Bio 215 Chapter 48 Nervous systems

Ch 48:

Nervous Systems

Bio 1B Chapter 44 Nervous systems

Lecture notes
Some of the goals for this chapter include:

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Bio 1B Chapter 44 Nervous systems

000000000) Draw and describe the functions of the nervous system cells
0) define and describe impulses and action potentials
0) describe the chemical and electrical communications that occur at synapses
0) Describe the different types of nervous systems that invertebrates have
0) describe the nervous system of the human
0) outline all the structures and their function of the human brain
The endocrine and nervous systems of animals often cooperate and interact to maintain homeostasis and
control behavior. The roles these two systems play are as follows
Nervous System

Endocrine System

Complexity

More structurally complex:can integrate vast

Less Structurally complex
amounts of information and stimulate a wide range
of responses

Structure

System of neurons that branch throughout the bodyendocrine glands secrete hormones into the
bloodstream where they are carried to the target
organ

communication

Neurons conduct electrical signals directly to and As chemical messengers, hormones circulate
form specific targets: allows fine pinpoint control throughout the body in the bloodstream: exposes
most body cells to the hormone and only target
cells with receptors respond

Response Time

Fast transmission of nerve impulses up to

100m/sec

May take minutes, hours or days time for

hormones to be produced, carried by blood to
target organ, and for response to occur

000000000 Nervous systems functions: an overview

3 overlapping functions:
0. Sensory input:conduction of signals form sensory receptors to integration centers of the nervous
system
0. Integration: information form sensory receptors is interpreted and associated with appropriate
responses of the body
0. Motor output: conduction of signals form processing center to effector cells that actually carry out
the body's response to stimuli(muscle cells, gland cells)
0. These functions in both parts of the nervous system
0. Central nervous system (CNS): brain and spinal cord: responsible for integration of sensory input
and associating stimuli with appropriate motor output.
0. Peripheral nervous system (PNS): consists of the network of nerves extending into different parts
of the body that carry sensory input to the CNS and motor output away form the CNS
000 Neurons and supporting cells
0. Neurons: cells specialized for transmitting chemical and electrical signals form one location in the
body to another
0. large cell body:contains cytoplasm and other organelles
0. mainly cell body are in CNS
0.0 two types of fiberlike extensions(processes) that increase the distance over which the cells can
conduct messages
0. Dendrites convey signals to the cell body, short, numerous and extensively branched
0. Axons: conduct impulses away form the cell body, long single processes

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Bio 1B Chapter 44 Nervous systems

(*) wrapped in insulating layers of Schwann cells, forms myelin sheath
(*) impulses that are generated move away form the cell body
0.00 Synapse: gap between a synaptic terminal and target cell
0. Neurotransmitters: chemicals that cross the synapse to relay the impulses
0. Three major classes of neurons:
0. Sensory neurons: convey information about the external and internal env form sensory
receptors to cns. most synapse with interneurons
0. Interneurons: integrate sensory input and motor output: located within the CNS, synapse only
with other neurons
0. Motor neurons: convey impulses form the CNS to effector cells
0.00 Supporting cells:
0. Structurally reinforce, protect, insulate and generally assist neurons
0. The do not conduct impulses
0. outnumber neurons 10 to 50 fold
0.0 Glial cells: supporting cells of CNS
0. astrocytes: encircle capillaries in brain, contribute to blood brain barrier
0. Oligodendrocyte: form myelin sheaths that insulate nerve impulses
0.0 Schwann cells: insulators of the PNS, myelination

Impulses are action potentials, electrical signals propagated along

neuronal membranes
000

0. signal transmission along the length of a neuron depends on voltages created by ionic fluxes across
neuron plasma membranes
0.0 Origin of the Electrical Membrane potential
0. All cells have electrical membrane potential or voltage across their plasma membranes
0. -50 to -100 mV in animals
0. a resting charge is slightly negative
0. resting neuron is -70mV
0.0 Membrane potential arise because
0. Differences in the ionic composition of the intracellular and extracellular fluids
(*) cells tend to accumulate more negative charges on the inside of the cell
0.0 selective permeability of the plasma membrane
(*) Ion channels selectively transport certain ions across the membrane, and keep the
gradient up.
0.000 Membrane Potential changes and the Action Potential
0. While all cells exhibit a membrane potential neurons and muscles can change their membrane
potentials in response to stimuli
0. called excitable cells
0. membrane potential of an excitable cell at rest is called a resting potential
0.0 The presence of special gated ion channels in neurons permits these cells to changes the plasma
membranes permeability and to alter its membrane potential
0. Action potential is the rapid change in the membrane
potential of an excitable cell, caused
by stimulus triggered selective opening and closing of voltage gated ion channels
0. four phases
(*) resting state, no channels are open
(*) large depolarizing phase: membrane briefly reverses polarity.
(*) Steep repolaring phase: quickly returning potential to resting level
(*) undershoot phase: when membrane potential is temporarily more negative than the
resting state
0.00 refractory period: during undershoot phase, neuron is insensitive to depolarizing stimuli. is
maximum rate at which action potentials can be stimulated in a neuron
0.0 Propagation of the action potential:
0. A neuron is stimulated at its dendrites of cell body and the action potential travels along the axon to
the other end of the neuron

