In
commonly
the
these
to
to the
which
ordeal
severe
the
in
the
with
of
use
dry
to
oblique light?1
the
push
to
lens
be
in
at
defining
this
extreme
obtained
once
under
very
tional
excep-
with
much
be
fear
in
with
for
Jth
any
full aperture
still is
convenient
the
especially
more
"-in.; the
former
and
by amateurs
go-between
the
by
inch
rVth.
Plate."
to
(if over
have
We
collection,but, as
own
and
yet
test-plateis
The
through.
pass
have
world, and
Hence
and
"th
systems,
trembling.
employed
Abbe
the
it
so
members
by
upon
and
question,
of the
examination
not
rapidly
immersion
be looked
it understood
powers
is
Jth
or
microscopists are
with
to
in our
by different manufacturers
already stated, we have examined
firms
gain by
objective may be
dry T\th
used
much
so
particular,because
the
medical
profession as a
(or the f rds) and the immersion
Testing
much
the
perhaps
save
in
A.
has
could
familiar
more
school
dry high
directed
wish
met
follows,although
what
ever
any
practice nowadays
old
the
Is
impossible?
much
so
becoming
of
the employment
of
he
with
results
better
equivalents we
the
object that
laudable
more
395
thinks
who
PLATE
opticians to attempt
to
'65 WITH
In
then
use
TO
these
advertised.
see
-95
to
meet
several
have
we
efforts of
the
tested
most
with
that
one
most
yields
-8) a
one
reallyperfect image
when
approaching that of a good immersion
-^th. Even
slightly
reduced
in aperture, these
extremely high-apertured objectives
do
not
perform to complete satisfaction,notwithstanding the
delicate
most
collar
"
have
we
The
not
Upon
previously
the
with
"
on
Numerical
of
increases
or
the
^th,
importance
objective,which
of
length, or
the
is reduced
to
correction
the
limits
mentioned.
focus
in-and-out
the
tube
folding-over point
obtains
for
adjustment
"
so
of
use
spectrum
the
having
the
Aperture."
the
of
in
subject
a
large diameter
aperture, the
reader
not
to
manner
same
be
further
the back
is referred
as
lens
to the
gone
of the
chapter
N.A.
396
different
the
all
sixths,
of
even
in the outer
Some
give
best
TEST-OBJECTS
will
make,
be
especiallymarked
more
"
the
the
portion
in
of the
the
found
in
outer
some
and
than
cases
zone,
intermediate
exhibit
to
in
often
very
also.
one
focal lengthcertainly
semi-apochromats of 4-mm.
the
semias
image, such
approximately white
recent
a
the
over-correction
to
"
WITH
in
zones
great tendency
others
-65
however,
When,
into.
TO
-95
very
of
Himmler,
apochromatic Jth by
whilst
Berlin,
others
have
to which
tendency to that fogging of the "blacks"
which
has
think
reference
we
made, and
so
already been
the finest specimens we
ot
decidedly objectionable. Some
distinct
have
with
met
those
are
When
the
using
it is
aberration,
been
has
collar
this is
of the lines
edges
the
however,
at once
finest
indicating the
testingthe zones,
B. Examining
seen
with
it will be
at
fog
and
'8
or
that
correction
the
finest
evident,
once
with
and
an
that
the
duplicated. If,
7, the best objectives
computation.
the
with
to about
cutting down
etc., are
the
produce
to
nebulous
as
reduced
least
spherical
to show
commence
that
or
amount
field is covered
be
aperture
exact
of
especially careful
ascertained,
have
often
are
correction
more
accomplished
we
requires the
which
the
of
aperture
been
has
what
be
value.
in
testing
to
turned
of
truth
for
necessary
When
definition.
disseverate
to
examined
new
plate
tube-length
best
the
difficult
and
fine lenses
(the
combinations
numerous
Watson
and
Leitz
and
Reichert,
the
Zeiss
by
the
of
out
same
Many
"
aperture
other
with
as
Test-objects.
the
of
course
details,such
as
T^th immersion.
diatoms
are
chosen
at
aperture
an
all,will
all cases,
and
N.A.
is
the
namely,
about
with
If, however,
look
they
reduced
above
'8 and
ocular
exceedingly faint
cannot
be
the
called
and
black
12, the
greyish
in
black
dots, if
in most
if not
appearance
until
previously mentioned"
in Fig. i, Plate
'8 or
XIV.,
7, as shown
graphed
photoexcellent
an
apochromatic by Koristka.
4-mm.
the dots
the objective be a really good one,
will
to
amount
N.A.
-65 WITH
TO
-95
in
rapidly improve
very
closed, the
more
blackness
colour
correction
the
as
required
amount
indicating the
appearance
The
least
TEST-OBJECTS
finest
iris
is very
the
the
the
objective is under-corrected.
for the
folding-over point
purple
colour
is not
under-corrected
said
of
reader
as
the
with
for
greatest
be
diaphragm
back
of
lens
with
the
and
of
diameter
objective,light passes
the
tube
it floods
article
but
is not
experiment
focussed
If this
but
is
have
the
fact
which
the
quitting
again given
be
lenses
dry
circumstances
the
that
if used
limits
of
the
the
periphery of the
the tube
by looking down
be not
to
properly attended
than
the
through
into
the
back
the
lens
of
combination
ocular.
By
the
into
doing
light,making
infinitely
specimen
otherwise
be.
have
it would
We
explained this in
of the substage diaphragm,
the use
abuse
and
upon
be
due
to
here, because,
for
blamed
to
let
the
iris be
the
carefully effected,the
head
should
the
tube, and,
back
is
of the
ocular
be
still
really the
following
the
true
carefullyshut
lens
whilst
trying
said
to, the
when
performance
been
with
the
if unattended
It is worth
has
what
prove
its
all.
it at
so
the definition
caution
the
from
lens
We
to
these
with
iris be greater
specimen,
margin (apparently) of
the tube
looking down
inches
all
Under
with
objective may
fault
with
exercised
it is reflected
which
repeat
we
be
edgeways
the
than
worse
the
from
the
Before
should
caution
N.A.
greater
the
the
evident,
information.
of
removed.
when
as
jVth immersion,
the
exactly in accordance
the objective as
seen
ocular
the
it,and
when
eye
is in evidence.
very
diaphragm
should
care
is not
of
edges
at
computation is arranged
5500 wave-length, the
eye
red
by looking
ance
concerning the performthose
similar
to
test-object are
word
iris
of
the
to
additional
a
the
condenser
the
of
use
about
at
jet-black
details
this
with
subject,however,
to
The
true.
referred
is
this
examining
when
explained
of
reason
Jth
the
pronounced
nevertheless
seems
be
to
offensive
so
and
the
before
the
When
and
more
this
computation.
readily noticeable
specimen, especiallyat
to
particularly evident
becomes
is
effect
to
397
objective as
removed.
When
withdrawn
two
looking
into
Having
the
to
very
by
seen
this
or
is
three
it, the
iris
flooded
opened, whereupon the inside of the tube will be seen
with light that
is readily reflected into the eye of the observer.
It is this light we
complain of as spoiling the visual image, and
N.A.
398
be
should
which
The
that
using
should
lesson
Jth
TEST-OBJECTS
be
to
or
off before
learnt
diameter
making
from
lens
dry
any
the
exceed
never
WITH
-65
carefullyscreened
examination.
in
TO
-95
the
of
this
critic;
experiment
aperture
of
the
back
lens
of
the
is
iris
the
objective.
The
Pleurosigma does
afford any
not
idea
the
to
as
limitation
of resolution
come
across
we
purpose,
Nitzschia
and
have never
as
we
possessed by any objective,
a
test-object that is universally accepted for this
should
like to bring forward
the
claims
of the
scalaris
E. (Fig. 2, Plate XIII., taken
with
an
ceedingly
ex-
fine 4-mm.
has
transverse
distinctlyinto
the
differencewith
objectivesthat constitutes
is
//
another.
We
great
number
of
these
appear
grey
over
objective is
have
whicJi
the
superiority of
for years,
never
objectives,and
and
only feebly defined
and
below
here
with
very
it fail.
and
If
there, the
be
cannot
of the
example
various
combination
found
whilst, if they
one,
by
one
have
sJwwn
are
the test
used
second-class
such
at
seen
optician'scraft,or
No
required amount.
attempt
be made
should
the image by greatly reducing
to sharpen up
this spoils the validityof the test.
the aperture of the iris,as
the best tube-length or
collar adjustment is
to have
Great care
else
aperture
an
the
set
The
colour
the
for down
the
show
lens
with
correction
of the
side
colour
same
as
this
if
the
lower
be
when
evidence
of
edge
in
be
once
value
no
carefully
the
at
With
focus
exact
but
the
well-corrected
red
always
line of
of
moment
the
is
noticeable,
which
white
the
use.
present,
the
at
little spaces
are
oblique light is
under-correction
plainly in
real
should
mirror
test-objectis
valve
but
of
test
light.1
platewhen
Abbe
the
colour
focus,
is
very
slightly changed.
that
some
are
willing to admit
remarks, we
making the above
specimens, and certainly
microscopists,using perhaps unusually well-marked
stated
that a perfect renhave
of
dering
vision,
speciallyacute
being possessed
1
In
of these
magnification.
not
when
refer to any
employing
dots
In
can
these
be
seen
notes,
by
them
however
so
with
smaller
aperture
to
specimen.
those
with
and
less
objects),
average
bight
N.A.
400
should
They
TO
-95
also
-65 WITH
TEST-OBJECTS
appear
favourite
twelfth
into
of
to
day
see
the
outer
specimen
not
be
flooded
know
we
the
the
outer
leaving
zone
with
day,
this
is better
Jth, it
of the
cause
follows
must
be
of the
central
and
trouble
at
by
once
wheels
to
"
If this
detail
will
be
be
the
cover
simple
correct
that
fact
the
the
surface
in the
even
the
with
the
the
way
long
taken
This
up.
should
that
it is
is known
from
coming
first into
come
be
should
objective.
be
hairs
using
testing that
performance
the
view.
all the
rejected,as
to be
explained
pygidium about
through the solid portion of the object, which
viewed
of
"
corrections
that
should
care
explained hereafter
specimen
so, the
not
of
be
the
the
so
deal
to
the
desired
portions of
intermediate
beneath
especially when
and
zone,
only
be
to
off this
from
arose
much
so
understood
to
quarter
specimen,
cut
to
be
to
removed.
must
used
when
use
being
present
a
to
of
fine 4-mm.
very
specimen
objectivesvarying from
It fell out
off
cut
This
"
this
of
inch.
an
being, because
back
Flea.
test-objectfor
necessary
"
of the
Pygidium
with
green
the
very
into
as
to
view
(see Fig.
delicate
point
I, Plate
filament
not
far from
Lowering further,
the
XVIII.),
long
and
hairs
each
should
should
come
appear
with
into evidence, as
constituting part of it, crowd
in Fig. I, Plate
more
XIX., and
amplified in Fig. 2 of
pygidium,
shown
and
same
plate.
"
"
are
interwoven
disassociate
together so
from
one
the
much
other
that
; besides
they
are
not
which, there
easy
seems
to
to
notice
to
point for the student
layer. The
is the quality of the
be clean, sharply cut,
seeing. It should
and
entirely free from all fog (sec Fig. I, Plate XIX.). The
iris should
only require to be slightlyclosed.
be
more
than
one
N.A.
the
Lowering
u
wheel
that
TEST-OBJECTS
"
discs
taken
'65 WITH
TO
-95
present
some
may
themselves
differ
view,
to
in
the
more,
and
should
each
wheel.
These
should
wheels
be
of
spokes (see
Fig. 3, Plate
more
magnified still in
Fig. 3, Plate XX., and
XVIII.). The cuneiform, or Maltese-cross
appearance
is
the
dot
central
being the hair
spokes
very striking,
from
so-called
note
number
their
401
of
that
with
appear
these
issues
extreme
of
of
the
trace
If the
image made.
break
now
with
poorly
indeed, that
in
corrected
actually show
to
the
the
their
in
zones,
for
in
past have
the
not
have
some
spokes
one,
reallya fine
one,
cuneiform
correct
be
use
of
outer
observers
as
"
as
dots," and
recorded
having
even
been
known
clearly
so
this dot
the
seen
pearance
ap-
Maltese-
effects !
cross
It will be
wants
as
up
Jth
is,the
in
care
well
gathered from
with
absence
required
of
what
has
been
pygidium
employed just
observations
of
closing
these
fine
effects.
Stauroneis
phcenicenteron.
"
This
diatom
is
good
test-
APOCHROMATS
TESTING
402
little
the
arc-lightand
apochromatic
should
FROM
blue
with
screen,
furnish
N.A.
or
-95 TO
without
No.
-65
38, the
with
the
light is substituted
if at all inferior.
In all cases, attention
ought not to be much
if the finest black
dot effects
to the tube-length is demanded
striae,according to Van
are
required. The
Heurck, are about
14 to the
(see Index).
c.d.m.
TESTING
With
APOCHROMATS
N.A.
FROM
-65.
TO
-95
the
to
is the
difference
purity of
without
within
and
image
is not
the
the
and
image
focus.1
The
the freedom
from
colour
precautions,however,
hold
with
these
to
as
using oculars properly compensated
but
of course
the deteriorating
objectives as with the 2 -mm.,
effect of inferior
the
eyepieces is not so pronounced because
information
objective
under
was
objectfor
an
be
of
quired.
It
must
in
shown
The
apochromatic
Plate
N.A.
below
page
398.
The
tube, is
70
; but
It should
objectivenot
magnificent
combination.
Van
Heurckia
Louisiana.
seen
on
either
objectto
test
sixth
scalaris
in Nitzschia
apochromatic of
an
this
further
higher
power
in
show
the
as
lines
difficult
most
existence,
the
outer
test
zone
portionsof these
Fig.
to photograph.
into
discrete
the
reader
XIII.)
(Fig. 2,
Plate
dots
if the
is referred
can
rarely
objective has
to
be recollected,however,
the
the
footnote
absence
an
on
of the
side of the
lines
is
XV.
perfectlyresolved
be
the
when
for
oblique being
exceptional excellence, extreme
is still more
difficult to photograph. An
attempt
Fig. 4,
lines
of
trace
is referred
examination.
As
"
without
or
reader
said
similar
pellucida.
Amphipleura
with
been
has
what
to
The
magnified.
so
same
fine
Transverse
median
resolved
I, Plate
(ailed
test-objectis the little diatom
lines exceedingly close together can
be
raphe
; but
into dots.
XV.,
was
very
It is
taken
with
fine combination
somewhat
the
six
difficult subject
objectivein question.
FROM
APOCHROMATS
TESTING
assists
secondary spectrum
of this object that
the
in the
much
so
is often
observer
-95 TO
N.A.
-65 403
definition
apparent
apt
think
to
actual
the
performance
finer
film
illuminant
the
between
apochromatic
the
and
mirror
the
and
then
the
compare
the
using
screen
any
suggested
been
has
as
in
mounted
those
markings
student
is
anyhow,
realgar
"
in
styrax,
mounted
oiled
oil-condenser
solid
with
commence
do
as
of
cone
the
to
slip (as
this
white
and
light of
with
1^30
give better
to
seems
the
suggest,
we
for
"
show
not
x6
ordinary intensity, a
to
experience,
our
Using one
Jth apochromatic,
It
objective.
well.
so
employing
in
up
in
"
sixth
an
specimen put
differ without
they
This
"
apochromatic
patient study. The
for
do
all?
at
cuspida.
Navicula
question is,how
the
point ;
lines are
easily
dry condenser), the transverse
entire
which
and
down
the
valve,
being recognisable up
seen,
of description is placed verticallyin the field
for convenience
careful
and
With
ocular
XI2
a
focussing,a faint
of view.
very
black
dots
of very small
now
just be caught and held
row
may
results
than
by an
Upon
observer
using
if he
xi8
several
tried
have
Changing
secondaries.
on
38
page
and
that
167, the
indeed
altering the
dots
ought
they
in
screen,
appear
due
tenth
47""
with
the
should
any
into
the
for
metres), and
little
arc
become
straining of
lamp
very
the
of
trace
screen
green
surprise awaits
come
to
easily seen,
more
than
more
the
at
without
to
now
offer
little dots
are
"
company
focus,
dots
fine lens.
now
transmission
(maximum
No.
with
will
"
these
and
eye
be
still,especiallyif the
plainer
No
semi-apochromatic
sharp
very
eye-piece
illumination
if green
and
has
these
blue-violet
with
it the
mentioned
plainlyvisible,
eyes
at
all.
On
microscopist,for white
view, being fairlywell seen
; but
resolution
the
of
the
spaces between
the
APOCHROMATS
TESTING
404
lines,and
transverse
may
but
breaking
the
to
N.A.
of
up
-95 TO
the
lines
-65
selves
them-
of
opening
circular
diameter
the
not
FROM
about
to
objective,as
for this
opening
seen
of the
when
looking
being removed
down
the
the
back
tube
intervals
(see Fig.
found
fine
very
distinct
I, Plate
of
scope,
micro-
be
soon
to furnish
ought
in
lens
of the
position will
"
of
being equal
discreet
separated by
diameter
placed,which
be
to
white
the
image of
third
ocular
the
substage diaphragm
the
XXL).
rows,
These
small
very
what
to
able
fact
an
unusual
diatom
with
that
while
student
white
white
dots
careful
their
prepared for
of focus
ones
focussing reveals
somewhere
to
seems
mostly
as
sharply in evidence,
are
be
seen
arranged
patches can
exact
positionvarying according
black
change
black
into
; but
be
now
No
dots
structure
the
must
appearance.
these
convert
to
obtains
is
us
The
amount.
the
certain
around
them,
the arrangement
of the
circumscribed
like dots, but
not
oblique light. They are
are
the
of
word
This
blackness.
best described
is
by
patches
more
by eye-piecing.
apparent if the magnification be increased
"
"
however,
What,
is
dots.
white
is believed
this
supposed
to
cause
of
light,or
by
interference
possibly with
in
To
use.
enlarged Fig.
in
like
mountains)
Plate
in focus
Specimens
though they
in styrax
are
XXL,
better
and
at
of
the
same
seems
oblique
focus
as
the
objects which
with
of
of
the
are
of
length
what
To
they
surmised
they
be
it may
but
are
are
kind, complicated
some
aberration
in the
tion
combina-
have
we
intelligible,
meaning more
and
reproduced the positive taken
This
the white
dots (looking
shows
our
XXIII.
spoken, both
but
residuals
make
I, Plate
when
thereabouts.
say,
position
phenomena
some
therefrom
little
to
the
at
appear
commensurate
are
then, it is difficult
caused
very
be
their
the azimuth
as
patches are
impossible
them
single wave-length
due
according
that they
These
to
is that
remarkable,
so
dark
the
the
exhibit
which
we
have
time.
same
these
rendered
patches,of
if
appearances
they
arc
quite efficiently,
mounted
in realgar.
photographs, however,
The
-65 TO
FROM
OBJECTIVES
TESTING
from
taken
were
405
-2
the
in
valve
medium.
former
OBJECTIVES
TESTING
-65
FROM
SEMI-APOCHROMATS
-2.
APOCHROMATS
AND
of
this range
Objectives having
TO
N.A.
usually possess
focal
by
from
N.A.
plate
in
of
over
'65
fashion
the
the
the
the
parallel with
semi-apochromat,
the
case
nullify the
impossible to
with
corrected
show
the
and
presence,
fail to
should
1
the
of
of
one
These
be
are
specimens
Focus."
in
ocular
do
not
go
out
service
for
of focus
for
one
of
one
'30
In
be
must
very
is sufficient
N.A.
lens
'60 it
we
are
of
N.A.
seems
hence,
fond
at
of
aperture, should
striae,
transverse
optical
all of
of
'40, well
objective from
any
severe
explained
good
will
indication
mind,
especiallyof
this respect
manner
specimen
poor
them.
to
distinctlyvisible
draw-tube
tongue-like
quality
really
in
be
aperture,
the
test-
light shall
right angles
in
cases
some
use
exceptional excellence.
the
major.
definition
incident
numerical
any
the
the
lower
furnish
borne
of
folding
small
no
is indeed
slightesterror
second
a
of
of
of
to
Abbe
difficulty.
scalaris,using oblique
at
test
in
12
the
this diatom
of
class
lines should
it be
With
indeed
a
not
length
Navicula
and
with
whereas
will
use
objectives
employing
; but
unless
for the
test.
and
the
point
better
is
Nitzschia
"65,the
correct
eagerly sought,
to
of
the
that
with
the
however, is
the
aperture varying
out
for
it
exercised
XIV.)
2, Plate
(see Fig.
carried
power,
one,
lines
apochromat
an
usually an
discern
to
always employed
fall
either
be
but
being
may
"
length.
already described,
illumination, care
With
has
suitable
focal
which
resolving
find
To
have
"40
spectrum
afforded, and
object.
Jrd"
N.A.
to
their
by
not
the
testingof
The
We
and
aperture
their
'65
their
construction
existence.
to
"30
It
should
nearly
"
406
TESTING
easily
bear
ocular, without
Another
for
test
Plate
still it holds
its
the
the
exactly the
by looking
of
the
of
the
critical
the whole
over
dimensions
of
this is
tube
the
iris necessary
object, a
if not
of
the
fly
Blowone.
all
back
lens
of
this off is
black
the
and
be
adjusting
the amount
; and
be
should
proboscisafter
clear
to
old-fashioned
an
light. There
the
-2
image.
with
down
many,
small
exceedingly
of fog
absence
Although
should
tubes
defined
suitable
"rotten"
-65 TO
with
of
with
even,
low
own
outlying borders
sharply
or
XVI.).
suctorial
whilst
12,
producing
(Fig. I,
of
FROM
OBJECTIVES
an
the
iris to
objective as
of additional
to the
guide
very
entire
seen
closing
perfection
but
closing of
is,of
the
iris before
with
low
producing
their
effect.
best
;
o
flat field
the
in
however,
powers
modern
in
leaves
one
of
nearly
The
is better
all
opticians is
To
combination
been
not
those
of
are
fond
passing, that
of the light and
in
The
advent
of
little to
first is
as
"3 from
very
needed
dots
to
with
but
three
of
in
any
this
way
impossible
has
the
with,
met
the
in
save
tests
just
to
product
tests
are
; but
severe,
focussing are
as
of
'2, has
interest
be
careful
some
distin
such
it should
very
of
to
be
may
aperture
case
suited
testing lenses
careful
numerical
high
to
remarked
adjustment
necessary.
Actino-ptychus Boliviencis, a
A
obtain.
combination
having a numerical
should
neatly pick out the points in three of
remaining
in
complain
following,however,
the
the
effected
remarkably good.
so
that
of
been
it is almost
than
worse
select diatom
The
easy.
who
the
commonly
so
apochromats.
a
or
combination
of "3 is not
has
this account
lens
inch
powers
(see Frontispiece). On
say
low
diatom
aperture
the
to
easy
sections
of
'3
(the
is
being necessarily out of focus), but care
obtain
a
good image. It is just possible to sec the
an
less),
experience, being useaperture of '24 (-17,in our
the higher numerical
equivalent is required to show
408
APOCHROMAT
must
be
equal
that
to
of
it is of
obtains
room
when
Zeiss's
have
and
by Watson
sold
their
"
These
3
or
of
performance
of
purposes
as
using the
to
long
shut
employed, or
and
perhaps
the
from
definition.
in
condenser
are
construction
bad
of
question,often
of
asked
objectivereferred
"
we
from
inch
difference
to
in the
regarded
examples
N.A.
loup
when
the
should
be
illumination
"
or
WHICH
by the commencing
of Microscopy he has
to
should
be
the
in the
apochromat,
secondary spectrum
outstanding in the semi-apochromat. To the
opticallyinclined, and who is practicalrather
explanation
-3
scopic
Holo-
have
given
SHALL
r.i
the
this
desired.
in uniform
department
requiresa careful reply.
The
only difference, opticallyspeaking,
types
densers
con-
useful.
in what
matter
constructions
is not
similar
low-power
PURCHASED
This
we
to
image serves
specimens of workmanship
will suffer
A
so
admit
clean
and
Z^KW^SEMI-APOCHROMAT.
APOCHROMAT
of the
condenser
be
distinctive
sharp
no
large
opticianssell excellent
of fog with the full aperture
much
leading test, and how
most
suitable
design.
and
Their
effect
to
to
length varying
focal
proboscis seems
be
more
is
Holoscopic
N.A.
BELOW
no
absence
The
of
name
nothing
seems
photography.
leaves
focal
There
this
of manufacture.
speciallylow-power
the
as
opticians,although
OBJECTIVES
difficult feat,and
very
iris has
several
apochromats
with
achromats
excellent
very
performance
4 inches.
even
are
usually of
are
the
high powers,
centring apparatus
the
Sons, under
TESTING
accurately centred
so
with
this
; but
of
likingfor the
great
large dimensions
these
optical part only
simply to drop into the sleeve
by
condensers
many
to
loups
accomplish
the
longer required.
condensers
is usually made
are
for
granted them,
of
to be
used
are
Hence
substage.
objective. To
for them
illuminators
be
can
the
necessarilybe
consequence
no
SEMI-APOCHROMAT
VERSUS
affords
no
student,
cast
between
the
whilst
than
material
no
lot,
two
absence
entire
reader
his
it is left
who
is not
theoretical,
comfort
; in
APOCHROMAT
words, he is
other
wise
as
he
as
before.
was
practicaldifferencein
is the
know
SEM1-APOCHROMAT
VERSUS
daily
409
What
he wants
between
use
to
the
rival
systems.
place
and
lyra
TVh.
Whilst
shaped valve,
inclined
it
on
will
stillhe
they
is
he
will
he
be
to
that
raised
objective is
will not
of
spoken
colours
is
correction.
chromatic
few
an
cannot
that
with
used
in
rival.
But
from
the
fact
is concentrated
spectrum
the apochromat, when
its head
far
has
their
all
we
furnish
than
of its shorter
off
cut
pointed
ago
resolution
greater
it would
(ii)because
and
tions
considera-
long
so
light,because
effect in white
of maximum
theoretical
gratitude)not
our
owe
lightwould
green
wave-length,
the
secondary
because
the
semi-apochromats, and lastly(iii)
in question was
focus
very closelythat of the minimum
if
it
these modern
should,
selectivelyemployed,
objectives
all
with
spectrum
"
if
that
such
residuals
recollected
be
should
seen
absent,
in
the
unless
of
absence
all the
combination
is
colour
the
definition
the
"blacks"
really looking
this "trick"
pleased
produced at the
(see page 364).
at
the
is
be
impaired by
as
expense
of
of
the
colour
finest
by
should
of
cloud
or
to
be
it is
Even
present, and
the
and
that
means
fog, which
effect,quite forgetting
definition
be
quite likely
computer
leaving
the
they should.
as
occasionally found
absence
colours
apochromat,
about
kind
these
the
black
that
an
brought
with
even
zones,
student
the
by
really is
lenses
arises
conscious
and
rays
feel
be
experimental researches
the
It
fail to
who
out
show
to
one
those
(to whom
(i)that as
of all
before,are
explained, holds
manner
length,
the
that
experience
despair," for
to
colour
then
now
"never
their
the
diatoms
its
above
quite plain
It is
in it.
lightof
If
focal
same
excellent
colours
lines back.1
of the
a
the
are
pronounced
so
focus,
thick-edged border
of the
apochromat
the
at
These
colour
are
closer attention
of
the
as
there
With
it.
Navicula
arrives
lowered.
or
the
notice
fail to
he
beyond
colours
same
secondary spectrum
the lens be changed for an
now
the
notice
as
semi-apochromatic
edge of the boat-
that
the
show
far
such
using
focus
to
sure
of the
he
diatom
stage,
too
go
observe
soon
are,
the
when
the
bringing
he
purpleshould
and
take
visible,apple-green before
phenomena
as
so
reader
the
Let
prevents
with
modern
student
that
crispness of
the
may
such
is
image
APOCHROMAT
4io
the
improve
extent.
great
in the most
distinguishthe
the
and
to
which
the
"
another
has
screen
it does
that
colour
different
is,after
which
natural
Here
then
all,but
and
construction.
its
for
superiority,
its
combination
if the
bacteria
are
use
employed
as
red-stained, and
cases
as,
of
(visually)between
strikingly in
appeal
its
purposes
demanded.
The
purchased
three
The
such
and
like one-eighth
they
zones
rival
will
devoted
Addenda.
For
to
the
apply
to
which
of for
general
requirements
lower
powers
entirely
free from
lens.
less
considerably
spectrum
with
focus
are
the
one
its
than
eight
in these
reduced,
which
corrections
reader
Apochromatic
focal
mm.
justly
more
com-
lenses
in
differences
of
believe,to something
we
that
means
pra"
complete for
are
obtains
only,as
or
that
remarkable
interestingdetails the
of
desired
for
the
to
but
the
the
to
the selected
be
originalmagnitude,
"Testing
all
is not
however, when
cases,
answer
refinement
such
; besides
objectiveinstead
further
in
possess
apochromat,
possible is
of
not
few
the
to
very
the
do
are
made
eliminated
of the
of lens.
of
their
resumes
type
brought
are
its manufacture
is
specimen
apochromatic
with
is corrected
either
side
positionsof
the various
are
the
screen
of
must
price
colours
manner
for
demanded
1
at
in the
semi-apochromat, owing
The
the
already
apochromat again
they
remarks
the economical
But
with
lens
of
Here
detail,the difference
same
colour,the apochromat
used
the
produce
have
we
and
"
finest definition
the
when
cheaper
for the
green
found).
when
for which
There
be
to
no
ordinary
performance
evidence.
have
may
well
the
first-rate
be
consequence
moreover,
refinement
any
green
suitable
different tint to
can
so
performance
in
to
easy
with
methyl
because
satisfy,
that
from
used
are
with
of
one
perform
not
and
case,
it is not
filter is not
used
fail to
may
very
use.
suitable
semi-apochromat
be
to
being prejudiced,has
itself is stained
that
(if indeed
contrast
both
to avoid
in
to
when
observer,
that
so
at
perhaps
object
that
"
objectiveis
Unfortunately
of
results
much
so
"
clue
shown
semi-apochromatic
provided
so
manner
two
screens^
as
SEMI-APOCHROMAT
VERSUS
with
is referred
the
to
all the
older
type
the chapter
Objectives,"and
the
Hence
lenses.
ponent
COMBINATIONS
MAGNIFYING
LOW-POWER
everyday
in
details
perfectlywell
answers
when
the satisfaction
Yet
rival.
amateur,
or
good
one,
the
the
hand,
student,
what
; but
is
work
wish
be
can
its
more
or
said
be
can
we
ing,
of knowis used
accident
any
laboratory
no
is,too,
microscope
with
case
There
to
replaced
at
expensive
battery of an
be
to
be
occur
complete
is
understood
semi-apochromat, if it be really
but
of sufficient quality for all general purposes,
first-class
be
research
ordinary visual
that for
that
of
apochromats
without
on
other
the
when
work,
semi-apochromat
combinations
would
than
less cost
much
of
more
of the
resolution
made.
as
of
lens
front
the
reallywell
using these cheaper
perhaps
are
the
then
purposes
if it be
hurry
than
tool rather
to
the
if in
that
as
for such
"
very
actually
is not
the
perhaps
when
use,
411
the
should
apochromat
be
within
call
court
as
appeal.
of
With
respect
their
to
We
different.
do
in
use
photomicrography, however,
that
semi-apochromats,
when
used
in conjunction with
suitable
especially low powers,
produce excellent pictures as, for example, the lens with
screens,
taken
the frontispiecewas
which
; but, speaking in general,with
is
deny
all
not
some
"
high
powers
this
is not
the
case,
and
those
who
desire
to
obtain
of
very
its
cheaper rival.
MAGNIFYING
LOW-POWER
COMBINATIONS
whole
insects,
few
for
same,
or
of
size,such
of small
a
arisen
has
demand
to
several
as
as
fleas
other
the
purposes,
entire
ON
for
photographs
of the
to
be
taken
of
animal
kingdom
magnificationsvarying from
Sometimes, in addition, principally
occupant
lice,at
or
diameters.
identification
such
of late
some
USED
MICROSCOPE
THE
NOT
head
request
and
that
is made
thorax
of
an
parts of the
insect,or
the
MAGNIFYING
LOW-POWER
412
of the draw-tube
by the diameter
ocular, or
other
the
COMBINATIONS
fact
that
the
on
hand,
one
the
on
by
no
for the
one
well
"
the
at
as
the
Giving
doing
for
with
; but
it is true
shorter
microscope
provided
camera
aforesaid, to
these
lenses
used
are
reallymicroscopes
said
been
would
There
about
are
and
in all
avoid
this
the
case.
using
an
it
to
Seeing
for
"
and
"
in
necessary,
that
they
that
but
are
little
was
of
edition
Microscopy."
relation
combinations
four
and
three,
in
"
four-inch,
of
sizes
objects
which
it
found
was
to
this
of different
this
be
to
the
single-handed.
(ii)The combinations
by
or
combination
purposes
considered
to have
being
graphed
photo-
and
also
extension
inconvenient
use
the
when
is obtained
lens
the
Hence
that
N.A.
of another
of
not,
as
that
N.A., but
better
final result.
(iii)The
field must
more
focus.
sometimes
This
to
be
N.A.
F/8, has
details
the
the
understood
of
as
to
F/6
necessary
photographic
F ratio into -5 (see page
145).
is
whereas
at
working
F/4
'125,
exceedingly
N.A.
but
required
small
that
half
be
to
as
to
be
can
the
resolving
photographed
require a great
employed, the
margins of the
sensibly equal to that
only employed (so far
the
at, say,
the
rule, so
still the
the
the
combination
working
It is true
power.
that
by dividing
will be
This
is reminded
reader
of
be
must
of
of
power
new
be
at
and
varying magnificationsdemanded,
of a camera
the employment
instances
to
object.
an
tube,
found
was
type
of
them,
different
the
to
wider
ing
thought the followsubject,accompanied by illustrations,
of
out
required owing
are
new
magnifying
the
upon
it
magnifying
to
then
even
place in
five points to
be
not
of low
written
or
remarks
few
for
and
focussing jacket,assisted
design
large
so
altogether
the requirements
satisfactorily
meet
of
photograph
much
the
with
reasons
has
the
microscope
direction
one
of
edges
away
ordinary
to
and
severe
called
at
as
the
iris
possible)to give
demand
to
centre, the
the
diaphragm
the
being
required depth
imperative, as attention
of perhaj
special formation
is
has
of
foot
outstretched
insect,the
an
fine
the
fly,or
some
COMBINATIONS
MAGNIFYING
LOW-POWER
hairs
the
on
(v)
this
of
introduction
In
comparing
an
ordinary
the
realms
from
results
length.
the
glass exposed
F/i6
of
quite sufficient
be
is
prepared
the
(compare,
for
to
depth of focus, we
length that can
of
the
to
inch-and-a-half
focussed
on
the
produced by
purposes.
type,
which
placed
are
focussing jacket,certain
combinations
actual
the
effect,that
as
should
and
which
"
surface
lens
of
operator
diaphragm
that
"
by
side
closed
in
to
been
negatives'have
two
of
be
mention
side
should
focus
be
to
are
is,if the
this
appendages hanging
The
diaphragm was
is
apo-
obtained
in area
example, the difference
F/i6 of a one-and-a-half-inch),is
obtained,
iris
should
illustrate
and-a-half-inch
an
used,
of the
further,we
made
add,
depth
greater
shutting down
be
be
true
proper
may
an
the
of tlte diameter
amount
focus
change
of this
of
almost
for contrast
of
final
spoil the
take
found, being
imperative they
in the depth of
area
with
with
be
when
"
Variations
in
conversant
not
taneously,
simul-
"
it is
difference
to
focus
and
three-inch
each
to
observed.
another,
with
focal
same
be
portion to be
of Photomicrography
one
be
not
sensible
screen
entire
compared
in
be
that, if
provided with
camera
to
evidence,
right angles
not
should
testing lenses
illumination
suitable
the
coloured
and
precautions have
of
being
is
be in
must
at
may
perfect
so
if any,
little,
light,but
over
be
to
for colour
order, anyhow
in white
the
variety
attention
as
cause.
corrections
The
chromatic
the
deciding
correction
for
looked
details
from
obliterated
of
time
the
in
the
at
and
on
assist
proboscisof
to
other
the
of
edges
materially
mosquito (which may
it belongs), at the same
which
to
of
end
extreme
413
the
F/i6
centre
in
of
each
with
three-
that
lenses
of
were
sausage-like
the
case
pictures.
and
the
MAGNIFYING
LOW-POWER
414
COMBINATIONS
compare,
fine hairs
the
and
great
furnishes
of
existence
anything
the
It is true
focus.
combination
than
more
hairs
be said
that
if the
down
so
that
surface
be similar
in
exposed should
(putting aside, for the moment,
inch
the
value
the
same,
in
numerical
but
scientific to compare
F/22
F/i6,
for
in
It should
be
to
lengths
be
to
may
length
above
"
the
to
here
for the
first lens
The
to
save
lens
the
i'5-
effect upon
combination
in
remarks
these
loss
the
competing
to
numerical
ill-defined,but
and
apply just
truly
as
remark
A
was
compared.
utility of having different focal
it
inconveniently long cameras;
to
that
five feet,
with
mentioned
much
so
opticians,both
"
the
graph
photo-
was
and
success
"
the
was
foreign,
and
English
combinations
the
inconvenient
most
requirements
It met
that
it is
lenses
of
'
not
perhaps
passing, that
of
aperture
to
with
be
be
fulfil the
great demand,
computed
soon
the
of
reducing
illustrative of
as
in such
of
that
to
quite fuzzy
may
given, reached
to manipulate.
draw
camera
the
longer-focus
diameter
remarked
these
that
as
mentioned
camera
that
about
so
use,
the
the
one
the
will appear
apertures
previously
made
be
reduce
to
understood
other
any
iris of the
extent
instances, owing
some
of
F/i6
an
always possible
not
length
and
when
of another.
facets
eyes
(Fig. i)
faint and
shadowy
are
distinctlyout of
the
shut
was
the
focal
three-and-a-half-inch
facets, whilst
it may
compound
shorter
of
many
the
the
The
thereto.
hardly
of
appearances
attached
distinctlyshows
(Fig. 2)
hairs
the
example,
Holos"
by
"
"
Sons, the
"
Micro-Summar
"
"
aperture
and
of great excellence.
