Ch 2.

Units, Significant Figures, and Field Notes

I- Units of Measurements:
In the U.S the most commonly used linear unit is the foot, and the unit of area is the acre.
1 acre = 43,560 ft2
In most other countries it is the meter, and the square meter.
For purposes of computation and plotting, decimal subdivisions of linear units are the
most convenient.
Volumes are expressed in either cubic feet or in cubic meters otherwise.
Angles are measured in degrees, minutes, seconds.
A unit radian is the angle subtended by an arc of a circle having a length equal to the
circles radius.
2 rad = 360o ; 1 rad = 57 o 17 44.8 .
For ease of calculations, we find that for very small angles:
Arc = sin = tan
Metric Equivalents:
The basic of distance measurement in the metric system is the meter, which is defined as
1,650,763.73 wavelengths of orange-red krypton gas with an atomic weight of 86 and at
a specific energy level in the spectrum, or as the distance light travels in a vacuum in
1/299,792,458 second with time measured by a cesium-133 atomic clock. This natural
standard was developed and adopted instead of the meter bar subject to distruction.
1 US in = 2.54 cm
1 US foot = 30.48 cm
1 Mile = 1.6 km
1 ha (hectare) = 10,000 m2 = 2.5 acres
1 m3 = 1.3 yd3
Centesimal System:
Many surveying and mapping instruments with angular scales are graduated in the
centesimal system. In this system one circumference is divided into 400 divisions called
gon also know as grads.
360 o = 400 gons.

II. Significant figures:

In recording observations, an indication of the accuracy attained is the number of digits
(significant figures) recorded. By definition, the number of significant figures in any
observed value includes the positive (certain) digits plus one (only one) digit that is
estimated or rounded off, that is questionable..
Eg: A 73.52 ft measurement has 4 significant figures.
In this case the first 3 are certain and the fourth is questionable.
If a significant figure is dropped off when recording a value, then the time spent in
acquiring certain precision has been wasted. On the other hand, if data is recorded with
more figures than those that are significant, false precision will be implied.
The number of significant figures is often confused with the number of decimals.
Decimal places may have to be used to maintain the correct number of significant figures,
but in themselves, they do not indicate significant figures.
Eg:
2 significant figures: 24, 2.4, 0.24, 0.0024, 0.020
3 significant figures: 364, 36.4, 0.000364, 0.0240
4 significant figures: 7621, 76.21, 0.0007621, 24.00
For 2400.
2 significant figures: 2.4 x 10^3
3 significant figures: 2.40 x 10^3
4 significant figures: 2.400 x 10^3
When computing values, it is imperative that the number of significant figures given in
answers be consistent with the number of significant figures used in the data.
Follow these steps:
- Identify the column containing the rightmost significant digit in each number
being added or subtracted
- Perform the addition or subtraction
- Round the answer so that its rightmost significant digit occurs in the leftmost
column identified at the beginning.
Eg:
46.7418
+ 1.03
+375.0
___________
422.7718
(Answer 422.8)

The digits 8, 3 and 0 are the rightmost significant digits in

the numbers shown here. Of these, 0 is the leftmost with
respect to the decimal. Thus the answer 422.7718 is
rounded to 422.8.

378
- 2.1
375.9 (answer 376)
In multiplication, the number of significant figures in the answer is equal to the least
number of significant figures in any of the factors.
Eg: 362.56 x 2.13 = 772.2528 (answer 772).
In division, the number of significant figures in the quotient is equal to the least number
of significant figures in any of the divisor or dividend.
In surveying, 4 specific types of problems relating to significant figures are encountered
and must be understood.
1- Field measurements are given to some specific number of significant figures, thus
dictating the number of significant figures in answers derived when the
measurements are used in computations. In an intermediate calculation, it is
common practice to carry at least one or more digit than required, and then round
off the final answer to the correct number of significant figures.
2- There may be an implied number of significant figures
3- Each factor may not cause the same variation
4- Measurements are recorded in one system of units but may have to be converted
to another. A good rule is to retain in the conversion the same number of
significant figures as the original data.
III- Rounding Off Numbers:
Rounding off numbers is the process of dropping one or more digits so the answer
contains only those digits that are significant. In rounding off numbers to any required
degree of precision, the following procedures must be observed:
1- When the digit to be dropped is lower than 5, the number is written without the
digit. Thus 78.374 becomes 78.37.
2- When the digit to be dropped is exactly than 5, the nearest even number is used
for the preceding digit. Thus, 78.375 becomes 78.38 and 78.385 becomes 78.38
also.
3- When the digit to be dropped is greater than 5, the number is written with the
preceding digit increased by 1. Thus, 78.376 becomes 78.38.
NOTE: It is improper to perform two-stage rounding, where, for example, in rounding
78.3749 to four digits it would be first rounded to five digits, yielding 78.375, then
rounded again to 78.38. The correct answer in rounding would be 78.37 directly.

IV- Field Notes:

When a survey is performed, the field notes become the record of the survey. If notes are
carelessly recorded and documented, part of the survey is rendered useless. Defective
notes result in tremendous waste of money and time.
Furthermore, it will become obvious that, no matter how carefully the field measurements
are made, the survey as a whole may be useless if some of those measurements are not
recorded or if the meaning of any record is ambiguous.
Some surveying instruments are capable of automatic storage of field measurements.
However, they do not completely preclude the necessity of recording these data in the
field notes because they are usually accompanied by field sketches and diagrams.
All field notes should show when, where, for what purpose, and by whom the survey was
made. The signature of the recorder should appear.
Hard pencils should be used to avoid tempering. No erasures should be made, as they will
create suspicion of data tempering.
If an error is made, a line should be drawn through the incorrect value and the new value
should be inserted above.
The notes should be clear, lettered and not written.
The record should be made in the field book in the field, and not on scratch and then
copied.
Copied notes are not considered original notes.
All field computations should appear in the book so that possible mistakes can be
detected.
It should be remembered that notes are frequently used by other people, therefore there
should be no room for misinterpretations.

Rules for Significant Figures Angle Measurements

For angle measurements involving triangles, the number of significant figures of the sides
of a triangle affects the accuracy of the angles. Two significant figures in the sides used
for an angle calculation determines the angle to the nearest degree. Three significant
figures determine the angle to the nearest tenth of a degree.
Four significant figures determine the angle to the nearest hundredth of a degree, and so
on.
Significant Figures Between Sides and Angles:
Accuracy of Sides
Two significant figures
Three significant figures
Four significant figures

Accuracy of Angles
Nearest degree
Nearest tenth of a degree
Nearest hundredth of a degre

Ex:
1- Convert the following distance in meters to feet.
3273.023 m => 10738.26 ft
2- Convert the following distance in feet to meters.
5468.94 ft => 1666.94 m
3- What are the radian and degree-minute-second equivalents for the following angles
given in grads:
27 grads =>24 18 00
4- Give answers to the following problems in the correct number of significant
figures:
Sum of 82.32, 0.01425, and 10.2 =>
5- Convert the adjusted angles of a triangle to decimal degrees, then to rads:
39 41 54 => 0.692867
91 30 16 => 1.59705
48 47 50 => 0.851672
The sum = rad