Eastern

Orthodoxy
in a Global Age
Tradition Faces
the Twenty-first Century

AltaMira Press
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Edited by
V i c t o r R o u d o m e to f
A l e x a n d e r A g a d ja n i a n
and

J erry P a n k h u r s t

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available

library of Congress Cataioglng-in-Publicatio n Data

Eastern Orthodoxy in a global ag e: tradition faces the twenty-first century /
edited by Victor Roudometof, Alexander Agadjanian, and Jerry Pankhurst.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN *rx-u.',59MS.fo*2

I.O rthodox Eastern Church, I.Roudometof,Victor, 1964- ILAgadjanian,

Alexander, 1958- ill. Pankhurst, ferry
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yVLTAMHA
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7
Orthodox Christianity,
Rationalization,
Modernization:
A Reassessment
Vasilios N. Makrides

T h e r e la tio n s h i p b e tw e e n r e lig io n a n d r a ti o n a liz a t io n a s w e ll as s o c ie ta l

m o d e r n iz a tio n b e lo n g s to th e m o s t d is c u s s e d issu e s in so c ial as w ell as in
h is to ric a l sc ien c es. T h e ro le o f th e r e lig io u s f a c to r in fo s te rin g , in h ib itin g ,
a n d g e n e ra lly sp e ak in g in flu e n c in g , in o p e n a n d p a te n t fo rm s alike, su ch
c h a n g e s re m a in s a v e ry in tr ig u in g b u t e q u a lly c o n tro v e rs ia l are a o f research .
D e sp ite th is su g g e sted im p a c t, th e o v era ll re la tio n s h ip o f re lig io n to m o d e r
n ity is m u c h m o r e c o m p lic a te d . A t tim e s, th e ir c o m p le te in c o m p a tib ility a n d
th e p ro g re ssiv e w ith e rin g aw ay o f re lig io n h a d b e e n p o s tu la te d , w h ile so m e
h a d also p o in te d to th e ir p e rsis tin g in te r a c tio n , ev en th r o u g h severe te n sio n
( C a m p ic h e 1985). Yet in o u r so -c a lle d p o s t- m o d e r n e ra th e in c o m p a tib ility
a s s u m p tio n h a s b e e n b asically rev isited . T h e o ld e r v iew th a t m o d e rn ity leads
to th e p r iv a t iz a tio n o f r e lig io n h a s b e e n s e r io u s ly c h a lle n g e d in r e c e n t
d e c a d e s f o r in s ta n c e , b y t h e s t r o n g r e e m e r g e n c e o f p u b lic r e lig io n s
( C a s a n o v a 1 9 9 4 ). F r o m a h is t o r ic a l p o i n t o f v ie w , h o w e v e r, a ll r a d ic a l

l 8o

V a silio s

N. M a k r id e s

changes c o n n e c te d w ith m o d e r n i t y h a v e b e e n c lo se ly a s s o c ia te d w ith th e

am azing rise o f th e W e st a n d its c iv iliz a tio n , a t le a st s in c e th e R e n a issa n c e .
W estern c iv iliz a tio n a c q u ir e d la te r u n iv e r s a l s ig n ific a n c e in th e w a k e o f
Western ex p a n sio n a n d c o lo n ia lis m a n d b e c a m e a c o n tro v e rs ia l re fe re n c e
point for n u m e ro u s o th e r c u ltu r a l c o m p le x e s w o rld w id e . It is n o t a c c id e n
tal that for a long tim e m o d e rn iz a tio n w as e q u a te d w ith W e ste rn iz a tio n , th a t
is, w ith th e w holesale a c c e p ta n c e o f th e W e ste rn m o d e l o f d e v e lo p m e n t a n d
societal o rg an iz atio n , a fe e t t h a t h a s c a u s e d d e e p cleav ag es a n d rifts w ith in
non-W estern cultures ( H u n tin g to n 1996, p p . 727 8 ). A s a w h o le , th e p ro cess
o f m o d e rn izatio n c a n b e v ie w e d as th e p ro c e s s o f r a tio n a liz a tio n o f so c ia l
and individual stru c tu re s. O n e o f th e m a in c o n s e q u e n c e s o f ra tio n a liz a tio n
at the cognitive level h a s b e e n se c u la riz a tio n , w h ic h w a s s u p p o s e d to in d u c e
a gradual d ise n c h a n tm e n t o f th e w o rld .
In ex a m in in g th e se p h e n o m e n a o f e c o n o m ic , p o litic a l, a n d s o c io c u l
tu ral tra n s fo rm a tio n s , i t is in te r e s tin g to lo o k a t th e p o te n tia l ro le p la y e d
by religion an d sp ecifically b y W e s te rn C h r is tia n ity o f c o u rs e , n o t e x c lu
sively, b u t always w ith in th e w id e r f ra m e o f m a n y o th e r c ru c ia l fa c to rs . O f
critical significance h a s b e e n th e id e a , firs t su g g e ste d in a p a r a d ig m a tic w ay
by M ax W eber in h is c la ssic s t u d y T h e P r o te s ta n t E th ic a n d th e S p ir it o f
Capitalism, a b o u t th e p a te n t, u n in te n d e d , a n d th e re fo re u n fo re s e e n in f lu
ence o f ascetic tre n d s o f P r o te s ta n tis m u p o n th e p ro c e s s o f r a tio n a liz a tio n
and m o d e rn izatio n . I t is w o r t h m e n tio n in g th a t s u b s e q u e n t s tu d ie s in th is
dom ain d id n o t re m a in r e s tr ic te d to W e s te rn E u ro p e a lo n e a n d to its f o r
m ative w o rld w id e im p a c t, b u t a t t e m p t e d t o e x a m in e th e r e la tio n s h i p
between religion a n d d e v e lo p m e n t in q u ite d iffe rin g s o c io c u ltu ra l c o n te x ts
reaching Japan a n d th e F a r E a s t (W e i-M in g 1996; T a k a y a m a 19 9 8 ) a n d to
lo o k fo r th e p o te n tia l ( r e lig io u s ) r o o t s o f n o n - W e s te r n m o d e r n i tie s
(Benavides 1998, p p . 1 9 3 -9 6 ). A ll th e se a tte s t t o th e im p o r ta n c e a tta c h e d to
religion in th is p ro ce ss, d e s p ite th e fa c t t h a t th e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f m o d e r n
ization u p o n re lig io n a n d u p o n h u m a n c o n s c io u s n e s s in g e n e r a l w e re in
m any respects p ro b le m a tic (B erger, B erger, a n d K elln er 1974). G iv en th e a im
o f the p resent c h a p te r, it is n e c e s sa ry t o n o te f ro m th e o u ts e t th a t th e m a in
C hristian C h u rch e s h av e b e e n d iffe re n tly re la te d to th e p ro c e ss o f r a tio n a l
ization an d m o d e rn iz a tio n .
First, according to th e classic W e b e ria n sc h em e, w h ic h h a s b e e n fo llo w ed
and expanded b y m a n y s c h o la rs a fte rw a rd ( fro m E rn s t T ro e ltsc h to R o b e rt
M erton), th e rise o f P ro te s ta n tis m in W e ste rn E u ro p e h a s b e e n in s t r u m e n
tal to such a societal e v o lu tio n , w h ic h a m o u n te d to W e st E u ro p e a n u n iq u e
ness. W e ste rn c iv iliz a tio n c a m e f in a lly t o b e c h a r a c t e r iz e d b y a r a t i o n a l

O r t h o d o x C h r is t ia n it y , R a t io n a l iz a t io n , M o d e r n iz a t io n

18 1

s y s te m a tiz a tio n , w h ic h h a d n o p e n d a n t a t all in o th e r c u ltu re s. F re e d fro m