Illustrations
lenses
The
are
given
in the
work
and
performance
of these
to
photographs will
requirements previously enumerated,
examination
of the
of the
of
XXVIII.
show
and
of these
most
the
inclusive.
realisation
it is of
interest
CHAPTER
THE
UNDULATORY
WHENEVER
instrument
certain
counter
can
only
be
the
the
to
acquire
as
transverse
as
it has
nor
has
it enters
of the
1
In
will
scientific
according
"
to
which
undulatory
essential
is not
difficult
so
; in
ether
in
the
undulatory
which
of
case
the
chemist's
properties
of
take
the
and
this
of
to
are
progression.
place
light
assigned
in
which
vibrations
sense
reality
physical
only
vibratory
or
aether," hypothetical
the
one,
can
polarisation
line
they
theories
medium
in
the
it, but
sense
by
in
far
so
word,
theless
never-
which
theories.
adopt
the
theory
language
the
"
or
the
of
to
the
"
rival
periodic
which
in
isolated
physical
undulatory
applying
therefore
this
that
right angles
material
any
here
is
conclusion
unquestionable
into
infinitely
by
this
interference
light
to
medium
been
had
of
problems.
of
to
phenomena
transmitted
never
an
We
i.e. at
for
are
the
fiction
of
and
rendered
victory
of
further
all-pervading
it
have
the
additional
"
call
they
which
attributing
the
Vibrations
elements
fortunately
which
the
consists
these
accepted,
and
consideration
points,
to
the
given
the
ones
the
of
into
light
in
which
optics,
rejecting
interference
facts
by
to
is
united
of
have
and
us
which
be
by
which
to
phenomena
explained
force
i.e.
facts
people imagine.
numerous
character,
taking
"
microscopy
many
and
by
any
beyond
power
with
geometrical
of
out
magnifying
of
universally
principal
impossible,
be
of
student
the
light
can
light, now
to
are
of
understanding
of
The
for
resolution
confronted
are
theories
principle
clear
theory
we
accounted
which
the
LIGHT
OF
utmost
increasing
optics according
rays
the
the
get
limit
nature
geometrical
instead
by
to
undulatory
thin
to
moderate
run
THEORY
try
we
optical
XV
ether
assumption
this
is
the
to
as
an
we
incompressible
416
the
early investigators
of
constitution
that
means
of
are
the
adopting
elastic
solid.
ether,1
the
vi/.
theory
THE
be treated
that it may
with
connected
disturbance
and
neighbours,
cannot
be
finite
though
conception
easier
to
so
is
its
As
the
position of
rest
grasp
and
process
of
than
the
follow
to
evolved
that
assume
vibrations
are
that
when
any
it communicates
in
turn
their
to
neighbouring particle
has
one
begun
do
to
the
propagated
it in
in
those
so, time
to
more
from
self-
of
the
is
body
composed.
surrounding ether,
the
all directions
if
vibrations
rapid
the
"
days.
light emanating
communicated
are
abstract
more
since
smallest
and
way
the
propagation, hence
exceedingly great velocity of light. This simple
for our
sufficient
is undoubtedly
and
purpose,
therefore
These
obviously
the
in
"
luminous
such
preceding
philosophical assumptions
We
particleselastically
minute
surrounding it,these
on.
consumed
must
from
those
until
move
in
another
to
417
consistingof
as
one
particle is displaced
the
ETHER
in
the
just
manner
described.
Referring
to
Fig. 208.
communicated
particle;
at
some
rather
of
Nature
"
plane
of
is
supposed
to
little distance
the
paper,
the
from
luminous
Light-vibrations.
is that
the
vibration
this
surrounding ether
difficult investigation shows
to
be
from
particle to
that
ether
will
the
result
particlesare
ETHER-VIBRATIONS
4i8
in
vibrating
set
with
connecting them
or
length
P
point
the
and
remains
for
We
will
now
in
the
shown
signify
be
would
point
the
moment
lower
at
which
of
path of
particle
little
it.
in
more
the
particles whose
P.
transferred
by
figure,where
Supposing
or
minute
most
anything else
a
the
ether
line and
radial
from
so
of motion,
have
detail
black
as
dots
position
of
that at
certain
justcrossing
radial
find
we
rest
the
line,moving
particle9,
to
come
we
particles
elongation,and
lower
until
particle5
The
elongation.
or
reached
not
the
until
on
positionsindicated
successive
is
ether
in
is
reversing point
the
each
objects illuminated
the
still farther
take
of
the
shown
manner
say
in
nor
movement
part
tude
ampli-
an
upwards, then
the
the
particleI
approaching
the
to
study
the
on
ether
neither
succession
rapidity,but
is thus
with
its
to
is to
straight line
brightness of
it,in the
that
figure;
the
on
from
to
and
point
depending
extreme
luminous
luminous
distance
close
ever
it with
path
the
on
length. There
from
of
right angles
at
the
part of the
upper
around
direction
downwards.
The
"
"
right
would
those
we
from
found
particleI
the
phase
P, and
grasp
of
is
repeat the
would
and
to
nearest
is called
movement,
particle17,
the
wave-length
after
the
time
we
when
as
shown
in
Fig.
successive
J vibration
ether
208
stage
A, would
has
particles
later
we
shall
of
its
be
also
that
the
curve
same
light from
Once
\vc
that,
see
the
be
particles
its
in
The
upper
spondingly
corre-
result, as
connecting
" wave-length
the
any
the
\.
reached
movement.
advanced
have
the
position of
in
advanced
of
easily
have
Fig. 208, particle I would
elongation and every other particlewould
is
in
letter
can
the
The
generally from
or
appearance
to
which
conform.
simultaneously
one
peculiar movement
vibration
the
to
to
curve
to
seen
this
further
vibrating particlesis
of
particle to
one
in
just studied,
have
distance
be
first series
the
direction.
upward
an
the
similarly
shown
in
LIGHT-WAVES
Fig.
208
forth
B, the
result
the
particles advances
ether
only existing in
line
moving
the
J length, and
curve
this
that
imagination
curve
alone
"
from
away
be looked
can
luminous
complete
mathematical
"
so
successive
connecting
wave-length for every
noted
direction
the
in
the
one
it is to be
vibration, and
as
that
being
advanced
having
curve
wave
419
upon
point
the
at
notice : The
must
light
velocity of light. One other point we
from
P proceeds simultaneously in all directions,hence
at
any
the ether particlesat some
given distance, such
given moment
as
from
that
in the
hence
on
sphere of
spheres
round
ether
similar
state
instant, all
at
upper
which
the
vibration
all of
their
small
elongation
parts
and
plane,
them, such
then
we
undisturbed
as
speak
spherical
property
always
are
upwards
at
of
uniform
medium
great
distance
so
light,and
slight that
enter
plane
waves
enter
waves
wave
long
as
they
from
are
their
regard
object-glass,as
we
small
still
called
are
one
wards
down-
moving
elongation at
source
At
plane
or
moving
lower
one
of
the
them
characterised
can
centre,
number
little later,all
reaching
thus
of
given
is the
have
one
any
becomes
curvature
of
on
an
position
unlimited
which
i.e.all
"
fronts ; near
surfaces or wave
the
as
light is proceeding in
have
as
we
just seen.
spherical,
source
given point
describe
can
Surfaces
moment.
crossing
their
centre,
all
stage of vibration
same
will all be
particleslying
of
the
in
now
we
as
later, and
yet
later
that
conclude
we
be
diagram they
our
I, will all
to
travellingupwards
lie
point
of
of
case
of rest,
can
finally, when
kind
any
of
lens
afflicted
less
or
point
into
ideal
of
view,
refracted
means
waves
aberrations," which,
"
that
which
they
are
the
turn
more
or
from
present
our
arriving light-waves
less distorted
from
the
spherical form.
Perhaps
billions
the
most
remarkable
feature
of
light-waves
extreme
twice
with
as
The
of vibrations
billion is here
used
per
as
second
is the
signifyinga
from
red
here
is their
about
400
light to nearly
note
at
once
only characteristic
million
millions.
WAVE-LENGTHS
420
light
of
the
by
seen
of
rate
which
if
human
divide
we
connected
empty
or
find
about
micron, that
respectively,we
three-quartersof a
three-eighthsof
denser
In
colours,
is
have
one
in such
their
of
of
light as
light as
about
for
different
unchangeable
an
shortening
of the
statement
be
of
the
length
wave-
accompanied
it is measured
vacua
more
; it
by
ever,
is,how-
is meant
unless
the contrary.
to
particulardirection
light should
was
have
We
vibrating in
; indeed, if we
hitherto
assumed
that
up-and-down direction ;
should
be
vibrating in that
it
necessity why
no
the
wave-length in
characteristic.
is
valent
equi-
billions
red
speeds
is
results
in which
that
point P
there
but
there
amplitude and
more
vibrations
Hence
media.
assumed
luminous
our
colour,
statement
Besides
violet
different
of
particularkind
always
of
the
glass,light travels
or
somewhat
of the medium
statement
water
as
number
one
any
of any
there
at
the
as
quantity for
wave-lengths
such
moreover
and
of
of
distance, and
800
wave-length
the
at
micron.1
media,
slowly, and
the
and
400
as
number
conveniently
by
vibrations
above
in this
more
microns
300,000,000,000,000
its colour
light travels
; the
contained
kilometres,
300,000
with
space
second
per
is therefore
second
per
In
eyes.
kilometres
300,000
vibrations
unchangeably
is
an
imagine
ourselves
looking at
the
of interference
secondary importance in the consideration
the
we
use
phenomena ; it becomes
important, however, when
of the vibrations
this azimuth
which
polariscope ; it is indeed
of the
determines
of polarisationof light. In some
the state
a
polariscopicexperiments the vibrations assume
yet different
their position of rest
form
particlesgyrate round
; i.e. the ether
in elliptical
arise the terms
circular
elliptical
or
paths, whence
is of
circular
and
polarisation.
In
in
contains
which
the
are
an
vibrating more
lightfrom
such
1
source
or
every
of
number
enormous
take
less
vibrating molecules,
independently of
contains
place indiscriminately
of light
useful source
vibrations
in
one
all
all
of
another,
possible
COMBINATION
of
of
are
viz.
polarisation.
now
proceed
will
We
where
Let
that
assume
us
the
in
number
of
would
point P2
another
produce the
wave
The
is
answer
II ; what
according
superposition,
of
particleis
to
of
such
result
have
we
same
result
the
if it
after
was
which
cases
physical principle
according
do
to
at
fundamental
which
to
immediately
All
II.
wave
would
as
I and
wave
the
any
given instant
I, Fig. 2OQA, that light
instant, if acting alone,
if both
act
together?
wave
the
from
optical instruments,
act
simultaneously.
point P1
is the
supplied by
of
theory
a
at
free
of those
vibrations
from
light
421
consequence
WAVES
the consideration
to
especialimportance
cases
is in
and
simultaneously,
azimuths
trace
OF
therefore
to
displacement
the
to
combined
the
get
J"H
Fig. 2O9A.
effect is to take
add
or
of
the
same
the
Here
the
components,
than
greater amplitude
The
two
phase
combining
we
result
that
combined
waves
at
that
very
waves
once
; the
in
different
are
notice
more
that
result
the
wave
waves.
combining
has
less
displacements
amplitude
B, and
Thus
the
to
new
the
2OQA
than
and
the
equal
the
the
to
both
ingly
accordof
of
wave
those
much
combining waves.
of nearly the
were
is obtained
hence
sum
if the
less
or
superpose
at
wave
opposed, as
nearly everywhere the
of
are
of
Fig.
Phase.
same
combined
either
opposite tendency,
gives displacements approximately
waves
position.
being
of
the
and
displacement equal
upward
an
nearly in
like A
points
displacements
upward displacements
gave
has
of
number
"Waves
in
the
waves
of two
Combination
"
phases
in
Fig. 2096.
two
separate
combination
the
of
now
difference
of
resulting combined
stronger
of
the
combining
COMBINATION
422
Having
learnt how
OF
combine
to
WAVES
two
waves,
we
immediately
can
proceed to combine
given number
any
by combining them first
in pairs,then the resultants
in
again
pairs,and so on until the
total
result is obtained
P,"
or
we
combine
may
the
displacements
"
"
Fig. 2OQB.
of all the
of two
Combination
"
separate
Waves
in
waves
opposed
operation
one
each
to
and
other
in Phases.
obtain
the
same
result.
taking
Before
the result
discuss
closely;
more
time,
same
of
the
what
or
have
we
how
matter
no
problem, we
co-operation of
what
whilst
all conditions,
under
the
for
of such
example
an
relation
two
or
learnt
is
waves
many
more
waves
strictlytrue
are
wave-length
to
as
ever
how-
must
acting
and
at
state
of
can
decided
very
2096
found
we
if the
With
the
result
that
the
of
aid
the
of
and
Figs. 20QA
combination
depends
the combining
\v
phase-relationbetween
of great amplitude results,
in the same
phase a wave
are
phases are opposed to each other the result is a feeble
the
chiefly on
if both
differences.
wave.
consider
Now
wave-length
we
there
combined
strong
with
the
the
the
which
in
are
waves
two
in the
the
But
wave.
to
are
result
the
at
in
will
opposition to
We
resultingwave.
are
where
these
wave-length of
two
have
each
waves
of
be
combined.
in
arrived
we
sec
that
combining
waves,
thus
Supposing
A,
\\
waves
other
slightlydifferent
position marked
same
velocityof light,therefore
parts shown
parts
weak
both
210,
shown,
considering
were
that
are
Fig.
an
extremely short
from
A, and
shall
if there
the
have
now
is
time
very
difference
resultingcombined
in
IMPORTANCE
424
OF
effects, the
regular interference
of
different
luminous
It
to
light have
of
portions
be
yet
not
may
luminous
clear
using
of
small
that
from
such
the
same
the
coloured
other
light from
independently
of
of
back
of
one
the
lens
of
these
"
colour
the
of
different
of
the
In
realitythe
merely
produced
intensities
two
portions
would
of
Now
send
field,and
the
the
luminous
two
microscope
act
acted
addition
patches.
are
which
source
two
light into
if both
brighter by
same
generally
would
would
the
"
origin, they
become
in
patches seen
the
light from
two
fainter and
is
light
these
the
by
of
source
if
Each
eyepiece,uniformly lighting up
together,the field
objective. Every
usually much
brighter
light.
another.
one
the
other
; the
lamp
were
difficult striation
-"n
the
of
diffracted
the
of
two
the
of
and
reader
resolution
get
that
patch is
of
light
patches
to
of
knows
the
tube
diameter
direct
the
originallycome
to
pencil
the
down
microscopist
the
being
nt
why it is important
that originating in differe
light from
therefore
vibrating independently. A
make
this
microscopical practice should
us
try
we
looking
than
from
taken
When
clear.
ends
and
sources,
example
on
inference
point.
distinguish coherent
by
COHERENCE
different
have
been
where
and
the
in
the
the
and
sum
combining
combined
the
square
the
which
of
the
these,
darkest
latter figures,or
comparatively
is
the
of
usually
marking
bold
seen
on
amplitudes
amplitudes
waves
difference
brightness between
have
waves
diatoms
or
in
and
proportion
5, the
brightest parts
and
as
as
in
25 !
the
This
about
as
of
difference
is
accounts
as
the
for
microscopical image
gratings, even
though,
PRINCIPLE
HUYGHENIAN
down
looking
on
weak
extremely
The
and
which
lead
to
of
be
These
cases
Light
from
of
The
the
these
point
former,
as
at
are
new
rule
universal
stipulating that
not
both
with
grounds,
those
who
look
the
it to
state, that
those
are
above.
the
with
in
up
Drude,
Longmans,
in
that
regular
"
point
that
all of
that
this
extended
diffracting apertures,
or
not, by
the
that
of
surface
the
direct
effect
combined
be
deduced
the
difficulties in connection
have
been
they
raised
have
strongly
are
with
Theoretical
due
at
regard
theoretical
on
been
overcome
recommended
;
to
Optics)- Suffice
investigationsjustifythe applications of
here
dealt
with.
these
the
of
interest
most
which
leads
to
by gratings
structures.
Theory of Optics,translated
Green
any
wave-fronts
principleswhich is
microscopical vision is that
of
each
so
points in
relative
phases
with
Drude's
are
application of
other
light-effectat
Fresnel
the
in which
way
these
theory of
the explanation
and
deal
interested
the
in
to
principleswhich
The
ciple
prin-
ing
wave-surface, accord-
containing the
principleswhich
subject
any
Huyghenian
fictitious luminous
the
with
nor
at
same
the
of
points
coincide
attempt
these
tures
aper-
the
the
assigned to them
light reaching these points, and
point beyond the surface must
any
these
to
phase-relations.
I will
light
light,but
the
in
have
must
the
the
of
source
stated
surface
surface
this
certain
by considering
moment
any
the
whether
of
phase
obtain
we
by combining
any
through
passes
wave-front
all these
principle to
will
above
by applying the
explanation
down
by Fresnel.
given
wave-front
vibration, and
of
which
apertures?
the
to
thus
intensity and
its extension
points
brief
with
met
those
are
principles laid
stated
is obtained
point beyond
the
be
those
According
in
on
luminous
solution
and
often
most
are
greatest importance
the
appears
visible.
diffraction-phenomena
may
point beyond
pencil
especial interest.
wanted,
"
the
phenomena
therefore
"
of
so-called
these
diffracted
which
interference
are
the
tube,
perhaps barely
or
of
cases
the
425
Co.,
1902.
by
C. R. Mann
and
R.
A.
Milliken.
INTERFERENCE
426
Limiting
grating
ourselves
from
comes
only allow
and
all directions
in
the coherent
other
as
which
slit ;
been
fought
thus
the
limit
ourselves
depends
of
result
to
must
now
we
produce
gradually
from
the
original direction
strong
consider
by
t
on
then
th
light startingfro
considering
to
that
distance
out
interferingwith
start
the
fallingupon
apertures
a
arranged
principles laid
the result
and
it is easy
wave
originallight-
will
slits
the
between
final
; and
sidered
con-
grating
exceedinglynarrow,
are
such
at
the
and
with
be
may
the
arrived
out
startingfrom
and
when
established
of the
and
all
therefore
can
slits have
become
distance
wave-front,
one
interference
we
happens
several
lightfallingon
slits
no
one
what
that
they meet,
they meet.
as
soon
Assuming
any
the
accordance
of
vibrations
in
phase-relation
will be
in
the
wavelets
each
considerable
regular intervals
down,
where
case
as
at
the
to
the
the
to
battle
the
has
interference
has
see
that in
the
in
again meet
light-wave the
"
points farther
of the light,it
the
the
same
direct
and
direction
phase
light. If
farther
is evident
away
that
the
with
a
light from the various slits will here meet
difference
of phase, and
will in general cancel
each
other
more
be
less completely.
directions
But
there
must
at
or
regular
be
intervals where
must
an
exceptional state prevails. There
where
the light
directions on
either side of the direct beam
two
portions
from
of
slit
one
any
difference
of
phase equal
from
that
meets
to
whole
with
neighbour
wave-length ; here then
shall
light from
the
three
or
there
wJiole
more
will
be
phenomena
are
great range
of
adjoining slits
wave-lengths\
observed
less distance
maximum
with
of
white
wave-lengths, the
maxima
further
for red
from
with
for
the
in
aggregate
other
has
and
pairs
difference
in
all these
in which
the direct
much
of
a
we
strong
directions
of two,
or
directions
brightness. Usually
light,and as this contains
directions
its shorter
its
maxima
the
a
arc
effect
maximum
greater
wave-length.
The
result
PHASE
of it is that
through
either
on
projectingupon
grating, or
SPECTRA
DIFFRACTION
OF
the
screen
looking through
on
427
it at
lightpassing
distant
white
direct
obtain
a
image of the white light,flanked at
light,we
but
rapidly
regular intervals by spectra of increasing width
diminishing brightness,the familiar diffraction spectra.
of microscopical theory we
must
For
study, not only
purposes
and
direction
the
of
brightness
because
phase-relation,
the
have
we
spectra,
that
seen
but
the
also
latter
their
is
all-
the
bringing together of the
important in deciding whether
light of the different spectra at a given point will produce
This
final example
will form
of the
a
light or darkness.
which
method
graphical
have
we
dealt
with
in
the
earlier
to
determine
Fig. 211
in
that
at
direct
which
Q'.
line
slit S
Formation
"
to
be
the
with
light from
the
amplitude
the
phase
with
distance
and
centre
the
of
that
from
phase
the
of
the
Light.
of Diffracted
same
P,
and
to
distant
which
the
be
slit would
would
slit
as
referred
Q'
to
produce
PHASE-REVERSALS
428
P
Both
great
being
the
in
at
distance
phase,
same
which
of
the width
with
compared
as
reach
and
the
and
is assumed
slit,all the
shall
we
to
light
therefore
get
here
lightfrom
differences
will
there
hence
obvious
have
we
be
Q'
at
part
shown
process
will
the
have
Fig.
in
the
the
these
the
of
centre
Such
212.
inappreciable
an
Q'
the
divide
now
light from
the
in
we
at
whi
slit reaches
of
the
from
light
li^ht
slit into
our
any
parts in pairs of
slit
by
pair
close
to
phase,
and
of
shal
phase, we
same
the
difference
all
paths by
weakening
that
reach
from
less
narrow
the
portions of
or
If
so
to
combine
to
equidistant
parts
get
assumed
be
may
able
be
equal parts
of
number
more
of
the
two
simple
the
centre
shall
we
of
resulting amplitude nearly equal to the simple sum
two, Fig. 212
(a). But if we take a pair with a considerable
a
of
difference
will
there
shows
recedes
central
two
just
light as
And
the
the
other
inspection of Fig.
an
from
much
as
other
of
any
it,the
exceeds
nodes
for
as
the
(")
212
one
wave-
nodes
of
the
displacements of
the
always be equal
must
equal
then
slit,
an
of the
centre
striking peculiarity;
the
those
at
waves
light from
interference.
be
immediately
curve
being behind,
one
front, of the
in
amount
phase,
each
to
other,
the
principle of combination
opposite directions ; on
and
in Fig. 209
illustrated
will,
waves
again here, the two
invariably produce a node in tJie same
position as light
therefore,
but
in
the
from
centre
combined
But
either
the
with
to
is
wave
In
the
same
still in
wave
proceed
of the slit.
Fig.
than
from
wave
the
position of the
same
resultant
tJie centre
If
we
combine
result
that
the
sense
as
of
centre
but
nodes,
from
wave-length
the
of
two
to
as
centre.
of
phase
compared
still get
the
prod,
waves
of the
that
small
the
We
slit.
these
of tfie oppositecharacter
wave
that
results
difference
the
quarter
(b)there
212
(c),where
212
more
Fig.
wave
from
of tJie slit.
apply
the
; without
if the
"lit and
this
to
process
of
resultants
going
differences
its centre
into
of
all the
these,
the
phase
do
not
we
successive
shall
details, it may
between
exceed
the
a
pairs and
the
get
be
extreme
quarter
compl
pointed
edges
wave-len
PHASE-REVERSALS
all the
resultants
each
from
the
of
other
the
; for
combine
centre
pairs
429
are
wider
in
the
slit,the
and
phase
same
pairs
further
inforce
re-
removed
the
"
x,_.X
Fig. 212.
of the
the
the
slit
are
half
With
centre.
"
Phase-reversal.
Illustrating
wave-length
still wider
out
slits the
of
phase compared
light reappears,
with
but
in
oppositephase.
These
alternations
pointed out,
and
of
their
phase
in
importance
diffraction
for
the
spectra
proper
were
first
explanation
of
in
microscopical
610-633,
the
for
and
the
formation
of
these
taking
that
it
was
differentiation
narrow
their
discovery
of
will
gratings
into
indeed
the
the
microscope
similar
grating
careful
of
impossibility
between
of
very
only
wide
1904,
information
merely
can
found
for
fuller
here
be
to
paper
Society
desire
phase-relations
by
and
who
We
images
correct
Microscopical
those
referred.
are
in
upon,
Royal
which
to
subject
by
the
of
PHASE-REVERSALS
insisted
images
Journal
the
pages
on
OF
IMPORTANCE
430
that
state
be
accounted
consideration,
the
explaining
grating
slits
that
of
very
led
THEORY
AIRY'S
432
an
difficult to
It is not
this
is
which
apply
in
used
not
the
microscope.
the
angular
to
of
rid
it
replace
and
microscopy,
corresponding
two
suggest
this limit
first get
must
we
purpose
thus
would
figure and
points of light.
form
For
measure
linear
by
dimensions.
Supposing
have
we
objective,would
of the
centre
focal
of
length
subtend
objective
our
of the
may
as
put
linear
the
as
diameter
objectiveof D
i"
sin
of
inches
find
The
^,and
the
that
as
spurious
diameter
and
of
Let
the
distance
star-image,
diameter
angle
an
^^-,
inches
focal
inches
the
small
so
in
disc
the
linear
i"
sin
from
is the
the
sine
means
angle.
objectiveto
we
in.
sin
viewed
in.,then
be
; its
of arc, which
by it, when
star-image produced
the
diameter
in. in
^jseconds
is then
objective of
an
we
for
length
find
our
__
206265
the numerical
where
the
with
limited
factor has
been
of the
accuracy
46000
rounded
accepted
off in accordance
value
of the
resolving
power.
Now
it
field is
required
"
effect
the
be
can
produced
composition
exact
substitute
this is
any
by
of
it,
imaginary
always
lens
system
but
that,
lenses
investigation,provided
the object and
near
rays
for
that
of
the
will
make
our
meaning
the
in the
case
does
the
on
not
they
not
small
microscope"
depend on the
contrary,
it which
do
only
may
disturb
we
suit
may
a
the
image
clear.
Limit
of Resolution
course
r
Fig. 213." Airy's
ticular
par-
applied
to
the
Microscope.
LIMIT
objective refracted
objective
"
between
For
this result.
"
ray
P1
and
ray
the
as
by
lenses
of
set
any
present
our
433
the
incident
the
that
RESOLUTION
OF
which
imagine
we
purpose
would
our
the
lens
if its
objective,and
LgO1
preciselythe
under
acts
confusion)of
-^
the
and
angles
opticalaxis
introduce
in
that
radians
have
into
sin
or
there
our
is
or
the
into
tangent
; hence
between
we
may
by transposing,-"
the
gives
latter
for
formula
our
as
distance
with
size
of
the
The
in.
"
".
the
to
very
measure
that
J^
and
the
latter is
.S1"a if
sin
of the
medium
Hence
surrounding
our
spurious
disc
disc
resolving limit
in
the
is the
O1,
at
"
".
the
the
refractive index
corresponds
numerator
sm
We
.
and
"
".
to
/3
sm
sm
=
92000
sin
the
object.
the
object
and
92000
a
this
referred to
corresponding limit of resolution at O1 when
inverse
in
diminished
object O becomes
proportion to
with
of the
objective. In accordance
magnifying power
sine-condition
we
spurious disc,
spurious
sm
92000
the
its
say
of
microscope
makes
ray
introduced
telescope
fcJ2,
whence,
marginal
fore
there-
(or circles
In
sensible difference
no
its sine
diameter.
L2
the
and
discs
spurious
in
the
ft which
lens
as
inches
produce
inches
of great
are
them
small, so
"
"
will
it
inches,
be
diameter
this
converges
conditions
same
produce
objective
diverging
sin
see
denominator,
crosses
is
of numerical
the measure
as
universallyknown
find the limit of
we
symbolised by N.A., hence
aperture and
for a microscope objective according to Airy's
resolvingpower
theory
out
"
Limit
of resolution
"
XT
92000
Thus
an
objectiveof N.A.
should
in.
N.A.
resolve two
points in the
28
OF
LIMIT
434
object
of
inch
an
RESOLUTION
apart ;
objective
an
of
N.A.
"50
92000
?
of
46000
points at
The
immediate
of
significance
of the
the
just enable
separated if their
should
of
potency
of
its
even
its
finds
the limit,it is
below
image
shape if it
minute
exceeding
TJ^ of
size of
of
case
the
single
the latter
tell from
The
is well
ance
appear-
the
"
area
"
limit
large
as
its visible
it
indirectly,
out
actual
limit.
same
in the
even
particles
be, nor
particlemay
reallybe an elongated body, but with
below
the limit of resolution.
A brilliantly
with
dimension
one
no
particle say
and
as
be
would
"
with
the
be
cannot
decided
to
case
only
can
one
be
found
in
its appearance
by
of
tive
less reflec-
either
In
it is due
distribution
larger particleof
much
light; what
represented by
same
feebly illuminated.
or
more
power
a little blot of
sees
the
the
it
"
expression
such
two
that
should
longest dimension
illuminated
with
scope
micro-
formula, and
see
utterlyimpossible to
what
the
to
the
particlesas spurious
the
given by
agrees
the
luminous
observer
distance
limit
the
particlein
size
approximate
minute
"
"
discs
inch,etc.
an
the
microscope.
Precisely the
objects of
certain
"
ultramicroscopical width,
bacteria
image of
(by integration)the
with
determined
that
that
all
has
be
particlemay
for
minute
said
been
long
to
flagellaof
the
as
for
when
in
light-distribution
to
above
very
agree
luminous
applied directlyto
regard
illumination
line, it is found
luminous
such
by dark-ground
seen
with
be made
may
"
determines
one
remarks
same
the
concerning
the
width
of
closely
and
area,
an
the
fore
thereminute
elon
object.
Similar
to
necessary
to
results
smudge
found
by
the
character
determine
dark
minute
are
the
objects
of
in
minute
a
image
"smudge"
agreeing closely
no
possiblecriterion by which
diameter
as
or
width
object of much
could
greater
carrying
integrations
image corresponding
of the
We
bright field.
black object,the
with
a
the
out
the
limit
of
get
width
grey
of
the
resolution, with
jet-blackobject of
very
minute
HELMHOLTZ
human
of the
not
black
less
slight(i.e.
a
than
narrower
skilled
view
; that
herring
it
be
to
some
drawn
that
literature
It will
is to say,
noted
Airy's theory
Abbe
on
in
Sine-condition
the
microscope
been
the
importance
which
the
which
send
is
scrutiny of
but
so
even
out
the
of
from
must
who
it
is
in
reallydeal
astronomical
deduced
the
on
with
Helmholtz
other
from
determined
produced
by
by
the
basis,but independently
same
in
also contained
many
that
diffraction
famous
to
excellent
an
the
paper
interestingobservations
had, however,
; for
before
it
it
so
was
Professor
paper
by
which
shed
on
narrow
escape
happened
published, there
that
Ernst
Abbe,
entirely new
an
Helmholtz
in
himself
when
appeared
of
light
it
Jena,
on
the
upon
acknowledged
the
an
withdrawing entirely.
the
importance
bear
in mind
to
self-luminous
the
scientific progress.
true
the
referred
type,
this
"
its action.
adopt the
microscope. Now
are
side of
matters.
at from
microscope.
realise
subject we
done
the
an
these
of
but
latter he
refrained
To
near
is formed
astronomers
basis
unpublished
the
to
closely
in
subject
theory of
this
information
left
set
same
the
here
epoch-making
an
if
image
escape
very
and
and
paper
being
had
its
objects, and
the
1873, which
the
The
the
arrived
was
object.
of Airy's work, by
published
that
agrees
It
from
black
absolutely
deficiency of light in
the
trail of
interest
finds most
one
be
Professor
the
across
self-luminous
with
largely
to
space
subject is chieflyof
The
to
as
of
It lies somewhere
eye.
this,then
about)
smallness
question
from
the microscopist's point of
really is worth
it has
used
been
recently as the proverbial red
because
"
5%
devoted
than
more
ness
sensitive-
observer.
have
We
than
the
to
"
the
limited
of
limit of resolution
g1^of the
object is
or
eye
accurately determined
be seen
can
by the
objects which
"V
the
to
"
be
to
(and
Owing
435
gradations of
one
resolution.
limit of
the
below
ABBE
AND
of
Abbe's
that
up
theory of the
the
telescope
objects
strictlycoherent
and
contribution
then
to
nothing
astronomical
is
to
had
light which
on
therefore
Airy
been
telescopeto
chiefly used
which
our
assumed
stars,
really
in
the form
the
attention
the contrary,
that, on
distant
by
of
source
that
legitimatelybe applied to
This
theory of microscopical
of objects by a distant
image
Abbe's
that it
first limited
ultimate
its
light;
reply to
his
less
or
result
to
Abbe
cannot
theory
he
this
the
circumstances.
considered
this
that
moreover
small
very
these
under
and
theory,
that
of
images
it
realised
he
had
supply
objects seen
must
all
he
he
the
as
which
objects,to
fence-poles,as
tersely put
the
by
it in
his
work
theory
a
; his
to
of
high degree
very
which
have
cations
publi-
own
limited
are
greatly
few
physical
in consequence
ordinary
misinterpreted in all sorts of extrastandard
of
fallingbelow the assumed
critics
by
his
readers, and
his
and
misunderstood
ways
of
assume
moreover
original thinkers,
many
accounts
subject of
the
which
like
Abbe,
opticalinsight in
been
for
clearly that
of
writing long
on
and
more
source
of
even
Unfortunately
papers,
therefore
of his critics.
one
disliked
Airy's assumption
reason
application, but
explanation
borrowed
vision
merely
applied not
objects;
this
that
accounted
of his
feature
the
the
show
later papers
essential
at
be
is to
seen
that
was
by
microscope.
point underlying the
chief
is the
esca
illuminated
for
fulfilled,and
had
self-luminous
applied to
ever,
objects are
light;
means
no
THEORY
of the
seldom, if
is
microscope
ABBE'S
determining
is
OF
FEATURES
436
knowledge.
result of all this has
The
attacked
been
never
appeared
from
that
prove
it
or
The
that
any
saw
elaborate
or
the
papers
of
way
theory
have
others
by
"
has
trying to
it," however, was
by Abbe
"
it "
misunderstanding
sented
repreAbbe's
in text-books.
Abbe's
from
unconsciously
source
the
put forward
between
latter start
the
consciously
We
as
of them
difference
whilst
at
theory
accounts
real
begins
time
the Abbe
physicist, there
competent
particularauthor's
the
papers,
to
that, while
entirely erroneous
was
Abbe
the
never
time
by
been
"
the
to
be
theory
and
object and
all others
assume
self-luminous, the
this
is
"
former
of light.
in the
luminous
with,
interfering
those
from
any
other
luminous
point
Hence,
there
when
are
EXEMPLIFIED
THEORY
ABBE'S
neously,
points acting simultagiven point is the simple
luminous
of
number
resultinglighteffect in any
effects
all the
produced by
the
of
sum
points ;
then
to
proceed
all
from
the
in
points
particularpoint
from
far
Abbe
simple
that
reason,
possibly
of
do
nature
idea
A
occupy
Let
inevitable
and
of
natural
our
deal
the
vast
majority
objects
and
that
of
rather
deduction
that
theory
lished,
firmly estab"
security from
the
cases
is unknown
what
to
to how
as
selected
with
obtained
image
from
of natural
few
in this
share
must
how
is to
circumstances
images
direct
theory looks
to
attack.
problem
is
the
results
much
faith
such
may
and
cases
we
in
the
All
study
various
then
may
have
to
under
cases
obtained
we
structural
polarise light.
simple
in
cannot
we
us,
these
extent
may
can
some
image
(in reality,a
for
determine
elements
the
final
final structure
we
Abbe
the
form
that in the
complicated
say
the
brightness of
true
the
theory
It is obvious
and
sum
any
obtain
"
the
too
the
laws
the
from
in
the
light;
is the
thus
we
be
may
image.
is,however,
it
of
there
as
point
any
formed
abstract
this
in
formidable
in the
to
source
multiple integral)thus
Stated
produced
light transmitted
of
amount
effects
therefore
point of light; we
light by repeating
of
far
so
mental
funda-
the
must
we
mere
source
it in
of
point
the
between
difference
extended
an
for each
operation
produced by
luminous
with
and
in accordance
proceed logically,
principles of the undulatory theory,
the effect
the
individual
the
to
first determine
can
437
form
everyday
objects.
simple examples
of
this
kind
must
therefore
next
attention.
L, Fig. 214, be
luminous
Isolation
of the
an
object lighted
Fig. 214."
point, OO'
Direct
point.