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0. Signal travels in a perpendicular direction along the axon regenerating the action potential
0. Na+ influx in the are of the action potential results in depolarization of the membrane just
ahead of the impulse, surpassing the threshold
0. the voltage sensitive channels in the new location will go through the same sequence
previously described regenerating the action potential
0. subsequent portions of the axons are depolarized in the same manner
0. the action potential moves in only one direction (down the axon) once each action potential is
followed by a refractory period when sodium channels inactivation gates are closed and no
action potential can be generated
0.00 Action potential Transmission Speed
0. the larger the diameter of the axon, the faster the rate of transmission since resistance to the flow of
electrical current is inversely proportional the the cross section area of the wire conducting the current
0. saltatory conduction: faster transmission because action potential jumps form one node of ranvier to
the next.
000 Chemical or electrical communication between cells occurs at synapses
0. Synapse= tiny gap between a synaptic terminal of an axon and a signal receiving portion of another
neuron or effector cell
0. presynaptic: transmitting cell
0. postsynaptic: receiving cell
0.0 Two types of synapses exist
0.0 Electrical synapses: electrical synapses allow action potentials to spread directly form pre to
postsynaptic cells via
gap junctions (intercellular channels) is very rare
0. Chemical synapses: neurotransmitters are used to travel across a cleft and it excites the postsynaptic
cell
0. Summation: Neural integration at the cellular level
0. one neuron may receive information form thousands of synapses, these synapses can be excitatory
or inhibitory, when the excitatory messages reach a certain level above the inhibitory levels the neuron
will fire.
0.0 Neurotransmitters and Receptors
0.Criteria for neurotransmitters:
0. present in and discharged form synaptic vesicles in the presynaptic cell when stimulated and
affect the postsynaptic cell's membrane potential
0. Can see an inhibition of excitation of synaptic potential when injected into the synapse
0. must be rapidly removed form the synapse by an enzyme of uptake by a cell permitting the
postsynaptic membrane to return to resting potential
0.0 Types of Neurotransmitters
0. Acetylcholine: most common neurotransmitter in vertebrates and invertebrates, controls
muscle movement
0. Biogenic amines: derived from amino acids, dopamine and serotonin, is involved in CNS,
imbalances in dopamine and serotonin are associated with mental illness
0. Neuropeptides: short chains of amino acids(substance P for pain)
0.00 Gaseous signals of the Nervous system
0. during sexual arousal neurons release nitrous oxide that causes dilation of blood vessels
0.0 Neural Circuits and Clusters
0. Neurons are arranged in groups referred as circuits
0. convergent circuits= Neural circuits in which information form several presynaptic neurons
come together at a singe postsynaptic neuron
0. Divergent circuits= Neural circuit in which information from a single neuron spreads out to

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several postsynaptic neurons
0. Reverberating circuits= circular circuits in which the signal returns to its source
0.0 clusters of nerve cells bodies are called ganglia allow for activity by only part of the nervous
system
(reflexes)
000 Invertebrate nervous systems:examples
0. hydra a cnidarian has a nerve net loosely organized system of nerves with no central control
0. Cephalization= evolutionary trend for concentration of sensory and feeding organs on the anterior end
of a moving animal
0. found in most bilaterally symmetrical animals
0.0 Flatworms have a simple brain, with two nerve trunks traveling posteriorly
0. Annelids and arthropods have well defined ventral nerve cord and prominent brain, each segment has
its own ganglia
0. Cephalopods have the most sophisticated invertebrate nervous system containing large brain and giant
axons
0. cephalization depends on what the animals do. Sessile

organisms do not exhibit this trait

00 Vertebrate nervous system:composed of two functional components

0. Peripheral nervous system PNS
0. further subdivided into
0. sensory (afferent) nervous system receptors to CNS
0. motor (efferent) nervous system CNS to effector cells
(*) somatic nervous systems (voluntary skeletal muscle
(*) autonomic nervous system( involuntary visceral functions
0.000 Central Nervous Systems (CNS)
0. bridges the sensory and motor functions of the peripheral nervous system
0. consists of the
0. spinal cord,
0. brain
0. covered in cerebrospinal fluid
0.0 simple tasks like the patellar reflex is in the spinal cord
0. hither tasks go to the brain
0.0 Evolution of the Vertebrate Brain
0. vertebrate brain shows and evolutionary trend toward greater complexity and more complex
behavioral patterns
0. complex brain consists of
0. rhombencephalon hind brain
0. mesencephalon midbrain
0. prosencephalon forebrain
0.0 trends in the evolution of the vertebrate brain are
0. relative brain size increases in certain evolutionary lineages
0. increased compartmentalization of function with certain areas of the brain assuming specific
responsibilities
0. increasing complexity and sophistication of the forebrain: increased complexity of behaviors
parallels an increased in growth of the cerebrum

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