in s t itu ti o n a l e c c le sia stic a l d o m in a tio n , th e P r o te s ta n t b e lie v e r d e v e lo p e d
n o v e l a n d q u ite r a tio n a l w ay s o f c a lc u la tio n a n d p la n n in g to c o n tro l re a lity
a n d to a p p r e h e n d its in tr in s i c m e a n in g in o r d e r t o a t ta i n f in a l s a lv a tio n
w h ile d is c o v e rin g th e e a rly sig n s o f th e la tte r a lre a d y in th e e a r th ly w o rld .
T h is n o t o n ly g av e ris e to r e lig io u s in d iv id u a lis m , to in n o v a tio n , a n d to a
q u e s tio n in g o f e s ta b lis h e d a u t h o r i tie s , b u t a ls o le d to th e f o r m a tio n o f
u n iq u e m e n ta litie s a n d w ay s o f life d r iv e n b y th e n e e d to c o n s c io u s ly a n d
d e lib e ra te ly m a s te r th e so cial e n v iro n m e n t (as ex p ressed b y th e m e a n s-e n d s
ra tio n a lity ). T h e s u b s e q u e n t s e c u la riz a tio n o f th e se o rig in a lly d e e p ly re li
g io u s a ttitu d e s h a s b e e n v ita l f o r th e o v e ra ll e v o lu tio n o f W e s te rn E u ro p e
a n d its specific ro a d to m o d e rn ity , w h ich b e c a m e p a ra d ig m a tic fo r th e rest o f
th e w o rld (S c h lu c h te r 1998).
S eco n d , several sc h o lars in c lu d in g W e b er h im s e lf have e x p a n d e d th e p re
v io u s p o in t b y in c lu d in g R o m a n C a th o lic ism in th e e n tire p ro c e ss (N e lso n
1981; C ollins 1983; S ch lu c h ter 1988). T h e ab o v e ch an g es d id n o t follow alo n e
th e e m erg en ce o f P ro te sta n tism in th e six tee n th c e n tu ry b u t h a d th e ir ro o ts in
th e specific early d e v e lo p m e n t o f R o m a n C a th o lic C h ris tia n ity in th e W est__
fo r in sta n c e , in th e m e d ie v a l relig io u s m o v e m e n ts (K aelb er 1998). T h is to o k
p lace ev en b efo re th e fin a l sc h ism b e tw e e n E a ste rn a n d W e ste rn C h ristia n ity
in 1054. S igns o f r a tio n a l a s w ell as se lf-c ritica l th e o lo g y c a n b e tra c e d early
e n o u g h in th e w o rk s o f A u g u stin e (in h is R etractationes) a n d in th e in flu en ce
o f R o m a n law u p o n c e rta in W e ste rn C h u rc h w rite rs (T e rtu llia n ). T h e rise o f
s c h o la s tic is m in th e M id d le A ges (e .g ., th e r a ti o n a l th e o lo g ic a l sy ste m b y
T h o m a s A q u in a s) as w ell as th e in s titu tio n a l p o s itio n o f th e o lo g y a s a sacra
sc ie n tia in m e d ie v a l u n iv e rs itie s a r e f u r t h e r s e m in a l a s p e c ts o f th is lo n g
p ro cess. T h e c ru c ial ro le o f p h ilo s o p h y in W e ste rn th e o lo g ic al rea so n in g in
c o n tr a s t to th e E ast h a s b e e n a m a in f a c to r h e r e (P o d s k a lsk y 2 0 0 2 ). T h e
r a tio n a l- b u r e a u c r a tic c h a r a c te r o f th e R o m a n C a th o lic C h u r c h is a n o th e r
case in p o in t (B enavides 1998, p . 191). T h e W estern In q u isitio n h a s b ee n th u s
c o n s id e re d in th e c o n te x t o f d iffe re n t ra tio n a liz a tio n p ro cesses, as ecclesiastic al o rg a n iz a tio n , relig io u s co n flicts, a n d leg al-th eo lo g ical d isc o u rses rea cte d ,
a n d s tim u la te d ea c h o th e r; in th is w ay, th e y c o n tr ib u te d to a g re a te r r a tio
n a liz a tio n o f each sp h e re (N ielsen 1990). T h e ab o v e o b se rv a tio n s s h o u ld n o t,
h o w e v e r, o b fu s c a te th e fac t th a t m o d e r n i ty h a s c a u s e d s e rio u s tr o u b le s to
W e ste rn C h ris tia n ity itself, ev en i f th e la tte r u n in te n tio n a lly h a d c o n trib u te d
to its in itia l rise. T h e a p p e a ra n c e o f th e m o v e m e n t o f m o d e rn is m w ith in th e
R o m a n C a th o lic C h u r c h a t th e tu r n o f th e tw e n tie th c e n tu r y a n d th e c h a l
le n g es th a t it p u t to p a p a l a u th o r ity su ffice to a c c o u n t fo r th is (R atte 1973).

l 82

V asilios N. M a k rid e s

It is characteristic, however, that, aside from (liberal) P ro te sta n tism , ev en a

generally conservative religious system like R om an C a th o lic ism h as fin ally
managed through various ferm entations to co m e to te rm s in its o w n w ay
with modernity and to accept the legitimacy o f th e m o d e rn age. T h e aggiormmento and the Second Vatican Council in the 1960s clearly d o c u m e n t th is
transition (Casanova 1994, p. 9).
Third, contrary to the above ev alu atio n s o f b o th P r o te s ta n tis m a n d
Roman Catholicism, many scholars, past an d c o n te m p o ra ry alike, d re w a
demarcation line with regard to the respectiv e s itu a tio n in E a s te rn a n d
Southeastern Europe (Russia and Balkans), w h ere O rth o d o x C h r is tia n ity
has traditionally been the d o m in a n t relig io n . It is b e y o n d q u e s tio n th a t
Eastern Orthodox Christianity exhibits som e characteristics th a t set it a p a r t
from Western Christianity. Even Weber (1988, pp. 4 6 6 -6 7 ) h im self, w ith o u t
finishing a systematic examination o f O rth o d o x C h ristia n ity b u t k n o w in g
pretty welt Russian culture, did consider it to o m ystical a n d o th e rw o rld ly to
motivate social changes, as Protestantism did. W ith regard to th e issue u n d e r
examination, the O rthodox C hristian system is c o n s id e re d less r a tio n a l
because it lacks or puts little em phasis u p o n th e n o tio n s o f law a n d o r d e r
(Lipowatz 1998). This contributes to its non-system atic, less clear, less a rtic
ulated, and subsequently less rational natu re (M ap p a 1997). T h is is e v id e n t
in the Orthodox doctrine o f G od as w ell as in th e o v era ll a r tic u la tio n o f
Orthodox theology, which in B yzantium n ev e r d e v e lo p e d in th e W e ste rn
rational sense, but was closely associated w ith m y stical, e x p e rie n tia l, a n d
ascetic phenomena. An example that provides testim o n y fo r th is is th e clash
between the Palamite-hesychastic a n d scholastic th e o lo g y in f o u r te e n th century Byzantium (Podskalsky 1977). In a d d itio n , th e re lig io sity o f th e
Orthodox East as a whole has been considered m o re se n tim e n ta l, a ffe c tio n
ate, and thus less rational than the W estern one (Savram is 1963, p. 344). T h is
should not be necessarily seen as a disadvantage, becau se it w as c o n s id e re d
to be a reason for the survival o f O rthodox C h ristian ity in th e Soviet U n io n ,
despite the extensive rational criticism o f it an d th e sy stem atic a tte m p ts to
eradicate it from the population (Lane 1978, p. 7 8 -7 9 ). Yet it p o in ts clearly
to a characteristic differentiating the East from th e W est, w h ich h as h a d sp e
cific consequences in history. For exam ple, E astern O rth o d o x C h ris tia n ity
did not give rise to a scientific rev o lu tio n , w h ic h h a s b e e n c o n s id e r e d
among other thingsto be the outcom e o f W estern C h ristian influence. T h e
Eastern Orthodox worldview was considered u n d e r th e c o n tro l o f in te rv e n
ing supernatural powers, while God was seen as a b ein g b e y o n d an y h u m a n
rational grasping. Such a religious-cultural m ilieu w as th u s n o t in c lin e d to

O r t h o d o x C h r is t ia n it y , R a t io n a l iz a t io n , M o d e r n iz a t io n