DIFFRACTION
438
the
by it,and OG
object OO'.
that
see
we
If
but
fix
we
of
the
the
through
onwards
which
aperture
plenty of
room
effect
on
the
down
the
both
and
diameter,
point
the
would
under
the
thereby
something
that whenever
of
minute
aperture
in
singleray,
that
the
image
become
very
should
we
diaphragm D,
There
and
of
image
is
therefore
is
spreading
otherwise
incident
spread
preceding chapter
out
the
interposition
of
out
limits, owing
light
ference
inter-
to
point P to
plate,theory and
assume
our
opaque
far
lighc,so
that
so
the
from
being
light proceeds
in
the
every
all
and
lightby
determined
the
reduced
due
determination
the
in
of
beam
an
that
experiment
a
cut
small
experiment
if,for instance, we
show
to
learnt
results
there
phenomena
be
down
geometrically
the
no
object.
already
cut
we
diaphragm,
beyond
the
indeed
have
with
however
to
us
up.
very
have
objective,the
sharpened
very
the
the
with
of
Abbe
lightby
the incident
We
full aperture of
with
wrong
withdraw
we
it ;
rules
single ray
would
the
making
immediately
is
something,"as
"
in
moment
the
expose
point
our
But
show
conditions
would
theoretical
object,
passing
ray
therefore
objective
therefore
these
large diffusion-disc.
also find that
the
Airy's
practicalexperiment
of
of
aperture
should
the
the
to
the
on
through
this
the
pass
of
pass
to
diaphragm
can
due
were
which
and
Such
image.
.
nevertheless
spare,
useful
point
light from
image
would
to
on
microscope, according
could
place a diaphragm
geometricaloptics we
small
of
OBJECT
microscope focussed
attention
our
single ray
THE
object glassof
formation
if the
BY
as
direction
their
centre
with
accordance
leads
minute
the
to
as
than
half
its diffractive
to
become,
to
all intents
same
result
aperture
our
soon
owing
surrounded
and
the
and
luminous,
indeed
has
aperture
from
as
that
exceeds
wave-length) the
of
very
But
effect
and
diffraction
case
the
and
minute
self-
image of it in
spurious disc
small
where
Airy
purposes,
an
this
minute
our
of
Abbe
Hclmholtz.
diameter
effect
becomes
solitary
theory
As
less
(i.e.
more
THEORY
440
of
lines
to
exist in the
having
without
rebel
totally different
object,and
the
Probably
has
done
comment
Abbe
highly
diffraction
of
head
indeed
trained
students
by
object
the
the
without
circumstance.
devised
true
source
and
fountain-
less
scientific
before
put
experiments had
same
These
observers
knew,
opposite effect.
such
utter
felt,that
dissimilaritybetween
object and
almost
an
convince
to
the
comment,
proper
text-books
microscopists
other
any
but
in
known
well.
as
make
to
more
the
was
microscopical images
observers
apart
admirably
of
those
experiments
than
theory
were
from
different distance
these
experiments
the
direction
description of
adequate
against the
These
PRACTICE
VERSUS
least
at
or
did
image
in
the
everyday practice ; that, on
contrary, the
with
to
a
low-power object glass was
only added
image seen
and
improved in its finer details with a stronger objective,but
not
occur
find
the
theory," or
in the
the
by sittingon
We
to
Mr.
his
use
"
"
state
at
once
all the
that
Conrady
possibly
require
the
in
occur
the
which
objectiveby
of
use
would
the
cause
of
"
"
to
would
well-known
for further
that
they
unable
physicistwho
thus
make
take
under-
text-book
light."
it has
most
"
them
obtained
normal
diffraction
certain
otherwise
once
image
under
conditions
of
use
the
the
with
produced
"
which
microscope
lead
picturesque description of
are
Diffractions-platte
all
any
waiting
"
cannot
they
fence,
well
as
may
by
Abbe
totally dissimilar
although they were
to
hole
out
distrustful, and
became
a
replaced by
never
was
"
enter,
nightmares
spectra
and
"
are
which,
to
vanish
the
deliberately
if
admitted,
and
to
be
an
would
been
"
"
"
Beitrage
(1873).
zur
Theorie
des
he
first paper
did
of Hermann
had
Abbe
by Helmholtz
in
of
mystery
tJie dark
of
use
for
space
"
when
only
seen
dark
wide
his
on
the
the
The
if
above,
stated
only just
as
is
that
admit
ruined
immediately
conclusion
we
to
the
reduce
irresistible that
lightwhich, although
invisible,is
Abbe
had
of
claimed
diffraction
to
it
the
in
lens-action
was
accounted
he
claimed
be
due
theory
"
the
to
of this
1
"
detail
the
apparently
was
no
the
be,
light in
need
to
Theorie
der
that
this
dark
with
what
was
the
objective so
completely lost.
very
dark
space
faint
adaptation
we
have
Dr.
of
the
Altmann,
the
"
dark
depart from
the theory
and
is
The
tributes
con-
indeed
"
space
the
of the
whatever
objective more
Bilderzeugung,"Archiv
(Anatomische Abteilung),1880, pp. 111-84.
Zur
of
light,definition
fine
sometimes
devoid
"
of
bright
the
i.e.from
aperture
of
tube
utmost
that, whatever
to, there
of
the
narrow
the
patch
apparently
bright patch
much
and
clear
down
shows
light,that then experiment nevertheless
plays an important role ; for,in accordance
space
vailing
prethus
called
with
small
space
advanced
task
aptly
looking
a
little
conditions
work
we
above-
very
theory
been
has
when
viz. that
is
base
microscope.
what
frequently,on
microscope, there
by a
light, surrounded
the
opinion
that
justification,
to
with
1873
the
only
deductions
reconcile
to
of
paper
the
of
theory
considerable
attempted
account
to
was
light,and
of
those
in
penetrating insight
having
"
Abbe
with
ordinary
the
attempted
this
theory appeared in
medical
journal by
German
far-reaching
his
in
in
of the
very
then
He
Abbe's
gentleman
This
based
evidence.
it the
on
on
paper
claimed, perhaps
"
cone
brief account
mentioned
Upon
attack
of
form
Altmann.1
Dr.
bear
to
impression
deep
very
that
seem
Helmholtz.
elaborate
the
in
indeed
; it would
at
bring
not
von
first
The
importance
by microscopical objects and the
produce
not
could
who
readers
arrived
had
conclusions
the great
of
himself
convinced
produced
diffraction
the
1880
had
author
the
which
441
experimental investigations by
tioncd
of
THEORY
ALTMANN
THE
fiirAnatomie
Helmholtz
telescope
the
or
und
might
less
origin
com-
Physiologic
ABBE'S
442
have
DEFENCE
of
light,though
do
is to carry
varying intensity;
the
all
we
out
"
"
shall
We
disc,
of
thus
he
as
arrive
called
at
modified
it, and
consider
can
overlapping diffusion-discs
Such,
theory
in
attached
from
both
to
of
defence
the
which
his claim
scattered
of carefullyconducted
oil and
grooves
of
degree
These
computed.
light far beyond
prism
the
only gave
up
himself
by these
the
explain
and
sought
He
further
then
for the
and
distant
earlier part of
suffice
to
show
Altmann
Dr.
treated
theory
dark
objects
We
source.
brief
the
and
have
that it is indeed
lightat
in
in
when
by
their
that
he
he
had
that
and
that
in diffraction
brief account
importance
those
of
it
reference
to
lens
or
himself
convinced
could
only then
not
he
by the object.
of his
theory,
distinguishing
illuminated
anticipatedmuch
history,and
objectsscattered
stated
space,
his former
described
glass threads
for
experiments
dealt with
that the
in the
the
elaborated
our
indeed
explanation
the
self-luminous
between
from
of
first time
be accounted
similar
and
refraction
diamond
that the
showed
Abbe
refraction
mystery
found
to
of
glass
the
possible intensity and
light could be accurately
refracted
limits
the
Abbe
with
cut
which
experiments
Professor
action.
shape
the
of
deflection
is
reply l
theory
than
with
experiments
oil for
born
rather
light,Professor
of determined
filled with
newly
Abbe
interest
immediate
an
for diffraction
number
slipsand
the
the
indeed.
badly
very
of the
cause
in
of
Particular
theory.
built up
as
type.
criticisms
they brought
Abbe,
fared
Altmann
In
because
diffusion-
or
image
of this modified
rival
suggested
Professor
Dr.
as
his
and
the
Altmann's
Dr.
brief, were
spurious disc
by light
of this in the
that
part will
with
quite impossible to assume
the back
of an objectivecould be
if it had
regular spherical
from
waves
was
only distinguished
points in the object and
from
Helmholtz
that assumed
by its intensity
by Airy and
varying in different parts of the aperture of the objective. As
bound
have shown, we
to begin by considering lightfrom
we
are
and
one
capable
point only so as to be sure of its being coherent
1
"
Ueber
die
same
as
way
Grenzen
Jenaischen Gesellschaft
fur
der
started
in
Medizinund
71-109.
regular co-operation ;
of
get only
object,which
the
in
"ray" of
one
is
at the
more
of
back
coherent
from
direct
latter
of
capable
portions which
must
due
it
account
after
the
we
so
point of
the
with
treated
be
the
light
into
the
of
source
as
of
manner
subdivided
be
must
one
collision
into
come
to
no
on
co-operating
each
are
we
do
we
point
lightpassing through any one
can
distinguishableby
only become
object ;
self-luminous
otherwise
443
when
that
saw
we
objective,it
the
and
and
THEORY
scattering the
there
ALTMANN
OF
REVIVAL
light,
interpretation
proper
of the
which
read
was
meeting
Apart from a
conception of the Abbe
been
not
anticipated by
in
Society
author's
had
that
at
of
consequently
we
the
curious
need
Altmann
devote
not
that
as
of
account
the
nothing
it contained
theory
Dr.
sort
same
extraordinary paper
Microscopical
Royal
an
highly
1901.
earlier,and
the
twenty-one
years
further
space
any
it.
to
We
hope
in
point that
the
sensational
been
ultimate
in which
way
that here
the
was
deduction
necessary
of
undulatory theory
dismissed
in
of
manner
is
no
indeed
and
short
bridged gulf
the
source
the
other.
of
Abbe
the
the
theory
put forward.
"
has
The
been
rather
"
have
Diffractions-platte
the
average
matter,
whilst
leaving
of the
towards
way
student
the far
to
more
the
Abbe
"
"
addition
on
kernel
in
this
to
up
inasmuch
In
of
the
thus
remarks
our
obstacle
been
with
foreground,
important position
there
latter has
the
in
of
adoption
experiments
put in the
think
it clear
made
our
inevitable
the
have
to
the
it had
as
there
always
the Abbe
between
has
been
theory
Abbe's
that
as
sanction.
yawning
described
and
in the
un-
books
text-
hand, and
one
In
Professor
the
lightand
objective,whilst
"c
in
serious
microscopy
we
shun
both
these
OF
DEVELOPMENT
444
things by
will
bear
natural
and
glad
are
as
touch
For
has
Abbe
although
it is
difference
stars, and
distant
its scope,
undoubtedly
the
first to
and
recognise
interpretationof
from
this
to
day
in circles,and
for
and
importance
with
insist
in
connection
And
be
must
he
in
attached
to
so
of
theory
any
and
which
vision
in this field
much
besides
this
upon
with
just
as
the
world,
name
recognises
Dr.
was
the
artificially
and
Johnstone
work
experimental
attention
we
moving
as
we
he
slightestreason
self-luminous
between
lighted objects.
The
most
distinguished worker
Stoney, F.R.S., who,
the
give
not
this manner,
difference
fundamental
could
less
it, as
to
optical images.
sun,
as
or
the
although
moving
their
of
nises
recog-
more
of
Copernican system
the
planets
although Copernicus wrongly described
speak
indeed
objects,such
connected
name
its
Abbe
self-luminous
his
Professor
of his
objects lighted
difference
correct
vainglorious
any
that
true
feel that
have
the
was
fundamental
being bridged
credit
undoubtedly
we
and
must
source,
of the
between
nebulae,
free from
are
briefest accounts
the
outlined
the
attempts
Professor
given only
only
last
are
these
that
effort to rob
is at
gulf
with
; and
that this
think
to
THEORY
the
as
large an
illuminatingcone
object
by carefullyrefrainingfrom
interferingwith the
aperture of our objectives.
using
round
We
ABBE
lution
reso-
on
important
peculiarity of artificially
lighted microscopical objects which
of the Abbe
the
extends
theory into regions in which
sway
it would
otherwise
not
other
illumination, in
of
image
the
observation.
in
the
and
point
object ;
the
and
source
of
Under
these
light is
flame-image
as
object so
would
illuminated
thus
conditions
behave
would
as
expect
also send
if the
the
the
also
out
on
one
the
a
each
use
sharp
under
point
corresponding
point
light sends
that
critical
object
light from
of
source
by
condenser
upon
therefore
and
so-called
where
upon
the
very
to
cases
concentrated
should
one
those
is thrown
point of
each
vibrations,
to
refer
We
carefullyfocussed
light
of
source
of
and
words,
highly corrected
of
apply.
to
out
of
the
pendent
inde-
the
points of an
independent vibrations
object itself
were
self-luminous.
Dr.
Stoney
case.
We
of
be
may
the condenser
regular structure
shall
always
careful
so
ever
so
to
give
rise
be
able
to
in
; if the
Abbe's
observe
realityfor
possible to determine
respect
every
the
would
substitution
direct
to
The
preciselythe
the
event
be fulfilled.
by claiming physical
either
this
Abbe
as
the
that this
theorem
diffraction
would
it does
would
as
however
seem
physical reality.
spectra under
such
an
apply
to
under
the
on
improbable
most
sideration.
con-
principles
physical reality;
as
in
matical
mathe-
think
to
one
Stoney
theory
in
be
under
fundamental
upon
Dr.
would
vibrations
lead
cated
compli-
be, it is always
may
which
the
the
how
matter
no
explain without
to
manner
same
would
of the
existence
impossible
in that
and
of
acceptance
continuous
lightseems
discovery
The
suggestion.
in
or
of
same
skylight of
the object,
fall upon
waves
for
looked
always been
contrary, it has
spectra,
the
theorem.
become
ever
critical
sufficiently
of
nothing
is of
cone
anomaly
plane
however
is
ment
adjust-
of
exactly
course
perfectsubstitute
There
of
of
set
and
in
to
the
is not
conditions
lightvibrations
of simultaneous
train
choice
object
mathematically that
be shown
can
this
them
mathematical
well-known
of
this
Dr.
It
would
assumption
445
recognisable diffraction
to
that
the
the
realise
to
as
fullest extent
the
to
WORK
startlingdiscovery
the
made
illumination
we
STONEY'S
JOHNSTONE
DR.
less
critical
assumption
such
in
cases
carefullyregulated
illumination.
indefatigable worker
Another
in
the
field of
great interest
from
In
the
in
theoretical
recent
years
themselves
and
point of view.
Mr. Conrady read
of
whose
in
the
work
many
considerable'
several
theory
papers
is
of
chiefly
discoveries
importance
before
the
has
also
of
the
microscope
"
in
contradistinction
to
the
artificial
EFFORTS
446
conditions
gross
this
It is
and
the
of
usual
IMAGE!
experiments
theory fullyaccounts
for all
with
the
tion-plate
diffrac-
of
peculiarities
this
that
instrument
extent
same
the
as
within
everything
any
depended
telescopeto give
the
natural
obstructed
way
tions
indica-
correct
round
But
this
with
centred
and
that
looking down
on
lens
extent
any
diameter
of
the
object ;
work
this kind
that
(3)
and
of
This
That
the
on
is
of
to
one-third
to
say,
light is
the
light
of
is avoided
proved
character.
and
nature
concluded
be
with
of
requirements
few
the
general
theoretical
As
there is now
investigations that it deals with.
only
theory of light,namely the undulatory theory, the theory of
particularopticalinstrument,
the
application
of
the
prevailingin
the
effects it
the direction
of such
test
between
the
results
and
the
theory
direct
for
spectroscope,
respectively
which
are
not
present
case
that
in the
the
here
other
the
For
and
which
means
ditions
particular con-
view
to
explaining
to
as
The
precise conditions
the
telescope and
Lord
Raylcigh
fully satisfy tluse
microscope,
Abbe
was
peculiar difficulties
two.
any
proving agreement
ditions
perfectlydefined con-
investigation.
Sir George
Airy
of
realised
who
under
one
in
it under
the
first
the
consist
always
theories
In
man
must
supplied
requirements.
to
with
theoretical
have
microscope, simply
giving indications
possible,
instrument
might be improved.
observation
in the
if
predictedby
assumed
the
as
instrument,
produces and,
such
undulatory theory
that
in which
its
the nature
easily be
can
well-
with
illumination
it
the
filled with
diameter, according
description,as
aptly
may
be
perhaps
dark-ground
of illumination
chapter
remarks
its full
any
decidedly dangerous
of
disc
concentric
latter may
minimum
nearly
to
up
for critical
from
and
area,
which
objective,
the
of
used, that is
perfectlyround
its whole
back
to
the tube
is
of
aperture
interfered
or
to
upon
of resolvingpower.
(i) That
in
not
be
may
its limit
condition
objectives is
seen,
the
only applies on
the
EVERYDAY
result of these
gations
investiparticularlysatisfactory
that they lead to the conclusion
that
the possibility
of
deception by a properly used
microscope is extremely
remote,
almost
EXPLAIN
prevailing in the
"
image.
TO
One
of these
come
the
in
difficulties
44$
TO
EFFORTS
This
point,
theoretical
as
EXPLAIN
worth
is
purposes,
several
would-be
theoretical
dealt
with
observations
of
attaches
from
from
to
such
the
For
glass.
on
any
observations,
practical
finding
marked
deductions
however
microscopist's
objects
because
there
supposed
interesting
point
of
view.
of
fine
whatever
to
the
which
or
value
no
have
times
recent
diatoms,
stated,
reason
suitable
in
papers
finely
the
theoretical
IMAGE
emphasising,
been
rulings
of
difficulty
the
to
EVERYDAY
latter
be
drawn
may
be
XVII
CHAPTER
AND
APPARATUS
ACCESSORY
USE
TO
HOW
THEM
Holder
Metal
for
the
Metallurgist
difficultyof holding
A(
Fig. 215."
Sons, which
with
little
we
believe
Metal
can
difficulty.It
be
Holder
for
the
adapted
to
combines
metal
Metallurgist.
almost
holder
any
and
microscope
the
means
with
screws
rotatingjaws grip
levellinga specimen. Two
the specimen C, and
if its plane be not
at
right angles to the
of
desired
be tilted to the
position by means
objective it can
Bi.
It should
be mentioned
the adjusting screws
A, B, and
this holder
is also
supplied in a simpler form, without
any
Blocks
if
of
metal
also
for
can
levelling, required.
adjustments
be held
in the jaws of this arrangement
at any
angle required
be rotated, thus
and
can
obviating the necessity for the long
of
and
tedious
process
of
cutting and
449
mounting specimens.
2Q
ACCESSORY
450
An
Illuminator
A
for
APPARATUS
Metallurgical
Specimens
by Mr.
in
The
The
Fig. 216.
will be
obvious
metal
box
has
condenser
eye
the
of its sides
one
; the
of the
body
This
cut
of
method
In
the
scale and
which
by
collar
is not
reading
the
simple
and
is illuminated
bull'son
Fig.
Stead's
on
moving
but
in
general construction
the
scale
whole
divisions
attached
are
the
read
the
read
are
to
In
measuring wire.
sub-divisions
itself and
novel.
are
drum
2 1 6.
Illuminator.
Eyepiece
only different
sub-divisions
sub-divisions
pattern,
small
Micrometer
ordinary micrometer,
the
an
pushing
regular screw-micrometer,
carries
at
objective.
micrometer
the
from
circular
Diffraction
The
illuminating
tion
principleof illumina-
of
very
Stead
on
milled
the
this
head
tion
diffrac-
new
the
directly on
scale
fine
hair
across
the
screw,
carrying
of
sliding.
frame
be
moved
greater portion
field
the
When
it
approximately
in
micrometer
the
This
use.
assists
in
rapid working.
Thescalc
of the object
extremities
design. The
in
web
of the moving
taken
by means
is
is
screw
brought into
materially
by
the
position required,
Diffraction Micrometer.
Fig. 217-Thc
By Mr. J. w. Gordon.
travelling
the
can
the
of
use
unnecessary
the
and
time
save
under
the
is of
special
measurement
usual
way,
are
and
for
APPARATUS
ACCESSORY
451
eyepiece
of
hundredths
The
eyepiece
flash
images
only
Gauges
but
convenience,
aimed
it is
makes
(Fig. 218).
in
taking
nut) and
the
move
resulting
superposition,
in
this way
not
Slips
are
its
the thickness
cellence
ex-
required is
illustration,
to
place the
tached
at-
end, when
at a
show
glance.
Fig.
pinching
prevent
great
the
by examining
is
of
latter,by
will
windows
micrometer
the
of the thimble
to
vision
direct
all that
(or hexagonal
the spindle,and
To
and
that
necessity,
measure
"anvil"
the
reading
exact
It is seen,
between
means
of
moment
the
object
to
use,
when
at.
Ciceri Smith
that
in
plate
of
with
illumination
ground
is
Cover-glasses
for
thickness
the
know
To
the
an
this
ordinary observations
diffraction
the
plate
at
of
one-
certain.
but
easy
black
taking
the
make
thus
and
dead
out
represent
immediately.
that
so
diffraction
the
When
desired.
read
of
independently
made
be
be
can
removable,
is
divisions
By reference,therefore, to
division.
fractions
cap
These
rotating.
whole
circle the
divided
may
is
cap
218."
Ciceri Smiths
Micrometer.
too
and
is only
friction-tight,"
strongly,the thimble
readily slips
in its fittingif too
great a force be employed ; hence fracture
of a cover-glassvery
rarely occurs.
shown
in Fig. 219
Zeiss's arrangement
is of different design
"
although
direct
little machine
opens
the
the
needle
We
reading.
is excellent
which
jaws,
showing
in every
close
the
by
testifyfrom
can
thickness
Turning
respect.
themselves
in
terms
long
on
the
of
use
this
the
handle
slip or
cover,
millimetres
and
ACCESSORY
452
Care
inches.
docs
be
should
drag
not
the
on
APPARATUS
taken, when
jaws
measuring
it rests
as
the
on
slip,that
table
will
not
it
for,
cover-glass),
the
do
if this
inevitably
1 f the needle
flies
it
back
to
come
be
can
Zeiss's
set
verified
be
can
by using platinum
not
The
shown
which
wire
does
mount.
measures
dial
when
underneath
the wooden
sult.
re-
exactly, it
justing
by the ad-
zero
screw
Fig. 219."
false reading
case,
will
pended
sus-
they
as
be
it
by
the
is obtainable
thicknesses.
of standard
Goniometer
Goniometer
is
formed
those
particularly
more
also
for the
employed
in bi-axial
optic axes
which
Stage Goniometer
angles, but
measuring
faces
the
by
of
It is
crystals.
of
purpose
the
a
for
instrument
an
efficient.
is very
It is fixed
to
the
direction
turned
round
in
until the
the
intersection
the
amount
opposite
covers
is made.
the
of
of
direction
until
measurements
of
one
the
darkest
air.
arc
is
Much
taken
part of
small
same
oil ;
sections
brushes
the
a
but
of
the
reading
the apparent
ineth
of minerals
in
other
second
the
is then
is taken
turned
indicates
two
the
in
the
then
cross-wires, when
the
pointer
reading
pointer
between
difference
in
The
of the
intersection
The
part of
cross-wires, when
the
The
forceps point.
darker
rotation.
angular separation
when
the
which
"pted
microscope
arc
is
attached
APPARATUS
ACCESSORY
by
to
to the
wax
take
their
point
of the
forceps or
has
Mention
been
a
for
colour-filters
suggested by
Mr.
microscopist.
It
at
the
contrast
top by
placed
These
position.
the
when
and
tightening
the
part
the
screws,
can
be
and
sold
and
are
as
supplied
of
circle
screw
or
and
screws,
outer
an
band
brass
circular,in
are
is
the
material
same
the
gripped by
metal
The
of the
the
the
on
of
brass, drawn
screws.
Kingsford'sTroughs.
are
arrangement
of
221."
discs
solutions
requirement
outer
blocks
use
india-rubber
increased
by
absolutely watertight fittingis
is that every
advantage of the invention
be easily taken
to
pieces to clean by merely releasing
and
either of the glass plates,if accidentally broken,
A
result.
can
keep
glass
tension
the
an
hold
to
The
every
india-rubber,and
to
as
meets
of
means
Figs.220
so
is
mately
obtaining approxi-
for
illumination.
green
consists
trough
or
purposes
Kingsford
with
circle is lined
are
that
discussing the
text, when
useful
and
cheap
monochromatic
together
needle
Troughs
in the
made
colour-screens, of
as
place.
Kingsford's
of
to
453
distinct
readily replaced
by
Messrs.
manufactured
Watson
in two
for
"
few
Sons
forms
They
pence.
at
very
(Figs, 220
and
are
moderate
221).
made
cost,
PHOTOGRAPHY
454
WITH
Photography
obtain
To
Green,
Taverner,
a
and
who
merely
slide
and
the
to
well-known
artists such
arrangement
desire
of
satisfied with
are
this purpose,
For
be
may
memento
required,several
this
kind
draw-tube,
Son
"
Sons
"
or
whilst
a
a
another
(Fig.223)
"
an
Pringle,Rodman,
service
some
; but
those
to
special position
some
photograph
where
fixingon
held
sell
(Fig. 222).
a
clamp at
laboratory, when
device
of
of
not
so
in
finished
great magnification is
the
not
Microscope.
which
Swift
with
sell
for
microscope, being
Messrs.
water,
Bousfield, Fresh-
Fig. 223.
Cameras
the
photomicrographs
Messrs.
as
Fig. 222,
apparatus
Microscope
many
who
character.
the
MICROSCOPE
modest
more
with
results similar
by highly experienced
THE
It
is
one
neat
and
formed
end
in
on
to
on
the
suitable
some
useful
means.
the
taken
to
other.
photograph is wanted,
Watson
in mahogany
by Messrs.
Messrs.
R. " J. Beck
convenient.
devised
by
Mr.
J.
of
top
being
it is attached
to
portable
of
arrangement
aluminium,
whereby
is fixed
quickly
is very
by
very
camera
made
arrangement
there
little
\V. Gordon
vided
prothe
In
this
"
also
(attachable
ACCESSORY
456
APPARATUS
The
the numerical
still there
times, especially
-are
it for
employ
of
that
is affixed
which
other
the
whilst
market
Davis
is
is very
to
apt
only
inconvenient
be
is that
the
iris then
to
not
shut
words, when
To
of
centre
Now
the
of
to
field
the
the
the
about
the
microscope
as
diatom
of
and
the
when
seen
Davis
On
should
the
looking
Davis
part of
be
pointed
out
in
of
state
objective.
on
single diatom,
like
an
that
so
lie in the
it shall
down
the
eyepiece.
place,and attach
the microscope and
in its
in
diatom
Having nearly
its
own
should
collar,
remain
central.
It should
the
inch
down
the
is,
made, place an
diaphragm
instrument;
other
whilst
Such
still central.
be
is
objective
that
side
the
looking
fixing the
end.
leaves, rotate
axis
well
stage, arranging it
inch
its lower
refocussing,the
closed
the
on
remove
lens
the
be
the
tube
one
of
the
with
"truly"; in
diaphragm
other.
action
if this apparatus
nosepiccc
Aulacodiscus
the
spoil
the
on
of
the
on
closed
to
apt
ascertain
the
the
looking down
of the objective is in use
on
is very
things
iris does
consequence
lens
closcd
not
Diaphragm.
is all but
this,not
concentrically
back
their
to
"
the
no
imperfectly in
is
zone
it is
and
Besides
The
of
leaves
them
very
axis.
quence,
conse-
apparatus
one
that
middle
in
The
return
made
are
optical
zone
containing
fall out,
matter
the
upon
the
taking
instrument.
few
are
case
originalpositions.
the outer
sisting
con-
substituted
together, and,
when
the
easy
such
Many
apart
come
to
arrangement,
then
may
sprung
the
half
powers
the
several
off
Fig. 224-Davis
low
end,
microscope by one
the objective. It is called, after
hold
of
fault
be
useful
Diaphragm.
diaphragm
actual
the
to
of
required ;
amount
any
it may
very
lowers
diaphragm
employing
diaphragm,
tube
the
serves
the
but
iris
to
inventor, the
its
purpose.
enclosed
an
whilst
illumination, when
dark-ground
and
iris
substage
objective to
of the
aperture
Diaphragm
the
down
cutting
Although
Davis
lower
porti-
ACCESSORY
APPARATUS
457
in its own
to revolve
fittingabout
being made
of the microscope, is of great service (not being found
the axis
of use
Besides
in the originalmodel).
as
explained in the previous
the
useful
of
it
serves
paragraph,
arranging the
purpose
operating the leaves can be placed
apparatus so that the handle
the
arrangement,
the
at
who
Those
amount
It has
verniers
of
that
so
any
future
this
method
mind
in
be
it
used
exact
be
found
uncertain
been
devised.
a
to
end, and
The
"dummy"
the
the
indicate
in
lowered
this
marker, upon
collar
around
the
difficulty,
Marker"
Fig. 225,
is
This
it
not
sists
con-
very
with
pin projecting
centrally placed with
a
fine
is very
pin
furnished
time
Barker.
Cover^fass
has
with
upon
the
the
its
diamond.
minute
being removed,
boldly
towards
"
dummy
cover-glass,no
"
injury resultingthereto
of the
the
at
use
of
and
objective provided
optical axis.
actual
tip is
substituted, and
the
mistake, is
any
extremity which
objective in
the
on
precise field
meet
shown
As
of
another
troublesome
very
To
aid
laboratory
to
Cover-glass
its lower
respect
matter.
the
of
be
to
"Diamond
from
Hence,
there
always
by
specimen
to
to
or
cannot
registerany
instrument,
it away
the
that
to
slide
given
if the
spot of interest,or
so
view,
how
obvious, however,
different
sending
photographed.
be
in
avail
no
upon
when
occurs
in this book
readily found
It is
occasion.
is of
be
can
Marker
Cover-glass
interest
microscopist to examine,
is
bear
the
elsewhere
shown
been
particular place
to
should
arrangement
Diamond
The
to
of
tube-length
the
hence
as
this
employ
convenient.
position most
any
by its use,
microscope is increased
needs
that the draw-tube
adjustment by pushing it in an
equal to the length of the apparatus.
that
has
at
because
the
causes
the
eccentricallyplaced
diamond
ACCESSORY
458
be
cover-glasscan
who
its exact
It
readily recognised by
first instance
the
in
APPARATUS
uses
be
employed
low-power objectiveto
easily understood
follow
to
the
of
use
when
the
lower
power,
required
is obtained
size
so
high
hand,
such
power,
enclosing
circle
is made
be
minute
Some
time
to
to
which
move,
the
screw
possible. This
in
the
the milled
opposite
be
may
glass exactly
To
this Herr
direct
by
to
with
the
record
the
the
be
engraved
arrangement
The
to
use
upon
the
is shown
following hints
either of these
may
Fig.
very
about
far
as
it
as
near
as
exceedingly
an
the
(without
the
adds
certain
mediate
im-
cover-
objective
a
in
use.
small
figures which
will furnish
It
time
this little
turn
ring on
the
is
with
user
best
to
combinations
try
and
produce circ!"
each objective. When
at
future
at
the
the
on
time
by
once,
previously
circle of suitable
specimen
in
size of the
as
Reichert
for
to
a
has
figures which
micrometer
figures,that
desired.
brought
it shall
to
Fig. 226.
any
"
conjunction
the
to
different
diameter
correct
in
which
much
records
experiment
this micrometer
may
be
the
experienced from
requisite information.
the
mount;
turned
diamond
how
suitable
that
little
from
direction
the
adjusting-screwso that
experiment) make
micrometer
the
is
is
exact
is turned.
by microscopists in knowing
overcome
the
the
away
it to describe
ring
little difficulty,
however,
embrace
restrict
as
forces
diameter
of
that
example,
by bringing
of
employed
requisiteto
opticalaxis
circle when
is
for
yVn"
much
as
to
as
small
can
marker
the
turning
ring
enclosing ring
the
when
milled
the
\\hen
"
is
objective. The
an
readily by
very
of the
of diameter
the other
with
locate
arrangement
to
as
adjusting-screw seen
projecting from the side
this, by bringing the diamond
point farther
increase
observer
position.
can
limit
second
then,
setting
ascertained
dimensions
stage.
This
will
little
226.
assist the
microscopist when
little arrangements
"
learning
APPARATUS
ACCESSORY
sensible
is
point
be
to
; if this
amount
be
the
tube
of
firmly
the
microscope
fail
sufficientlyit may
done
not
somewhat
pressed
cover-glass by lowering
the
to
on
diamond
The
1.
459
mark.
to
the
milled
ring
the
better
of
afterwards
to
settle
first
glass around
after
little pieces of
being taken
and
blotting
not
to
other;
adhered
be
diamond
to
longer always
the actual
circle described.
objective
the
oil should
cover-glass by applying
in
succession, great
slipwhilst
the
apt
are
microscopical splinterswhich
upon
paper
move
sufficient ; two
be
immersion
an
off the
gently soaked
revolving
the
in
should
the
should
several
of
the
used
it is turned
life of
revolution
formation
4. When
when
direction.
same
the
on
made
discovered
the
it preserves
be
can
when
when
two
complete
cause
cut
than
way
the
as
3. One
to
one
it in the
move
cleaner
possible a
is
It
2.
so
one
two
or
of
care
be
course
doing.
be wiped
cutting the circle the cover-glassmust
very
soft
of
A
few
material.
with
of
a
splinters
piece
carefully
glass
with
the
remain
which, getting entangled
oil, may
are
apt to
5. After
to
it must
be
recollected
and
the
not
specimen ; and
it be
Especially should
focus
to
low
power
avoided
ought always
hunt
to
for
the
cover-glass
be
to
ring
used.
with
an
immersion
with
entirelyhide
cover-glassitself,
may
A still simpler arrangement
was
the
"dummy"
having
piece.
The
end
front
blunt
"
"
brass
that
lens
little
point a
(such being
from
be
used
author, and
front
any
with
recorded,
A
the
little
by
him
very
it from
view.
devised
some
considerably.
in
objective turned
would
correspond to
is
seen
larger
about
in
than
mm.
brass
in
diameter), which
found
objective is removed
the
ink
to
of
rubber-type manufacturer.
After
seccotine.
having
common
fit the
dabbed
and
on
It
to
in
nose-
made
diameter*
by
ago
It consists
to
where
ordinary, is
the
years
is
to
taper
rubber
can
fixed
letter
be
to
tained
ob-
the
the
position to
tuted.
substi"dummy"
the
rubber
"O"
ACCESSORY
460
makes
mark
of
focus
the
of
amount
the
looked
shifted
upon
place
the
Fig. 227.
Indicator
of
deal
of
approximately
be
the
lies
which
is
several
the
the
special
reach
of
delicately
handle
above
looking
are
in
of
To
succession,
interest
saves
Ocular
Measuring
by employing
made
instrument
special point
the
then
When
of
measurement
"
the
ocular
within
described.
the
of
the
until
stage
of
accurate
object, whilst
means
The
An
the
adjusted by
indicatingthe
explanation.
of
it is attached.
Eyepiece.
means
special
means
through
at
interest
needle,
through
purpose
field
by
which
to
being
the
is sharply in
pointer, which
limited
a
eye-lens,possesses
arrangement
of
the
movement
little handle
use
in
interest
actual
The
The
cover.
in
position of
great
the
it
Eyepiece
This
this
with
contact
Indicator
The
adjustment lowers
O."
"
the
in
is found
object then
fine
the
in
gently
it
to bring
sufficiently
when
slide
the
on
APPARATUS
Measuring
an
object
Ocular."
may
This
little
is usually a
simple Huyghenian
piece of apparatus
eyepiece
with
that
divided
a
a
sliding eye-lens so
specially provided
scale"
called an
eyepiece micrometer," that is dropped on to
"
the
After this
accurately focussed.
done, the eyepiece is dropped into the draw-tube
diaphragm
ordinary
3
with
with
ascertain
those
sliphaving
lines
be
can
To
way.
compared
"
known
of
the
value
of the
divisions
is
distance
apart,
placed
on
the
stage
the
tru
fully
care-
in
for
ruled
of
the
is divided
into
microscope. Supposing the stage micrometer
of these
is contained
TJ^ of a millimetre, and that one
spaces
then it is obvious
each of these
in 5 of the eyepiece micrometer,
This
value
is 3JV of a millimetre.
being arrived at by
spaces
micrometer
whilst
touched
their
and
made
mean
removed
is
stage
substituted,
measured
not
the
on
be
to
is
draw-tube
the
that
the
mean,
object
the
and
being taken
care
their
employing
and
observations
several
taking
461
APPARATUS
ACCESSORY
be
should
Several
measurements
doing so.
adopted. See Rheinbergh's inventions,
Addenda.
of
form
broad
scale
of
The
area
division.
of
process
each
black
into
diagonally
of
counting
of
clear
and
figured
of
group
It
with
tenth
every
is divided
the
facilitates
which
spaces,
measuring.
or
at
divisions
ten
L'Es-
"
glass disc
ruled
and
divisions
100
Sons, called
"
Watson
by
consists
Eyepiece Micrometer,"
calier
a
sold
micrometer
originallysuggested
was
Leitz.
by
has
of
form
scale
in
brass
as
"
Micrometer
that
mount
Jackson's
"
known
micrometer
with
the
laterally upon
apparatus,
has
called
drum
of
Both
to
to
Zeiss
micrometers
The
This
of
consists
first to
describe
Ocular
Spectroscope
set
the
micrometer,"
combination
to
arid
up
being
so
microscope.
the
it will be
same,
of the
general details
with
constructed
ordinary
an
use
conjunction
in
as
Before
convenient
arrangement.
diameter
as
an
Fig. 228 is of the same
ordinary
of
and
the
draw-tube
the
into
ocular,
drops entirely
microscope,
being held firmly in position(so as to prevent the whole apparatus
from
The
swinging round) by tightening the fixing-screw B.
in Fig. 229) contains
C (the interior of which
is shown
drum
the
The
slit and
of
the
being
tube
in
the
former, whilst
thrown
reflects the
the
to
similar
very
of
Spectroscopic
Huyghcnian
eyepiece, the
be readily attachable
to
describing how
with
ocular
"drum
are
measured.
explained.
above
as
be
number
the
record
these
micrometer
by
object
in
or
controls
F
out
lightthrough
springs
I, I upon
the
of
the
screw
ils
lever
G.
by
comparison object
use
stage
"
"
on
to
the
The
prism
mirror
placed beneath
prism within
the
another
placed
and
these
in the ocular
observer
they
as
convenient
A.
tube
the two
casts
stage of the
the
on
As
the
no
by
but
merely
simple
this
readily
be very
can
the
interfere with
way
spectra
scope
micro-
seen
really superimposed,
in juxtaposition. By
other
arrangement
G,
spectra in
two
not
are
the
above
one
the
through
arrives
which
object
the
from
the spectrum
above
field of
the
into
comparison spectrum
lever
by the
action
into
brought
This, when
drum.
one
APPARATUS
ACCESSORY
462
compared.
,P
Fig. 228."
The
mounted
a
in
limited
which
The
point
lies
prism
as
"
so
have
we
with
the
tube
can
the
catch
in
black
underside
L
holds
be
can
lies at
pulled out
the
the
"
the
be
ocular
accurately to focus
within
already said
as
field-lens of
the
tube,
separate
extent
dusting or
The
SpectroscopicOcular.
ocular
line
is
crossing
seen
separated
of the
the
tube
placed
when
in
the
the
slit demands
M
lens
of
the
pushed in to
edges of the slit
or
C.
drum
position
sponding
corre-
A,
which
tube
surface
at
requires
attention.
containing
K, and, being
the
lever
spcctroscopic
the
wh
ACCESSORY
464
drawn
breath.
the
After
If,however, after
the
slit
should
(which
L, black
lever
has
matter
be
must
The
of
their entire
the
towards
is
stage
as
the
drum
is
far
illuminant
when
brought
brilliant
be
can
through
the
the
the
the
that
the
of
the
edges of
foreign
some
of
operation
the
cleaning
the
mirror
possible
instrument, and
field of
view.
the
which
is
the
the
observer
plished
accom-
two
spectra
having
lower
furnish
spectroscopic
done,
one
upper
S,
microscope is
of lightinto
beam
said, they do
have
will
Having
this
the
stage
P.
When
be
from
of
within
next
eye
through
the
towards
the
in
thence
ocular, the
we
turn
prism
of the
mirror
to
as
prism, and
comparison
the
firmly
is directed
light
hole
diaphragm
so
way
to
it
must
of
experiment,
draw-tube
hold
lever
means
beam
the
stage
the
turned
"
direct
in the
same
As
the
centrally placed
hole
proper.
of
which
"
reflects
by
through
seen
microscope
go
spectrum
in the
of the
into
face
manipulated
prism
the
it
the
the
at
action
position found
this
tube
click
be
to
into
until
through
placed
the
replacing
by
indicate
and
Having
it will
as
fidgeted about
most
and
dropped into
being tightened to
ready
now
illuminant.
the
the
carefully focussing
closed)
unrcmoved,
the
but
and
again repeated.
apparatus
and
length^they
the
in
lens
seen
left
is
centrality notified
are
still been
operator
all
be
to
lines
jaws along
the
doing this,it
returning the
spectroscopic prism
the
APPARATUS
arrived
the
through
one
interfere
not
with
other, as
be
must
To
until
manipulated
illuminate
projectedupon
the
both
of
lines
the
slit,the
adjacent to
in
the
of
mirror
about
within
the
scale
scale
so
that
in
luminosity.
it shall
appear
operation,being effected
whilst
the sharpening up of
next
by sliding in
or
the
out
lens
in
O.
not
are
milled
ring
minor
satisfactoryposition.
difference
no
spectra is the
contained
If the
is
wave-length
there
at
the
is turned
perpendicular
end
on
of
the
its axis
to
the
k;
draw-tube
until
they
O
arc
ACCESSORY
With
exception
one
little consideration
scale
of
of the
be
quite
is
for
ready
now
that
it understood
real service
any
the
use.
if the
orientation
over
To
vice
or
green,
reading.
erroneous
an
make
be of
is to
the
appearing
illuminant
is
instrument
to
465
be
must
colours,for,if not,
might
the
suffices
wave-lengths
divisions
APPARATUS
this
set
and
give
correctly the
versa,
scale
so
spectroscope, the
has had
large spirit-lamp,which
in the spirit,
table-salt dissolved
substituted.
of the microscope reflects this lightinto the
of the observer
placed at the opening P
eye
in the
sees
plenty
of
When
the
and
removed,
common
mirror
diaphragm
especiallyluminous
with
now,
the
slit open,
spectrum
more
and
the
with
the
tube
within
is
the
59 line of
the
yellow
O
in
should
be
properly placed,
scale
until
absolutely coincident
not
the
lengtJi,
turned
and
be
milled
of the
end
it is made
draw-
The
so.
scale
the
"
"
from
In
the
most
cases
brilliancyof
that
this
to
make
to
brilliant
the
the
sodium
the
trouble
it is not
the
easy
mentioned
to
other
bodies.
so
scale,alter
the
as
be
is far
spirit-lamp.
relates
borne
to
in
the
mind
difficult in
more
steady
keep
to
line
simultaneously.
The
micro-spectroscope is used for
the absorption bands
of liquids and
far
it should
line, but
adjustments
illuminate
D
pointed directly at
this remedies
because
way,
enough
and
microscope
In
the
first instance
two
the
the
purposes,
spectrum
fluid is
to
ascertain
displayed by
placed in a cell
30
ACCESSORY
466
APPARATUS
if the
on
used
what
power
If the
place.
by
the
on
other
some
presents bands
spectrum
its spectrum
clips I, I, and
at
An
make
inch
much
be
may
difference
focussing to
no
those
resembling
be
put in
tube
compared
once
fluid be very
take
shown
within
by using
the
the
parison
com-
prism.
the
In
instance, if
second
it is
that
objective used
nearly
placed
the
on
will
stage
if necessary
of all lightsave
exclusion
the
on
highly important.
objective than
necessary,
brilliancyof
the
another
spoken of,
as
been
for
low
changing
exclude
to
not
such
to
slit
the
as
traneous
ex-
length
other.
The
examination
employ
is apt
an
all
hand, whilst
one
this work
higher
lessen
to
objective-changershave
has
no
enthusiastic
because
powers,
such
much
been
the
there
we
the
have
excepting perhaps
exists
that
manner
been
of
made
employed,
of its use,
supporters
closed
sideration,
con-
and
Nose-piece
particularmention
revolving nose-piece." Although
never
under
the
It is well
Revolving
of
part
but
of
object
spectrum.
The
In
the
by manipulating E on the
that from
the objectunder
course,
power
be
microscope
to fill the
sufficiently
as
is reduced
is,of
it
magnify
light by turning
"
solid
no
of
means
when
they follow
the
in the
accuracy
in
the
centring
of
individual
contrivance
is present, and
ever
We
seen.
opinion of
some
"changers."
be
obtains
perhaps three
saving of wear
must
be
very
this
slightvariations
some
objectives unless
special
can
get
is absent
over
in
all forms
we
be contrary
to
although it may
microscopists,we greatly prefer to use the
must
say,
Another
advantage
overlooked, namely,
which
itself
arrangement
when
the
the
tear
sensible.
gained by doing
the
less
so
is attached
to
the
nose-piece.
on
the
the
mu
tube
to
weight on
rotating objective changer charged
objectives
and
much
have
and
that
with
The
fine,
allowance
APPARATUS
ACCESSORY
the
draw-tube
the
shortening
amount.
Transformer
suggested
auxiliary lens was
objective into a long-tube combination,
the
vice versa,
or
and
first purpose
short-tube
negative
positive one for
a
by Commander
originalsuggestion that
conducted
Experiments
second.
the
for
added
being
change
to
This
form
tube-lengthby
mechanical
the
correct
Heurck
Van
The
of
increase
for the
made
be
must
467
Ainslie
the best
Heurck's
verifyVan
Uncorwas
focal length to employ for these purposes
500 mm.
Ainslie, bi-convex
rected lenses were
employed by Commander
combinations
of simple crown
bi-concaves
glass. Achromatic
or
substituted
Heurck, who
finallystated "nothing
by Van
were
appear
to
by
lost
was
form
uncorrected
our
suit
not
remarks
the
12
that
mm.
due
produced, possibly
apochromatic utilisingthe edge
of the
In
does
effects
chromatic
lens
Ainslie
use."
their
are
with
experiments
own
several
upon
semi-apochromatic, dry
of
kinds
and
these
certainly the
apochromatic, as
the large back
to
of the
transformer.
uncorrected
units
objectives,apochromatic
immersion
systems,
we
found
ployed
em-
and
that
combinations
instance.
we
N.A.
over
What
cannot
say,
1*30
exhibited
would
but
transformers
the individual
objective.
A
Fig. 230."
Hack-saw
with
gauge.
ACCESSORY
468
under
by
examination,
to
gauge,
all
ensure
"tl3f $3"
and
lhe
oblique surface.
The
the
twelve
Fig. 233
is
set-screw
is
which
in
the
specimen
the
consists
alluded
of
simply
to
of
plate
drical
cylinarc
of
means
treatment
any
investigation.
and
refixing
have
holder, they
"
to
now
carried
operation is
out
with
Nos.
or
easily understood
one
and
the
means
same
the
which
six
being
diamantine
the
covers
that
polished.
piece of
polishing taking
of
"
is
grades
3, 2, I, o, OO, ooo,
surface
removing specimen.
by
and
to
(Fig. 235),
234-
ground
three-quartersof an hour
of the rubber
effected by means
half
is
Holder.
be
"
The
F"g- 233."
from
at
above
figure,and
carborundum
treated
holder
illustrated
same
former
It is
polishing.
its under
manner
in the
Handle
and
moving,
the
metal
from
Replacing
The
upon
whilst
(Fig.234),
pushed through
is under
them
engage
is
rod
subjectedto
that
of
by
holder
side in
to
which
"
screws
little
pieces
the handled
and
The
the
removed
232
the
under-
readily
and
holdcr
of
axis
be
flat
small
provided
"
in
which
"
recesses,
the
grinding
placed
now
circular
with
released,
of
ing
contain-
of which
the
to
will
as
"
the
prevent
bronze
each
of
sct.screw
so
are
in
phosphor
side
whilst
vice
obliquely
one
processes
sections
shown
on
in
and
undergoing
thickness
same
with
provided
stood
filingfor
after
hack-saw
placed
filed
is
cylinder
before
Specimcns
the
the
is then
surface
now
of
being
Each
of
means
g^
"2?s
and
APPARATUS
all
time,
the
and
covered
of
the
obtained
on
block
twelve
that
the
shown
sively
succes-
emery
final
actual
by using
parchment
in
that
Fig. 236.
specimens
moreover
paper,
the
can
be
holder
APPARATUS
ACCESSORY
under
placed
be
can
examining
is
which
that
one
sections
of
deal
great
saves
at
the
from
for
any
block,
of
matter
the
its removal
without
moment
microscope
of
one
any
the
469
time
Fig 235
and
trouble.
each
factory,
237)
whilst
tube
of
is
specimen
loosed
steel
the
in
held
and
considered
is
polishing
forceps (Fig.
Fig. 236." Parchment
the
in
covered
in Fig. 238.
etching fluid,as shown
in this
By tilting the forceps when
the
examine
observer
can
specimen
etching
from
"
time
to
of
Mr.
by the suggestion
of a dish, more
commonly
are
tube
of
one
"
"
filled with
been
the
by
to
of metal
has
advantage
once
been
of
for
the
the
the
instead
this
chemical
commencing
chemical
front
of
cular
partiaction
of
"
is
to
such
held
which
as
has
lime-
immediately
in
position
is shown
in
it is intended
time
to
the
cylinder
the
the
now
the
the
that
specimens
very
great
of
one
apparent, for
vertical
ing
illuminat-
ordinary microscope
tedious
and
lengthy
samples may be quickly
an
somewhat
and
rack
subjected.
adjusting
proceeding),all
individual
of
the
operations
action
rack
the
of
back
the
at
neutralisingfluid
some
the
each
having
apparatus
examined
before
mentioned
be
(generally a
shown
reference, details
definite thickness
after
employed
"
which
should
use
tube
gained
advantage
to
little
future
for
far
from
springs,only one
which
figure is a strip of paper
upon
write
from
the experimenter shall^
the
treatment
It
At
ceases.
specimen.
time,
see
the
When
all further
when
water,
with
those
which
(Fig. 239)
ceps
for-
how
sufficiently
progressed, the forceps and specimen
of the fluid and
lifted out
dropped into another
has
Steel
with
even
its removal
Aird
Fig. 237.
to
progressed, without
is an
example of
has
which
tube,
time
rubber.
position, the
"
hand-lens
^^
the
from
immersion
undergoing
j^-..
satis-
paper
^^^^
^-
the
When
holder
for emery
Rubber
compared
witJiout
any
re-
ACCESSORY
470
APPARATUS
provided
be
loosely arranged on
allows
two
specimens
any
brought into the field
ledge, which
means
time,
or
under
passed
the
that
order
any
series
be
to
at
one
parison
com-
be
may
objective
in
be
sidered
con-
By
this
may
desirable.
simple
slip
facilitating
so
and
too, the
arrangement,
out
microscope can be inclined withaffecting the examination
Fig. 239."
Table
in
rack.
any
whole
simplicityof method
employed, betokens
thoroughly
for
and
the
voice
acquainted
with
the
of
of
been
eyepiece,
an
in
which
picture of
the
is held
it is used
eikonometer
object
is
measurement
obtained
by
of
millimetre
stage micrometer
in the
on
which
how
be
of
the
taneously
instan-
examined
and
its actual
eikonometer
scale
the
upon
the
size
this
which
is
be
may
microscope,
the
seen
represent one-tenth
of
of
box.
eyepiece ;
five divisions
the
millimetres
many
obtain
hundredth
of
superimposed
seen
millimetres, will be
thus, if the
measures
in use,
the stage of
the
over
represent
is
any
object being
not
To
card
eikonometer
divisions
ocular
the
over
magnifying power,
eikonometer
as
follows,and
stage micrometer
divisions,which
micrometer
on
piece of apparatus
by the
of the
means
of
the
were
measures.
divided
their
representing millimetres
shows
at
once
object. This
hold
one
and
way
any
When
if the
just as
Place
of
for
divisions
the
apparatus
that
as
interferingwith
instrument, and the object can
measured.
seen
invented
microscope otherwise
It consists
previously described.
microscope without
adjustments of the
is
well
as
ordinary methods
the
unlike
not
has
instrument
methods
the
of
for
Eikonometer
Wright's
power
authority
all
both
arrangement,
cheapness
the
troubles.
attendant
This
Altogether
way.
or
a
and
eikonometer
over
the stage
one-hundredth
millimetre
of
of the eikonometer,
the
the
CHAPTER
XVIII
HINTS
UPON
COMMON
SEVERAL
FAULTS
MICROSCOPE
Their
i.
the
If when
lightbe
using
found
too
Cause
low
ITS
and
Means
if this be
; but
thin
piece of very
ground glass
special green
glass
faint.
This
2.
is
the
from
With
of
use
often"
with
more
form
as
the
subif
or
N.A.
than
know
miniature
the
nants."
field
no
is
alternative
no
for
high
powers
be
can
\V"_-
dark-ground
wanted
"
than
better
is
attached
circuit
one
too
but
illuminant.
save
powerful illuminant
more
472
used,
of Nernst, which
it
ordinary house
in
the
cheapest
we
tried.
smaller
stronger
not
illumination
a
piece
when
when
is
there
dark,
h;ive
as
of the
it arises
objective. Sometimes
critical
to
use
light.
omitting
very high-power objective^
high oculars,
to
light.
such
is not
condenser
stage
employed
of
recommended,
as
occur
may
a
or
between
source
be
opal
or
screen,
filter or a
F-line
tion
illumina-
placed
the
monochromatic
Gifford's
be
little
sufficient
not
black
may
and
mirror
the
2.
THE
may
USING
of Removal
1.
power
IN
ACCESSORIES
AND
powerful.
WITH
MET
to
but, if
be
than
the
venient,
con-
tinstill
required,
the
new
chapter
devoted
to
"
Illumi-
If
3.
when
using
fluid
the
between
its
all work
far
runs
oil
an
the
over
slides, making
473
stage
cleaned
them
used
and
with
the
then
they
work
at
it be
Let
xylol.
use
stiffly
tool-shops, more
makers'
dealing with watch-
requirements,such
using
immersion
rVth
or
"taking
view, as
looking
seen
ocular, becomes
of
field
slide,"the
in
after
objective, just
the
to
the
down
with
dark
a
quite
it,
running across
tion
entirely obliteratingthe illuminathe
definition.
or
spoiling
kind
of
This
4.
any
wave
from
comes
oil
the
the
on
objectiveback
returning to
Under
recurs.
and
the
cures
had
objectivewith
field
of
oiled
lightand
condenser
loses
suddenly
immersion
an
specimen
totally deprived
almost
the
definition,no
being
distinct
the
the
fine
place
first noticed.
use
Occasionally
settingthe
when
in
mirror,
light being
position,the whole
the
-back
no
lens
refuses
adjustment
avail,and
to be
seems
of
the
illuminated
to
be
of
twice
one
as
any
that
be
edge
at
Raise
the
or
back
lower
the
of
or
the
angle
illuminant.
not
The
illuminate
iris-holder.
they
will be
lens
the
of
the
relation
This
seen
the
light,or
on
is
can
when
position,
and
If the
cover
at, with
the
will
of the
of
of it.
another
lies in
microscope
the positionof
the
with
used
underside
sides
is bent
portion
be
thick.
to
\
thin,and
top lens
the
add
fault
6. The
ticular
par-
the
recurs,
usually
cover-glass
slip,oilingboth
tive
objecxylol.
This
to
be
slipbetween
slipis rather
and
the
bubble
with
left the
it between
trouble
raise
and
cleaned
is made
one.
oil.
nearly always
cover
Take
illuminator
the
6.
the
condenser
thick
cedar
If the
condenser.
arises when
ness
of dark-
wave
the
and
it
becomes
of
oil has
5. The
deal
great
This
be
better
clean,
cover
merely
trouble.
again
circumstances
fresh
persistent,the
very
using
cover
it.
return
air
slide and
used, don't
be
changers
of
this
these
again with
start
then
off the
objective and
both
wipe
bubble
again
the
objective,but
5. If whilst
thoroughly
objective,or on the
after
liftingthe
Sometimes
cover.
If
After
cloth.
clean
If when
Coopers
as
London.
Garden,
4.
that
as
the
of
most
Hatton
If
small
very
oil,such
clock
particularlythose
in
freely
parts carefullywiped.
quantity of good
sold
be
stage and
3. The
denser
con-
stiffly.
too
WORKERS
TO
HINTS
the
ing
look-
objective.
alter
the
HINTS
474
TO
WORKERS
of
angle
If
known
as
good
no
cause.
definition
specimen
as
usual
of
some
fails to
7. This
wellappear
apparentlyfrom
instrument.
the
The
microscope
arise from
may
light may
is too
truly critical
be
not
may
have
may
The
become
the correct
one
faults.
several
be
not
the condenser
iris
The
accidentallyclosed.
objective,ocular, or illuminator
turned
foggy, this accident
unfrequentlyhappening with some
have
may
not
kinds
of
of the
these
with
a
It mostly
inclined.
much
7.
the
when
occurs
and
look
rather
them
carefully
light,
turning them
and
holding them
at
feeble
little edgeways
little distance
some
They
be
must
off each
from
sent
the
the
to
Sometimes
ocular
steam
may
easily.
the
or
fallen
have
may
oil may
The
condenser
objective, or
carefulnot
to
scrape
wipes
or
off
left the
dirt
camel's-hair
to
the
Some
piece
with
Remove
weather
have
cover.
on
ing.
unscrew-
this
eye.
turer
manufac-
thick
fluff.
brush.
injure
(he
lens
when
by rough usage
so
doing.
in which
Occasionally the medium
the
have
become
specimen lies may
If
lens
using a dry
a
opaque.
spot of
oil may
have
accidentallyfallen on its
front lens, or perhaps on
the coverat the
glass. Look
objective,and if
oil be there use
xylol,avoiding spirit
of
kind
any
the
with
cover
objectivemay
wide
open,
same
working
the
or
and
with
flooded
the
be
tube-length,
it with.
clean
to
the
light.
specimen
happens
if the illuminator
aperture
than
latter
have
Sometimes
used,
or
be
the
a
be
out
poor
the
wrong
be
is
too
being
usually only
is of greater
outer
the
zone.
bull's-eyeis
of its best
placed edgeways"
axis of
The
objective,unless
very
when
it may
at the
iris may
This
\Yipe
fluid.
that
auxiliary condenser
being
position
is, the
may
HINTS
TO
WORKERS
be
not
475
in line with
the mirror
and
the
illuminator.
will
object
8. The
of
persist
focus
8. This
in
after
arise if the
microscope
slightlyinclined or horizontal from
fine
adjustment having become
be
the
may
stiff from
for
of
non-use
time,
some
the
instrument
the
lubricating
from
or
oil having
become
dried
immediate
remedy,
but
the
the
screw
curative
and
used.
If
mechanic,
(in
the
to
a
more
cause
dab
of
the
than
the
for
and
9.
out
view.
If
of
the
focus
up
the
field
of
9.
then
stage
of
and
the
Lower
critical
from
occur
just
latter
ing
rest-
the
on
is too
with
thick.
the
fall
keeps bending
don't
attempt
This
arises
specimen
8.
from
stage.
bends
objective
while.
made
No.
the
it
hold
the
re-obtain
fault
because
the
occurs
lens
light.
may
the
objective working
the
cover
condenser,
front
on
and
The
of
in
on
usually
this
the
to
on
latter
the
vaseline
will
It
condenser
cover
the
but
resting firmly on
illuminator
The
If
specimen) slowly
slip. If time cannot
allow
of
it drying
the
oiled
although
the
the
Sometimes
slipnot
the
the
maker.
arise from
edge.
tern.
not
return
made
properly, put
pro
to
be
horizontally placed,
light, the above
it may
slidingdown
be
spared
lower
lubricant
best
be
newly
way."
direct
may
addition
harm's
microscopist be
be
using
trouble
other
to
microscope
in
or
is
it
instrument
very
specimen
ment
adjustpieces,cleaned,
to
the
run
the
taken
oil
fresh
"
of
treatment
be
must
as
"
out
and
down
the
freely
adjustment
and
up
quickly and
being removed
an
of
one
times
finger several
fine
As
only
fine
palliativenature, tap
with
As
up.
It may
"
to
it.
use
from
arise from
actually moving
in
too
remedy
as
a
fluid
newly
above
in
specimen
medium
4/6
HINTS
TO
WORKERS
down
between
Use
the
the
usually cures
rack
of
allow
so
the
the
trouble
stage
the
directly.The
be
may
whole
loose
travel
to
stage
and
downwards.
If when
10.
N.A.
over
the
slip has
out
with
lens
using
aperture
an
oiling to
when
i'o, and
carefully carried
been
precautions,the back
not
completelyfill with
all
will
light.
11.
If bacteria
appear
around
12.
have
to
like
or
white
using
If when
very
condenser
o-ular, and
power
looks
one)
defined"
the
or
high-
more
fuzzy
ill-
and
it should.
than
so
condenser
for the
This
12.
iris
than
iris to
the
of
put away
unwiped,
their
sometimes
little time
some
definition
appears
If
materiallyinjured.
to
time
edge
tially
par-
become
front
lens,
little rebate
of the mount
tween
be-
and
This
takes
in fresh
oil.
itself.
dissolve
to
oil has
minute
into the
front
immersion
if
free from
"
the
sunk
may
possible-
objective and
and
immersion
the
glass
oil.
Open
green
if
blue
condenser,
are
13. The
dried
on
having
light ;
clean
becomes
improvement,
front of the
the
the
down,
cut
inch.
an
no
employ
minating
illu-
small,
too
of
full.
dried
an
the
much
too
rfoth
that the
systems,
objectiveshave
small
from
being
monochromatic
that
for
mitting
trans-
shutdown,
larger
See
If immersion
much
arise
been
suffice,but
13.
only
so
objective.
may
having
hence
use
been
objectbeing
is of too
cone
perly
pro-
oiled,the
minute
the
air, and
iris is too
The
11.
N.A.
them.
arises from
in
N.A.
ro
approximately an
No
cone.
remedy save
remounting
when
properly. This is often seen
diatom
in
mounted
mistake
using a dry
in a highly refractive medium.
for one
objects
capsule
This
10.
mounted
the
some
Clean
piece
cambric
and
xylol.
using
or
anything else.
spirits of wine
Never
use
a
piece of stick to clean
gently
very
with
soft
Avoid
lens
the
front
with
suggested" simply
"
sometimes
as
moistened
piece
of cambric.
14.
Using
immersion
an
dry
after
oil immersion,
ill-defined.
lens
water
employed
object looks
having
the
or
14.
This
often
Clean
with
from
arises
left
the
on
xylol.
thin
cover-
Dnn'tf.
the
iris
to
TO
HINTS
WORKERS
477
the
meet
of
change
the
between
N.A.
objectives.
looking at a diatom,
torting
cast
sideways, dislightseems
the object.
15. If when
the
or
If when
light and
rainbow
colours"
effects
with
centre
oblique
using extreme
sion,
high-power oil immer-
6. The
correctly set,
extremely out of
is
be
not
may
opticalaxis.
the
to
respect
specimen
1
is not
condenser
the
The
16.
mirror
15. The
mounted
is
condenser
flat.
matic.
achro-
not
are
"
seen.
17.
which
If
specks
appear
with
move
the
in the
field
eyepiece.
quantityof
a piece of cambric.
lenses, but merely
the
with
them
Separate
8. If
above
the
when
eyepiece
although they
the
appear
seem
to
stationary
is
rotated,
float
about
field of view.
vitreous
the
and
up
head
from
often
be
cast
health
be
19.
If
the
draw-tube
becomes
stifffor
too
correct
easilyadjusting to the
tube-length of an objective.
quite
few
likewise.
be
with
xylol
Oil both
other
both
very
together, separate,
This
a
20.
If racks
run
stiffly.
must
treatment
cloth-lined
observer's
may
wiped
its sleeve
with
the
oil
(see No.
3), or
preparation,and
fairly dry. Fit
and
again
be
not
wipe.
used
with
draw-tube.
Lubricate
20.
sionally
occa-
order
and
well
non-acid
wipe
then
They
way.
hours, but
removed
previously mentioned
some
will
cause.
must
clean
eyes
roll the
They
the
some
days"
being in good
the
It
19.
of
the
not
often
Lift the
side.
to
out
in
take
specks
violently,and
side
disappear
fabric.
has
eye
humour.
down
swab
firmly wipe
if necessary.
ocular
observer's
8. The
in
used
Don't
moistened
the
the
with
dirty; clean
spiritsof wine
small
with
is
ocular
The
17.
with
the
tioned
above-men-
oil and
the
teeth
stick first
when
be
instrument
an
accurately, the
grease
to
removal,
lard
answers
rack
prevent
fresh
must
thickened
very
well.
is
made
not
is filled with
"
backlash."
be
with
used.
white
stiff
After
fied
Clariwax
473
21.
If
substage
22.
If
oculars
the
TO
HINTS
WORKERS
stiffly.
runs
drop stifflyinto
draw-tube.
Clean
22.
Clean
23.
of
the Continental
If with
suddenly appears
is the
or, what
out
same
form
iris
the
illuminating apparatus
draw-tube
in No.
as
centrality,
having worn
denser
turning it to arrange
thing,the conof
suddenly appears
eccentric.
it has
become
using illumination
object, as the tube
If when
clickingarrangement
loose
so
for
make
It is because
24.
focussing,the
object becomes
Place
25.
do
the colours
and
If when
vivid
as
not
they
appear
as
bright
should.
do
arises
The
causes.
Remove
lowered.
was
one
regard
mirror.
plate,
keep rotating the
until, when
turning the
analyser, the
wave
and
best
black
effects
and
are
produced.
position for "maximum
the
selenite,and after
Then
for
same
po-
its best
at
the
to
two
or
(the
placed
selenite,quarter
polarizer
with
the
lightand
nicol
be
not
specimen,
best
tighter.
of
the
from
lower
lariser)may
position with
and
the
obliquely,so that
strike the objective.
not
This
25.
Bend
lightmore
the
the rays
badly illuminated.
oblique light,
the mount
accomplish accurate
dull and
that when
it hold
an
opaque
is lowered
to
very
clean
for
ocular
wipe
detached.
clicking-springto
24.
and
arises from
of centrality,the
out
tioned.
men-
19.
This
23.
before
as
with
mount
oil
and
21.
the
quarter
employing
circular
the
are
colours
not
white
find
the
effect"
that
the
plate if
wave
polarisation.
as
If
expected, diffei-
those
obtained
with
other
ing from
objectives,the objectivefurnishingthe
faulty appearance
it off the
Take
between
one
If
26.
If
when
the field is
using polariscope
unequally
illuminated.
microscope
nicols.
two
other
or
26.
not
side
This
the
is
not
turned
the
the
or
(or
appear.
maker.
objective,the
properly placed,
place
revo!
should
is because
suit
not
to
faulty.
and
On
colours
no
does
itself be
may
tn
condct
min"
con*
the
HINTS
TO
WORKERS
lumination
due to a dirty coverare
using dark-ground il32. These
with a wheel
glass. If wiping carefully does
not
diaphragm
them
ous-looking
Wenham's
remove
they are on the inside of
a
or
paraboloid, curithe cover.
streaks
the specimen
ill-defined
This shows
or
is mounted
"dry," and that dirt has
patches of lightare seen scattered
32. When
either
the field.
over
has
condenser,
the
with
attempting
iris cannot
a
be
it may
low-power
to centre
the
found
focussed
objective.
be
that
even
33. This
cover
it
or
but
remove
the
on
somehow
Nothing
53. When
left
been
is
serious
structural
fect
de-
tinental
in Coninfrequentlyfound
microscopes of older types
ment
instru(so in selectinga second-hand
should be looked for previous to
making a purchase),and arises from
the positionof the iris with respect to
the condenser
being incorrect ; usually
not
close.
too
when
from
This
the
opticalparts
are
made
below
to
taking
far. By
drop
too
its distance
from
the
adapter,"
R.
Messrs.
tube
so
towards
tube
be
tube
to
the
have
iris fitting
instead
similar
of
with
its
the
its
c.\
axis
nail
hen
can
closed
for
of
the
optical axis
the
aperture
manner,
this
fit accurately,and
to
the
an
iris
the
of
instrument) by
this minute
half
Provided
minor.
is
so
If
centring-
the
leaves
the
the
on
effect.
protrudes about
made
and
by
satisfactory there
but
perforated at
(corresponding with
end
made
same
drop into
to
below
be
"centring
as
the
found
its end
that
inch
has
alternative
made
an
J. Beck, described
"
p. 45, which
this be
not
is no
plan
may
one
not
As
trouble.
into
fit
to
docs
iris this
condenser
such
above
increasing
thus
the
the
condenser
it
care
alternative
arranged
sleeve
from
usually remedies
the
nator
illumi-
remedy
the
have
to
the
To
upwards.
downwards,
in
of
occurs
to
it is best
defect
made
uncommonly
not
be
iris, and
the
purpose
of
hole,
used
in
of
HINTS
TO
WORKERS
481
If however
centring the condenser.
best
a
rises
it
is
to
difficulty
any
consult an
optician. Perhaps the iris
does
close small
not
enough for the
in question.
purpose
34.
When
using
binocular
the
This
34.
left
to the
eye
from
tube, then
the
are
not
the left
into the
look
with
several
objectwith
the
Focus
causes.
arise
may
they
If
tubes.
box
prism
prism and
if
quite
not
improvement
pushing home
improvement,
"
If still no
box.
scope.
into micro-
with box
return
See
by
proper
improvement, remove
with its prism. Clean
no
the
their
in
results
"
the
liftout
and
prism with its cell from the
note
position of prism in cell. Try
small alteration in positionof prism ;
box
it is not
perhaps
exactly
set
to
your
improved by any
fix
by dropping a
slightadjustment,
small quantityof gum
between
prism
definition.
best
its cell
and
face
maker
to
return
or
end
The
adjustment.
should
If
plane
right angles to
at
for
prism
of
axis
the
of the lens.
35. When
oil condenser
becomes
dried.
the
or
fixed
front
of
an
with
lens
oil
of
an
objective
oil that
has
35. No
should be
helped,
likely to
pincers or
if it
used
injury
as
liberallypainted
allowed
The
remain
to
union
line
cleaned
of the
quently
fre-
xylol
several
then
the
night.
will
line of union
with
for
again, leavingall
over
whole
nearly always
should
and
possibly
parts
if the
separate
be
be
can
is
The
occur.
instrument
other
and
hours.
be
fully
care-
painting done
at
In
the
morning
the
parts
use
of the
fingersonly.
by
31
the
CONCERNING
As
of
an
of
resolution, it
details
be
can
readily
by photography,
understood
of
the
limit
of
allowance
fallingoff
with
first two
the
Plates, the
Isochromatic
"
"
In
the emulsion.
that
Seeing
of
limelight
of
Beard, concerning
oxygen
sensitiveness
extreme
negatives were
new
well
as
as
in
the
of
made
the
upon
would
illuminationwe
as
feel
procurable from
482
we
the
It
pure
the
as
ought
to
of
well-known
which
it is
been
posures
ex-
strongest
we
essential
was
have
the British
used
employment
by
especiallymade
the
performance of
be
is
needed,
are
entailed
should
and
intensity),
of that
illumination
highest praise.
the
used
(otherwise the
excellence
Edwards's
on
the
Chromatic,
This
jet,one
in bestowing
justified
reduced
the
duration
necessary.
was
firm
obtain
able
unavoid-
"Flashlight" of
being employed for Amphipleura
Rapid
sensible
some
powerful mixed
the
of
amount
and
taken
were
Plates,or
monochromatic
when
very
that
excellence
or
Imperial manufactures.
and
Barnet
and
author's
the
certain
not
reproduction.
of
account
ance
perform-
visuallyused,
inevitable
Medium
Ilford
with
last
the
distinctlywarned
for
editions
Barnet
the
Imperial Company,
on
pellucidain dots
the
the
to
objectivesare
seems
of
method
negatives of
The
Hence
utmost.
perfection
made
respect, which
known
any
of
the
when
always be
must
this
in
limit
true
difficulty
reproduce its
perfection,taxes
perfection displayed by
photomicrographs as the
capable of being witnessed
due
be
its
to
respect
objectives should
various
the
regard
to
the
photomicrographer to
the plates with
criticising
when
of
approximate
to
even
defining power
that
skill of the
reader
as
PLATES
the
THE
feel
also
possible
to
considerably
mention
Oxygen
the
Company
positively, from
know
impurities
the
As
than
more
jet was
well
gas
hard
Nottingham
their
fallingto pieces
On
pellucida,a
The
oxygen
of
often
found
The
of
almost
being
made
were
of
paper
daughter
With
his
indebtedness
supervision
Mr.
third
Walker
of
place
for the
great
the
out
Mr.
Alfred
Dent
of
167 being
to
his
as
author
for
care
his
blocks,
expressed
personal
and
all
that
so
has
ticulars
par-
accurately represented.
be
blocks
new
desirous
trouble
and
unceasing pains
which
(war),
difficulties
the
is very
perfection
shiny
himself,
editions
author
of
issue
the
on
second
reproduce
daughters
work.
war
unforeseen
to
second
third
the
author
The
ideals
the
sometimes
the
originals should
asked
of
of
Dent.
same
some
Imperial Company
the
the
first and
the
issue, owing
was
with
reproductions, the
manufacture
in the
the
this
to
Mr.
the
in
shown
In
and
by
actual
the
to
"
XV.
2, Plate
first and
one
photographs
Company
Preface
in the
already
of
P.O.P.
material
same
to
respect
employed
page
the
by
pre-occupied by honorary
was
Amphipleura
Fig.
on
for
negatives
new
Criterion
the
of
all taken
were
described
arc
the
or
The
the
on
possible
as
was
and
XIII.,
entirely executed
employed.
much
exposure.
Zeiss
by
edition
the
author, "Nikko"
the
an
best
the
photographing
lamp
little
as
of
hour
an
employ
to
prevent
cent.
useful.
off
from
to
Plate
6,
in this third
extremely
was
the
as
electric
light,the
printing
editions
such
and
contains
feet
ten
necessary
cracking during
or
Figs. 5
electric
was
procurable
limes
photographs
form
it
"
3""ampere
with
notably
as
occasions,
certain
using about
to
reason
of 5 per
vanishing point
"
coal
as
almost
powerful
so
have
we
very
the
483
which
Co.), Westminster,
"
Brin
(formerly
PLATES
THE
CONCERNING
he
thank
to
taken
has
to
aimed
were
the
in
him
carry
by
at
his
predecessor.
his
indebtedness
for
executive
the
"
Plates
;
incurred
well
the
addition
In
as
as
to
the
so
well
in
the
as
as
to
trouble
and
care
"
Hazell,
Messrs.
to
obtain
Mr.