18 3

g e n e r a te a s c ie n tific r e v o lu tio n , as th is h a s h a p p e n e d in th e W e st ( C h a n t
1991, p p . 3 5 5 -5 8 ).
F u rth e rm o re , th e s u p e r n a tu r a l a n d its c o n s ta n t in te r v e n tio n in h u m a n
affa irs o r th e d is p la c e m e n t o f in te r n a l d istre sse s a n d p ro b le m s t o e x te rn a l,
n o n - ra tio n a l cau se s a p p e a r to p la y a g re a te r ro le in th e E ast th a n in th e W est
(S k in n e r 1966; S te w a rt 1989). C o n te m p o r a r y so c io p o litica l crises h av e b e e n
a ls o c o n s id e r e d as i n s t r u m e n t a l f o r a r e e m e r g e n c e o f v a r io u s f o r m s o f
O rth o d o x irra tio n a lism , as m a n ife ste d in th e G re e k n e o - O rth o d o x c u r r e n t
in th e 1980s (E p istim o n ik i Skepsi 1983). A ll in all, K ristev a (1 999) m a d e th is
fu n d a m e n ta l c o n tra s t b e tw e e n E ast a n d W est q u ite clea r w h e n sh e c o m p a re d
th e ir p a ra lle l tr a je c to r ie s a r o u n d th e e n d o f th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry . W h ile
th e W est w as e x p e rie n c in g th e F re n ch R ev o lu tio n a n d th e rise o f K a n ts ra tio
n a lis m , th e E a st w a s e x p e r ie n c in g a n a s c e tic -m y s tic a l rev iv a l c e n te re d o n
O r t h o d o x s p ir itu a lity a n d r e la te d lit e r a tu r e ( th e P h ilo c a lia ), w h ic h in f lu
e n c e d stro n g ly th e Slavic O rth o d o x w o rld th r o u g h th e p e rs o n a lity o f Paisij
V elichkovskij a n d w as ce rta in ly a t o d d s w ith W estern ra tio n a lism o f th e tim e.
T h e ab o v e c h a ra c te ris tic s a re also c o n s id e re d to im p in g e u p o n th e re la
tio n s b etw e en O r th o d o x C h ristia n ity a n d m o d e rn iz a tio n . T h e fo rm e r is c o n
s id e re d m u c h m o r e t r a d i tio n a l (o r, b e tte r , tr a d i tio n a l is ti c ) th a n W e ste rn
C h ristia n ity , a n d th e re fo re it h as resisted ste a d ily th e c u r r e n ts o f c h a n g e a n d
th e r e v o lu tio n a r y s p ir it o f m o d e r n tim e s . I t is n o t o n ly m o r e s e n tim e n ta l,
m y stic a l, a n d asc e tic , b u t a lso m o r e c o m m u n ita r ia n , so c ially c o n se rv a tiv e ,
a n ti-m aterialistic, a n d o th e rw o rld ly o rie n te d (R o zan o v 1994, pp. 9 ,1 1 -1 2 ,1 5 ).
T h u s , it h a s b e e n less activ e in th is w o rld a n d d id n o t in te n d to m a s te r a n d
c o n q u e r it, as W e ste rn C h r is tia n ity d id . D. S av ram is (1 9 6 3 ), a so c io lo g ist o f
relig io n w h o a p p lie d W e b ers c o n c e p tu a l to o ls to O rth o d o x C h ristian ity , c o n
s id e re d th e p r e d o m in a n t o th e rw o rld ly r e tr e a t o f th e la tte r as a b asic d iffe r
e n c e f r o m th e P r o te s ta n t o r i e n t a t i o n . In th e c o u r s e o f h is t o r y O r t h o d o x
C h ris tia n ity p la ce d m o r e a n d m o re v alu e o n passive in ste a d o f active h u m a n
v irtu e s a n d w as th u s fu lly c o n q u e r e d b y a n aso cia l, as w ell as o th e rw o rld ly ,
s p irit a n d sh o w e d little in te re st in tr a n s f o r m in g th e w o rld . T h e lack o f a sys
te m a tic social e th ic a m o n g O rth o d o x C h ris tia n s in clear c o n tra s t to W e ste rn
C h r is tia n s a tte s ts to th is . T h e s a m e c o n c lu s io n c a n b e d r a w n f ro m a c o m
p a r is o n b e tw e e n E a ste rn a n d W e ste rn m o n a s tic is m . In a d d itio n , O rth o d o x
C h r is tia n ity h a s b e e n g e n e ra lly c o n s id e re d less in d iv id u a listic . T h ro u g h its
s tr o n g c o m m u n ita ria n s p ir it it d o e s n o t s u p p o r t lo g ic a n d re a so n as w ell as
th e ap p e a ra n c e o f a n a u to n o m o u s in d iv id u al th a t c o u ld m ak e decisions freely
a n d c r itic a lly a n d c o u ld c a ll in to q u e s tio n e s ta b lis h e d a u t h o r i tie s (P o llis
1 9 9 3 , p p . 3 4 2 4 4 ) . O r t h o d o x y n e v e r s u p p o r t e d th e e m a n c ip a tio n o f th e

18 4

Vasilios N . M a k r id e s

individual, but has continuously fostered th e c o m m u n ita ria n s p irit, w h ic h

has been thus a main hindrance to developm ent (A lexiou 1995).
Given all this, it is no surprise th a t c o u n trie s w ith a p r e d o m i n a n t
Orthodox population have been considered to b e ra th e r re lu c ta n t to a c c o m
plish their modernization. This can be observed today even in c o u n trie s like
Greece, a full member of the E uropean (C o m m u n ity ) U n io n sin c e 1981,
where the postulate o f m odern izatio n is still en vo g u e a n d w h e r e th e
Orthodox Church is often seen by m any as an a n ti-m o d e rn force. T h is issu e
came again into prominence during the strong conflict b etw e en C h u rc h a n d
state in 2000 regarding the omission o f data o n religious affilia tio n fro m th e
new identity cards (see chapter 4, this volum e). T h is is h a rd ly a re c e n t issue,
for it has been repeatedly argued that G reek O rth o d o x y trie s to resist m o d
ernizing and secularizing influences by ad h e rin g to an e a rlie r c o d e o f re li
gious discipline and dogm a (K ou rv etaris a n d D o b r a tz 1 9 8 7 , p. 1 6 4 ).
Consequently, it has been seen as a serious im p e d im e n t to w a rd m o d e rn iz a
tion (McNall 1974a, pp. 5 4 -5 5 ,1974b, 1976).
Interestingly enough, this very arg u m e n t h as b e e n p u t f o rw a r d q u ite
often in recent years with regard to ex-com m unist c o u n trie s w ith a p r e d o m
inant Orthodox tradition. Ironically, the sam e criticism h a d b e e n ex ercised
there during the communist period when O rth o d o x y a n d relig io n in g en e ral
were seen for ideological reasons as a clear h in d ran c e to m o d e rn iz a tio n a n d
progress. To be more specific, m any articles p e rta in in g to th e p r o b le m a tic
role of Russian Orthodoxy for societal developm ent can b e fo u n d in th e y ear
book EzhegodmkMuzeya Istorii Religii i Ateisma (1 [1958]: 137-182; 4 [I9 6 0 ]:
3-262;6 [1962]: 60-141; 7 [1963]: 107-12,122-68). H ow ever, th e m a in p r o b
lem in the 1990s has been the sm ooth transition o f su ch c o u n trie s to d e m o c
ratization, market economy, and m odernization in g en eral, w h ic h a p p e a re d
to be difficult to accomplish for a variety o f reasons. M an y a rg u e d th a t th e re
are deep-rooted obstacles, including c u ltu ral-re lig io u s o n e s in f lu e n c e d b y
Orthodoxys conservatism and nationalism , th a t in h ib it th e e s ta b lish m e n t o f
a market economy and the path tow ard m o d e rn iz a tio n (Iv a n o v 1995, p. 35;
Granin 1995, pp. 68-73; Shaburov 1998-1999; Pavlov 2 0 0 0 -2 0 0 1 ). T h is w as
combined with lively discussions about the com patibility b etw een O rth o d o x y
and Western understandings o f dem ocracy (C h u rch -sta te se p a ra tio n , m u lticulturalism, religious pluralism ). T h is w as th o u g h t to b e th e o u tc o m e o f
Orthodoxys imperial Byzantine past and its p red ilectio n fo r a u th o r ita r ia n
ism in every conceivable form (for som e exam ples, see Taivans 2001, p p . 1 -2;
Papanikolaou 2003, pp. 75-77). After all, it is n o t accid en tal th a t H u n tin g to n
(1996, pp. 157-63) in his notorious th e o ry a b o u t th e c o m in g clash o f civ i

O r t h o d o x C h r is t ia n it y , R a t io n a l iz a t io n , M o d e r n iz a t io n

18 5

liz a tio n s d r e w s u c h a d e m a r c a tio n lin e b e tw e e n E ast a n d W est a n d p la c e d