John
This
they
Murray
remark
this
matter.
two
previous editions
"
Watson
much
as
of
desirous
is further
author
of
for
and
Viney
have
from
acknowledging
taken
blocks
the
sparing
applies
MICROSCOPY.
in
to
no
the
their
printing
as
sible
pos-
expense
third
as
APPENDIX
THE
RELATIONS
The
BETWEEN
Image
terms
Point, Equivalent
Cardinal
and
WITHIN
certain
point on
their
limits
lenses
opticalaxis
explained
lens systems
or
Length, Principal
Focal
Planes
IMAGE
AND
OBJECT
; the purpose
of
produce images
can
is to show
this note
at
any
how
the
erect
or
inverted) of this image and
position (i.e.whether
be most
the corresponding positionof the object may
easilyascertained.
and
size
In
doing various
so
into
come
The
the
limits
which
in
lens
which
derived
is
from
of lenses
the
if
And
ray.
we
image point
must
fixed
definitely
now
Any
two
to
way
from
rays
image
second
this
side
and
that
the
select
to
pass
through
any
lie somewhere
this
on
its
positionis
of the
it is found
rays
already
we
ray ; hence
second
of
out
by
these
objectpoint in
selected
two
far
entering
parallelrays
two
system,
one
then
first,
point of intersection
of
trace
can
the
the
course
we
the
differingfrom
lie
on
if
lens
it must
ray,
of
conjugate, point
or
also
the
parallelrays, which
the
at
the
determine
either
for
trace
can
fully
success-
gives sufficiently
sharp images, all rays
with sufficient
any point in the object are
geometrical locus
be
can
that
it
necessarily follows
it
the
from
single ray
have
this
From
consideration
the
system
or
explained as they
are
use.
underlying principle
within
in this book
employed
terms
the
lens system
the
bundles
two
order
rays.
simplest
to
of
determine
system
of
space
whatever.
lenses
enclosed
between
it be
Let
known
and near
parallelto the opticalaxis
emerging from the lens proceeds in the
ray
incident
evident
contains
to
"
and
that
the
if
refracted
very
Qlf it would
thin
until
ray
lens
refract
the
were
ray
484
LL
such
"
direction
they
so
FI
intersect
placed
i
experiment
from
it
as
in
to
lens
represent any
as
Qi
the
then
same
i, when
plane 1'iPi
have
that
Produce
i.
"
at
the
the ray
or
the
it is
which
final
APPENDIX
thin
lens
of
position PiPi
The
Principal
the
equivalentlens
The
lens
of the
for let
Fj.
placed
of
the
provided
Hence
is described
The
assumed
thin lens
the
that
say
lens
exactlyin the
its
having
Plane,
as
the
may
equivalent thin
that
once
lens
is known
and
system
same
way
principalfocus
the
by
focal
Equivalent
have
we
an
that
left side
and
PiPi
at
we
the
from
Cardinal
or
at
seen
figure,be
the
given, and
; then
must
at
i,
"
FI
at
the
name
length C^
Focal
of
Length
system.
It will be
the
F!
parallellightincident
on
would
as
as
485
the
as
be somewhere
point of
on
the
the
as
its
the
ray
at
the
the
on
QiFi
ray
problem
to
Ql5
"
be
mined
deter-
its
image
its continuation.
or
for the
suitable distance
image
from
the
left of
extreme
image be required
geometrical locus
arrow
in the
arrow
lies
arrow
refracted
size of
As
of the
arrow
lens
system
A'
Fig. 241.
"The
between
Relations
Object
and
Image.
image at practically
any point. Supposing
at
once
we
thus produce a sharp image at A1B1, then
for example we
this
in
the
of
for determining the size
position:
the means
have
image
has
and
been
CiFi
already
CiQi is obviouslyequal to the object arrow,
it is
possibleto produce
determined
the
as
trianglesQiCiFi
or
its
equivalent focal
and
B1A1Fi
are
length
of
similar ; hence
the
lens
we
system.
have
the
The
equation
proportion
"
or,
in words
transposed,
focalplane
This
is of
The
to
Magnification
course
has
been
made
use
of
in
the
text
of
APPENDIX
486
this book
for the
and
To
process
the
In
arrow.
P2P2 and
Plane
the
locus
is the
only produce
and
the
point
that
lens
the
that
if
are
they
Putting
Focal
F2
We
Length C2F2.
in
study a
next
found,
are
with
again reason
; hence
sponding
corre-
where
AB,
at
the
can
rays
if
they are
in
formed
the
divided
both
different
way,
from
by
the
media,
the
upper
and
the
the
same
lower)of
medium
any
(air),
two
be said to be
tance
impor-
equivalentfocal
indices of the media.
refractive
magnificationmay
the
less
however,
investigationshows
in the
formed
proportion as
same
upper
is of
It is necessary,
difficult theoretical
somewhat
equal
are
problem
part of the
automaticallyby focussing.
a
this another
primary image)
as
this
purpose
Principal Focus
two
lengths are
1
second
present
out
system
whilst
before
as
repeat the
to
the
for the
it is settled
to
through
Focal
intersect.
For
way
second
left
rightto
same
Equivalent
determiningthe Equivalent
Plane
(page 125 et se?.).1
Length
Q2F2
of
opposite purpose
in
use.
"
Same
any
size of object
Fig. 24i3
APPENDIX
488
Seeing
is
that
quantity
constant
then,
the
becomes
rule
very
by
multiply
and
by
finally
be
imperative
using
with
(as
if
blood-count)
the
the
How
if
ascertain
to
of
of
be
that
is
when
dealing
demands
wise
other-
re-determination
required.
are
Working-Distance
the
it
as
when
case
specimen
results
accurate
the
in
recollected
and
draw-tube,
the
be
used
and
objective
the
should
be
the
itself,
employed,
shall
cover-glass
made
It
would
micrometer
by
by
draw-tube
same
the
multiplied
displayed
of
likely
most
with
field
be
ocular.
length
the
the
to
area
adjustment
be
must
area
the
the
ordinary
then
particular
occasions
future
objective
dry
than
of
of
of
has
the
the
taken
on
with
used
note
result
furnishes
which
when
diameter
apparent
This
*oi.
785,
question
that
the
Ascertain
simple.
of
given
Objective
and
polished
highly
and
strip
Raise
the
objective
the
cover-glass
Zeiss
their
other
with
follow
combined
objective
or
'17
required.
care
pieces
to
of
gauge
thickness
slip
as
or
will
in
many,
strips
the
front
between
(not
place
the
scratch
Ciceri
Smith
represent
Cut
between
one
the
in
lens
fact,
strip
the
other
few
the
question
or
between
placed
thickness.
mm.
paper,
cover-glass
and
'18
and
not
object
well-defined
note-paper,
taking
cover-glass,
upon
of
cover-glass
the
objective
the
Focus
strips
objective
in
so
and
Then
objective).
the
the
jaws
micrometer,
working-distance
the
between
pass
between
of
and
doing.
will
as
slip
of
when
of
the
ADDENDA
Binocular
New
Arrangements
WE
"
reversed,
are
now
"
"
"
manner,
years
and
for low
To
has
high
the
war,
which
be
could
and
yet
amplify what
to
is necessary
so
shall be
that
we
thoroughly understood),
hitherto
binocular
microscopes
into
employed
powers.
recapitulatesomewhat,
already been said (which
follows
out
before
three
each
having
groups,
practicaldifferences.1
Type i is that already described, and
invented
In
by the illustrious Wenham.
that what
point
must
be
may
their
ranged
ar-
mental
instru-
and
Fig. 243.
Powell
"
Lealand's
repeated, although
in
The
substance
of
figures)is taken, by
interestingbrochure
entirety.
Fig. 149,
what
the
upon
page
in
255.
here
different
It is here
form,
seen
which
was
Fig. 242
what
that
is
is shown
the
full
immediately follows
(including the explanatory
Beck, from his
permission of the writer, Mr. Conrad
the subject,which
the student is invited to read
in its
kind
489
ADDENDA
490
beam
of
light emerging
from
the
other
half
As
half
object glass is bisected,one
the
other
this
to
being thought
eye,
never
can
the
of
in this ment
arrangebe equal to that
fact,vision
of
matter
because
monocular,
the
size
light which
of
beam
the
forms
ducing
re-
of
the
image,
the resolving
necessarilyreduces
of the objective. The
rangement
arpower
is also
cause
fault,be-
at
be
high powers can never
employed, as the prism cannot
be placed near
enough to the
back
lens
properly bisect
to
Further,
rays.
be
cannot
the
instrument
constructed
for
tube-length. Type
short
the
is
improvement, because
the
issuing from
is not
the
and
the
from
each
lens
that
sected,
biwas
light
object-
some
portion of
an
beam
arrangement
constructed
so
the
the
utilised by each
glass was
eye.
The
believe
invented
we
prism,
"
Lealand, is shown
by Powell
Fig. 243.
in
the
whole
'back
it is
Here
of
the
rays
greater
thick
part
Eyepiece.
H.
H.
I"raw-tube.
C.
Revolving
I.
K.
flange
for
raking draw-tubes.
D.
Body.
E.
Course
L.
M.
focussingad-
with
Object glass.
Stage.
Substage condenser.
Iris diaphr.
focussing
Substage
adjustment.
but
reflected
of the
justment.
box knob.
F. Prism
N.
Mirror.
shown
'
G.
P.
1'illar.
Base.
same
"
of
that
the
to
beam
which
tube
the
drawback
that
equal
"
the
must
main
of
forms
be
monocular
the
the
long
"
defect
image
which
is
that
the
glass
"
certain
into
the
see
figure.
in
quant/
in the
prism
type
reduced.
is considered
the
by
tube
manner
in
the
quickly
the
-instrument,because
is not
tinuous
con-
second
It will be
this
the
tion
direc-
almost
the
the
tion;
originaldirec-
instrument,
noticed
is
and
in
glass emerging
Beck's Binocular.
A.
the
through
pass
parallel,and
Fig. 244A."
from
lens
impinge on
plate (i, Fig. 243),
that
seen
tion
resolutli
Putting
great
many
li^ht reflected
is
so
ex-
ADDENDA
ceedinglyfeeble,there being a
491
difference
about
of
six to
one
between
the eyes.
Type
is that
Binocular,after
brought
its inventor.
Fig. 24415.
,-cy.
x'y'.
x"
z
y"
z'.
about
"
Path
by
Zeiss
and
called
It is illustrated and
of Rays in Beck's
the
Greenough
explainedon
page
Binocular.
Object.
by object glass.
Image formed
Virtual image formed
by eyepiece.
Ramsden
discs" conjugate images of back equivalent plane
object glass.
ot
The
ADDENDA
492
prism shaped
the
in
shown
as
through
with a semi-transparentlayerof
this
to
into
Thus
to
Part
second,
no
each
at
F,
and
goes
has,
eye
each
light passes
which
is coated
lightpasses
to
resolution
through
reflected
part is
the
dotted
form
each
lines.
image,
from
occurs
image
manufacture
according
to
the
to
its
too, in consequence
of resolution.
carefullyattended
is
The
equally bright,
in the
process
amount
of
of
silver
additional
The
one
the
increases
of
A,
in
for this is
deposited.
Prism,
the
it the maximum
to
shown
as
lack
of the
the other
full-size beam
hence
presented
Beck's
of
tube, whilst
bisection,and
Fig. 245."
whole
surface
silver.
the
and
one
the
The
245.
glass B
of the
surface
Fig.
ordinarilyfocussing at A, is shown
prolonged by
of
be
If
of
this means
this
made
to B.
glass
piece
exactlythe required
obtained
in
thickness, equal focus and equality of magnification are
the
246,
where
each
eyepiece.
ray,
interocular
The
distance
by turning
is varied
the
milled
ring C in
adjustments being
in or
both tubes to move
out,
Fig. 244A ; it causes
standard
The
is 160 mm.
capable from 2\ to 2| inches.
tube-length
The
stereoscopic and pseudoscopic effects are
ment
brought about by simply looking into the instruclosely,or by removing the head a very short
A
distance
no
quired.
limiting diaphragms being reaway,
1-iij;.
246.
The
peculiarease of obtainingthis change
Glass increasing
of
effect is brought about by one
tube being so
Length of Kays.
"
"
much
Pushing
the
prisms
becomes
The
path
The
In
The
this
new
away
other
is
by using
quite straight.
knob
F (see Fig. 244A),the
the
first-class monocular
of the rays
is shown
in
Watson-Conrady
binocular
the
attachment
of short
strument
in-
tube-length.
Fig. 2446.
Binocular
a
novel
Attachment
departure has
been
made.
to that
to be similar
optical system appears
dividing the lightcoming from the ol";
employed by Abbe
lateral
the
(see page 258),
prism being provided with a glass extension.
of
is adopted to allow
Beyond this the following ingenious method
the
adjustment for width of eyes without any alteration of tube-length,
of the older type.
instruments
plan usuallyadopted in most
arrangement
of
for
ADDENDA
493
and
the
width
of
eyes
lateral
The
user's
until the
tube
If, then, it be
is suited.
necessary
to
be
can
of the size of
the
easilyreset.
once
be used
cannot
arrangement
all patterns of
On
at
microscopes
the prism.
account
on
length
Wave-
Short
of
use
with
Screens
on
ful
Power-
Illuminants
be
To
able
to
the
long been
scopist(seepage
gained
in
use
blue
desire
of
169).
The
micro-
the
advantage
is very
resolution
has
screen
great,
as
where
XIX.,
Fig.
shows
Amdiatom
phipleurapellucidaand
another
photographed with
light,and Fig.
as
they appear
where
they
blue
with
are
red
seen
illumination.
Amphipleura, which
lines
The
specimen
this
in
are
about
not
but
are
YT^Q^O
"f
mcn
an
visible
distinctly
in
aParr"
in the
are
figure,
second.
Fig. 247.
Unfortunately,however, immediately
the
student
attempts
he
by
easy
does
to
make
finds himself
the
"Bicor"
periment,
ex-
confronted
Attachment.
Binocular
A.
Screw
to
attach
B.
C.
Screw
to
receive
Screw
to
adjust
monocular
to
body.
objectives.
for width
of eyes.
not
great physiologicaldifficulty
to
not
sensitive
overcome.
This
appreciate every
to
all the
different
shows
consists
colour
in
the
alike, the
wave-lengths
this
fact
of
that
retina
the
the
not
human
eye
being equally
spectrum.
simple
served
it is readily obplainly. Here
that the greatest appreciation lies approximately in the yellowin
(often called the apple-green),which, it might be mentioned
green
this colour
is selected
for the correction
of all
passing,is the reason
visual objectives,
of the
as
previouslyexplained. Following the course
very
ADDENDA
494
it will be
curve,
"seeing"
further
the
that, as
seen
colour
the eye
of
that
experiences a great drop, so much
so
about G in the blue it becomes
exceedingly limited,and all appears to
black and dark, especially
farther into the
as
we
us
as
get farther and
About
violet at H.
47o/A/n wave-length (4700 in tenth-metres)is the
power
that
limit, so
usual
been
has
be
microscopistswho
unable
do
to
in
the dots
we
cannot
a
with the
employed
obtain
cannot
wave-length is of any
the image in it.
see
blue screen
(even if passing some
with
use
the
first,
The
of shorter
find
to
but
Amphipleura,
suitable for
are
screen
desire
our
could
green)that
are
blue
visually,because
service
It
no
of
A'B
two
suitablyshow
blue films that
It transmits,when
of
48 film
used
the
alone,
red
end
the spectrum
HH
(besidessome
which
green
does
materiallyinterfere
and
action),
The
"
Sensitiveness
Different
A
C
C.
to
Deep
Pale
E.
G.
Yellow
Green
to
F.
Deep
green
HH.
red
not
Blue
to
deep
the
be
image
spectrum
to
(so far
and
as
seen
be
as
the
38
such
as
blue
best
with
38.
of
two
48 and
this
the
required,and
appearance
it suppresses.
formed
compound screen
38 produces a pure monochromatic
it passes
great deal
4700
the
film called
on
"
transmission
page
is much
as
by
the
for
no
but
of green,
of
It
this
procurableat
is
are
end, which
red
the
save
that described
its maximum
in the ocular
film, number
scarcelyaffects
screen
lies at about
know)
we
visual
to be combined
Sometimes
it appears
green,
spoils the
its
this
remove
it
another
green.
with
violet.
The
transmission
second
to
blue.
to
deep
maximum
has
to
not
green.
jointaction of numbers
blue or blue-violet,
because
arrangement
for
yellow.
apple-green
the
blue
"
number
part of
must
to
red.
to
orange
third at times.
Eye
"
D.
any
pale
to
even
of the
Colours.
red
,
,
of
4"ouu
U./J
248.
.frig.
We
gas.
by Kodak, Ltd.
sold
some
580
will
many
powerful illuminants.
transparent
more
are
we
that
one
able to suggest
by
reallypure
a
prismatic
170.
denser, but
lies at about
4000
it passes
less
wave-length.
obvious,
from
"
ADDENDA
496
by this method,
mination
which
with
perfectionof
about
revolving the
left undisturbed.
being
the
think
We
the
final
be
sought by
instrument, or by very
mirror, the
to
substage diaphragm
this unconventional
excellent
yields
image is
axis of the
the
specimen
slightlyalteringthe position of
practice also
than
of
taining
ob-
secured
by
the
it must
be
means
that
ordinary method.
save
limelightrequires no special mention
the
and
mixed
powerful form, namely,
jet,
The
its most
be
of the very
best
quality.
are
is
aware
condenser
will also
with
be
lamp
distinctlyarranged
of the
the
limes
type
lamp
no
in
shall
that
as
used
which
of
microscopic work.
usually be employed.
Pointolite
lamp of 100
candle-power
screens
that
same
required,for
for
that
we
The
same
can
The
employed with
form
sold by the
the
be
though
seen,
500
candle
the
Argus
the
addition
48 and
Kodak
somewhat
called
number
imperfectly,the
condenser
is
use
to
cemented
which
have
we
Amphipleura. The
is certainlya competitor with
requires(as well as the 100)
make
lamp of the same
lamp justdescribed,but it
of
to
38aM, with
in
dots
power
arc
powerful enough
the best
38 films,and
firm
is not
the
to
Argus
ment.
arrange-
The
many
with
the
48 and
38 films.
How
of
Depth
Focus
by
Denser
page
how
is
IM
the
cone
rays
to
F'.
difficult
by
is effected.
turned
Fig.
meeting
and
of
the
the
called
G.
let the
circle CC
From
ray
this
to
change
diagram
be
shown
as
been
readers
such
let the
at
has
It
upside down,
249,
is shown
meeting
some
Let
the
Specimens
how
quite understand
of
use
Fig. 838,
of
creased
in-
in
of
99,
produced
found
the
Media
Mounting
On
is
in
point
of
the
with
be
as
centre
the
Fig. 249.
"
creased
in
How
Depth
by the
use
of Focus
of I "en"cr
Mounting Specimens.
normal
NN
be
described,
be
drawn
Media
angles to MM.
passing from
Seeing
a
rare
into
right
at
'.
that
a
and
denser
ADDENDA
is
medium
of
to
the
to F'
elevation
as
The
497
the normal,
by
on
shown
Index
the
the
the
so
dotted
line
side
other
in
Fig. 836.
of
Visibility
to
instead
OG,
ray
F, is deflected
of the
cone,
ducing
pro-
the
increase
in
silica of diatoms
The
is 1*33.
water
believe
The
has
between
difference
firstchristened
was
refractive
by
the
index
of
these
1*43, whilst
two
is
Heurck
10,
as
that of
which
the
"
we
Index
of refraction
balsam
index
has an
of 1-53,
Visibility."Canada
with
hence
its index
of visibility
Pure
its index of i'58,
is 10.
styrax,
of
index
reaches a higher
visibility
amounting to 15. Mono-bromide
of naphalene, the refractive
is i'66, has a visibility
index of which
of
iodide
with
of
its
but
of
refractive
index
the
still
methyl,
174,
23,
level
substance
of
If
this
be quite
should
higher
oily
(which
31.
be saturated with
colourless)
sulphur, its index of refraction is still
further
raised to 1*78, and
the visibility
so
figureis increased to 35.
all these "visibility
But
indices"
that of
are
put in the shade when
artificial realgaris being dealt with, for its refractive
index
reaching to
for
index
fluid
is arrived
known
medium
2 '55, the
visibility
highest
any
of
1*12.
Annular
Light
of
occluding the centre of the cone
condenser, either by the use of a Traviss's expanding
rays
in
stop (page 174),or by a suitablysized diaphragm made
wheel
form
for darkground illumination,
as
was
formerly often spoken
certain
in place of oblique
circumstances
of as
being useful under
light. It has fallen out of use, as most
microscopistshave found the
have ourselves
that the results so
been led to believe,viz.,
same
as we
light,which
coming from the
Annular
obtained
has
are
so
never
deficiencyin
effects
in his
own
consists
in
fine
represented.
to
is
the
as
matter, and
reasonably
words.
"
The
to
be
Mr.,
explainsthe
expected.
diffraction
Prof.
now
Conrady,
why such
give his explanation
spectra produced by
reason
We
32
ADDENDA
498
form
regularstructures
that
of the objective,
is to
say, however
we
oblique-light
arrangement),the
of the
(by use
when
perfectlyfixed pattern
back
the
at
seen
may
an
certain part
back
the
at
of
jective,if,as
annular
be
can
seen
the
ob-
usual,
light
the
fills the
of
the
marginal zone
objective. In Fig. 250,
under
these
the
only
conditions,
portion of
the
diffractedrings falling
Riners
.Diffracted
Fig. 250."
of
-AT
within
Light
*i
the
be
would
"
Light explained.
Annular
"
j-
direct
ray
visible.
larly
Further, only simi-
placed portions(or
portions which
various
rings
admitted
"
are
useless
of
be
never
and
produce
of
purposes
now
so
to
two
these
expected
the
remarks
to
be
image,
and
rings)of
other
the
parts
resolution.
effective
Annual
"Illustrated
as
Fig. 251.
showing through
several
it is pretty evident
so
Rheinberg'sdiscs
an
the
Rheinberg's
Owing
of
is
objective." From
can
for
azimuth
same
interfere
can
Dot-resolution
light and
the
in
are
"
for their
"
use
as
that
annular
light
oblique illumination.
Screens
of
have
Microscopy
been
1899" being
Mr.
growing in popularity v.
diagrams i, 2, 3, 4, in Fig. 251,
the
we
asked
for
for details of
Rheinberg'sScreens.
seems
his courtesy, in
"
ADDENDA
499
and
and
green
Using
vertical
and
peculiaralterations
letters
used,
horizontal
effect
The
the
red
red
suitingsome
Nicol's
Certain
silk handkerchief
the
of
changes, too,
with
colours, particularly
of the
denote
of
strands
and
mirror
No.
colours
4.
be
can
Prism
Ocular
the
over
the
improve
to
Definition
For
that
little time
some
certain
on
Whether
occasions
diatoms
of
definition
it
of
occurred, became
laconicallyremarks
it
where
when
fact,that
this, and
"a
as
resolving striae
or
microscopists
different
an
was
to
improvement in the
placed over the ocular.
what
extent,
and
under
subjectof inquiry,and
the
experiments. We
"Carpenter" (page 381
in
statement
prism
several
objectof making
by
noticed
Nicol's
corroborate
circumstances
what
stated
they have
when
could
we
been
it has
not
were
of
the
time
and
curious
at the
aware
the
hitherto
unexplained
the effect is
with oblique light,
lines
the eyepiece."
strengthened by placing a Nicol's prism over
of a discovery,
be regarded in the nature
the subject cannot
Hence
although,up to the present, nothing so far as we know in the nature of
explanationhas been offered.
an
after the
of the experiments it came
commencement
Quite soon
in the nature
of a surpriseto find that any
in
betterment
somewhat
much
definition
lines in
limited
was
specimen,
noticeable
was
it
Further,
that
such
that
dots
no
increase
evident,
with
the
with
which
in
of
in
the
closelyapproximated
distinctness
is not
not
was
of vision
easy
to
understand,
quantity;
constant
in
stances,
inspecimens, for in some
Amphipleura pellucida,nothing of
all types
lines
up
examination.1
under
were
common
as
sharpening
improvement
limited
not
was
and
became
soon
this
even
fact,it
when
the
to
of
the
appeared
sort
the
up
case
any
be
to
of
take
improvement,
revolved
merely
course,
to
to witness
its axis
upon
verified
the
to
fact
the
maximum
find the
that
the
"
best
rays
effect,the
nicol
had
polarisedbeams.
Further, the experiments seemed
1
by
This
Dr.
has
peculiarity
Burton-Brown,
been
who
to
distinctly
show
that
the
most
ADDENDA
500
effects occurred
marked
with
sixth,and
seemed
well
use
the
most
part
With
obtain, for
to
of this
the
with
that
of
brilliancy
in
as
twelfth ; that
immersion
an
when
there
respect
in
definition
of
highly apertured
very
consideration
of
the
page
from
angle
out
as
direct
remarkable
as
the
of
confirmation
subject does
lend
diffraction
the
itself to
case,
the
in
as
then, resultingfrom
to certain
use
theoretical
the
to
the
to
both
Improvement
limited
restricted
fallingoff
image.
the
prism, seemed
was
was
for
binations.
com-
paper
year
1905,
able
consider-
further
pointed
It appears,
theory.
theoretical
tion,
investigacomplete explanationof polarised diffracted light calls for
not
exact
of
mathematics
high order,
diffracted
and
beam
be
that
applied
as
the
to
which
is
it seems,
for certain.
however,
be
especially
diatoms
really known,
knowable
even
would
"
of
case
nothing
lems,
probknowledge of
structure
required, of
the
it cannot
concrete
exact
an
minute
in
then
even
of
"
or
But
interest
show
Fig. 2S2.-Luier-Waves.
in
best
be
that
SS
by sketching
done
those
only
in Fig.
252
shown
which
by
slit,and
the
produce
transverse
are
be
to
the
vibrations
the
If
off
light went
of the arrows,
there would
in the direction
be only longitudinalvibrations
which
do not produce a lighteffect.
Light then, polarised in the
plane of the paper, would produce no diffracted light in the direction
shown, but light polarised at right angles to the plane of the paper
as
paper
would.
the
result
The
diffracted
then
and
only
contrast
so
Based
Conrady
direct
the
on
"
and
when
is that
beams
analyserin
an
arrow.
direct
the
direction
light
"
diffracted
diffraction takes
weakened
are
the
now
which
compared
which
is
place
at
the
to
the
transmits
unpolariscd
"
will
great
direct.
By
diffracted
be
plying
ap-
li.uht,
weakened,
will be
this
improved.
simple theory
"
beams
be
at
is
which
has
its maximum
90".
With
been
when
balsam
suggested by
the angle be
and
Prof.
monobromide
ADDENDA
for
be the
this would
mounts
twelfth
and
"
case
that
501
in other
"
is confirmed
suitable
words, with test-objects
by
With
experiments.
our
aperture, with
axis,and
curtailed,and
been
use
be
little
to
at
too
than
of
"
alters the
position
the
obtain
mm.
broad
slit.
It
in
all
or
nearly
round
spar
diaphragm which
is
have
if the
all instruments
obtain
to
has
"the
being used
changed. In
the prism is in
the
apart from
the
positionof
is square
analyser,and we
this suggestion,for
in the iris
usual
as
fitting,
foreign manufacture, moving the
again is
an
endorse
cannot
diffracted
scopical
right angles to the microlong,the field is unpleasantly
more
polariserinstead
We
mounted
of
best
faces
if the spar
limited
often
it recommended.
prism be
to
short,for
suggested to
seen
bottom
top and
the
low-
sleeve
iris
which
its own,
of
Even
diaphragm.
then
be
can
think
we
separatelyrevolved
the plan objectionable,
as
the
eyepiece,this
the
to
is not
The
extent.
same
and
Ainslie,who
is
of
productive
indeed
prism
similar
be
can
recommended
so
certainlynot
the objective,
placed directlyover
believe by Commander
we
this subject; but of course
it
attention
to
paid some
implies a specialarrangement, and it is better to have the nicol especially
for use
in this position. For convenience, simplicity,
cut
and
the ocular.
rapidityof application,we prefer placing the prism over
Wherever
placed, what
diatoms,
and
has
trouble,or
why
or
does
not
restricts the
increase
extend
Summary
of clearness
"
the
to
of the
merit
respect
the
to
followingmanner
In
an
colour
be
may
of
in definition to certain
is limited
to
the "lines"
immediately apparent.
not
Corrections
Colour
required
in
Objectives
corrections
distinguishingtitles of
Apochromatic, it
the
the
of vision
dots," is
Different
With
improvement
for
objectivesto
Achromatic, Semi-apochromatic, and
interest
to
required
enumerate
those
that
obtain
in
two
objective,
colours
are
united,
ADDENDA
502
In
the
In
the
the
In
united
flint and
F
and
in the
for two
zones.
two
colours
whilst
spectrum,
the
usually
selected
zone
lies
of full aperture.
apochromatic the
the
zones.
colours
objective,the
crown
semi-apochromatic the
united being the centre
zones
In
at
two-thirds
the
In
the
ordinary
for two
apochromatic, three
complete
are
at about
colours
two
semi-apochromatic,
colours
two
and
three
the
united
also at C
are
and
F,
outer.
colours
somewhat, being
vary
pendent
de-
on
by Different
Magnification
the
Concerning
lenses
ordinary achromatic
largerimage of the object than
the
length (justthe
focal
than
more
one
almost
vary
greater between
4862
and
6563
part in
to
and
are
inch
of shorter
magnifies
of the
magnification
apochromatic it is not
an
(thatis,between
about
number
result
25,400
1-2
wave-lengths
per
additional
is
one
are
1,000
=
1,000
cypher
more
to
inch"
Vice
one
Versa
by
the term
to
the
inch."
divided
into
in the
tnus
25,400,000
in a
(/x/x)
tenth-metres,
Vice
versa,
the
nine-figured
same
followingmanner
millimetre
microns
micron
/*//. (double
254,000,000
place down
the
in
"tenth-metres."
(/t) y^VirP^t of a
(25-4x 1,000) 25,400
make
Waves
"
25*4 millimetres,
double
into
divided
obtained
are
inch
Tenth-metres
waves
result in
the
are
of
the
to
micron
there
be
"number
figures254,000,000
there
and
254,000,000
is the
hence
in
Inch
metre
difference
in
spectrum
Wave-lengths
figures in "waves
quantity furnishes
are
the rays
furnishes
eighty-three.
If the
But
spectrum
magnifier,an
extent, but
any
per
The
hand
than
approximately)
Converting
the
because
absolute
the
in the
of the
length).
focal
of two-inch
blue end
the red
in
as
same
in
Objectives
Microscopical
In
Colours
the sea!
is
in
;
an
therefore
(/x),
mils) in an
required,because
"
"
inch.
inch.
the
there
The
tenth-
ADDENDA
504
is,they exhibit
pronouncedly flat
noticeable when
examining an object from the edge
field,particularly
the centre, for there seems
to
no
They
necessityto adjust the focus.
the
that
is at
also a very
distant
have
eye-point,so
conveniently
eye
quite a long distance
in
before.
system
one
One
such
the
from
We
have
able
to
front
lens.
been
not
the
examine
whole
series, but,
judging
from
that
have
mented
experi-
upon,
it really
we
for
a
be
to
appears
the
perfect
and
difficulty
discover
does
that
suit
not
chromatic
have
we
the greatest
to
an
apo-
as
with
1.
The
Incandescent
tube, containing
cigarette,protruding about
pencil will be found a convenient
incandescent
of
material
should
forward
be
presents
holding the
Cradle
serving
movement
to
in
the
in the
rotated
material
2.
Barnard
convex
Gas
material
surface
the flame.
slides easily in
tube, which
to
approximate
to
the
it,this sliding
incandescent
4.
of incandescent
material
be adjusted
to flame
can
Bunsen
flame
emitted
from
the slit,A, it is fed
adjustment
screw,
by
means
of which
the relative
screw,
NOTE."
powerful.
test-plate
being
employed.
called
"the
in
jet is a compound
by Messrs. H.
Society,has recentlyarranged
be all that
one
F.
and
Angus
is
one
Fig. 253.
descent
Incan-
Lamp
of
High
Power
Barnard,
more
"
Co.
President
of
the
Royal Microscopical
highly ingenious and powerful gas lamp
which
appears
in the
to
are
mediar
Barnard's
Mr.
latest pattern the
It is manufactured
They
shown
K.
In the
Abbe
position
is
exceedingly fine, an
oculars," and
exactly.
through the
by the milled head, C, which
the lever,D, which
regulates
gas
immersion
an
material
the flame.
3.
5.
form
in use
i inch when
; a lead
plug with which to push the
tube.
When
first used, the tube
cradle, 2, until the incandescent
Fine
6.
in the
So, too,
twelfth,the image
Lamp.
rolled
low-
combinations
do.
certainly
"
as
ordinarysemi-apo-
power
Fig. 254.
it
well
chromatic; the
Metal
to
up
with
success,
an
usable
all powers
sixth
one
is desired.
full account
will
be
found
It is
ADDENDA
505
sufficiently
powerful to be used with the blue
not, however,
and
screens
high magnifications.
satisfaction,although
of
consists
which
house
is not
the
and
which
those
commenced,
whilst
or
going
As
we
our
notice, most
were
which
of
the
justly merit
unable
of
attention
illustrate
to
It
wire
jet (ormore) of
it should
be, this
small
as
gives
in
made
steady and
very
It
cracking.
disc
lamp.
of
all
just before
the
few
which
brought before
were
by
made
Messrs.
have
we
in
this
hostilities
part unobtainable.
most
issue.
Swift
seen
microscopists,and
their
objectives,
introducingnew
either
for
been
have
apochromatic series,several
Their
what
some-
however,
press,
it is still
is attached
good
as
done
they lasted,are
to
press
Objectives
and
computed
were
to
been
little has
war
that
and
very
New
Some
During
be
pressure
minated
illu-
small
very
so
playsone
highly luminous,
becomes
little disc
uniform
If the
gas.
relates to
as
material
going
far
so
incandescent
of
disc
seems,
of
moment
experimental stage
the
in
the
at
with
ingenious lamp
an
microscope, which
for the
area
Microscope
the
for
Lamp
invented
has
Traviss
Mr.
Gas
New
"
and
regret
we
Son.
tested,
being
performance
1*30
fine
lens
exceedingly
yieldingan irreproachable
of
in
fine colour
and
has
dots,
Amphipleura pellucida
a very
rection
corimage
after the styleof Zeiss, Leitz (theirlatest pattern),
and
Koristka,
to
immersion
that
than
rather
deserve
(25 and
that
has
which
that
with
are
pleased to
any
of
the
The
also
have
immersions
water
Messrs.
began
introduced
the
for
powers
examination
also
some
of
to
felt.
lower
to
make
Watson
"
their
Sons, before
the
apochromatic systems,
the
then
say
them.
We
that
it
glad
to
hear
soon
as
circumstances
elsewhere
war,
firm
same
appear
long
Reichert.
cellence.
privilegeof examining a sixth of very great exWe
compared the image
put it through several tests, and
afforded by combinations
by Zeiss, Leitz,and Reichert, and
had
we
been
of
commencement
and
and
mm.)
16
aquaticorganisms
want
Hartnack
of
geneous
homo-
an
very
low-power
is
The
was
offer
a
the
firm
completion
in this book.
permit.
It has
from
our
of
Their
been
new
Versalic
designed
for
TVth is mentioned
hard laboratory
use,
ADDENDA
5o6
is said
and
that
be
to
during rough
out
with
of the
old firm
The
"
from
Lustrar
is
of
grams
29
full aperture,
at
apochro-
any
microscopic
public, but at
F/6'3.
In
entire
short
focal
insects,etc.,
of.
for
with
diluted
of
the
photographing
Immersion
Oil
(Guibert),sometimes
oily Tacamaque
white,
Virginiana),and
by
its series
before
in
Tacamahaca
perus
furnished
more
Original Formula
Abbe's
if indeed
difficult,
Their
photographic combinations.
combination, giving an exceptionally
already spoken
have
we
as
it is very
down
once
now
suitable for
be very
lengths it would
such
is
to
output
remarkable
very
irreproachableperformance.
one
closed
which
perfectdefinition
have
we
length.
war,
the
of
illumination
green
Wray,
the
limits
present
"
of
during
lenses
focal
same
combinations, and
new
frds
to distinguishthe image
possible,
matic
few
remarkable
very
this,that
fine is
brought
has
just examined
So
of
treatment.
Baker
Charles
method
new
entirelythe
almost
prevents
with
provided
of
14 c.c.
of
c.c.
22
cedar
oil
castor
called
oil
(Juni-
(Rid tins
Com-
munis).
This
heads
milled
prevented
bar
is apparent
either
flat surface
cut
the
on
speed,
pitch of the
i, therefore
body
milled
one
*i
mm.
heads
of
the
the
to
micrometer
complete
The
parativelylong
range
calibrated
it is
accuratelyto
cut
groove
heads
the
controlling
the
of
mm.