O rth o d o x c o u n trie s o n a m o d e rn n o n - m o d e r n fau lt line n o t lastly becau se
o f th e ir p a r tic u la r re lig io u s tr a d itio n . T h e c o n v e rg e n c e b e tw e e n s o c io e c o
n o m ic in e q u a lity a n d relig io u s affilia tio n led th u s o fte n to th e id e n tific a tio n
o f E u ro p e w ith th e m o re d ev elo p ed R o m an C a th o lic a n d P ro te sta n t W est (fo r
so m e ex a m p le s, see R o u d o m e to f 2001, p. 2 0 9 ). S u ch a n d sim ila r v iew s w ere
m ir r o re d b y th e d isc u ssio n s a b o u t th e fu tu re o f Y ugoslavia d u r in g a n d in th e
a f te r m a th o f th e c o n s e c u tiv e w a rs th e r e d u r i n g th e 1990s. T h e R o m a n
C a th o lic n o r th (S lovenia a n d C ro atia) w as c o n s id e re d to b e m o re d ev elo p ed ,
c iv iliz e d , a n d m o d e r n th a n th e O r t h o d o x s o u th (S e rb ia , M o n te n e g r o ,
M a c e d o n ia ), w h ic h w as p o rtra y e d as a n alien , d a n g e ro u s to th e W est, c u ltu r
ally u n d e r-d e v e lo p e d a n d in c a p a b le o f a c c o m p lish in g easily a m o d e rn iz in g
b r e a k th ro u g h (fo r s o m e ex a m p le s, see P r o d r o m o u 1996, p p . 1283 1 ). Even
a S erb h im s e lf sta te d th a t th e O rth o d o x C h u rc h loses b y ev ery in c h o f w est
e rn progress te lep h o n e s, ro ad s, th e In te rn e t, w h ate v er (cited in C lark 2000,
p. 5 9 ), th u s p o in tin g clearly to th e ex istin g clash in th is d o m a in . S u ch classi
f ic a tio n s h a v e b e e n o f te n tr a n s f o r m e d in to s im p lis tic s te re o ty p e s a b o u t
E a ste rn O rth o d o x E u ro p e th a t h av e b e e n d is s e m in a te d w id e ly b y th e m a ss
m e d ia , th u s re g io n a liz in g th e E u ro p e a n c o n tin e n t a lo n g re lig io u s lin e s. In
m o re e x tre m e cases, O r th o d o x C h ris tia n ity w as c o n sid e re d to b e in h e re n tly
a n d in trin sic a lly (i.e., o n in n e r th e o lo g ic al g ro u n d s a n d n o t alo n e d u e to th e
s o c io -h isto ric a l c irc u m s ta n c e s ) a g a in s t r a tio n a liz a tio n a n d m o d e rn iz a tio n .
N eedless to say, m a n y O rth o d o x th in k e rs h av e rep e ate d ly ch allen g ed th e
a b o v e c a te g o r iz a tio n s , in th e p a s t a n d a t p r e s e n t a lik e , as o n e - s id e d ,
u n f o u n d e d , a n d b ia se d . F irs t, th e re ex ists a n O rth o d o x c ritiq u e o f W estern
m o d e rn ity , w h ic h p o in ts to th e o v era ll n e g a tiv e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f th is d ev e l
o p m e n t (s e c u la r iz a tio n , d e - C h r is tia n iz a tio n , e tc .) a n d tr ie s to so lv e th e se
W e s te rn d e a d lo c k s b y r e f e r e n c e to th e r ic h O r t h o d o x h e r ita g e . W e s te rn
C h ris tia n ity is seen as th e m a in ca u se fo r th is p ro b le m a tic situ a tio n b ecau se
it h a d a b a n d o n e d th e a u t h e n ti c C h r is tia n r o o ts , w h ile O r th o d o x y is p o r
tra y e d as th e p o te n tia l sa v io r o f th e fallen W est. In th is c o n te x t, th e re is also
th e a tte m p t to p r e s e n t O r th o d o x C h r is tia n ity a s to ta lly d ista n c e d fro m th e
rise o f W e ste rn m o d e r n ity a n d th u s b asica lly u n a ffe c te d b y its grav e c o n s e
q u en c es fo r W estern C h ristia n ity (V lach o s 1992). Second, th e re exists a m o re
s o p h is tic a te d O rth o d o x c r itiq u e o f W e ste rn m o d e rn ity . T h is is e v id e n t, fo r
ex a m p le , in n in e te e n th - c e n tu r y R u ssia a m o n g m a n y re lig io u s p h ilo s o p h e rs
in c lu d in g th e S lav o p h iles (v a n d e n B erck en 1999, p p . 20514), w h ile s im i
la r p h e n o m e n a c a n b e o b se rv e d u n til to d a y , as in th e a n ti-W e s te rn view s o f
A. S o lzh en itsy n (K nigge 2 0 0 1 ). T h u s, I. K ireevskij (1861 II, p p . 245, 251, 285,

18 6

V a s il io s N . M

a k r id e s

300), a Slavophile, e x e rc ise d s t r o n g c r itic is m o f th e r a ti o n a lis m o f th e

Scholastics and o f th e ir useless th e o lo g ic a l d e b a te s, w h ic h in fa c t sig n ifie d
the real separation betw een E ast a n d W est. In a d d itio n , W e ste rn ra tio n a lis m
was portrayed as unable to d e c ip h e r a n d g ra sp th e m y steries o f E a ste rn rea l
ity. The nineteenth-century S lav o p h ile p o e t F. T y u tc h ev c la im e d th a t R ussia
cannot be grasped by re a so n , b u t m u s t b e o n ly b e lie v e d in (c ite d in V arga
1994, p. 146). Similar in m a n y p o in ts , a n ti-W e ste rn c ritiq u e h a s b e e n ex e rted
by Vladimir Solovev, w h o in h is K r iz is z a p a d n o j filo s o fii ( T h e C r is is o f
Western Philosophy, 1874) c r itic iz e d th e tw o m a jo r d ir e c tio n s o f W e st
European philosophy, n am ely e m p iric is m a n d ra tio n a lis m . In h is Filosofskie
nachala tselnogo znaniya (T h e P h ilo so p h ical P rinciples o f In teg ral K now ledge,
1877) he tried to m ove b e y o n d W e ste rn b ip o la r itie s (e.g ., fa ith vs. re a s o n )
by creating his ow n h o listic sy ste m , as e x p re sse d in th e f u n d a m e n ta l c a te
gory of vseedinstvo (all-u n ity , p a n - u n ity ) (S u tto n 1988).
The dichotom ization a n d f ra g m e n ta tio n o f h u m a n ex iste n ce, in d u c e d
by Western m o d ern ity , h a s b e e n a u s u a l p o i n t o f c r itic is m o n th e p a r t o f
many O rthodox, w ho alw ays c o u n te r - p r o p o s e d m o r e h o lis tic a lte rn a tiv e s
and exhibited clear a n ti-d u a lis tic o r ie n ta tio n s . A c c o rd in g to c o n te m p o r a r y
Greek theologian an d p h ilo so p h er, C . Y annaras (1991, p p . 1 4 9 -6 4 ), w h a t th e
world has experienced in m o d e rn tim e s is th e rise o f a o n e -s id e d , a b s o lu tist,
and all-pervasive rationality, w h ic h h a d its o rig in s in W e ste rn th e o lo g y since
Augustine and w hich h as c u lm in a te d in th e a p p e a ra n c e o f sc h o la stic ism in
the high Middle Ages. T h is k in d o f r a tio n a lity w as, h o w ev er, c o n tr a r y to th e
rationality developed in th e B y z a n tin e O rth o d o x E ast, w h ic h h a d its im m e
diate roots in ancient G reek th o u g h t a n d tra d itio n a l p rax is. Logos w as u n d e r
stood in this context n o t as a n in te lle ctu al e n te rp ris e o f th e in d iv id u a l alo n e,
namely as ratio, b u t w as b a s e d o n a v a r ie ty o f fa c to rs a im e d a t p r o v id in g
a more holistic u n d e r s ta n d in g o f r e a lity alw a y s in a c o m m u n i t a r i a n
way. Therefore, it is m istak en to c o n s id e r O rth o d o x y sim p ly as a n irra tio n a l,
mystical, arbitrary, o r loose sy stem o f th o u g h t a n d a c tio n . T h e m a in p r o b
lem for Yannaras, h o w ev e r, h a s b e e n t h a t E a s te r n C h r is t ia n i ty s in c e la te
Byzantium has been c o n ta m in a te d in to ta l b y W e ste rn r a tio n a lity a n d h a s
finally lost touch w ith its o w n a u th e n tic ro o ts , th u s e x p e rie n c in g a h a r d a n d
long identity crisis.
Finally, according to a c o n te m p o ra ry sociologist o f religion, N . K okosalakis
(1994, pp. 127, 136), O r t h o d o x y is p r e - m o d e r n n o t o n ly in a h is to r ic a l
sense, but also in th e sense th a t it tr a n s c e n d s W e ste rn ra tio n a lis m a n d r a tio
nalization. . . . In the sense th a t th e O rth o d o x C h u rc h d id n o t b e c o m e in a n y
way involved in these c u ltu ra l p ro ce sses a n d p o la ritie s , it h a s re m a in e d p re

O r t h o d o x C h r is t ia n it y , R a t io n a l iz a t io n , M o d e r n iz a t io n

18 7

m o d e r n . T h a t m e a n s t h a t O r th o d o x y is n o t so m u c h d ire c tly a ffe c te d b y

m o d e rn ity , b u t p re s e n ts n e w p o te n tia litie s in th e c o n te x t o f p o s t-m o d e rn ity .
O r th o d o x y is th u s se e n p r im a rily as a n o th e rw o r ld ly re lig io n tr a n s c e n d in g
so c io e c o n o m ic c o n d itio n s a n d h av in g n o so c io e c o n o m ic o r p o litical ethic. In
th is w ay, it h a s s o m e th in g tim e le s s a n d a h is to ric a l in its e th o s th a t h e lp s it
to s u rv iv e th e tr a n s f o r m a t io n s o f th e so c ia l s tr u c t u r e a n d sy stem s, as th is
h a p p e n e d u n d e r c o m m u n is t ru le (K o k o sala k is 1994, p. 138).

II
A sid e f ro m th e se re p re s e n ta tiv e v iew s o f th e tw o c a m p s a n d b e fo re u n d e r
ta k in g to c o n s id e r th e w h o le issu e a n d p o te n tia lly to re v isit it, it s h o u ld b e
m a d e c le a r f ro m th e o u ts e t th a t th e v ie w s p o s tu la tin g a n e g a tiv e r e la tio n
sh ip b e tw e e n O rth o d o x C h ris tia n ity a n d r a tio n a liz a tio n /m o d e rn iz a tio n are
n o t u n f o u n d e d . It is w ell k n o w n th a t O r th o d o x C h r is tia n ity p la y ed n o ro le
in th e p ro c e sse s o f r a tio n a liz a tio n a n d m o d e r n iz a tio n in th e c o u rse o f th e
e m e rg e n c e o f th e m o d e r n w o rld . T h ese w ere th e o u tc o m e o f th e lo n g social,
c u ltu r a l, p o litic a l, e c o n o m ic , a n d r e lig io u s e v o lu tio n o f W e s te rn E u ro p e .
W h a t th e E a s te rn O r th o d o x w o rld h a s e x p e rie n c e d is b asica lly th e b e la te d
im p a c t o f th e s e ra d ic a l c h a n g e s , w h ic h th r o u g h v a rio u s c h a n n e ls h as b e e n
im p o r te d to it in th e w ak e o f a W e s te rn iz a tio n p ro c e ss fro m th e e ig h te e n th
c e n tu r y o n w a rd . In o th e r w o rd s , W e s te rn m o d e r n ity is b asically a n ex o g e
n o u s s itu a tio n fo r O r th o d o x so cieties. I t d id n o t arise o u t o f th e se so cieties
a n d th e ir o w n n ee d s, b u t w as so m e h o w im p o s e d u p o n th e m b y W e stern ized
elites p o litic a l, in te lle c tu a l, a n d o th e rw is e . A s a re su lt, it w a s n o t c o n g r u
e n t w ith th e in d ig e n o u s tr a d itio n a l id e a ls th a t h a d b e e n e s ta b lis h e d in th e
O r th o d o x w o rld fo r q u ite s o m e c e n tu rie s . T h is e x p la in s w h y th e O r th o d o x
C h u r c h w as n o t a t all e n th u s ia s tic in e n d o r s in g th e fo re ig n id e als o f r a tio
n a liz a tio n a n d m o d e rn iz a tio n .
I n a d d i tio n , th e a f o r e m e n tio n e d in c o m p a t ib ili ty b e tw e e n O r t h o d o x
C h r is tia n ity a n d r a ti o n a liz a t io n /m o d e r n i z a t io n is s tr e n g th e n e d i f w e p a y
a tte n tio n to so m e h isto ric al c h a racteristics o f th e fo rm er, w h ich are strik in g ly
d iffe re n t fro m th o se o f R o m a n C a th o lic ism a n d especially o f P ro te sta n tism .
F o r e x a m p le , O r th o d o x C h r is tia n ity is m u c h m o r e b o u n d to tr a d itio n a n d
te n d s to idealize th e p a s t a n d to view it in m o n o lith ic , a b s o lu tist te rm s, as th e
g lo ry o f elap se d , g o ld e n tim es. As a c o n s e q u e n c e , it is less d ire c te d to w a rd
th e f u tu r e b u t k e e p s e v e n to d a y d r a w in g m o d e ls o f t h o u g h t a n d a c tio n
fro m th e p a s t (fro m th e C h u r c h F a th e rs, a n d so o n ). O rth o d o x C h ris tia n ity
e x h ib its a lo n g h is to ry o f su c h a n a n ti-in n o v a tio n is t sp irit fro m th e B yzantine

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V a silio s N . M a k r i d e s

times onward. Such a fu n d am e n tal o rie n ta tio n f u n c tio n s as a se rio u s d ra w

back toward ratio n alizatio n a n d m o d e r n iz a tio n . C o n s id e r in g t h a t th is
Orthodox traditionalism h as been often tra n s fo rm e d h isto ric a lly in to a g e n
eral social traditionalism influencing m a n y n o n -re lig io u s sp h e re s (M ak rid e s
1995), then the negative im p act th a t th is g en e ral o rie n ta tio n m ig h t h av e h a d
upon the road of the O rth o d o x w orld to w ard m o d e rn ity b e c o m e s m o re ev i
dent. The same was true w hen conservative ideologies in E astern E u ro p e p re
vailed, in which O rthodox traditionalism a n d co n serv atism played a v ital role.
Such a case can be observed in n in e te e n th -c e n tu ry R u ssia w h e n th e trip ty c h
Orthodoxy, Autocracy, N a tio n a lity b e c a m e th e c o r n e rs to n e o f a R u s sian
conservative ideology (G rosul 2000). A fter all, it is i m p o r ta n t to p o in t o u t
that one potential reason for th e lack o f a R e fo rm a tio n , th is m o s t c ru c ia l fac
tor toward modernity, in th e E astern O r th o d o x w o rld m ig h t b e s o u g h t in
the established, all-encom passing O rth o d o x fid e lity to w a r d th e in h e r ite d
tradition and in th e w id e s p re a d r e lu c ta n c e to q u e s tio n it in a n y w ay
(Makrides 2004a).
The list of such exam ples ca n b e c o n tin u e d , b u t a q u e s tio n m ig h t b e
posed in this context: D o all these a rg u m e n ts, ex a m p le s, a n d cases sig n ify in
fact that Orthodox C h ristianity is totally in c o m p a tib le w ith r a tio n a liz a tio n
and modernization? Can w e fu rth e r claim th a t th e re is a n electiv e a ffin ity
between O rthodox C h ristia n ity a n d a n t i- r a tio n a l as w ell as a n t i- m o d e r n
trends? To be true, by looking at som e h istorical p e rio d s o n e m ay fin d n u m e r
ous elements corroborating to a g reat e x te n t th e ab o v e a s s u m p tio n s . Yet th e
problem is if one in this w ay re so rts to sw e e p in g g e n e ra liz a tio n s a b o u t th e
exact essence of O rthodox C hristianity. S uch a co n c lu sio n w o u ld b e, h o w
ever, highly problematic, because th is k in d o f e s sen tialism is a h is to ric a l a n d
misleading and presupposes a static view o f religious p h e n o m e n a . O n th e c o n
trary, if we consider how religious d ynam ics fu n c tio n w ith in th e overall so cio
cultural system, we m ig h t be m o re ab le to d is c e rn n u m e r o u s c h a n g e s a n d
adjustments in religions over a lo n g p e rio d o f tim e . T h is p ersp e ctiv e im p lies
a highly differentiated view o f religious e v o lu tio n . By lo o k in g b a c k a t h isto ry
we can thus realize that O rth o d o x C h ristian ity to o d id n o t re m a in im m u ta b le
and without changes, even if at tim es it h as conveyed th e im p re ssio n o f m a in
taining a more or less p erm a n en t character. It w o u ld b e in te re stin g to e x a m
ine whether some o f these changes c o u ld b e classified as m o d e rn iz in g . O n
the other hand, O rthodox reactions to v a rio u s c u rre n ts o f c h a n g e s h o u ld n o t
be a priori classified as a n ti-m o d e rn , b ec au se th e y h a d alw ays m a n y so u rces
and causes that were n ot necessarily related to o n e a n o th e r. T h ese p re lim in a ry
thoughts force us to try to exam ine th e en tire issue o f th e rela tio n sh ip b etw een

O r t h o d o x C h r is t ia n it y , R a t io n a l iz a t io n , M o d e r n iz a t io n

18 9

O r t h o d o x C h r is tia n ity a n d r a t i o n a liz a t io n /m o d e r n i z a t io n f ro m a n o t h e r

b r o a d e r an g le b y ta k in g in to c o n s id e r a tio n v a rio u s p a ra m e te rs .

Ill
F irst, b y lo o k in g a t th e h u g e d isc u s sio n a b o u t r a tio n a liz a tio n a n d m o d e r n
iz a tio n in E a s te r n a n d S o u th e a s te r n E u r o p e it b e c o m e s c le a r th a t th e s e
p ro c e s s e s h a v e b e e n c o n s ta n tly r e la te d to m u lt if o r m re a s o n s a n d fa c to rs .
T h is p e r ta in s b a s ic a lly to th e d is c u s s io n o f th e n o to r io u s b a c k w a rd n e s s o f
E a ste rn a n d S o u th e a ste rn E u ro p e , w h ic h h a s b e e n tre a te d so far fro m m a n y
sc h o la rly p e rsp e c tiv e s. W ith in th is a m p le c o n g lo m e ra te s o m e s c h o la rs p a y
n o a tte n tio n a t all o r a t le a st m in im a l a tte n tio n to th e re lig io u s /O r th o d o x
fa c to r, w h ic h is b y n o m e a n s c o n s id e r e d to b e th e m a in h in d r a n c e to th e
o v e r a ll d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e s e c o u n t r i e s (V a rg a 1 9 9 4 , p . 1 4 4 ). R a th e r,
th e b elate d p ro cess o f m o d e rn iz a tio n in th e E u ro p e a n (s e m i)p e rip h e ry sin ce
th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y is a t tr ib u te d to m a n y o th e r fa c to rs: la te in d u s tr ia l
iz a tio n ; o lig a rc h ic p a r lia m e n ta r is m ; class s tr u c tu re ; p ro b le m a tic u r b a n iz a
tio n ; h ig h rate s o f illiteracy ; p o p u lis m , p o litic a l p a tro n a g e , p a r ty sp irit, a n d
c lie n te lism ; th e e n h a n c e d ro le o f th e p e a s a n try ; la c k o f a g r ic u ltu r a l m o d
e rn iz a tio n ; th e ro le o f th e a rm y ; b u r e a u c r a tic g ig a n tis m ; fo re ig n in te r v e n
tio n a n d d e p e n d e n c e (see Filias 1974; Legg 1977; M cN eill 1978; G ro th u se n et
al. 1980; L am p e a n d Jackson 1982; T so u k alas 1 9 8 3 ,1 9 8 7 ; S u n d h a u sse n 1984;
M o u zelis 1 9 7 8 ,1 9 8 6 ; C h iro t 1989; G e o rg ia d o u 1991; H e p p n e r 1995; P alairet
1997; R o u d o m e to f 2001, p p . 1 5 8 -6 5 ; A liv izato s 2001; see also K ovani 1986).
F u rth e r, e m p h a sis is u su a lly p la ce d u p o n th e so c io -h isto ric a l c o n d itio n s
e x p e rie n c e d b y E a ste rn a n d S o u th e a s te rn E u ro p e a t a tim e w h e n th e W est
w as d e v e lo p in g a t a n in c re d ib le p a c e . O n th e o n e h a n d , th e B a lk a n s h a d a
lo n g p e r io d o f O tto m a n d o m in a tio n a n d w ere fo r a lo n g tim e , a sid e fro m
a few ex c e p tio n s, u n til th e e a rly n in e te e n th c e n tu r y b asica lly se c lu d e d fro m
th e tre m e n d o u s W e ste rn d e v e lo p m e n ts, g iv en th e fact th a t O tto m a n so ciety
w a s a v e ry t r a d i tio n a l is t o n e ( in a lc ik 1 9 7 8 ). O n th e o th e r h a n d , R u ssia,
a lth o u g h free fro m fo reig n ru le , e x h ib ite d n o n e th e le ss a h u g e c u ltu ra l lag a n d
w as s tru c tu ra lly d iffe re n t fro m W e ste rn so cieties. Its o w n r o a d to m o d e rn ity
h a s b e e n a t te m p te d s y s te m a tic a lly f r o m th e tim e o f T sar P e te r th e G re a t
(1 6 8 9 -1 7 2 5 ) o n w a rd th r o u g h th e u se o f W e ste rn e x p e rts, d e s p ite th e m a n y
in te r n a l re a c tio n s a n d c o n flic ts ( in c lu d in g b u t n o t lim ite d to r e a c tio n s b y
O rth o d o x circles). It is w o rth m e n tio n in g th a t P ro te sta n tis m p lay ed a ro le in
th is m o d e rn iz in g d e v e lo p m e n t to o fo r ex a m p le , th ro u g h th e a n n e x a tio n o f
L u th e ra n L atv ia to th e R u ssia n E m p ire in 1721. T h is w as in s tr u m e n ta l fo r