3 mm.,
possibleby
the second
of the
end
the
of
i
and
its
place,and
lever
is
movement
is attached
is divided
or
lug is
to
bears
steel
lug
on
into
the
/*.
drum
This
all parts
means
to
conveyed, at a
the
body-slide.
and
revolution
division
lug
of
micrometer
B ; this
round
the
along
H, H1, being turned, the
is "5 mm.,
screw
drum
bronze
The
coarse
action
it bears
which
E,
roller
through one
body of *ooi
that
which
illustration.
carries
the
to
milled
the
on
reduced
The
as
rotating,
from
Hence
C.
travels
the
from
and
is fitted horizontally,
Adjustment
it has
mechanism
screw
in
movement
Fine
parallelto those of
placed horizontally,
itself
most
proved
satisfactory.The
were
adjustment, and
the
"
Climax
Improved
"
first micrometer
the
was
Son's
"
Swift
James
to
turning the
ment
corresponds to a movehas
the
com
adjustment
parts, so
100
are
so
measure
approximately to
carefullymade
and
refractive indices
the
third
place
of
ADDENDA
the
As
number
507
of its
its
reversing
while
action
focussing,even
after
constant
use
backlash,
this
we
of
years
say, is
may
herent
in-
generallyan
trouble
with
similarly
placed adjustments
which
have
medean
Archi-
an
worm
and
wheel
in
of
the
place
aforemen-
meter
micro-
tioned
screw.
the
with
As
ment,
adjust-
coarse
turning
the
heads
the
from
observer
opposite direction
ceases
to
act
no
practically
Details
should
always
lowers
the
chance
of
concerning
body
Fine
Adjustment.
the
injuringthe specimen
the
and
The
Climax"
milled
approximate focal
long body microscope.
and
Power
length
of
glass,so there
damaging the lens.
cover
or
Focal
Huyghenian
Ordinary
is
pensating
of ComLength
Eyepieces
compensating eyepieces
for
the
ADDENDA
508
short
For
the
The
focal
body.
Index
of
Refraction
of
Different
Substances
ADDENDA
509
Substance.
Mono-br.
Index
Naphthalene
of
Piperine
1*658
i'68i
.......
methylene di-iodide
in
Sulphur
of Refraction.
Phosphorus
Diamond
1778
.2*224
2*470
.......
Realgar (artificial)
few of
different
types of glass now
the
Messrs.
Boro-silicate
Zinc
Soft
manufactured by
Brothers1
Chance
1*5087
crown
crown
1*5149
.......
I'5I52
crown
Telescope
crown
Hard
crown
Extra
lightflint
Light
barium
crown
Light
Light
barium
flint
.1*5155
1*5290
.
Dense
flint
dense
I'55I5
crown
r6n8
(No. 361)
1-6214
flint
1*6469
......
Different
Maximum
Parts
Transmission
and
Tenth-metres,
Number
1*5744
....
crown
of the
Wave-lengths
to
of the
of
the
of Waves
7606
Spectrum,
Different
the
Inch
of the
(B),6870
Orange (C), 6563
Yellow
(D), 5893
same
(F),4861
For
This
of the
that
glass
details
has
46,182
made
combined
with
leading), corrected
use
of three
curves
of
....
reader
the
been
Imperial College
when
crown
the
further
(H
33,394
43,102
K),
and
the Inch.
38,702
.....
Apple-green, 5500
Violet
to
36,972
...
in
Approximate
Waves
Red
with
Screens
Corresponding
Tenth-metres.
Blue
1*5407
1*5632
barium
Red,
.1*5153
......
barium
Dense
Very
flint
Medium
the
2'549
3950
match
64,304
....
is referred
the
52,253
to
the
the
Prof.
firm.
by
Conrady,
peculiaradvantage
flint type (No. 361), small
dense
cemented
objectives(with
for sphericaland
chromatic
aberration, are obtainable by
equal radii and a flat surface.
of
to
Science
and
constants,
Technology,
and
has
the
ADDENDA
510
for
accurate
figuresare sufficiently
light contains the whole range
These
White
of
With
light,No.
has
61, green,
equivalent to
metres,
has
Filter),
called
films
the
to
maximum
46,605
a
equivalent to 54,042
tenth-metres, equivalent to
about
No.
38
the
out
cuts
red
waves
allowing the
metres,
Some
the
to
of
remainder
the
of
to
5347
the
about
inch ; No.
the
small
about
to
for
to
waves
to
pass
the
(often
tenth-
4700
No.
arc
tenth-
at about
inch;
51,836
colours
Substances
about
5450
blue
48,
; No.
at
spectrum
the
scopical
micro-
at about
inch
to
waves
55,217
Specially Good
the
but
the inch.
transmission
waves
end
to
conjunction with
to
tenth-metres, equivalent
4900
spectrum;
transmission
maximum
metres,
the
working microscopist.
equivalent as
in
used
the
4600
3.8aM
the
6200
at
inch;
tenth-
unaltered.
practically
Polariscope
on
cadmium,
the
slip.
The
prepare,
Two
Two
are
are
best
in
different
are
Light
bought ready
little
the
water
or
slip and
obtained
by using concentrated
if
solutions quite dilute; and
as
compared
dried quickly or dry spontaneously.
results
solutions
specimens
and
a
mostly dissolved
drops (one or two) being placed on
group
few
evaporated. Quite
Polarised
potassium.
difficult to
former
wine,
spiritsof
Convergent
ferro-cyanideof
crystalsare
made.
with
use
Aragonite,baryta,sugar,
of
of
chromium,
potash, and of
Pyrogallic acid, salacine, santonine, sulphate of copper,
of nickel, of potash,and of magnesia.
Acetalinide,melted
ammonia.
of
of
oxalate
New
are
often
with
Methods
of
Adjusting
Tube-Length
Ainslie,
proposed respectivelyby Commander
F.R.A.S., R.N., Naval Instructor, Royal Naval College,Greenwich, in
the English Mechanic^ June i8th, July 2nd, and July 9th, 1915, and
by
Dr. Hartridge,Fellow
of King's College,in Part II. of the June number
of the Journal of the Royal MicroscopicalSociety,page
119, will be
found
new
of
methods,
We
regret,
LIST
ADDRESS
OF
OPTICIANS
BOOK
THIS
tube-lengthfor
(The
H.
Angus,
their
which
Lomb
"
IN
MENTIONED
OTHERS)
(AND
objectivesare
is mentioned
corrected
in
brackets)
(Agents),37
and
Garden, London,
Hatton
38,
(160 mm.)
W.C.i.
E.C.i.
(160 mm.)
R.
Beck,
"
"
Kodak,
309,
Powell
Rheinberg
W.C.2.
"
160
(160 mm.)
2, Milan.
Lealand, "Emsdale,"
(250 and
(160 mm.)
Road, Manchester.
Oxford
Flatters
Garnet,
".0.3.
Road,
Greenham
Viaduct, London,
Swift
Court
"
Holborn, London,
Son,
313,
High
E.C.i.
(160 mm.)
Lens
Watson
N.io.
mm.)
Spencer
"
London,
Road,
London,
W.i.
W.C.i.
(160 mm.)
(6, 8, and
inches.)
Wray, Ltd., Grove
Most
of the above
will correct
within
to
prescribedlimits,
order.
The
cover-glassselected
is
their
usually-17
512
or
-18
mm.
for all
opticians.
INDEX
his
Abbe,
"
"
"
artificial
the
Abbe's
81
with
low
apochromats,
"
condenser,
"
"
"
powers,
to
the
former's
"
"
"
cones,
diaphragms
for
Abuse
95
"
"
attack
upon
theory, 442
stereoscopic vision,
"
"
diffraction
gratings, 439
diffraction-plate, 439
magnification, 136, 137
empty
evaluation
method
of
"
"
"
Achromatisation
tion,
magnifica-
diffraction
on
spectra,
formula
Law
"
- "
of
microscopical
oil, 506
value
of
nomenclature,
sin U
Law,
"
by, 362
stereoscopic eyepiece, 258
substage arrangement,
44
"
table
thickness
glasses,
"
of
the
colours
sented
pre-
"
"
Theory,
an
of different
"
for
to
33
apo-
by collar
works, 75
substage,
of
test-
to
opticians,
of
jective,
ob-
512
objective :
232
rays,
method
cover-
of cutting, grinding,
polishing metallurgical specimens,
467
Airy's theory of diffraction
by the
object, 431
of resolution, 432
of limit
jectives
Algae, Burton's
suggestions for obfor studying, 346
and
cover-
by Dr. Altmann,
of,
adjustment
glass,60, 233
tubeshort
long into
change
there
is a
length objective where
collar adjustment, and
vice versa,
details how
produced, 78
Aird's
"
441
development
collar
thickness
Affluent
351
attack
it
fine, for
"
colours
shown
by, 352
direct
oblique and
light, 351
precautions before
using, 356
testing objectives with, 356
the
trick, 364
visual, of lens, 67
75
list of different
Adjustment
Test-plate, 350
"
of
how
plate,
"
spectrum,
and
apochromatism
compared,
71
Boliviensis
as
Actinotychus
object, 406
Address
130
82
"
"
"
the
semi
Action
objectives, 131
of
ascertaining resolution
objective, 87, 155, 169
limit deduced
by his theory, 435
n
"
"
objective, 132
""
"
computer's
for
objective
an
of
chromatism
immersion
for
imaginary
initial
the
"
Achromatism,
explanation
images, 439
"
of
folding-over
361-2
experiments
"
substage diaphragm,
449
81
"
419
of
Acarina, Freeman's
suggestions for
for
studying, 347
objectives
Accessory apparatus for microscope,
121
"
use
Achromatic
"
"
and
J53
259
"
191
Aberrations,
341
142
Altmann's
defence
of by Dr.
Theory, extension
Johnstone Stoney, 444
of resolution, 436
of resolution
exemplified, 437
view
of stereoscopic projection, 259
views
and
narrow
large
upon
of
limit
lution,
resotheory
436
Abbe's
analysing eyepiece, 213
angular magnification of oculars
and
eyepieces, 131
apertometer, 94
before
precautions
using the
same
rulings,
of
his
444
INDEX
5*4
Aplanatic
size
Apochromat
Theory
Abbe's
on
fence,
de-
Abbe's
442
purposes,
for, Karop's
pellucida
object, 378
as
a test-objectfor
eyepiece,
346
Angle in oil, 92
of aperture,
of deviation
prism,
93
of
magnitude
how
eyepieces,
of compensating
obtained, 134
lars,
ocu"
"
8
"
"
"
numerical
-with
and
"
by Conrady's
versus
angle, 93
of telescope, 79
N.A.
of
;
view,
diameter
of
of
"
cone,
of
field
of
487
"
ture,"
aper-
magnifying
"
scope,
N.A. of
"
various
method,
"
nation,
illumi-
conden-;.T-v
corresponding
lenses
of
type.
145
of
"
number
simple micro
to
ordinary
148
th-
photographic
obj
of
specimen,
prin
98
of
power
8
lines
to
the
length
substage
5^
of
subvarious
aperture
table
condensers,
of, 152
diagram
of, 148
condenser,
149
)')
"
inch
266
Aplanatic
stage
semi-
43
Ascertaining
of
aperture
telescope compared,
79, 80
of microscopical
objective, 79,
82, 195
of microscopical objective, how
ascertained
apertomeby Abbe's
numerical
cor.
for
173
contrasted
total
correction
and
"
"
79
"
focus,
2-mm.
lamp, 167
for
Arrangements
producing monochromatic
light, 169, 493
various, for substage centring,
"
"
343
487
Argus arc
131,
Annular
"
work,
apochromatic
objectives, 358
Smith's
Arachnide,
suggestions for
objectives for studying, 346
Area
of field of view, how
to ascertain
134
"
i'30-i'40,
"
92
magnification
Critical
92
Angular aperture,
"
N.A.
"
gestions
sug-
Apple-green
of
71, 402
work
high- power
by
Hartnack,
345
Koristka, 343
Leitz, 344
Powell
tS: Lealand,
343
Reichert, 344
Zeiss, 341
"
aperture,
versus
for
Apochromats
obliquity, 88
of
achromatic
"
ing,
objectives for study-
for
"
Prazmow-
Wesche's
202
61
and
semi-apochromatic
objectives compared,
Apochromatism,
70, 402
after
i'6,
of
408
condenser, 14^5, 144
of lens, 70, 409
correction
"
"
213
ski, 213
by Abbe, 213
of insects,
Anatomy
"
test-
408
405,
same,
"
as
brightness
semi-apochromat,
versus
"
sixth, 402
spectra of, 195
diffraction
Analyser,
Analysing
"
suggestions,
submoon
position of crescentshow
the
to
diaphragm
stage
dots, ig^et seq.
inch, an inch and a half, a twoinch
testing
objective, etc. :
An
"
"
Apochromatic
348
Amphipleura
"
tives
objec-
taining
ascer-
semi-apochromat,
in
images, 391
a
X.A.
special form
the Monochromat,
"
general
Amateur's
condensers,
of, 149
and
difference
441
"
of
cone
working- distance
of
an
of
Icr,
in
INDEX
515
Ashe's
Bacteriology,
"
"
third-inch
Author's
for
"
"
producing
""
Bands
how
to
the
test
of
accuracy
Heurck's
Van
of
stand
and
steadiness
by
light
phenomena,
of
of
of
centring
and
"
"
circular
finding a specimen,
"
footnote,
"
"
"
"
slides
fixing and
removing
prevent injury, 227
of
slides
for
future
marking
reference, 246-8
glass, 171, 299
pot- green
suggestions for objectives to be
used
when
studying diatoms, 349
Auxiliary stages,
37-41
from
deviation
micrometer
"
the
mean
be
to
filled
light, 162
in obtaining
light, 161
Bacteriological microscope,
microscopes by :
Baker, 285
Bausch
" Lomb,
286
Beck, 287
Koristka, 288
Leitz, 289
Reichert, 290
Co., 292
Spencer Lens
Best
Son,
"
Watson
"
"
of
Bacteriology,
for
the
upon
whether
for
the
Lens,
219,
for
454
304
Bull's-eye
denser,
con-
for
to
eye
when
occupy
using
simple microscope, 23
Bi-axial
crystals, list of several, 218
Bicor
binocular
attachment,
492
Binocular
by Zeiss, 256
eyepiece by Zeiss, 258
489
microscope, 254,
"
Lealand, 255,
prism by Powell
"
489
for
284
Holder's
gestions
sug-
ing,
objectives for study-
349
"
"
Black-dot
focus, 265
glass polariser by Mr.
Black
Cheshire,
212
of the
Body
compound
microscope,
microscope, 272
microscopes by :
"
Bausch
Lomb,
273
Beck, 274
Himmler,
272
34
Botanical
294
"
working- distance
discussed, 296-300
discussion
upon
the
required
adjustment
microscope, 296
what
Photographing
Biological microscopes,
and
Biology, Paulson
of fine
type
"
"
and
twelfths
for
Microscope,
position
285
293
Sons,
"
Zeiss, 295
objectives
denser,
Con-
203
of
"
Swift
the
Bertrand's
264
critical
Camera
Small
with
in
objective, necessity
fillingwith
of, 242
Bull's-eye
"
"
"
observations,
of
align,
centring substage, 45
Metallurgical Microscope after Ro
senhain, 313
new
binocular, 491
objectives, 276, 277,
315
reflecting condenser, 184
model
Regent
microscope, 287
"
lens
to
objectives, 300
"
stage,
to
Back
166
Beck's
a
235
of
Average,
lamp,
vapour
Lomb's
"
jectives,
ob-
removing
246
"
157
164
attaching
of
276
diffraction
of alignment
use
225
"
dark
objectives, how
240
of
"
and
.240
Bausch
jectives,
ob-
of
battery
506
lamp, 504
prisms, 7
Battery
using
Microscope, 278
Microscope,
mercury
test-object,55
aligning
Microscope,
gas
new
Base
"
"
of
Barnard's
"
"
Plantation
"
for
coverdummy
glass positions, 459
method
for
teaching a beginner
How
to set the
mirror," 225
"
"
Histological
objectives, 300,
"
light, 170
marking
"
"
405
same,
"
Diagnostic
"
arrangement
monochromatic
"
321
"
the
testing
for, 301
studying specimens,
in
use
301
Baker's
test-objects,402
A
illuminants
for
screens
"
stage
or
simple
microscope,
to
select,
compound,
291
Reichert,
Botany
275
and
Textile
Trade, objectives
for, 276
Bousfield's
Brebissonia
385
photographs,
Boeckii
as
454
a
test-
object,
INDEX
"
Circular
Brewers'
microscopes, 283
Bryce's suggestions for objectives for
studying Rotifera, 348
and
critical
condenser
Bull's-eye
light, 232
condensers,
162-5
best position for, 203
Achromatised
Aplanat,
by
WatsonConrady,
163
of rays
in denser
Bunching-up
stage, how
method,
"
Climax
"
506
Closing
iris diaphragm,
objective, 154
effects
upon
upon
rack
and
pinion of, 34
for
objectives
how
See
clean.
to
Common
Algae, 346
studying
for
effects
"
media,
92
Burton,
suggestions
centre
by
246
of immersion
objectives, 78
fine adjustment by Swift,
Cleaning
"
"
to
Author's
Faults,
chapter
on
472
of
of circle
Calculating diameter
of confusion,
(or disc)
155
with
photographing
for
Camera
454
plane, 485
Cardinal
Care
compound
microscope, 34
light, 423
importance
of, 424
microscope,
Collar
adjustment, explanation
of,
footnote
78
74,
75,
Coherent
in
for
immersion
of
use
different
thicknesses
cover-glass 74-75,
to change
long
systems,
239
of
78
short
into
tube
planation
objectives and vice versx
(centiemes de millimetre),exCollective
See
of, 271.
lens, focal length of, 8
footnote,
Colour
of Abbe's
effects
test-plate, 352
385
tion,
illuminafree
for
Central
dark-ground
semi-apochromatic
objt
spot
diameter
to calculate
how
364
C.D.M.
"
how
of, i?3
as
"
45
247
"
condenser,
use
of
diaphragm,
iris
by,
231
high-power
"
slip, 245
condensers,
condenser,
the
"
236
230
"
for
suggestions
objectives for studying, 347
focal length of objectives,
Changing
Rossiter's
Cestoda,
how
effected
of
in
manufacture
use
collar
of
142
of spherical aberration,
69
Ciceri-Smith's
shown
"
and
micrometer,
451
conventional
of confusion,
Circle
permitted,
"
"
139,
how
how
to calculate
of
of
117,
focus,
353
72,
wa
scope,
using the micro-
wlu-n
faults
to
of
472
cure,
s-7
rye;
light transmitted
suiting
hi.uh and
by
conik-n
eyepiece,
Compensating
size
the
63
low-power
slip
test-plate,352
without
formed,
Comparison
to
107,
118
in,
objr
1 [nyghenian
of,
"
"
Ramsden,
Circular
and
how
closing of
diameter
focus
semi-
Holoscopi
increased
*55
"
Coma,
155
by
:i,ij"hra-m, 156
how
the
using
tion
objective,explana-
Abbe's
by
within
"
"
cover-glass
without
\\hrn
of, 72
Common
aberration, 66
differences
"
object
Combination
condenser,
"
an
apochromatic
"
M7
Chromatic
502
71,
and
within
seen
"
and
correction, 78
Cheshire's
apertometers, 96
black
glass polariser, 212
of focal lengths for condensers,
Choice
by
puter's
com-
explanation
of, with
respect to
and
ordinary
compensating
oculars, 112
primary, 352
"
"
by
"
method,
stage by Author's
circular
obtained
trick, 364
"the
in
preferred,"
objectives,
67, 68, 69, 365
Colours, different size of image produced
ocular, function
oculars, 109-1
how
ml
explained
157, 359
|.
nlai
"K
of.
71
edge
to
diaphr.
INDEX
oculars,
Compensating
form
Swift
by
Mediar,"
special
new
called
Condensers,
"The
by
for
by Swift,
foot
nose-piece of,
33
57
efforts
"
of, 35
substage of, 39
tube
of, 33
"
"
various
"
fine
Computer's
trick
adjustments of, 48
in
"
achromatisation,
Holoscopic condensers,
eyepieces, 107, in,
of
"
objectives below
Continental
faults
"
"
"
"
"
how
of, 151
from
to
of, 472
143,
152,
"
150,
reflecting by
Beck, 184
Leitz, 183
Zeiss, 1-84
"
table
"
of
151
powers
to
use
various
in
into
terms
of
the
5"9
tenththe
opticians,
by
"
numbers
to
tenth-metres,
metres,
into
"
the
138,
bers
num-
inch," 156
cover-glass thickness
ticians,Correcting for
opby draw- tube,
collar
60, 233
adjustment,
75,
233
for
convergent
polarised
light, 218
"
"
to
various
into
wave-lengths
in
different
266
measures,
inch, 269
T52
-
of
tenth-metres
"
156,
of
169,
inches
into
terms
of
Converting
tenth-metres, 269
method
explained, 502
long into short- tube objectives,78
into
N.A.
F/ratio, 145
inch
152
of
"
"
of
299
"
"
N.A.
upon,
screens,
171
Author's
glass, 171,
green
films
Kodak,
by
green
Conversion
"
objective, 202
object of having a large aplanatic
cone,
views
"
1-6
"
Nelson's
162
230
"
"
98
i"o,
494
of
of
diameter
back
lens,
146
low-power, using a Zeiss
loup
in place of, 229
N.A.
of using, 230
-45, advantage
N.A.
to suit N.A.
1-6, special form
"
"
tube-length,
"
absence
centre,
N.A.
and
Contrast
limit
"
357,
223
oil-immersion, 236
lengths, 147, 152
Holoscopic,
"
"
114,
English microscopes,
lengths of draw-tubes, 33
forms
of substage, 44
oculars, diameter
of, 112
Standard
microscope, 32
substage by Zeiss, 46
focal
definition
"
of
centring
choice
"
163
152,
330,
method
bull's-eye,162-4
"
image,
165
"
""
object
and
359
the
Plates, 482
Condenser, Bull's-eye,by Baker,
" Lomb,
by Bausch
164
162
by Conrady- Watson,
by Leitz, 163
Condensers, achromatic, 143
after
Abbe, 143
of, 148
aplanatic cone
apochromatic,
143
ascertaining N.A.
of, 148
size of aplanatic cone,
149
"
larity
dissimi-
concerning
"
"
fulfil,
440
"
"
various
must
of
scopic
Holocomputation
lenses, 87
to explain everyday images,
between
Concerning
"
perfection
446
explanation
"
3H
"
of
161
Conrady's
stage
"
those
of light, 142
Confusion, disc of, 138, 139, 155
his views
critical
Conrady,
on
light,
"
"
with
Cones
portion of, 30
objective of,
"
apparently
low-
?i
of, 33
mechanical
"
than
powers,
147
that
objectives of
degrees
"
"
with
greater
high
Conditions
"
"
much
condensers
power
Kor-
intensity is
why
so
503
Compound
Hand-magnifier
istka, 29
Metallurgical Microscope
316, 317
315,
microscope, 30
body of, 34
draw-tube
of, 33
"
"
517
powers
of, 152
"
for
semiCorrection,
apple- green
apochromatic
objectives,358
collar, 75, 233
INDEX
5i8
Crystals,
generally of objectives :
semi-apochromatic,
Correction
and
62,
apochromatic,
501
sine-
"
law,
of draw-tube,
60,
74,
Cymbella
when
by draw-tube,
"
rected
cor-
how
marker,
"
rule
ment,
adjust-
devised
"
objective
the
by
used
See
list
"
thicknesses,
usual
end
at
test-
of,
thickness
"
149
Plate
See
"
light, 149,
and
161,
149,
xvii.
of
views
upon,
microscopes
161
Diameter
how
by:
"
333
"
"
of
and
to
Zeiss,32,
of
Diameters
"
334
332
444
coarse
field
of
487
mination,
illu173
how
Diamond
circle, 118
"
and
terms
"
"
areas
pared
com-
explained
cover-glass
marker,
457
"
for oblique
lighl
Diaphragms
used
with
,
331,
of
pupil, 114-16
Diatoms,
342
at
34
ascertain,
340
"son,
Theory,
pinion
area
of Ramsden
"
Lomb,
"
the
objective
"
Beck, 335
"tka, 288
Leitz. 336
Powell
" Lealand,
31, 330
Reichert,
338
Spencer Lens Co., 339
Swift,
test,
of central
"
for, 330
Bausch
1-4
and
adjustment,
237
Poser's
Baker,
to
bunch-up
Abbe
of
rack
Diagonal
217
work,
"
N.A.
Development
237
bull's-eyecondenser,
232,
"
how
diameters, 103
Still's suggestions
for objectives
Desmids,
for studying, 348
Determining
amplitude and
phase
of light, 427
162,
161
Conrady's views
upon,
lens, 161
fillingthe back
how
to
obtain, 149, 161, 162,
"
substage iris,
1,000
161, 232,
use
203,
of
102
with
thin, adjustments
237
image,
of
of condenser,
visual,
233
and
illumination,
232,
179
diameter
of focus, 98
formula
for ascertaining
Depth
plate, 351
for, 233
Critical
instead
mediums
Denser
of
233
glasses, thick
Cover-
finding
Leitz,
et sej.
92
of Abbe's
thickness
"
those
to
151
volume.
"
for
174
Definition
author, 459
different
by
selected
opticians.
hints
stop, 173
Diaphragm,
456
Davis
is in
457
thickness
172
180
powers,
Beck,
by
Reichert, and Zeiss, 183
and
false images, 179
as
suggested by Gordon,
with, 234
contact
illumination,
high
central
75,
tell when
to
test-object
object
illuminators
"
233
"
high powers,
using, 186
collar
by
gastroides as
and
233
451
gauges,
corrected
how
"
test-
ground
and
"
using,
of, how
thicknesses
different
75,
234
"
as
385
draw-
by
solea
387
Darkthickness
467
Cymatopleura
233
correcting for
tube, precautions
and
method,
as
a
asteromphalus
383
test-object,
Cottam's
suggestions for objectives
for studying diatoms,
349
Cover- glass,
for,
by
adjustment
Coscinodiscus
"
show
rings and
polarised light
bi- axial, 218
64
means
to
with
uni- axial
"
"
how
brushes
achromatic,
Author's
objectives
Abbe's
stereo-
259
suggestions
for studying,
349
for
INDEX
520
Explanation
of
Eye
"
"
"
"
218
how
to
ordinary
employed
find
use,
for
if
244
with
for
field- lens
"
new
Swift
"
"
par- focal,
"
108,
standard
"
the
"
different
the
use,
""
"
Indicator," 460
Eyepieces, 104
angular magnifications
how
the
"
new
their
"
fictitious
of
Eye-point
ring
"
Mediar
"
of, 131
by
Swift, 503
values,
oculars,
Facility
Factors
"
131
"
oculars),
effects
133
produced
by
closing
diaphragm,
155
images produced by dark-ground
illumination, experiments
ing,
prov-
for
narrow
of Abbe's
cones,
Theory,
nomenclature
of
for
"
Filling
the
critical
objectives, 355
back
light,
lens
IM
for
when
how
and
tcillini
using
formed.
semi-
353
light
dr;
finding
spot
in
diameter
finding diameter
circle, 118
"
to
focus
for
"
487
in
so
102
of
"
in
for stud
colours
of
of diffracted
""
"
of, 147
99, etc.
161
objectives
Formula
436
eyepieces,
eyepieces, 131
Field lens of eyepiece, 105
of view, area
to ascertain,
of, how
choice
Earland's
apochromat,
155,
IS'
-value
scope,
micro-
of, 47
accidents, 227
difficulty
xviii.
S-cc Chapter
Formation
"
Fictitious
forms
avoid
to
Foraminifcra.
179
Features
57
iris, occasional
outside
produced by
33,
compound
doing.
of spectrum
form
to
Folding-over
:
secondary
diagram
spectrum
illustrating,
Foot
of compound
microscope, 3 }
iris
"
how
"
"
Objective-changer, 243
magnification
(Abbe's
of
False
depth of,
of illuminant,
Focussing, 227
Focus,
1 1 1
of
152
of condensers,
eye-circle,118
or
by
"
Hints, 472
nomenclature,
134
Abbe's
in
"
"
See
clean.
to
Climax,"
"
"
"
55
Fitting, "Universal
Fitting," details
of, 33. 57
Fixing slip on stage, 227
Flatness
of field in low-power
jectives,
obthe
testing with
boscis
proof the Blow-fly, 406
F-line screen
by Gifford, 299
Flooding a specimen with light, 157
Fluorite
lenses, 58
properties of, 58
Focal
length of collective lens. 19
how
change of, is effected, 78
of negative lenses, 1 7
of objective, obtaining, 125-7
of different, in
lengths, effects
condensers, 162
of condensers,
by various
ticians,
op-
112
Zeiss, 258
sizes
of, in
112
"
tion
sugges-
"
for,
gauges
49,
Van
"
Son,
"
various
129
stereoscopic, by
"
ascertain
of
use
fitting,details of,
spectroscopic, 461
"
in
author,
test-object," a
adjustments
"
in
Kamsden,
"
235
to
by
by Author,
substage, 232
"Improved
to
"
"
made
well
Heurck's
of, 71
of, 105
function
and
microscope,
best
assist
to
by Kodak
169, 494
rays,
use
position
simple magnifier, 23
Eye-lens, achromatic,
113
of eyepiece or ocular, 105
overcorrected, 113
of, 127, 128
Eyepiece, evaluation
Abbe's
analysing, 213
analysing, 213
compensating,
109-14
to
"
"
212,
not
and
contrast
definition
470
and
Extraordinary
for
Films
Wright's
of
use
Eikonomcter,
for
Huvu'
for
Ham
obtain
obtained
ho\\
to
N.A
,
145
of
central
173
of Ramsden
correspond
ii
INDEX
how
photographic lens,
of
F/ratio
converted
Hemidiscus
347
cuneiformis, 407
aperture
apochromats
remarks
Abbe
on
testing with
plate, 389
remarks
on
testing with
454
test-
numerical
into
521
High- angle
ture,
aper-
145
suggestions for
studying Acarina,
Freshwater's
photographs,
Freeman's
for
Fresnel,
"
Huyghenian
of
extension
his
objectives
objects,
390
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Screen,
Glass,
Monochromatic
F-line
Gifford's
171,
299
"
recommended
green,
Himmler's
by Author,
Botanical
Hints
for
"
with
polariser, 2 12
212
angle,
polarising
signal-green,
171
Goniometer
eyepiece by Zeiss, 452
plates
as
Swift's
make,
452
166
illuminating apparatus,
for
dark-ground
suggestion
Gordon's
""
472
cure,
"
""
Common
upon
"
mination,
illu-
179
272
300
nation
illumidark-ground
186
high powers,
to
Faults, how
using
171
"
Microscope,
objectives, 283,
"
240
ascertain
with
Van
by
"
if fine
"
of
area
objective
field
and
of
view
ocular,
Heurck's
test-object
made,
be
adjustment
487
well
"
493
resolving
"
if its
Half-inch
objective ;
testing
be
same,
4"5
"
by
Hand-magnifier
after
"
Nelson,
Watson
Sons,
"
stop
Stoney,
Helmholtz
by
dark
tion,
illumina-
Dr.
the
focal
limit
of
of
jectives,
ob-
microscope,
225
tenth-
clean
vice
versa,
terms
1
objectives, 78
the
of the
use
scope,
micro-
221
by
"
"
convert
and
the
inches
reverse,
of
66
eyepieces.
commence
solution
re-
into
metres
and
inch
immersion
Abbe's
the
objectives on
"
Johnstone
theory, 435
Helmholtz's
theory of diffraction
the
object, 435
236
230,
length
78
168
and
"
of
ground
condensers,
change
the
"
dark-
173
centre
168
Heliostat
diameter
for
"
jective
ob-
any
aperture
87
calculate
29
microscope, 29
by Koristka,
29
by Leitz, 321
by Zeiss, 29
Hartnack's
objectives, 300, 345
Heliometer
by Dr. Johnstone Stoney,
"
known,
of
power
numerical
into
266
microns
INDEX
522
How
to
in
convert
into
unit
one
Illumination
expressed
measures
of
terms
those
by
dark-ground,
of others, 266
the tops of condensers
remove
when
fixed
with
they are
oil,
such
the
inch
as
the
"
Traviss's
in
number
of
lines
"
given specimen
diatom, 266
working- distance
"
of
"
126
"
125,
obtain
critical
162, 232,
read
light, 149,
after
161,
237
and
use
450
nator.
illumi-
parabolic
polarised light,209
and
on
Stead,
See
parabolic.
"
verniers, 249
screw
"
of
"
length of objective,
focal
of opaque
objects, 203
ultra-microscopicalparticles by
Siedentopf, 189
Illuminator
for Metallurgical Specimens,
an
objective, 488
the
of central
Zeiss's
determine
the
light,160
etc., 481
to
direct
172, 180
ascertaining diameter
"
take
off
often
used
to
Illuminators, a term
See
densers.
Consignify condensers.
tives,
objec-
226
the
set
"
mirror, 224
definition
test
of
and
Image
object distances, 12
critical, 149 and plate xvii.
plane, 123
condenser,
"
I5I
"
for
objectives
fixed
definition,
etc., 350
Diamond
use
"
Cover-glass
Marker,
"
"
"
130
of
457
Indicator
Eyepiece, 460
Spectroscopic
Ocular,
the
employed
not
eye
microscope, 244
the microscope,
"
Traviss's
formed
for
"
Stop,
Imaginary
Wright's Eikonometer,
Huyghenian
eyepiece, 104
"
formula
for, 104
passage
of rays
104
achromatic
how
the
diaphragm
principle, 425
"
of
"
in, 107
blue
of
edge
is formed,
112
"
extension
of coherent
Inches
into
microns,"
into
terms
for
Index
of refraction,
of
Illuminant,
Barnard's
"
new
focus
"
for
"
monochromatic
Author's
for
arrangement
mercury
gas
light, 170
vapour,
lamp,
of, 161
hi^h power
blue
166
504
dark-ground
arrangement,
Traviss's
new
Illuminants
301
selection
for
gas
use
of, 165
Illumination, 161"209
"
166
lamp,
in bacteriology,
4,
"
duced
pro-
media,
496
89
substances, 508
visibility,497
Eyepiece,
Indicator
460
Ashe's
sugges.
purposes,
tions
for objectives for, 347
Initial value
of objectives, 131
Industrial
Iris
Gordon's
different
of
mination,Interference
illu-
185
"
"
vert
con-
of focus, how
different
by
to
266
9
rays,
of depth
Increase
Fresnel, 425
suggestions
Hydrachnid.r,
objectives for studying, 346
how
of, 266
millimetres,"
Incident
by
light, 423
phase-reversals, 430
the
Soar's
of, 239
use
clean, 78
to
Importance
image
and
objectives,care
how
105
planation
ex-
of, 73
"
through,
according
502
71,
470
ocular,
"
to
Immersion
of
object, 392
of brilliancy when
and
apochromat
with
colour,
to
*74
objective,
semi-apochromat,
391
of different
magnitude
221
Expanding
brightness
difference
Images,
461
for
objective, location
relative
"
"
position
diaphragm,
light, 426
.ppcarance
"
objects produced
of
by
"
dori
"
upon
objective produced by
closing, 154,
false
155
effects
155
produced
tl.
INDEX
how
diaphragm,
Iris
to
mark
523
Length
denser
con-
fitting,to indicate
"
values
of
of
Length
optical tube,
tube," what
124,
125
is meant
by,
in N.A.,
closing, 158
centring condenser,
See
xviii.
Chapter
231.
utility of closing, 157
of
direct
Isolation
light passing
through a point, 438
Lewis's
for
suggestions
Ixodidae,
for
studying, 346
objectives
limit
"
of, in
use
"
159
of useful
"
"
"
bi- concave,
bi- convex,
"
"
"
for
suggestion
for
purposes,
Kingsford's
Koristka's
useful
and
amateur
combinations
tives
objec-
for
"
scope,
Micro-
"
how
"
by Traviss,
"
29
"
167
""
Law
ascertaining
for
disc
confusion,
of
governing
"
upon,
diffraction
"
of
"
under"
"
of
87,
Lenses,
155,
454
"
"
fine
"
"
"
"
adjustments,
50,
"
"
"
"
"
"
Vertical
"
Length
"
of
of
Illuminator,
tube
in
66
used
often
to
jectives.
Ob-
62
signify objectives.
Objectives.
Lewis's
"
217
coherent,
"
423
transmitted
of amount
comparison
high
by
"
and
low-power
denser,
con-
147
polarised, 217
convergent
"
"
tinental
Con-
aberration,
of, 2
kinds
spherical aberration,
term
209
and
of, 67
58
peculiar properties of, 58
See
Holoscopic.