190

Vasilios N . M a k r id e s
O r t h o p o x C h r .s t .x n .t v , R a t .o n a u z a t .o n , M o m

Russias m odernization c o n s id e r in g th e k e y p o s itio n s h e ld b y G e r m a n

Lutherans from Latvia in th e g o v e r n m e n t. M o re o v e r, th e lo n g c o m m u n is t
rule over the Soviet U nion a n d m a n y S o u th e a s te rn E u ro p e a n c o u n trie s h as
been another key factor in th e ir h isto ry th a t h as set th e m a p a r t fro m th e c a p
italist West. It is true that in this p e rio d o f E a st-W est p o litica l a n d id eo lo g ical
opposition communist cou n tries a tte m p te d th e ir o w n w ay o f m o d e rn iz a tio n
which, however seen fro m t o d a y s p e r s p e c tiv e h a s b e e n p r o v e n a
chimera. All these m ake clear th e c o m p le x in te r -m in g lin g o f n u m e r o u s fac
tors related to the belated m o d e rn iz a tio n o f th is p a rtic u la r g e o g ra p h ic a l a n d
cultural area and its need to ca tc h u p . B u t a g a in it c e rta in ly w o u ld b e m is
taken to attribute this p a rtic u la r a n d c o m p le x s itu a tio n ex clu siv ely o r p r e
dominantly to the alleged a n ti- m o d e r n a ttitu d e o f O r t h o d o x C h ris tia n ity .
Furthermore, in sociological s tu d ie s fro m r e c e n t d e c a d e s r e f e r r in g to
the structural changes w ithin c o u n trie s w ith a p r e d o m in a n t O r th o d o x p o p
ulation, there is no ex p lic it r e fe re n c e to th e O r t h o d o x C h u r c h o r th e
Orthodox belief system as in h ib itin g th e ir o v era ll r a tio n a liz a tio n a n d m o d
ernization. To m e n tio n an e x a m p le : D in e llo (1 9 9 8 ) e x a m in e d s ix ty - o n e
Russian bankers an d th e ir p r in c ip a l o r i e n t a t i o n s , b e c a u s e in th e t r a d i
tional Russian O rth o d o x th o u g h t a n d c u l tu r a l p r a c tic e m o n e y - le n d in g ,
profiteering, and u tilita ria n in d iv id u a lis m o f te n h a v e b e e n d e n o u n c e d as
morally corrupt (by D o sto e v sk ij, T o lsto i, B e rd y a e v ). A fte r a ll, O r t h o d o x
Christianity as a specific religious sy stem d id n o t sa n c tio n r a tio n a l m e th o d
ical pursuit o f riches by stew ard sh ip in th e w ay W e ste rn C h r is tia n ity d id . In
addition, Russia could exhibit a series o f a n t i- m o n e ta r y a n d a n ti- c a p ita lis t
idealsnot least u n d er c o m m u n is t r u le . T h e q u e s tio n f o r D in e llo w a s to
find out whether these n ew R u ssian b a n k e r s a p p r o x im a te d a h o m o o rth o doxus, influenced by th e s p ir it a n d th e id e a ls o f R u s s ia n O r th o d o x y , o r a
homo economicus, influenced b y th e W e ste rn -sty le m o d e rn ity . In te re s tin g ly
enough, she found that these b a n k e rs e m u la te d w ith o u t a n y in h ib itio n s th e
latter type and that n o th in g in d ic a te d th a t th e y w e re n o t c u ltu r a lly w e llequipped for m arket experiences. A s a re su lt, th e a n ti-c a p ita lis t im p e ra tiv e s
of Orthodoxy did n o t seem to p lay an y ro le in th is c o n te x t. T h is r e s u lt can
be used as evidence that th e role a tta c h e d to O rth o d o x y in in h ib itin g r a tio
nalization and m odernization s h o u ld n o t b e o v e re stim a te d .
Similar results can be draw n fro m a su rv ey o f th e In stitu te o f Sociological
Analysis in April 1997 a m o n g 1,593 p e r s o n s liv in g in all re g io n s o f R u ssia
on public attitudes to w ard b asic r e lig io u s a n d life v a lu e s (T a iv a n s 2 0 0 1 ,
pp. 8-15). The latter had been o p e ra tio n a liz e d o n th e b asis o f P ro te s ta n t,
Orthodox, and secular/cynical v alu e o r ie n ta tio n sy stem s w ith resp ectiv e

o p in io n su rv e y d id reveal a d e e

,91

e rn iz atlo n o f R ussian society. T his

a tte n d e e s accepted'^P m te s m rn " ef a m p ' e*th e

c le a r p o p u la r ity o f P r o te s ta n t vali

i ! , iio n

Y o f O rth o d o x c h u rc h
n d isco v ered w as th e n a

w o rk , w ea lth , a n d fre e d o m o f a n in d iv id u a l T h e s e ^ ^ ' ^ a itUdeS tOWard

re q u is ite s fo r th e m o d e r n iz a tio n o f R u s sia n s o c i e t y A f t h ^ h l S s R ^ ^
p r e d ile c tio n fo r P r o te s ta n tis m
ni u
A lth o u g h th is R u ssian

To.lT

den , fron, tfu,

ence t o " G r la 'f n , 1'

h a K P stulted (Savramis

S o c io lo g ic a l s tu d ie s a b o u t O r t h l j

a n d G reece h as sh o w n ( S a f i l i o s - R o l h ^ h d c l f l l i r u ! 16^

refer!

a b s f<tte b ifu rc a tio n .

60 ^

19 2

V a sil io s N . M a k r id e s

O r t h o d o x C h r is t ia n it y , R a t io n a l iz a t io n , M o d e r n iz a t io n

o f G reece b e in g clearly low er. Yet, o n th e level o f social m o d e rn iz a tio n G reece

w a s f o u n d a t a h i g h e r le v e l t h a n th e U n ite d S ta te s, a f a c t in d ic a t in g th e
c a v e a ts in u s in g th e m o d e r n i z a t i o n c o n c e p t in a n o n - d if f e r e n tia te d w ay
(cf. also R o th 1988 a b o u t S o u th e a s te rn E u ro p e in g e n e ra l).
T h e above re m a rk s b e c o m e m o re useful if o n e reflects a little o n th e exact
role p la y e d b y O r t h o d o x C h r is t ia n i ty in c o n t e m p o r a r y E a s te r n a n d
S o u th e a ste rn E u ro p e a n c o u n trie s. In to d a y s fu n c tio n a lly d iffe re n tia te d so c i
e tie s th e C h u r c h as a n in s t itu ti o n r e ta in s so le ly a lim ite d r a n g e o f p o w e r,
th o u g h its overall sp iritu a l in flu e n ce is m u c h stro n g er. T h e in te rn a l o rg a n iz a
t io n a n d s tr u c t u r e o f th e s e c o u n tr ie s d o n o t a llo w a n y f o r m o f th e o c ra c y ,
d esp ite th e fact th a t m u c h v alu e is c o n s titu tio n a lly a tta c h e d to th e O rth o d o x
tra d itio n . T h u s, th e C h u r c h is h a rd ly th e sole a n d th e m o s t in flu e n tia l a g e n t
w ith in th is c o m p le x s itu a tio n . As a resu lt, it b e c o m e s v ery d ifficu lt n o w ad ay s
to a ttrib u te ce rtain a n ti- m o d e r n policies to th e in flu en ce o f th e C h u rc h alone.
T h is is n o t to d e n y ag a in th a t so m e te n e ts o f th e O rth o d o x b e lie f sy stem m ay
have h a d o r m a y still h av e a re ta rd in g im p a c t u p o n th e o v erall c u ltu re o f a
p r e d o m in a n tly O r t h o d o x c o u n tr y . Yet th e ir e x a c t lo c a liza tio n in to d a y s
increasingly co m p lex a n d diverse societies rem a in s p ro b lem atic . In earlier p e ri
o d s o f tim e , w h e n th e O rth o d o x C h u rc h en jo y ed a m o re in flu e n tial social sta
tu s a n d p la y ed a le a d in g ro le in th e o v era ll d e c isio n m a k in g , su c h as d u r in g
th e O tto m a n d o m i n a t i o n o f th e B a lk a n s , th in g s w e re d if f e r e n t. In th is
resp e ct, th e C h u r c h s p a r t in in h ib itin g s o m e m o d e rn iz in g p o lic ie s (s u c h as
regarding th e renew al o f e d u c a tio n u n d e r th e influ en ce o f th e E n lig h te n m e n t)
co u ld b e m o re easily lo c ate d . T h is w as th e case, fo r ex am p le, in th e G re ek area
a t th e tu r n o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y w h e n p a rts o f th e e m e rg in g n e w in te l
lectual, political, a n d c o m m ercial elite e n te re d in to co nflict w ith th e O rth o d o x
C h u rc h a n d d e m a n d e d ra d ic a l c h a n g e s in m a n y d o m a in s . A m a in p o stu la te
w as th e lim itin g o f th e w id e r social in flu e n c e o f th e C h u r c h a n d its p re o c c u
p a tio n basically a n d solely w ith relig io u s m a tte rs (M a k rid e s 1997). H ow ever,
th is is h a rd ly th e c o n te m p o r a r y s itu a tio n in w h ic h th e C h u r c h is f ro m a
le g a l-a d m in istra tiv e p o in t o f v ie w a m e re d e p a r tm e n t o f th e sta te a n d its
overall role in decision m a k in g is ra th e r lim ited. T h is o b se rv atio n d o es n o t p e r
ta in solely to th e q u e s tio n o f m o d e rn iz a tio n , b u t to m a n y o th e r issues as well.

IV
S econd, a very im p o r ta n t rea so n fo r th e h isto ric ally a n d ev en c o n te m p o ra rily
o b served relu ctan ce o f th e O rth o d o x C h u rc h to accep t m a n y ch an g es in d u c ed
b y ra tio n a liz a tio n a n d m o d e rn iz a tio n is th e fact th a t all th e se p ro cesses o rig

19 3

in a te d m a in ly in th e W est a n d th a t th e y w ere im p o r te d la ter th r o u g h v a rio u s

ch a n n e ls to th e E ast (e.g., th ro u g h m issio n a rie s in Russia; S an tich 1995). T h is
b r in g s in to p r o m in e n c e a f a c to r th a t h a s m o ld e d O rth o d o x c o n s c ie n c e fo r
m a n y ce n tu rie s u n til today, n a m e ly O rth o d o x a n ti-W e ste rn ism a n d th e c o n
tin u o u s E ast-W est riv alry (M ak rid es a n d U ffelm an n 2003). It is a b o u t a m u lti
lay ered p h e n o m e n o n , w h o se re p e rc u ssio n s c a n b e o b se rv e d in n o n re lig io u s
d o m a in s to o , b e c a u s e th e in itia l re lig io u s o p p o s itio n b e tw e e n th e tw o
C h u rc h e s a n d th e tw o w o rld s h a s b e e n la ter tra n sfo rm e d a n d generalized. T h e
W est ca m e th u s to sig n ify fo r th e O r th o d o x E ast a p la ce in w h ich d a n g e rs fo r
th e O rth o d o x h a d o rig in a te d . T h is p r o h ib ite d fro m th e o u ts e t a m o re o b je c
tive o r n e u tra l ev a lu a tio n o f th e overall W estern d ev e lo p m e n t. T h is explains
a lso to a g re a t e x te n t th e c o n s ta n t s u s p ic io n a n d th e n e g a tiv e a ttitu d e w ith
w h ic h m a n y O r t h o d o x p re la te s v ie w e d W e s te rn p ro g re ss. N e e d le ss to say,
w ith th e p a s s in g o f tim e th is o p p o s itio n b e c a m e ev en stro n g e r, p a rtic u la rly
w h e n th e W est sta rte d to b e c o m e a m o d e l fo r im ita tio n in th e E ast a n d w h en
p ro -W e ste rn c u rre n ts a c q u ire d firm fo o th o ld s in tra d itio n a lly O rth o d o x c u l
tu re s. In o u r case, m o d e rn iz a tio n m e a n t o rig in a lly W e s te rn iz a tio n , n a m e ly
a n e m u la tio n o f W e ste rn p r o to ty p e s c o u p le d w ith a s tr o n g so c ial c ritiq u e
a g a in s t th e b a c k w a rd n e ss o f th e E ast. G iv en th e fac t th a t th is c ritic is m w as
d ir e c te d a g a in s t th e O r t h o d o x C h u r c h to o , e v e n in re la tiv e ly m ild fo rm s
(M a k rid e s 1997), it b e c o m e s u n d e r s ta n d a b le w h y th e C h u r c h w as b asically
a g a in s t th is k in d o f m o d e r n iz a tio n , w h ic h m e a n t a n a b r u p t riff in th e h is
to ric a l c o n tin u ity o f O rth o d o x c u ltu re s (C a z a c u 2 0 0 3 ).
D e s p ite th e e a rly o p tim is m o f th e p ro -W e s te r n e r s , th is k in d o f m o d
e r n iz a tio n w as far fro m b e in g a p a n a c e a . Its sy ste m a tic im p le m e n ta tio n b y
p o litic a l a n d o th e r e lite s c re a te d h u g e p ro b le m s in O r th o d o x c o u n trie s a n d
led to m assiv e p o p u la r re a c tio n s b e c a u s e it d ic h o to m iz e d th e c o n s c io u sn e ss
o f th e se p e o p le s a n d p r e s e n te d th e m w ith s tr o n g c h a lle n g e s (K itro m ilid e s
1 9 9 3 ). T h e c la s h a n d th e r if t b e tw e e n a n t i- a n d p r o -W e s te r n e r s h a s th u s
r e m a in e d a c o n s ta n t p h e n o m e n o n o f O rth o d o x c u ltu re s u n til to d ay , as re l
e v a n t d e b a te s a b o u t th e fu tu re o f p o s t- c o m m u n is t E astern a n d S o u th ea ste rn
E u ro p e to d a y c le a rly d o c u m e n t (U h lig 1998). It is n o t th u s a c c id e n ta l th a t
H u n tin g to n (1996, p p . 1 3 8 -3 9 ) in c lu d e d O rth o d o x c o u n trie s in th e categ o ry
o f th e to r n c o u n trie s b y p u ttin g e m p h a s is o n th e ir in te r n a l b ip o la ritie s. It
is u se fu l to r e m e m b e r h e re th a t th e O rth o d o x C h u rc h h a s n o t b e e n th e sole
a n ti-W e s te rn fa c to r in th is e n tire p ro ce ss. A n ti-W e s te rn is m is o b v io u s a n d
w id e s p re a d a m o n g m a n y in te lle c tu a ls as w ell as p o litic ia n s, w h o o fte n c r it
icize th e a d u lte ra tin g , m o d e rn , W e ste rn in flu e n c e s d is to rtin g th e in d ig e n o u s
tr a d itio n s a n d c re a tin g crises o f id e n tity .

194

V a s ilio s

N.