Holoscopic
"
51
English
microscopes,
mechanical
tube, 124
See
289
68
Fluorite,
"
"
Hand-microscope,
321
Museum
Microscope, 328
objectives, 282, 300, 330, 344, 396
object-marker,
457
Latest
Semi-apochromat,
-^a, 300
Petrological Microscope, 304, 305
and
Pharmacy
Dairy-teacher's
Microscope, 279
Portable
Microscope, 324, 325
Reflecting condenser, 183
Universal
Microscope, 336
"
is,
10
3,
of,
chromatic
Leitz's
Auxiliary Stage, 38
Bacteriological Microscope,
other,
an-
achromatism
it
different
"
"
photographs,
to
diagram
correction
visual
what
"
169
Snell, 4, 89
Lees-Curteis's
uncorrected,
"
"
155
phenomena
changed
of,
curvature,
66
unachromatic,
"
192
diameter
correction
of
radius
""
and
Abbe's
cones,
views
Nelson's
is
2
plano-concave,
2
plano-convex,
prismatic construction
"
"
narrow
versus
tube-length
one
photographic
"
"
over-corrected, 66
of, 66, 148
diagram
of rays
through,
passage
"
505
166
Nernst,
"
scope,
micro-
78
504
by Stearn, 166
electric,by Watson,
"
"
on
the
construction
its
from
"
166,
of
place
crossed, 2
focal
length of,
"
by Barnard,
Lamp
166
by Gordon,
in
used
411
"
Hand-magnifier,
Compound
objectives, 283, 300, 343
be
concavo-convex,
"
288
"
length of,
to
camera
general
348
Troughs, 204, 453
Bacteriological
focal
collective,
"
Karop's
2
2
"
critical, 149,
of, 427
33
"
diffracted,
161,
162, 232,
amplitude
determining
81
and
237
phase
INDEX
from
Light
self-luminous
body,
417
luminous
point
passing
certain
through
apertures :
wanted, intensity and
phase of,
at any
point beyond apertures,
from
"
425
interference
"
Author's
"
"
"
"
"
diameters,"
and
empty
"
Abbe's
of
in
119
"
factors
"
colours
133
of, 426
monochromatic,
"
Magnification by different
an
objective, 502
limits
"
169, 493
arrangement
"
"
for
ducing,
pro-
of useful, 136
of times,"
number
119-21
rational
"
system, 123
so
times," 119
many
iris diaphragm
Marking
"
170,
"
"
493
"
of, 142
narrow
cone
passage
of, through
parallel glass,6
values
phase-reversals,428
"
proceeds
directions,
"
"
solid
of, 142
violet
"
Marten's
of, 416
et
92
of
Abbe,
back
lens
of
Helmholtz
of
and
of
of useful
per
"
aperture, 85
magnification, 136, 137
converted
into
inch, how
per mm.,"
271
addresses
of
different
lines
of
and
book,
this
lower
Locating
trology,
Pe-
suggestionsfor objectives
"
Maxima
and
"
Minima,"
effects,
others
512
focal
"
265
in
of
piece,
eye-
Nelson's
"
"
123
tube
into
short
is
the
change
optician, 78
and
short
suggestions
position of micrometer,
with
verniers, 249
for
the
265
of
portion
compound
microscope, 30
in bactorio
stage for microscope
logy, 291
tube-length, 124, 125
Medical
Microscopes, 284
Mechanical
upper
Location
Nelson's
suggestions, 266
objects, 261
small
objects, Nelson's
tions,
sugges-
"
ticians
op-
mentioned
plane
"
129
Long
for
phenomena,
157
of
Meaning
length of tube," 75
units
of, 267
Measurement,
how
unit
Measures,
changed from one
to another, 266, 270,
271
Measuring
large objects, 266
focal
"
Long
objectives
Fungi, 348
Myxomycetes,
348
"
136
List
264
Microscope,
for studying
435
435
useful
Lines
248
by, in
diffraction
Theories
"
found
347
seT.
Limits
for
suggestion
"
condenser, 146
of resolution, Airy's Theory,
"
Metallurgical
Massee's
417
diameter
waves,
of
"
Limit
reference, 245,
Ewell,
errors
micrometers,
stage
of, 81
of
312
theory
red, 91,
and
for
indicate
to
aperture
159
Marshall
419
propagation
cone
all
in
objects
rectilinear
undulatory
"
slides
"
from
numerical
condenser,
illustrated, 429
"
"
of
objective
effected
by
"
how
"
the
"
tube,
powers
different
of oculars,
nifying
mag2^3
work,
Mercury
1
objectives
vapour
for. 296
lamp
by
Barnard,
66
Navicula
observations
of
cal
mechaniMerlin's
"optical" and
and
Smithii, 386
tube-lengths compared
Holder
Metal
for Metallurgist
explained, 124, 125
Metallurgical
subject discussed, 221
microscopes, 309
Low-power
microscope, 272
by
of
of
Beck, after Rosenhnin.
ctives, use
proboscis
314
flatness
of
Swift, after Stead, 316
J;iow-fly to ascertain
:'t Royal
Arsenal
Model.
field, 406
^17
""
\\
Wat,
cating
lofocal
of
Lower
}i8
on,
plane
eyepiece,
Martens
after
\\ i
position of, 129
Holder, 449
Metallurgist's Metal
"
"
"
"
Methods
aification, 119
"
Abbe
evaluation
method,
130
of illumination,
268
160
INDEX
Metrical
525
for
Critical
Work
by
(continued) :
Powell
" Lealand,
31
Reichert, 338
Spencer Lens
Co., 339
Swift, 340, 341
Watson,
319,
342
Zeiss, 332
several
for
High-power
Work,
Portable
forms
different
by
opticians, 320-7
for
Work,
High-power
special
Portable
Form, by Watson,
327
Microscopes
units, 268
from
average
"
the
mean
spider-line,
"
stage,
"
Rheinberg's
"
by
503
268
Micron,
of
explanation
Micron,"
changing
"
"
261
eyepiece
process,
"
explained, 264
121
and
"
deviation
"
observations,
"
of, into
measures
and
inches,
for
arranged
Microscope
polarised light, 218
of
mm.
"
for
Medical
purposes,
"
for
Medical
purposes
Baker,
terms
284
by :
285
Bausch
266
"
286
Lomb,
Beck, 287
288
Koristka,
Leitz, 289
Reichert,
290
convergent
Metallurgical,by Swift,
Compound
"
term,
266
317
.
explanation of term,
Hand
type by Leitz,
"
"
how
"
if
ascertain
to
is well
"
"
the
use
of,
"
"
fine
justment
ad-
for
"
for
"
"
Model
"
Zeiss
by
Bacteriology, 295
for both
adapted
Microscopes
lengths, 224
for Bacteriology,
284, etc.
for Bacteriology
by :
Baker, 285
Bausch
" Lomb,
286
Beck, 287
Koristka, 288
"
tube-
"
Co.,
"
"
Leitz,
Botany, 272
Botany
by
Bausch
" Lomb,
Beck, 274
Himmler,
272
"
"
and
Critical
Work,
Critical
Work
Beck,
Dairy
278
273
"
for
Textile
Trade,
"
for
Textile
Trade
Bausch
Beck,
list
of, 283
330
by
"
"
- "
Lomb,
335
Koristka,
Leitz, 336
Dairy Teachers,
Zeiss,. 281
for
333
"
and
by:
Baker,
292
for
Bausch
and
277
for Pharmacy
Lomb,
"
288
334
272
by
273
274
Himmler,
Reichert,
275
for Brewers,
Baker,
308
Pharmacy
for
Leitz, 279
280
Watson,
for
"
304
Watson,
"
for
"
Museums,
328, 329
Petrology, 302
for Petrology
by :
Bausch
" Lomb,
303
Swift, 307
Zeiss, 295
"
for
for
"
"
Spencer Lens
Swift, 293
Watson, 294
"
"
for
"
Leitz, 289
Reichert, 290
314
221
1905
292
Watson,
294
Zeiss, 295
49
two
the
"
made,
kinds, i
Diagnostic," 321
simple form, 18
of
"
321
the
Co.,
Spencer Lens
Swift, 293
272
Reichert, 275
Low
Power,
272
Portable, 320
Portable, by :
Baker,
321
Leitz,
321,
Swift,
322
Watson,
324,
326
325
Teachers
INDEX
526
"
and
scopic
teleaperture
compared, 80
aperture
Microscopical objective, aperture of,
"
Microscopic
Navicula
"
"
objectives
"
for
.341
vision, theories
"
Millimetres
into
critical
work,
330,
"
"
Author's
arrangement,
170, 493
mercurial
his
"
169
powers,
for
"
"
"
Barnard's
screens,
169,
170,
171,
suggestion for
for studying
diatoms,
the term
and
use
(fJL),
266
"
views
493-4
348
explained,
Nicol's
how
to
values
upon
mount,
159
of various
aperture
the
condensers,
how
"
iris
Nitzschia
curvula
maxima
definition,
"
"
as
test-objectfor
object, 399
test-object,385
sigma as a test-object,387
singalensis as a test-object.393
scalaris as a test-object,398
as
obtusa
"
as
test-
Nomenclature,
Abbe,
fictitious, 134
130
"
Nonfulfilment
test
of
sine-law,
how
Norman's
photographs,
Nosepiece
of
454
mici
compound
revolving, 466
"
substage
of
lines
specimen,
the
to
how
to
on
248
Numerical
"
inch
Number!:
152
aperture.
Nu:
"
7-1. 195
of an
"
rture
obj"
ti\
1.5
vd,
scop'
false
produce
cones
"
499
improve
to
one-sixth, 399
Number
to
of
cases,
of,
definition
improve
mark
diaphragm
total
to
495
405
condenser
211
used
use
"
by Cheshire's
apertometers, 96
by Conrady's method, 97
tives
-65 ; testing objec-95 to N.A.
with
Abbe
plate, 394
test- objects, 396
testing with
N.A.
-2 ;
testing semi-65 to
and
apochromats,
apochromats
"
Prism,
in certain
"
94
Lamp,
66
how
N.A.
lens, 162
large cones,
Five-shilling Electric
1
microscopes,
of
and
narrow
191
Nernst
objectives
"
fillingback
upon
upon
328
suggestions for
Mycetozoa, Hilton's
objectives for studying, 346
Massee's
suggestions
Myxomycetes,
for objectives for studying, 348
"
small
measuring
"
Museum
"
for
29
66
268
"
Continental
the
upon
objects, 265
vapour,
Morland's
Mu
views
suggestion
"
apparatus,
170 493
objects of using, 169
screen
by use of a green _pot-glass
suggested by Author, 171, 299
Gifford's
F-line, 171
"
an
tube-length, 223
Nelson's
Hand-magnifier,
photographs, 454
Nelson's
"
386
inch, 407
Negative lens, focal length of, etc., 17
Nelson, his suggestion for arranging
to
show
microscope
conver
polarised light, 219
of, 431
inches, 266
microns, 266
Mirror, setting of, 224
Monochromat,
the, special objective
by Zeiss, 6r
Monochromatic
light, 169
for
producing,
arrangements
lyra as
major
"
79
firma
as
a test-object,386
test-object,380, 393
as
test-object,392
rhomboides
as
a
test-object,387
Smithii
as
a
test-object for high
"
"
images;
amples
ex-
80, 8 1
Counting
of, 192
"
versus
large
"
Natural
ula
Abbe
cones;
s
sines, table
cuspida as
upon.
KJI
of, 511
a
test-object,403
of
with
of
with
oi
Abb'
oi
Cheshire's
apcrtometers,
of
INDEX
528
125-7
Ocular,
Bryce,
348
Mr.
by
suggested
Rousselet, 348
suggested
Sporangia
Hilton,
346
and
full aperture
"
how
"
to
375
cone,
"
with
battery
objective-changers,
240
"
"
"
with
in
when
with
contact
cover-glass, 234
cleaning of, 78
immersion,
initial values
of, 131
jective
obthe
above
Nicol
prism, used
an
as
analyser, 213
obtaining focal length of, 125-7
to
of all types, testing conditions
be fulfilled by, 367
of varying
degrees of perfection,
fulfil,
the conditions
they must
"
"
"
and
resolution
"
78
of, by
the
"
"
""
"
"
different
the
"
field of
view,
how
"
use
values,
short
and
131
magnifying
tube
explained,
"
self-contained
with
"
nicol
for
Abbe
objt
""
88
how
condensers,
to
236
use,
of, 203
scope,
micro-
57
tube-length, i".\
for obtaining
trick
Optician's
colour
correction
good
Ordinary and extraordinary ra
Orienting the spider-line micrometer,
by
"
"
263
types of, 01
of outer-zone,
with
of
variation
"
487
three
112
fictitious
their
"
"
colours,
working-distance
:r
"
of,
sizes
"
objects, illumination
Optical portion of compound
numerical
aperture, 85
preferred colour, 67, 365
produced
the
magnifications
"
length,
focal
Opaque
the
"
and
power
eye-point of, 1 1 1
for long- tube
discussed, 222
See Hints, .j-_"
how
to cleans
the new
by Swift
"Medlar,"
in
focal,
par-
"
87,
61, 358
useful
of
limit
of, 131
magnifications
of
details
"
112
use,
104-11
angular
"
semi-apochromatic,
"
mersions,
oil-im-
Law,
Abbe's
129
Spectroscopic," 461
"
Oculars,
"
"
i"9
155.
plane,
223
61
visual,
cleaning
in
precautions
"
359
129
in
sizes
different
the
"
68, 361
correction,
photographic
357,
7i
"
108,
Ramsden,
"
long
photo
"
114,
Polarising, 213
"
ocular, 487
from
long to short
change
is effected, 78
vice
and
tube
versa
and
on
off, 225
screw
tell
"
"
of field of view
area
used
when
of, 105
Holoscopic, 107, in,
I luyghenian,
104
Indicating," 460
focal
locating lower
"
solid
a
ascertain
field lens
"
arrange
Zeiss's
"
"
Mr.
by
"
109-14
70, 71,
of, 71
evaluation
of, 127
eye-lens of, 105
"
Rotifera
compensating,
function
"
extra
Outer
use
zone,
of, in ""bj-
lens,
Over-corn
377
long working-distance,
and
Over-correction
1 1
of
lens, diagram
"
un"
297
and
Oblique
light with
direct
Abbe
-."late,351
"
light,
and
of
"
357
diftraction
of
object.
an
lens, 66
191,
diagrammatically
reflector.
Parabolic
phcnomen
Stokcs's
Mr.
repre-
cheap
sub-"titi
for
200
""
testing
ith
180
phenomena,
and
one-twelfth
objective-,
for
one
spli-
Parallel
polar-
at
Ii'-;Iitdia^ramnia4
presented,
214
INDEX
Parallel-sided
of
ray
rays,
Par- focal
"
glass, transmission
light through, 6
529
of
Pointolite
lamp, 496
Polariscopic objects, 214,
Polarised
light, 209
1 1
oculars,
circular, 216
in
ultra-microscopical
of
Particles
mension,
di-
convergent,
434
"
through achromatic
and
apochromatic
microscope, 59
ocular, iiy,
through compensating
of
Passage
"
106,
107
Portable
lens, 10-14
Holder's
and
suggestions
for
Dairy
by
Teacher's
visual
282
form
Standard
objective, 68,
Power
visual
objectives
of
"
"
the
with
microscope,
as
test-object,
"
"
211
419
by Baker, 276
Plates, the, in this book
: concerning
their
production, 482
Pleurosigma angulatum,
381, 396
Microscope
diffraction
through,
34
spectra
as
of
the
299
Binocular
Prism,
343
Microscope,
condensers,
31
table
of, 194
test-object, 384,
of direct
substage
light passing
"
condensers,
of, 152
prism, 213
using
before
Abbe
test-
plate, 356
when
tives,
objeccleaning immersion
78
of
when
correcting for thickness
altering tubecover-glass by
length, 234
off the
when
specimen
removing
in
are
high powers
stage and
use,
when
228,
229
with
using apertometer
powers,
Preferred
colour,
Preparing
metallurgicalspecimens
Aird's
"
437
various
Precautions
"
393,
399
Point, isolation
different
of
Prazmowski's
objectives, specially
of low-power
bination
comby
formerly made
"
scale
object-
an
shoulder
the
English
table
61
image, 123
polarised light, 209
crossed
beams,
parallel and
diagrammatic
representation of,
"
of
of, 152
and
37i
"
171,
Lealand's
"
489
objectives,300,
"
Plane,
Podura
plane
260,
"
of
nobilis
waves,
Plantation
objective,
objectives for,
correction
"
of
135
Author,
361, 362
Photographic
discussed,
"
focal
upper
same,
reversals, 428
illustrated, 429
454
Pinnularia
of
Powell
Wray,
277
Photographing
plane
130
to
and
Phase-
useful
324
Swift, 322
Watson, 326
Position
of image
Leitz, 279
280
Watson,
Zeiss, 281
and
320
tive, 125
microscopes
Baker, 278
Photo-
microscopes,
Baker,
321
Leitz, 321,
"
Pharmaceutical
specimens,
stances,
sub-
by:
of
Leitz, 305
Swift, 307
Watson,
308
"
"
212
"
"
bundle
eyepiece, 105
Huyghenian
Paulson
"
211
212
"
oculars,
different
"
217
plane polarisation,
Polariser,
rays
"3
"
510
95
by
method,
467
colours, 352
Primary
Principal plane, 484
Pringle's photographs,
454
Prism, angle of deviation,
"
Binocular
by Powell
260,
480
for Binocular
by Wenham,
"
low
Lealand,
255,
489
INDEX
530
explanation of,
Nicol's
Prism,
of
passage
"
light through,
Prazmowski's,
"
Prismatic
"
instead
kinds
the
of
of
275
3(
Relations
as
Microscope,
344
of, 7
Blow-fly
Botanical
object marker,
457
objectives, 282, 283, 297,
of lens, 8
used
mirror, 160
Prisms, different
Proboscis
"
213
construction
illuminator
"
Reichert's
211
between
object and
image
484
test-
Relative
"
406
for
taining
ascer-
"
400
deduced
limit
"
from
Abbe
theory,
435
Quarter-inch
apochromat
Zeiss,
by
instrument
402
semi-apochromatic
objective,
"
obtainable
utmost
"
contributions
"
of
eyepiece, 108,
"
and
R.
--
"
"
Bacteriological
Microscope, 287
Botanical
Microscope, 274
objectives. 276, 277, 300
sixth
for
use
special immersion
with
Metallurgical Microscope,
315
Rational
Rays,
system
ordinary
of
magnification, 121
extraordinary,
of,
"
112,
compensating
Rule
and
Reflector,
"
propagation
violet
light,
of
91,
313
suggestions
studying
for
obj.
348
field
of
view.
487
::^diamet"
for
and
for
kotifera,
u^ert.-iinii,
for
light, 81
494,
cr
217
Metallurgical Microscope
"f
"
Rectilinear
Red
for
eyepiece,
I()5
in
objectives, 300
Rosseter's
suggestions for objectives
for studying Cestoda,
347
for
suggestions
objectives for
studying Entozoa,
347
Rousselet's
Rotifera, Bryce and
gestions
sugfor objectives for studying
oculars,
Huyghenian
dark
-round
illui;
tion
Liebcrkiihn, 206
logy, 300
para!
:n.n
on
an
.
'
live
Index,
"
of
Reichcrt's
angle of prism, 7
4, 89
several
substances,
Bacteriological
290
of
$48
113
through
"
brushes
show,
Rousselet's
through
instead
160
Beck,
microscope,
59
"
filmless
"
Ross's
achromatic
through
to
by
and
apochromatic
and
how
Rosenhain's
212
passage
and
"
Rings
175
445
by the new
photography,"
503
Right-angled prism used
mirror,
mination,
illu-
of, 175
micrometers
175-76,
illumination,
experiments,
129
Beck's
J.
differential
"
"
curvature,
3
circle, 116-18
Ramsden
list
"
Radius
416
differential
on
"
"
optical
an
Revolving
nose-piece, 466
Rheinberg's contrast
screens,
498
from
discussed,
Secondary
"
axes
scope,
Micro-
illustrating
for;
"
jj5
lei;
spcctru:
diagram
508
of
spherical aberration, 68
how
INDEX
illuminant,
Selection
of
Selenite,
215
Solid
165
"
Semi-apochromat,
apple-green
Specimen,
Lomb,
Koristka,
Hartnack,
how
" "
"
Himmler,
human
colours,
Separating
power
law
Resolution
the
Setting
mirror,
eye
marker,
of,
diagram
of objectives.
of
Microscope,
No.
See
Abbe.
224
Shadbolt's
and
tube
long
wave-length
"
screens,
141,
170,
171,
Sidwell's
for
"
"
"
position
23
does
how
"
microscopes
64
"
for
the
eye
waves,
"
Spot
Size
"
Slides, how
from
"
"
how
of
to
fix
upon
Snell's
gauges
"
remove
"
5,
objectives
suggestions
studying Hydrachmdae,
346
Continental
for
Microscope
Microscope, 32
eyepieces, 112
"
Leland,
by Powell
3i
"
by Zeiss, 32
microscopical
Stauroneis
Stead's
for
thread
33, 57
Phenicenteron
for
as
tives,
objeca
test-
object, 401
89
for
35
auxiliary, 37
"
for
4,
by
163
Law,
of
compound,
35
stability, 49, 55
condenser,
joint, for
universal
"
the
thickness
Soar's
of
"
Stand
112
and
diameter
173
microscope,
microscope,
microscope,
testing the
of
"
oculars,
calculate
to
spot,"
micrometer,
121
micrometers,
errors
in, found
Marshall
Ewell, 264
"
reflecting condensers
various
makers,
by
183, 184, 185
Smith's
suggestions for objectives for
studying Arachnidae, 346
"
how
Standard
502
of different
for
Stage
it
proof, 82
specially long
objectives with
working-distances,
297
coloured
of different
images, 71,
confusion."
lens, 172
"
"
magnify ? 20
illustrated, 26-9
of
Sporangia, Hilton's
suggestions
objectives for studying, 346
mathematical
"
objectives for,
419
Disc
"
to
Sine-law,
Sixth
68
261
Spider-line micrometer,
special form
by Gordon,
450,
and
Spirits of wine, its abuse
use,
respectively, 78, 477
See also
Spurious disc, 138, 139, 155.
"
occupy,
"
Microscope
339
testing different
"
best
292
Work
357
"
of,
10,
zones,
"
cussed,
dis-
subject
493
299,
seq.
357
221
- "
to
any
particular
of 'the object-
sixth
with
specially long
working-distance,
297
Spheres of light, 419
Spherical aberration, 62
secondary, 68
aberration, testing objectives for,
78
Short
Critical
"
494
paraboloid, 178
in the fine adj ustment,
Author's
Shake
to show
suggestion how
by Van
Heurck's
test- object, 55
into
Short- tube
long- tube
objective :
is effected
how
change
by optician,
et
459
cover-glass
of
ferent
dif-
to
the
position
portion by use
"
of
mark
to
show
Lea"
Leitz, Powell
land,
Reichert,
Ross,
Swift,
Zeiss, 300
Watson,
of
N.A.,
Semi-apochromats
high
testing of, 365
of N. A. -95 to N.A.
-65, testing, 394
Sensitiveness
"
find, 235
to
how
"
142
times
magnification,
explained, 119
flooding by light, 157
many
rection
cor-
for, 358
apochromat,
408
objective, 61
Semi-apochromatic
Bausch
twelfths
by : Baker,
cone,
So
term
versus
"
"
531
"
Illuminator,
450
Metallurgical Microscope
315
by
Swift,
INDEX
532
Steam's
166
Lamp,
Stereoscopic Eyepiece by Zeiss, after
Abbe,
258
views, 259
projection, Abbe's
versus
pseudoscopic
projection,
Table
of
conversions
metric
of
"
focal
of
"
152
of
different
vision,
253
Abbe's
showing
"
for, 259
for
Still's suggestions
objectives for
studying Dcsmids,
348
for
suggestions
objectives for
studying Micronlg;e, 348
Stokes's
for
substitute
suggested
parabolic reflector, 206
Stoney, Dr. Johnstone, his extension
"
diaphragms
of the
Abbe
his
Substage
Theory,
form,
of, 42
abuse
"
"
of
of, 153
use
"
sleeve
forms
compound
condenser
for
"
39
ard
stand-
R.M.S.
"
objective,
359
as
to
as
object
xvii,
Swift
Son's
"
for
-95 to
N.A.
-65
with
image,
an
"
Fig. 4
xv.,
Nitzschia
"
sixth
with
Nitzschia
"
sixth
with
Nitzschia
sixth
with
latum,
396
a
"
"
--
"
sixth
sixth
twelfth
"
definition
low- power
scope,
Micro-
"
ocular
new
Microscope,
"The
objectives, 300,
"
crystallinaas
Table
of
151
all
boscis
Pro-
with
objectives
of Blowfly
ct *c ".
kinds
350
be
fulfilled with
to
of
all
ty;
non-fulfilment
sine-law,
of
368
with
293
the
centring
true
Abbe
of
components
plate, 369
stability
of
by Van
330
of
colours
test-object,385
with
Abbe
plate,
362
"
370
condenser,
of
an.^u-
scale, 399
bacilli, 399
Semi-apo,"
of
399
scalar;
Tubercle
combinations
lar,
ocu-
50 ^
curvula, 399
the
tine
Heiink's
ment
adjusttest
capitata, 388
Synedra
"
Medlar,"
394
maxima,
Produra
with
objectives
"
scj.
Pleurosigma
with
for
"
Discovery
plate,
with
et
394
sixth
"
to
-2, 405
107
"
"
Abbe
conditions
adjustable
-65,
to
1-40
with
of, Plate
for
and
of
terms
N.A.
N.A.
cida
372
Bacteriological
compensating
expl
into
from
sixth
291
"
tures
aper-
269
from
sixth
"
test-object,
critical
fig. 2,
term
convert
inch,
384
Plate
":
"
79
"
"
experiments
concerning
ditlruction
phenomena,
84
Summit
of prism, 7
gemma
compared,
how
"
of
Surirella
454
microscope
footnote,
46
the diameter,
adopted by Leitz,
Reichert
and
Zeiss, footnote
46
make
Substances
that
mens
good specifor polarised light, 220
when
ing
measurSuggestions by Nelson
large objects, 266
small
when
measuring
by Nelson
objects, 265
to
eyepiece
Suiting
compensating
Summary
numerical
"
microscope,
diameter,
tion
magnifica-
on
Tertiary spectrum,
389
Testing a dry eighth, 395
of, 42
fine adjustment
to, 232
Knglish
jc
and
metre
the
46
44,
and
apo-
268
142
diaphragm,
"
Tenth-
"
Abbe,
and
photographs,
Telescopic
"
Continental
Taverner's
47
condenser,
"
achromatism,
different
apertures,
444
after
arrangements
44.
with
168
Heliostat,
objectives
for
semi-apochromatism,
chromatism,
71
limits
to be placed
"
centring arrangements
"
densers,
con-
conde
conditions
fulfil
must
"
"
N.A.
and
!52
259
"
British
270
of different
lengths
"
"
of
measures,
conversions,N.A,
146
into
F/ratios,
"
the
three
Test
low
for
medium
Test-
an
hik'h powers,
for
of
zones
powers,
406
p"
plate, Abbe's,
350
ol"j
378
INDEX
Trade,
Textile
Bausch
"
for, by
microscopes
Lomb,
533
Heurckia
Van
Louisiana
object,
273
Van
Beck,
274
Himmler,
272
Reichert, 275
Heurck's
test-
for
use,
as
test-
402
object,
fine
of
how
adjustment,
to
ness
steadi-
the
ascertaining
55
of
""
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
282, 297,
277,
Tube-
length, mechanical
explained, 124, 125
of microscope,
how
"
effects
differences
thickness
of
cover-glasses,
"
"
the
the
"
"
"
struction
change in conis effected, 78
be
altered
when
a
adding
or
a
revolving
nosepiece
Zeiss
changer," 467
how
distance,
Small
"
illumination
apparatus,
"
Unachromatic
of
unit,
"
33,
's
"
for
of
short
Wave
"
fronts, 419
"
inch
objectives,
"
tube
to
long,
explained, 78
to
and
"
502
of different
adjust
vice versa,
to
the
into
tenth-
of
and
vice
conversion
parts
into
inch," 156,
tenth-metres,
into
method
correction
turned
how
Heurck's
57
focal
collar
scope,
Micro-
Metallurgical
"numbers
fitting
208
Wave-length
(average) in visual light,
87
Wave-lengths,
420
in
"'numbers
the
to
expressed
218
of
plane
objective,
locating position of, 125 et seq.
Use
"
Works
271
Universal
Upper
Van
diatoms,
454
318
189
lens, 66
Photographing.
Versalic," 300
Vertical
Illuminator,
"
"
for
Microscope,
"
"
"
particles, 434
of by Siedentopf
392
297
Camera
with
"
Ultra-microscopical
330,
Microscope, 329
objective-changer, 243
ordinary objectives, 277
and
Teacher's
Pharmacy
Dairy
280
Microscope,
sixth
with
specially long working-
74,
233
objective,
to
in
300,
Museum
"
"
it
for
of
"
optical,
correction
75,
"
and
of
502
versa,
explained,
the
spectrum,
5"9
"
equivalent
5"9
waves
to
the
inch,
INDEX
534
surfaces,
Wave
Xylol, its
419
light, 421
plane, 421
Welsbach
Lamp,
165
Wenham's
Paraboloid, 178
Prism, 255, 489
Wesche's
suggestions for objectives
sects,"
of infor
studying
anatomy
346
Wheelstop," 172
find
to
correct
Wheel-stops : how
of the
diameter
box," 173
of vibrations
White
light : number
the
inch
to
usually adopted,
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Systems
light as
Dry
much
not
the
gather
Monochromat
so
Immersion,
"
"
88, 89
"
"
objectives, 82
of objectives, 76,
Working-distance
Wide-angled
488
Metallurgical Microscope
318
by Watson,
2-Inch
useful
Photographic
Wray's
for visual
work, 277
and
how
to
Wright's
Eikonometer,
"
300,
Works
use,
Printed
by
Htutll
n 'atson
"
"
lens, 61
1-6, 202
objective N.A.
objective-changers, 240
objectives, 202, 277, 282, 283, 300,
33",
34i
and
Teacher's
Dairy
Pharmacy
Microscope, 281
reflecting condenser, 184
for
Standard
the
microscope
class
of
critical
highest
work, 32,
"
"
470
HandLoup
microscope, 29, 408
Metallurgical Microscope,
312
model, 295
Microscope,
1905
"
"
do
"
229
"
87
apochromatics,
341
Bacteriological Microscope, 295
Binocular, 256
centring substage for objectives to
be used
as
condensers, 45
Continental
substage, 46
coverglass gauge,
451,
452
Handmicroscope, 29
low- power
as
Loup
condenser,
"
"
Why
78
Zeiss's
of
"
use,
of, 421
qombination
Waves,
"
"
332
"
I'iney,Ld.t
London
and
AyUtbury,
England.
LIST
PLATE
OF
PLATES
I.
Figs.
Figs. 3A
Figs. 4A
and
2.
and
Ileurck's
Van
Test-Object.
Navicula
and
"Full"
lyra : "Empty"'
Magnification.
and
Abbe
Test-plate.
4B.
shown
Spectral (diffraction) beams
as
back
Figs. 5 and 6.
lens of
at
N.A.
I '40
Objective when
Pleurosigma angulatum is on the Stage.
PLATE
II.
Figs,
PLATE
i,
2,
3,
and
Abbe's
4.
Test- Plate
in
use.
III.
Figs,
Fig. 3.
PLATE
31$.
and
2.
Abbe's
Objective
Test- Plate
corrected
not
in
for
use.
Sine-law
Image
outside
the
focus.
IV.
Fig. I.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.
PLATE
V.
PLATE
VI.
for Sine-law:
Objective not corrected
Amphipleura pellucida.
Coscinodiscus
opthalanthus.
Navicula
Fig.
I.
lyra.
Amphipleura
Pleurosigma
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3. Pleurosigma
Fig. 3A. Pleurosigma
PLATE
VII.
PLATE
VIII.
pellucida in
dots.
angulatum.
angulatum.
angulatum.
Pleurosigma angulatum.
Fig. I.
Figs. 2
Fig. 4.
Coscinodiscus
Podura
3.
Surirella gemma.
and
asteromphalus.
Scale.
Image
within
tlie focus.
PLATE
i.
Pleurosigma angulatum.
2.
Nitzschia
3-
Stauroneis
PLATE
the
Hemidiscus
Blow-fly.
cuneiformis.
Smithii.
Navicula
I.
Pinnularia
2.
Surirella
I.
Pygidium
of
the
Pygidium
Pygidium
of
the
Flea.
of
the
Flea.
nobilis.
gemma.
XVIII.
Flea.
XIX.
Amphipleura pellucida.
XX.
Fig. I.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3-
The
Head
and
Proboscis
of the
The
Head
and
Proboscis
of the
of
Pygidium
the
Blow-fly.
Blow-fly.
Flea.
XXI.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
PLATE
of
Proboscis
Fig.
Fig. i.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3Fig. 4.
PLATE
Louisiana.
Amphipleura
pellucida.
Actinoptychus boliviencis.
Amphipleura
pellucida.
Fig.
Fig.
PLATE
Heurckia
Van
XVII.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3PLATE
phenicenteron.
XVI.
Fig. i.
Fig. 2,
Fig. 3PLATE
obtusa.
XV.
Fig" i.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3Fig- 4PLATE
537
XIV.
Fig.
Fig.
FigPLATE
PLATES
OF
LIST
I.
Navicula
2.
Synedra
3.
Navicula
major.
Nitzschia
singalensis.
cuspida.
capitata.
XXII.
Fig. i.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.
PLATE
XXIII.
PLATE
XXIV.
PLATE
XXV.
PLATE
XXVI.
PLATE
XXVII.
PLATE
XXVIII.
Fig.
Fig.
Amphipleura
Nitzschia
Navicula
The
The
The
cuspida (enlarged).
Soldier
Foot
pellucida.
singalensis.
of
Beetle.
African
an
Spider.
Spiney Spider.
Juncus lamprocarpus.
i.
Pulex
2.
The
irritans.
Female
Corn-fly.
35
PLATE
Figs.
and
is
balls
in
seen
"
Fig.
The
38."
seen
distinctly
Fig.
rendered.
which
on
black
"white
it
be
rests
in
shown
as
little
the
their
Fig.
2.
six
of
lens
portion
outer
the
because
spectra
See
6.
each
3A
and
dots
The
photographed
but
The
aperture.
(the
by
3
and
351
slip
dots
can
be
no\v
The
stretching
glimpsed
which
upon
the
cover
362.
enlarged.
plate
around
seen
of
spectral
emulsion
"venue"
The
Photomicrography.
aperture
an
it.
called
Abbe
magnification,
same
N.A.
lines
used
the
floor
along
testing
for
of
the
white
is
page
to
seen
sensitive
less
on
fainter
be
to
the
looking
when
Pleurosigma
and
1^40,
is
beam
"direct"
the
beam
is
here
shown
to
"
See
low
too
the
the
than
red
rays
stage.
inner
than
194.
page
Indications
visible.
of
137.
pages
objective
an
of
photographic
blue.
Professor
page
the
faintly
objective
351.
"
back
of
be
page
The
5.
See
portion
only
See
Fig.
[Figs.
table
turn
an
numerical
Test-plate
shown).
late
the
at
See
Abbe
"
can
purposes
Fig.
diameters,
for
its
and
137.
higher
"
48.
strips.
of
being
not
light."
not
with
page
diatom
same
The
4A.
Fig.
the
should
the
as
See
combination
the
balls
the
or
(Pleuro-
stand
focussed
are
stand
test.
diatom
of
thousand
photograph
photographed
visible.
scarcely
The
the
purpose,
Heurck's
this
steadiness
the
of
the
If
magnification,
with
at
each
i.
hard,
"
empty
rests
of
Fig.
diatom
3A.
"
are
determining
Van
Dr.
49-55.
pages
Fig.
different
magnification
centre
in
quite
for
a
reasonably
rapped
"
the
shown
as
for
useful
Using
adjustments.
effect,"
him
by
balticum)
sigma
See
"
selected
Although
illustrate
photographs
These
2.
I.
of
194
the
et
presence
seg.
of
other
be
changed
spectral
to
beams
obtain
are
"oblique
distinctly
to
PLATE
Fig.
I.
Fig.
i.
2.
Fig. 3A-
FIG.
FiS- 5-
Fig. 4A.
33.
Fig. 48.
Fig. 6.
PLATE
Fig.
2
i.
mm.
white
2.
between
of
3.
4.
distinctly
366.
focus
sharp
Ditto,
with
two
by
direct
and
images.
white
See
"';/"/"?r-correction
first-class
white
is
There
Ditto,
the
with
fluffiness
with
oblique
which
in
at
1-40,
of
Edges
366.
page
scarcely
any
notice
the
difference
367.
page
white
direct
light
"
and
N.A.
plate.
test-
See
perfect.
light.
apochromat
Abbe
and
light
definition
oblique
"
definition,
Fig.
page
in
the
Fig.
with
length,
line
Fig.
presented
Appearance
"
focal
II.
the
white
edges
of
the
white
curious
light.
line.
falling
See
wave
page
of
off
366.
fluffiness
"
visible,
reality
looks
lifted
up
over
the
edge.
See
PLATE
Fig.
i.
Fig- 3-
II.
Fig. 2.
Fig.
4.
PLATE
Fig.
rection
line
with
Fig.
Fig.
which
are
3.
seen
white
with
sine-law
to
be
has
circularly
marked
very
page
not
been
disposed.
from
and
366
et
still
See
fi
riher
late
Ow
II.
both
edges
page
366
falling
of
ct
white
seq.
off
of
the
seq.
an
objective
fulfilled.
Outside
See
of
foggy.
light,
by
fluffiness
poor
white
oblique
presented
Appearance
"
continued
plate
light,
See
respect.
every
the
Abbe
generally
Ditto,
2."
in
image
direct
definition
and
\\ith
Testing
i.
III.
page
369
(2
ir.m.
the
et
seq.
apochromatic)
focus
the
markings
in
PLATE
Fig.
the
i.
the
in
to
appear
et
with
an
photograph
using
markings
The
tion
combinaseem
now
seq.
lines
The
inch
this
III.
when
III.
With
apart.
in
particular
this
objective
good
they
fine.
Zeiss
apochromat
2-mm.
N.A.
130
See
1750.
:"
195.
page
3."
COSCINODISCUS
diatom
is
Fig.
the
specimen
the
and
hand
Plate
the
OMPHALANTHUS.
in
shown
is
such
other
on
the
centre
that
one
the
of
the
focus
left.
The
of
It
and
photograph,
may
the
object
be
is
portion
central
the
seen
arrangement
compared
right
the
on
with
Fig.
I,
VIII.
Photographed
See
of
irvWv
extremely
Photographed
focus
fulfilled.
369
page
Plate
Plate
3,
the
been
not
from
PELLUCIDA.
about
are
Fig.
within
AMPHIPLEURA
2."
specimen
of
has
radially.
in
employed
See
continued
plate
Abbe
presented
sine-law
the
arranged
should
as
appearance
which
Fig.
of
the
combination
same
depicts
be
with
Testing
"
IV.
page
383.
with
Reichert
2-mm.
apochromat
N.A.
1*35
750.
PLATE
Fig.
Within
IV.
i,
the
Focus.
'
"
":
'.'""".'
-.
Fig.
2.
PLATE
NAVICULA
LYRA.
colour-correction
of
taken
the
at
should
be
having
the
shortest
look
to
dots
type
is
that
of
entirely
absent.
dots
is
ought
Photographed
subsequently
little
is
To
with
enlarged
perfect
its
neatly
2.
3-111111.
See
(see
open
than
that
in
superiority
fuzziness
Zeiss
is
pages
that
in
should
defined
and
crisply
X.A.
apochromat
380
and
393.
ought
With
those
and
380
pages
393)
this
whether
which
definition
With
valve
the
question
to
colour
chosen.
also.
text,
whatever
spectrum
the
to
mostly
and
the
and
made
secondary
according
lost,
are
it
well
colourless
spectrum
but
more
very
a
dots
tertiary
No
appear
entirely
be
the
the
tinted
is
examine
to
When
of
apple-green
should
test
necessary.
to
colour,
not
colour
appears
whilst
the
exhibit
combination
illumination
the
tinting
show
may
length
white,
purest
diatom
specimen
objective.
little
but
focus,
the
but
this
the
apochromats
the
of
focal
apochromat
an
favourite
semi-apochromatic
is
This
moment
visible
V.
exhibition
such
monochromatic
be
present,
and
rendered.
1*43
500
and
PLATE
V.
PLATE
Fig.
i."
an
inch
of
oblique
AMPHIPLEURA
PELLUCIDA.
diameter.
These
light,
green
semi-apochromat
good
as
can
with
most
cases
Fig.
effect"
dot
is
perfectness
with
Taken
black
and
believe
page
with
383.
dots
Zeiss
in
of
this
of
in
the
the
previous
focus
correct
attention,
the
as
(its
freedom
combinations
in
show.i
beauty
the
of
boundary
the
Poor
test.
3X1.
centre
image
the
but
page
limiting
require
may
with
2000.
the
really
not
N.A.
ANGULATUM.
appearances
black
these
Taken
Sec
dot
is
approaching
apochromat
2-mm.
PLEUROSIGMA
3A."
1*30
little
good
this
381.
Reichert
use
black-
the
clear,
represented
as
this
cleanness
real
anything
image
page
the
the
are
so
in
See
by
focus.
"
with
and
sharp
N.A.
tube-length
and
visible
image
surrounded
whether
The
rendering
See
not
is
showing
black
2-mm.
the
diaphragm.
iris
apertures
and
denuded,
The
clean,
Zeiss
white-hexagon
is
apochromat
2-mm.
the
fracture
be
to
question
greyness)
photograph.
Fig.
Leitz
to
an
than
less
380.
diatom
places.
substage
the
(apparent)
furnish
not
the
stamp
ought
diatom.
and
fog
will
open
of
196
ANGULATUM
difficult
this
and
different
of
closing
is
It
almost
distinction
certainly
with
light)
pages
of
Postage
at
semi-transparent
picture.
irom
upper
variety
minute
photograph
which
See
layer
3. -PLEUROSIGMA
Fig.
blue
(using
4000.
seen.
with
Photographed
of
elsewhere
moderate
very
taken
the
either
first-class
certain
is
of
use
image
an
although
nJ"
the
objective.
illumination
the
about
without
furnishing
apochromat,
and
of
see
finest
ANGULATUM
be
of
objective
the
to
dots
the
dots
combination.
1*40
can
and
lozenge
the
by
was
where
parts
some
show
PLEUROSIGMA
2."
difficult
employing
then
corrected
N.A.
I:i
very
recognised,
photograph
apochromat
In
be
higher
the
This
even
afforded
that
are
when
should
as
in
VI.
"
not
are
mm.
dark
holes,
1*35
apochromatic
loco.
some
N.A.
fracture
postage-stamp
It
effect.
background
which
have
1*40
is
difficult
to
doubted.
x
1250
blue
light.
PLATE
VI.
Fig. 2.
Fie.
i.
Fig-3-
Fig 3A.
PL
PLEUROSIGMA
(probably)
the
hexagons
taken
been
An
apochromatic
2-mm.
the
other
vii.
ANGULATUM.
with
made
ATP:
spurious
when
with
certain
aid
the
but
arrangement,
objective
markings
which
is
focus
of
in
Leitz
by
be
can
shaped
the
p'mtograph
N.A.
in
This
ordinary
the
of
seen
obtained.
specially
any
merely
of
enlargement
forming
photograph
has
not
diaphragm
substage
at
manner
show
to
1*35
walls
or
particular
one
focus.
We
well
for
the
If
workmanship.
centred
or
enlargement
;
specimen
the
shown
necessary
about
noticed
usually
have
if
the
anything
x
9000.
tint
to
be
objective
equal
See
to
page
poorly
the
381.
of
one
of
components
in
mounted
be
the
the
reilgar,
finest
combination
corrected,
photograph
diffraction
peculiar
these
see
be
muat
objective
the
to
as
shown
it
and
computation
be
the
effects
will
in
also
and
accurately
not
image
is
this
not
bear
tion
reproduc-
PLATE
Fig.
i.-COSCINODISCUS
has
anthus"
IV.
Plate
selected
this
In
being
periphery,
where
with
apochromatic
off
insensibly
If
present,
in
as
rule,
F'"-
preferred
colour
Fig.
really
3-"
flat
sharp
and
indefinitely
Plate
XVII.
in
fuzziness
Zeiss
NKRV1S.
them
almost
equally
The
white
well
defined
well
I,
2,
1'hotomicrography.
with
(green
See
and
dots
is
fluffy
very
1*40
1000.
385.
difficult
dots
edges.
exceedi?igly
oblique
should
tions
combina-
interior
somewhat
The
or
are
with
white
page
should
See
140
minute.
iv/iite
light,
Zeiss
perfectly
Fig.
and
have
good
a
apochromat
semi-apochromut
illumination.
green
light)
In-en
2,
CRASiJl-
and
obtain
3000.
HEURCKIA
VAN
to
appear
384
page
N.A.
apochromat
3-mm.
itself.
note
with
nun
N.A.
aporhrnmat
140
383.
page
their
SAXONICA
Photographed
1200.
at
the
upper
tapering
appearances
N.A.
See
realgar.
itself
384.
page
apochromat
It
or
corrected
Badly
the
good
neck
of
same
light.
enlarged.
the
1000.
portion
two-thirds
lower
render
See
3-mm.
Fig.
5.-FRUSTULE
shows
[Figs.
Zeiss
mounted
with
flatter
part
the
white
the
green
then
even
GEMMA.
from
3.
its
and
specimen
around
much
defined.
of
specimen
Photographed
Fig.
portion
free
the
with
used
SURIRELLA
4."
about
semi-apochromatic,
with
valve
most
1^40
well-marked
"note,"
the
at
if
Photographed
Fig.
situation
the
the
the
for
N.A.
constriction
of
point
be
and
With
shows
especially
the
apochromat
3-mm.
interior
to
objective
the
be
Zeiss
SCALE.
white
type
all
are
shown,
of
centre
in
383.
objective
the
this
is
one
the
Ompthal-
illustrated
being
only
between
of
page
PODURA
2."
of
midway
focus,
the
both
however,
5-pecimens
Photographed
part
planes
point
See
Fig.
of
photograph,
elsewhere.
than
ASTEROMPHALUS-like
distinct
two
VIII.
kindly
lent.
1"\
the
Scientific
Press
fiom
UK-
author's
PLATE
VIII.
IlSiS
Fig. 4
PLATE
Fig. i."
good 2-mm.
striae
The
there
OBTUSA.
NITZSCHIA
apochromat
or
fine, about
26
or
are
about
are
IX.
in
15 dots
This
the
to
27
diatom
is
semi-apochromat
fine
each.
of
'0003937
reasonably good
objective of the focal length
them
white
light, still to show
sufficientlyseparated
with
to
permit of their being counted
ease
requires
is well
that
corrected
and
free
aberrations.
from
with
seen
mentioned
any
and
almost
with
direct
discretely
the
length.
Heurck), and
(Van
be
can
for
test
f. cal
same
inch
an
these
Although
searching
of the
of
use
defined
objective
an
running
the
With
of
together of the dots betokens
art.
a
specin.en
optician's
poor
dots
the
when
for the
focussed
white
an
apochromat,
effect should
appear
like pearls" and
with
the background
somewhat
distinctly white"
; but
grey
which
semi-apochromat
a
they will be coloured
by the secondary spectrum,
With
however
be
a
screen
spoils their distinctness.
they should
green
almost
shown
black-focus
black
with
anything
Photographed
to
light (white)
but
With
the
an
in
dots
The
if they had
the
the
been
The
diatom.
than
difference
using
should
not
385.
page
N.A.
hromat
apor
with
1*35
1240.
delicate
remarkably
difficult
being very
suitably adjusted oblique
This
is
constituting the
and
apochromat
should
be
they
ocular
12
of
surface
better
BOECKII.
the
illumination
2-mm.
dots
small
distinctly.
and
of
good
green
See
Reichert
exceedingly
resolve
to
objective.
specimen) as
class
laid upon
them
show
and
BREBISSONIA
2."
test, the
so
(with
expected
oblique
striking.
with
either
look
paper
be
like
Fig.
with
effectshould
punched out of
must
apochromat
white
light, but
be
distinct
as
Consequently
costae
plainlyvisible
in
of
parts
fine
it is
unless
diatom,
a
a
semi-apochromat,
specially
one,
of the interferingeffects
usually suffers more
especially on account
of
the
from
that
cause
secondary
entirely. With
although not
spectrum,
illumination
the
image produced
oblique green
by the cheaper type of
is inferior
combination
be vastly improved, but
it usually even
then
should
This
that
diatom
furnished
to
more
highly corrected
objective.
by the
of
fineness
the
the
be
understood,
offers, it can
a
good test to ascertain
of any
See
image
.in the preferred colour
semi-apochromat.
385.
page
N.A.
x
apochromat
Photographed with a Leitz 2 mm.
1440.
135
the
definition
Fig.
18
ocular,
corrected
do
SYNEDRA
3."
not
the
noticeable
of
so
best
not
in
by
that
object.
diatoms
exhibit
many
be
form-
with
ought
that
in
seen
of
parts
the
poorly
C.ASTKi
not
to
exhibit
with
trace
a
of fluffiness
Hartnack
2-mm.
will
even
particularly
be
thrust
if
as
appear
may
an
sur-
1200.
variety). Th"
markings
secondary
These,
as
less
or
rectangular"
being more
out"
first-class objective, as
if "lifted
Photographed
so
obtusa.
.'small
some
a
effect
apochromat
i'5-mm.
"II)KS
object.
dots
the
conical-shaped
this
used,
semi-apochromat
made
N.A.
Nitzschia
be
light
dots
black
The
the
of
case
green
circumscribed
marked
Koristka
Fig. 4.-CYMIJKLI
c .in
as
unless
test-object, for
See
385.
page
fog.
with
Photographed
this
in
"
light and
requires a well-
dots
especially.
semi-apochromats
that
into
stria;
transverse
white
using
When
NA.
out
punched
apochromats,
with
thick
with
possess
its trials
rounded
the
up
"
look
ever
they do
then
out
to
objective,
with
even
CRYSTALLI
break
or
fog.
well
should
from
See
apochromat
as
si
dinVring
of
others
when
appear,
the
backguAind,
page
385.
N.A.
1^40
which
1440.
PLATE
Fig- 4-
IX.
PLATE
NAVICULA
SMITHII.
should
be
Van
well
Heurck
until
the
able
obtain
to
exhibited
light
"
in
visible.
entirety
at
very
one
Photographed
and
exceedingly
foggy
though
subsequently
plane
of
with
enlarged
will
image,
is
the
is
one,
it
the
show
dots
of
not
never
being
very
impossible
was
to
been
those
with
green
hardly
perhaps
reliable
view.
known
than
even
dots
costa
of
have
better
semi-apochromat"
poor
severe
shaped,
saucer-
objective."
that
photograph.
test,
is
valve
the
an
The
objective
an
We
each
field
the
markings
these
in
dots
of
portions
of
homogeneous
the
circular
of
row
certain
nature
exact
of
the
gives
in
anyhow
"The
says:
introduction
double
The
defined,
X.
As
nature.
it
photograph
in
focus.
Konstka
2.
N.A.
apochromat
I'S-mm.
See
page
386,
and
Plate
1*40
XVI,
1200
Fig.
3.
its
PLATE
Fig.
and
NAVICULA
I."
this
of
diatom
dot
black
FIRMA.
ought
See
"
2."
page
with
this
''lifted
out"
for
whilst
The
the
perfection
Photographed
of
in
different
floor
the
fuzziness
all
white
the
in
at
and
and
the
of
parts
is
so
it
the
the
960
and
Leitz
also
the
entire
in
2-mm.
an
be
can
object
of
make
which
N.A.
i'35
to
good
about.
page
x
one
and
386.
1300.
the
spherical,
hemi-
scattered
it
See
the
is
another
at
semi-apochromat,
apochromat.
apochromat
seen
of
impossible
certain
circular,
appear
fluffiness
no
well
appear
almost
be
to
easy
dots
correction
colour
correction
with
irregular-shaped
should
be
it
make
to
not
ones
of
should
as
is
the
plane
whiteness
the
1*35
of
row
sufficiently,
there
bent
and
one
of
N.A.
double
The
irregular-shaped
type
focus
magnified
floor;
the
valve
and
cleanness
ascertain
both
apochromat
2-mm.
when
satisfactorily,
focus,
correct
flat,
siime
TURGIDA.
diatom,
The
photograph
at
separated,
not
dots
from
2.
above
background.
the
Reichert
EPITHEMIA
in
markings
is
valve
small
free
386.
enlarged
subsequently
exceedingly
discretely
the
visible
are
Photographed
The
appear
As
"effects
specimen.
Fig.
to
defined.
crisply
XL
to
the
PLATE
Fig.
favourite
objectwith
lest
This
RHOMBOIDES.
NAVICULA
i."
XII.
opticiansto
many
and
is
the
test
old
an
still very
but
type of colour-correction
in the
perfection brought about
The
black-and-white
apochromat.
effects
visible with this diatom
dot
are
by focussing the different planes.
be intenselyblack, and
The
focus should
the whole
dots at the back
diatom
brisk and
entire
absence
look particularly
of all
should
bright, with an
a
semi-apochromat,
computation and workmanship
of
ot
So
the white
too
valve,
with
using
fluffiness when
traces
dots
ought
of
appearance
no
to
an
with
Photographed
CYMATO
Fig. 2-
Zeiss
be
objective of high
pearls laid
3-mm.
SO
LEA.
three-quarter
use
387.
apochromat
green
A.
and
1^40
aperture.
surface
of
perfect definition
light to remove
x
1200.
useful and
most
cone
striae should
transverse
the
upon
obtain
To
to
necessary
page
PLEURA
like
spectrum.
well-made
appear
it may
semi-apochioir.at
secondary
the
the
of
"
4k
the
also
delicate testocular
12
direct
"
visible when
be
just
fine semi-apochromat or an
a
apochromatic objective. Oblique
the median
line particularly
lightreveals these striations towards
striation should
be so distinctly
defined that
as
abruptly interrupted. Each
in rather a round-shaped extremity.
be seen
An
inferior
it can
to terminate
will most
the blunt ends, or
combination
likelyfail to show
perhaps may
the striations at all,the floor of the valve
fail to show
even
appearing a
a
(which is usually
foggy desert void of detail. With
three-quartercone
the
enable
necessary) this object is a very searching test, and may
employing
white
"
"
objectiveswhich
microscopistto differentiate between
See
well.
equally
387.
perform
page
Photographed with a Koristka 15-111111.apochromat
Fig. 3." EUPLEURIA
frequentlymentioned
white
diiect
it appears
in the
light(the outer
although
quadrilateral,
are
if the
surface
upper
dots
about
1*35
few
are
sections,
eighteen
triangular in shape.
carefully focussed,
be
N.A.
appear
to
1200.
PULCHELLA
diatom
is not
(Arnot). This
with
literature of the subject. When
examined
zone
being cut off by the irissubstage diaphragm
into
divided
be
to
otherwise
presents
of
most
Each
'
which
section,
extremely
numerous
finest of
Even
full aperture
the
with
together.
With
of
these
distinct
will
indications
faint
dots.
though
apochromats
give
should
illumination
white
they
oblique
appear
very distinctlyseparated with
far
of
course
rendering {heir presence
both types of objectives,
light
green
will j.how
the dots, it is true, but they
combinations
Second-rate
better.
far from
melted
distinctlyseparated. Third-class
together and
appear
minute
crowded
fail
objectives may
illumination.
This
diatom
extreme
law
has
dots
to
good
with
even
presence
oblique
green
387.
page
outer
their
reveal
to
is also
in the
definition
the
See
qualityof the
be placed at
the sine
edge of the field,and an objectivebe used in which
the
will
amount
bring
been
no
properly fulfilled,
of focussing
affords
the
of
definition
the
The
a
microscopist
quality
focus.
not
a
of
means
otherwise
classifyingobjectivesthat
perform
very
sensibly
equal.
1'hotographedwith
Fig.
4.
Hartnack
2-mm.
apochromat
PELLUCIDA.
AMPHIPLEURA
lines with
oblique green
Photographed with a
To
N.A.
1*40
show
the
1600.
See
1000.
longitudinal
page
196,
footnote.
with
Zeiss
show
With
PELLUCIDA.
PLEURA
the
dots.
Compare
apochromat
3-111111.
with
1400.
oblique green
light
PLATE
XII.
Fig. 4.
Fig- 5-
Fig.
Fie.
2.
PLATE
i.-NITZSCHIA
Fig.
by
closed,
partially
Fig.
NITZSCHIA
2."
for
test
specimen
the
test
Leland
central
TVth
iris
the
medial
and
apochromat
very
diaphragm
zones.
N.A.
1*40
1440.
impinge
not
particularly
with
with
of
should
the
upon
the
they
and
power
and
light
substage
N.A.
apochromat
4-mm.
seen,
necessary,
that
semi-
or
but
sufficient
be
taken
be
obliquity
any
Zeiss
be
ocular
be
only
not
light
oblique
must
care
the
exceedingly
an
apochromatic
an
should
provided
is
diatom
whether
dots
No
one
critical)
does
This
The
separable,
good
be
to
Photographed
(for
from
the
condenser.
0*95
800.
See
398.
page
Fig.
almost
NITZSCHIA
3"
as
faint,
the
use
of
Fig.
blue
the
as
See
glass).
the
of
of
be
Reichert
not
N.A.
the
haze,
usually
are
See
x
page
show
the
399.
1000.
in this
dots
to
4-111111.
corrected,
0*95
required
feeble
case
well
accompanying
all
a
this
markings.
diatom
are
without
them
photomicrograph.
which
is
visible
readily
character.
apochromat
4-mm.
See
N.A.
0*95
Oblique
blue
399.
page
720.
light
(Zeiss
Leitz
apochromat
2-mm.
PELLUCIDA.
N.A.
1^30
Oblique
blue
1600.
light
(Zeiss
glass).
Photographed
page
with
if
196.
a
AMPHIPLEURA
6."
is
PELLUCIDA.
page
with
in
absence
combination
a
be
Although
displayed
entire
in
apochromat
objective
good
for
test-object
dots
secondary
the
4-mm.
AMPHIPLEURA
5."
Photographed
Fig.
an
with
Photographed
blue
light,
be
of
hide
MAXIMA.
easily,
green
should
correction
the
combination
the
Leitz
NITZSCHIA
4."
fairly
There
if
quite
may
Another
The
preceding.
hence,
with
Photographed
icsolved
the
as
flurfiness
resulting
Fig.
CURVULA.
difficult
exceedingly
See
for
(-Jth) objective
4-mm.
distinctly
be
the
mirror
with
parent
trans-
and
completely
be
objective
SCALARIS.
combination.
apochromatic
should
should
mm.
exceedingly
and
small
very
387.
page
good
"
Powell
especially
more
with
These
dots.
first-class
test
Photographed
See
minute
resolved
distinctly
is
SIGMA
with
diatom
XIII.
Reichert
mm.
apochromat
N.A.
1*30
1500.
PLATE
XIII.
"0
bb
tUO
PLATE
Fig.
test
i."
PLEUROSIGMA
To
show
objective
the
be
to
the
test
Ard.
Using
for
certainly
and
specimen
may
It
made.
is
combination
great
light
fail
lucky
another
the
test,
when
the
will
and
others
many
valve
to
must
as
must
of
alwa?
one
lines
as
for
distinctly
objectives
in
shown
will
well-marked
very
Fig.
Plate
i,
exceptionally
be
superiority
Owing
resolving
be
\\a-
1000.
severe
the
the
prove
fail.
limit
point
mentioned
see
with
dots,
is
second-rate
objective
theoretical
the
the
reached,
but
0*95
though
but
better
diaphragm
before
Occasionally,
illumination,
green
and
one
severe
396.
diatom,
just possible
fine
respect.
searching
most
very
the
This
the
N.A.
valuable
be
be
this
in
it should
and
apochromat
This
also
combination
well
of
however
well-marked
its
to
being
power
one
what
some-
See
one.
405.
with
Photographed
Fig"
"
object
of
-silo*
an
Zeiss
as
seen
for
inch
about
of
the
apochromatic
'65
0*95
This
numerical
should
These
apart.
in
N.A.
apochromat
PHENICENTERON.
third
shown.
8-mm.
360
and
2.
STAURONEIS
distinctly
them
Zeiss
enlarged
subsequently
-mm.,
transparency
page
and
is
required.
381
pages
4-111111.
OBTUSA.
over
nearly
test
Koristka
and
good,
photograph
ance.
appearis
4-inm.
very
iris
the
by
See
firmly glimpsed
be
down
amount.
be
must
"black-dot"
with
photograph
accompanying
the
small
oblique
if the
separated,
almost
cutting
the
the
combination
the
In
with
in
well
NITZSCHIA
2."
good
IX,
less
very
Photographed
Fig.
focus
of
recollected.
closed
only
ANGULATUM
this
correction
the
XIV.
be
weak
objective
photograph
it is best
8-mm.
apochromatic.
easily resolved,
to
covers
use
Sec
blue
page
them
but
good
about
aie
discretely
very
in fog.
illumination
401.
is
dots
The
aperture.
often
diatom
To
x
700
show
with
PLATE
XIV.
Fig.
Fig.
i.
Fig. 3-
2.
PLATE
Fig.
for
HEURCKIA
-VAN
i.
6-mm.
full
at
even
and
less
than
when
about
'/),
the
is
made
li^nt
the
photomicrograph).
azimuth,
correct
distinctly
noticed
the
is
"
photomicrograph
the
perhaps
Lomb,
seen
Fig.
See
1000
blue
is
to
Of
four
to
necessary
micrographs
photo-
It
dots
the
402.
page
magnification.
show
Bausch
by
the
but
test,
See
dots.
tin-
enlarged
those
notably
smallest
the
at
be
which
with
Watson.
by
in
See
1000.
196
pages
and
Koristka
will
to
be
thing
any-
with
Photographed
'5-111111.
apochromat
380.
BOLIVIENCIS.
inch.
an
with
glass)
3.-ACTINOPTYCHUS
i-inch
Zeiss
difficult
rather
apochromat
diatom
270.
406.
page
Fig.
is
diameters
(Zeiss
with
see
this
diatom
that
Photographed
i'35
nearly,
very
will
semi-apochromatic
privilege
our
Holoscopic
the
up
subsequently
been
the
into
perfection.
like
N.A.
has
PELLUCIDA
this
of
it
approach
2.-AMFHIPLEURA
therefore
it
quarter
particularly
and
Swift,
Fig.
to
finest
(see
in
turned
broken
Zeiss
(and
taken
was
defined
rendering
the
by
(not
employed
of
between
light
well
and
appear
apochromaiic
The
semi-apochromatics
three
to
difference
especially
apochromatic.
true
accompanying
twice)
objectives,
diffe:ent
by
and
considerable
and
oblique
distinctly
immediately
ought
A
direct
diaphragm
visible
be
visible
be
With
substage
illumination
green
is
light
iris
should
and
should
valve.
the
the
string
the
dot*.
of
with
oblique
lines
the
defined
edges
do\\n
transverse
When
aperture
with
used
and
markings
secondary
the
at
cutting
of
amount
suming
Pre-
semi-apochromatic.
or
numerical
high
of
signs
anyhow
aperture
of
one
faintest
the
small
be
test-object
excellent
An
apochrom.itic
whether
objective,
ocular,
12
LOUISIANA.
combination
the
XV.
4."
AMPHIPLEURA
oblique
light
Details
within
positions.
and
PELLUCIDA
the
the
Spec
imc-n
Author's
limits
about
new
of
as
blue
possibility.
110,000
lines
mentioned
screen
Even
to
dots
the
i apochromatic
with
seen
in
can
inch.
be
See
the
seen
page
Addenda.
in
certain
402.
PLATE
Fig.
PROBOSCIS
i."
objectives
not
as
No
halo
if
sufficient,
hairs
to
seen
also
objective,
limited
good
very
and
at
with
Photographed
Fig.
Zeiss
superior.
Fig.
into
oblique
ligh:
dots
(by
illumination.
[Fig.
graf/iy.}
has
been
the
(taken
two
Holoscopic
See
i-in.
better
N.A.
than
apochromat
white,
SMITHII.
of
any
shifting
Zeiss
kindly
lent
of
the
previous
the
mirror)
apochromat
by
the
Scientific
i-in.
Press
270.
from
60.
diatom
to
is
fat-
407.
far
by
be
x
perfection
illumination
the
for
objects
test
must
semi-
difficult
very
page
is
This
is
low-power
the
0*3
blue
but
See
270.
may
406.
page
apochromat
24-111111.
to
an
object
24-mm.
illustrates
screens)
green
tips
with
This
in
if
as
Colour
edges.
of field
flatness
with
be
up"
show
not
semi-apochromat.
and
size
their
along
fog.
double
no
should
CUNEIFORMS.
is
3--NAV1CULA
resolve
blue
Zeiss
light
Green
best
and
HEMIDISCUS
2."
resolve.
colour
the
combination.
modern
of
with
with
"rise
illuminated
hairs
large
an:l
magnification
the
should
lobes
the
closed
be
black,
covered
or
If
properly
the
Frontispiece
'24
powder
trace
testing
for
one
N.A.
in
exceedingly
look
the
shows
iris
if the
especially
fog,
for
test
common
combination
best
observable.
When
amount
the
apochromaiic
arrived
but
The
white
be
and
should
between
seen,
anything
apochromat
be
hairs
be
to
of
fine
should
beneath.
parts
ought
in.
or
trace
tracheae
minutest
the
"blacks"
with
over
the
from
as
The
dusted
BLOW-FLY.
THE
without
amount.
about
growing
such
power
defined,
small
very
the
low
crisply
object
a
of
OF
XVI.
See
the
an
it
and
used,
pay
author's
difficult
most
inch.
is best
to
Slight
to
have
407.
book
I'hotomuro-
PLATE
XVI.
Fig.
Fig.
2.
i.
Fig.
3-
PLATE
Fig.
about
Zeiss
to
'40.
learn
NOBILIS.
the
2."
to
See
of
use
N.A.
J apochromatic
Fig.
about
PINNULARIA
T."
SURIRELLA
learn
page
the
XVII.
'95.
See
GEMMA.
use
372.
of
high
instruction
An
high
moderately
page
An
powers.
powers.
photograph
to
those
with
Photographed
371.
instruction
Photographed
photograph
with
to
Zeiss
,V
those
N.A.
PLATE
XVII.
flfll'h
Fig.
i.
Fig.
2.
PLATE
Fig.
long
PYGIDIUM
i."
hairs
come
until
romatic
Fig.
2."
iris
opened
Zeiss
3."
the
Note
With
ends,
See
340.
N.A.
PYGIDIUM
OF
Maltese
apochromatic
'95
objective
"
THE
N.A.
"95,
"rds
be
apoch-
page
401.
with
is
See
page
"rds
central
the
and
pronounced
most
864.
completely
be
discs
dot
central
with
should
See
820.
Wheel
FLEA.
cone
this
than
should
parallel
Zeiss
discs
wheel
The
aperture
have
off.
taper
these
mounted
400.
fogginess
The
discs
these
re
full
effects.
cross
and
is
to
appear
suddenly
FLEA.
me
they
objective
the
specimen
the
for
389
pages
Not
they
THE
OF
diaphragm.
good
when
lowering
On
showing
thus
peculiar,
rather
PYGIDIUM
apochromatic
Fig.
Zeiss
"95
FLEA.
first,
are
their
nearing
N.A.
THE
view
hairs
The
correctly.
sides
OF
into
XVIII.
401.
present.
cone.
hair.
clean.
PLATE
XVIII.
Fig.
i.
PLATE
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
No
2.
Part
distinctly
Fig.
to
are
The
"
visible.
"
N.A.
'95
See
seen.
diatom
same
See
page
page
See
468.
page
structure
See
as
400.
page
400.
in
photographed
red
light.
493.
photographed
493.
600.
PELLUCIDA
be
hair-like
The
FLEA.
magnified
more
AMPHIPLEURA
3."
4.
of
THE
apochromatic
Zeiss
sixth.
"
lines
Fig.
OF
PYGIDIUM
i."
by
shown
XIX.
in
blue
light.
The
lines
are
PLATE
Fig.
HEAD
i.-THE
without
Mounted
Fig.
in
improvement
specimen
with
length
the
of
of
lens
the
fine
length
as
"
obtained
with
the
Fig.
photographs,
of
focus
focal
Fig.
discs.
obtained
length,
3."
Zeiss
combination
and
by
the
Fig.
using
apertures
PYGIDIUM
"
of
apochromatic
2,
short
of
similar.
being
THE
to
aje
lenses
OF
twice
nearly
the
show
(see
focal
See
300.
page
text)
length
page
Low
FLEA.
See
focal
2.
with
hairs
in
this
graph"taken
photo-
with
length.
These
that
two
depth
greater
of
those
over
bination
com-
distinct
the
compared
the
413.
; age
long
413.
power
401.
3^-inch
of
See
Notice
F/i6.
and
focal
Fig.
photographed
to
facets
shorter
BLOW-FLY.
combination
but
I,
reduced
the
THE
with
compared
Fig
as
definition
the
be
To
li-inchfocal
only
OF
with
Photographed
F/i6.
to
same
"
of
PROBOSCIS
pressure.
The
2.
AND
reduced
length,
focal
XX.
view
of
the
wheel
In
of
the
accompanying
Figures
and
should
Plate
be
(xx),the numbering
transposed
PLATE
XX.
Fig.
Fig.
i.
3-
2.
XXI.
PLATE
Fig.
of
well
as
white
the
Fig.
with
the
are
length
of
shown
white
Zeiss
flat.
Fig.
3.
diatom
the
and
than
some
MAJOR.
are
392.
very
common,
light,
will
difficult
to
linear
see.
they
as
1*40
few
in
See
Styrax.)
being
much
is
See
1500.
Most
diatomists
know
that
of
npochromatic
page
403.
with
Some
to
that
aware
if
tongues,
viewed
N.A.
this
with
ter.
charac-
pronounced
A
quite
be
388.
are
very
apo-
resolve
to
longer
not
page
the
"
measured.
supposed
but
all,
at
Zeiss
specimen
transversely
valve
XXIII.
difficult
very
when
markings
Zeiss
Plate
to
appearance
dots
really
not
diatom
curious
the
are
to
this
difficult
very
elongated,
are
are
N.A.
but
show
(?)
Note
(Specimen
they
dark,
NAVICULA
is
dots
TV
oblique
page
light.
apochromatic
They
See
black
"
specimen
blue
the
Note
,V
text
CAPITATA.
SYNEDRA
2."
blue
the
is
sixth.
explanation
See
tops.
using
625,
in
explained
as
mountain
chromatic
with
photograph
to
as
dots
like
seem
This
CUSPIDA.
NAVICULA
i."
observe
1*40
2000.
PLATE
Fig.
i.
XXI.
Fig.
2.
PLATE
Fig.
they
to
seem
is
IV.
off
See
into
one
if
page
neatly
the
enlarged
show
Zeiss
other,
much
but
lines,
apochromat
showing
not
so
more
that
this
than
3.
amphipleura,
fuzziness.
any
with
so
much
so
singalensis
they
"
to
apt
are
shows.
photograph
393.
5536.
See
An
unless
the
but
several
V*
N.A.
of
enlargement
Fig.
394.
page
SINGALENSIS.
resolve
the
defined
of
those
without
times
PELLUCIDA.
About
to
with
comparison
Fig.
of
enlargement
An
many
and
NITZSCHIA
3."
difficult
will
might.
enlarged
clean
merge
in
are
AMPHIPLEURA
2."
Plate
Fig.
keep
6000.
Fig.
be
individuality
their
About
lines
the
can
to
seem
lose
It
These
2.
They
2,
different
how
Note
SINGALENSIS.
i.-NITZSCHIA
Fig.
XXII.
specimen
be
do
pick
1*40
not
2600.
diatom
See
out
page
known.
twelfth
Most
good.
them
much
not
as
393.
well
tives
objecas
they
PLATE
AN
]"; XL.
This
peculiar
if
they
is
with
the
immediate
to
explain.
to
At
of
focus,
about
2]
black
the
This
after
is
in
as
of
arrangement
the
white
while
this
dot
it
will
may
their
the
oblique
noticed
case.
Enlarged
diameters
1400.
See
page
404.
ever,
how-
commensurate
the
do
alter
appear
be
is
as
them
effect,
in
to
plate
make
that
size
referred
which
look
shadow
whose
objects
patches
the
first
but
effects
1400.
secondaries
The
shadow
This
magnified
when
but
according
change
with
light.
of
dots
mountains,
carefully.
with
about
XXI,
surroundings.
impossible
be
PLATK
i,
elevations
wave-length
mountains
difficult
with
to
FIG.
studying
worth
mountain
white
The
little
is
their
believed
single
see).
the
real
from
out
OF
NT
diatom
were
stand
as
\RGKME
XXIII.
(which
text
certainly
appear
positions
light
to
this
around
are
black
become
is
most
not
really
PLATE
XXIII.
PLATE
THE
the
object
express
BEETLE.
SOLDIER
of
end
claws,
7.
See
XXIV.
tail,
page
of
jaws,
414.
showing
and
An
the
antennas.
example
whole
of
specimen
an
entire
in
insect
focus.
taken
Observe
with
the
PLATE
XXIV.
XXV.
PLATK
of
class
definition
piges
OF
FOOT
THE
specimen
of
414
and
the
415.
be
can
claws
[SPIDER.
AFRICAN
AN
and
in
most
focus
parts
though
of
To
magnified
the
solid
show
portion
far
how
Observe
12.
of
the
leg.
such
the
See
PLATE
XXV.
XXVI.
PLATK
THE
flat)
SPINEY
to
animal
and
See
deal
in
the
pages
SPIDER.
with,
focus
tips
414
at
of
the
and
and
to
and
one
spines
415.
as
far
how
show
the
difficult
very
time.
same
well
as
the
it
Note
central
specimen
is
possible
the
(because
to
ends
extreme
portions
of
the
quite
not
render
the
of
body,
the
entire
claws
12.
PLATE
JUNCUS
whole
See
LAMPROCARPUS.
of
pages
XXVI
the
414
tissues
and
are
415.
in
focus
at
I.
section.
transverse
one
and
the
Note
same
time,
how
the
30.
PLATE
XXVII.
PLATK
Fig.
equally
whilst
iiis
all
legs
the
and
Fig.
is
tips
to
of
that
very
N.A.
the
and
is
sufficient
of
specimen
the
patience
obtaining
whilst
reducing
by
Much
long.
difficult
most
thick
back
sausage-shaped,
required
depth
objectives.
the
show
to
of
to
focus,
the
definition
See
28.
adapt
pages
415.
2."
not
so
A
is
body
The
over.
are
so
spoilt
not
414
with
focus
diaphragm,
is
IRRITANS.
1'ULEX
i."
in
XXVIII.
the
these
FEMALE
THE
lose
wings
details.
the
CORN-FLY.
faint
whilst
proboscis
legs.
and
8.
See
The
badly
pages
focussing
corrected
414
and
the
objective
415.
in
difficulty
body
would
this
specimen
and
extreme
play
havoc