M a k rid e s

A n o th e r p o in t, w h ic h s h o u ld b e c o m m e n te d u p o n in th is c o n te x t, h a s
to d o w ith th e p ro p o s a ls a n d th e exigencies o f th e p ro -W e ste rn elites re g a rd
in g th e ra tio n a liz a tio n a n d th e m o d e rn iz a tio n o f th e O rth o d o x C h u rc h itself.
T h e se w e re u s u a lly m a d e b y p e o p le w h o o fte n a d m ir e d W e ste rn C h r is tia n
p ro to ty p e s a n d sh o w e d n o re sp e c t a n d se n sitiv ity a t all to th e ric h O rth o d o x
h e r ita g e a n d its s ig n ific a n c e f o r th e O r t h o d o x flo c k as w ell as f o r p o p u la r
c u ltu r e . T h e i r id e a s a n d v ie w s o n m o d e r n i z in g th e C h u r c h w e re in c le a r
o p p o s itio n to th e ecclesia stical tr a d itio n a n d w ere o fte n fu ll o f b la ta n t m is
u n d e rs ta n d in g s . S u ch a tte m p ts n a tu ra lly a c c e n tu a te d th e w h o le c o n flic t a n d
re n d e re d th e av e rsio n o f th e O rth o d o x C h u r c h to w a r d m o d e rn iz a tio n ev en
stro n g er. A c h a ra c te ristic e x a m p le o f su c h a case c a n b e f o u n d in a le tte r th a t
a G re e k p o litic ia n , A n d re a s M ic h a la k o p o u lo s ( 1 8 7 5 -1 9 3 8 ), s e n t in 1916 to
th e p re s id e n t o f th e c o u n c il, E leffh erio s V enizelos (1 8 6 4 -1 9 3 6 ), w h o w as th e
p e r s o n b e h in d th e firs t s y ste m a tic m o d e r n iz a tio n o f G re e c e in th e tw e n ti
e th c e n tu ry . In th is lo n g le tte r M ic h a la k o p o u lo s p o in te d o u t to V enizelos th e
n e c e s sity o f a p r o f o u n d r e f o r m in th e C h u r c h , w h ic h w a s to b e m a d e fo l
lo w in g W e ste rn C h ris tia n p r o to ty p e s (a b o litio n o f th e fasts a n d feasts, m o d
e rn iz a tio n o f th e d iffe re n t c e re m o n ie s a n d litu rg ies, e d u c a tio n o f th e p riests,
a n ti- m o n a s tic m e a s u re s , c o n fis c a tio n o f m o n a s tic p r o p e rty , a n d so o n ; see
K itsik is 1995, p p . 9 - 1 2 ) . B y r e a d in g th is le tte r a p e r s o n f a m ilia r w ith th e
O r t h o d o x t r a d i tio n c a n e a sily re a liz e h o w fa r th is p o litic ia n in fa c t s to o d
f ro m th e re lig io u s t r a d i t i o n o f h is o w n c o u n t r y a n d h o w p r o b le m a tic h is
m o d e rn iz in g r e f o rm p la n s w ere. T h e re fo re , it c o m e s as n o s u rp ris e th a t th e
C h u rc h alw ays fe a re d a n d re a c te d a g a in st su c h id e a s a n d p ro p o sa ls , b ec au se
it h a d su ffe re d in th e p a s t f ro m th e im p le m e n ta tio n o f s u c h p o lic ie s (e.g .,
fro m th e ecclesiastical p o lic y o f th e O th o n ia n re g im e in n in e te e n th - c e n tu ry
G reece). N eedless to say, even today, m a n y sides voice th e p o te n tia l o f c h u rc h
m o d e r n iz a tio n . M o u z e lis (1 9 9 6 , p p . 2 2 6 2 7 ), f o r e x a m p le , th in k s th a t th e
v alu es o f O rth o d o x y c o u ld b e in c o rp o r a te d in to th e d isc o u rs e o f m o d e rn ity
w ith o u t p ro b le m s o n th e c o n d itio n th a t th e C h u r c h ceases to p r o m o te a n tiW e s te r n / a n ti - E u r o p e a n s e n tim e n ts a n d to c r itic iz e th e a c h ie v e m e n ts o f
W e ste rn m o d e rn ity . T h is m e a n s th a t m a n y sc h o la rs see n o b a sic in c o m p a t
ib ility b e tw e e n m o d e r n ity a n d O rth o d o x y , b u t th e y realize th e e x iste n c e o f
s o m e ob stacles th a t n e e d to b e o v erc o m e. T h e b a s ic re m a in in g p ro b le m w ith
su c h o th e rw is e in te re s tin g p ro p o s a ls is th a t th e y c o m e u su a lly fro m o u ts id e
o b s e rv e rs o f th e w h o le s itu a tio n a n d n o t fro m th e e c h e lo n s o f th e C h u r c h
itself. A s a re s u lt, th e c r ite r ia u se d b y b o th sid es a re n o t id e n tic a l, w h ile th is
d iss e n sio n p e r ta in s also to th e ex a ct issues in th e ecclesiastical o rg a n ism th a t
s u p p o s e d ly n e e d t o b e r e f o r m e d . H e r e a g a in lie s a m a jo r s o u r c e o f d is

O ri h o d o x C h r is t ia n it y , R a t io n a l iz a t io n , M o d e r n iz a t io n

19 5

a g re e m e n t a n d m is u n d e r s ta n d in g s , w h ic h o fte n fo rces th e C h u r c h to ta k e a
d efen siv e a ttitu d e to w a rd su c h r e fo rm p ro p o sa ls .
F in a lly , th e a n ti- W e s te r n c a m p as a w h o le ( in c lu d in g th e O r t h o d o x
C h u rc h ) is sh a p e d b y a n o th e r p h e n o m e n o n th a t is also re la te d to th e p re s e n t
is s u e a n d m u s t b e m e n tio n e d . I t p e r t a i n s to th e c o n s ta n t c o m p a r is o n
b e tw e e n E ast a n d W e st as e n tire c u ltu r a l co m p le x e s a n d th e q u e s t fo r s u p e
r io r ity o f th e o n e o v e r th e o th e r. T h is p h e n o m e n o n c a n b e o b s e rv e d fro m
th e la te B y z a n tiu m o n w a r d in a v a rie ty o f fo rm s (M a k rid e s 2 0 0 4 b ). In o u r
case, th is c o m p a r is o n p ro c e s s h a s to d o w ith a p a r tia l o r c o m p le te n e g a tio n
b y th e a n ti-W e s te rn e rs o f th e ra tio n a liz a tio n /m o d e rn iz a tio n p la n s im p o s e d
u p o n E a s te rn a n d S o u th e a s te r n E u ro p e a n d w ith th e a t te m p t to p r o p o s e
a lte r n a tiv e m o d e ls o f r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n / m o d e r n i z a t i o n o n th e b a s is o f th e
in d ig e n o u s tra d itio n (D a sk alo v 1997), in c lu d in g in so m e cases th e O rth o d o x
h e rita g e . T h is h a s b e e n c a u s e d to a g re a t e x te n t b y th e p ro b le m s c o n c o m i
ta n t to W e ste rn -sty le m o d e rn iz a tio n (e.g., d e c lin e o f village, p a tria rc h a l life,
a n d lo cal h a n d ic r a f t in d u s tr ie s ) . T h is d is illu s io n m e n t le d m a n y in te lle c tu
als a n d o th e r s to lo o k a t t h e i r o w n c u l tu r a l h e r ita g e f o r a n s w e rs to th e s e
p ro b le m s a n d to fin d in d ig e n o u s s o lu tio n s in ste a d o f u n c ritic a lly a p in g fo r
eig n p ro to ty p e s . T h is w as in te n d e d n o t o n ly as c o m p e n s a tio n fo r th e in flu x
o r W estern m o d e ls, b u t also as a w ay o f sh o w in g an E a ste rn s u p e rio rity o v er
th e W est. T h is q u e s t h a s b e e n u s u a lly c o n n e c te d w ith a r e tu r n to p re v io u s
E astern in stitu tio n s, w h o se re v ita liz a tio n w as co n ceiv ed as a s o lu tio n to c o n
te m p o r a r y p ro b le m s. A f re q u e n t m o d e l o f su c h an a lte rn a tiv e w as th e ideal
o f c o m m u n ity , w h ic h w as p re s e n te d in a n id y llic w ay as ru le d b y th e ju stic e
a n d e q u a lity o f its m e m b e r s (Je la v ic h 1 983, p p . 4 9 - 5 0 ) a n d w a s d ir e c te d
ag a in st th e o n sla u g h t o f W estern in d iv id u alism . In a n o th e r case, fo r Y annaras
(1 9 9 5 ) th e m o d e r n i z a t i o n o f G re e c e m u s t b e c o t e r m in o u s w ith its
H e lle n iz a tio n , n a m e ly th e re d isc o v e ry o f th e a u th e n tic H ellen ic id e n tity , th e
tr u e a p p r o p r ia tio n o f th e a n c ie n t G re e k as w ell as th e C h r is tia n O r th o d o x
id eals a n d p rio ritie s in life. S u ch a n d sim ila r id eas c a n b e fo u n d fro m R ussia
u p to th e B a lk a n s f r o m th e n in e t e e n t h c e n t u r y o n w a r d . H o w e v e r, t h e ir
m a te r ia liz a ti o n h a s p r o v e n r a t h e r d if f ic u lt, f o r th e y r e p r e s e n te d m o s tly
r o m a n tic , a h is to r ic a l, a n d u to p ia n re g r e s s io n s in to th e p a s t. A fte r all, th e
c o n te m p o ra ry global e n v iro n m e n t h as re n d e re d th e co n seq u e n ces o f m o d e r
n ity n o t p a rtic u la rly g rav e as in th e p ast, a n d it c o n s id e ra b ly m itig ates th e m .
Yet, seen in th is lig h t, th e a f o r e m e n tio n e d re a c tio n s o f O rth o d o x so c ieties
a n d c u ltu r e s a c q u ir e n e w c r e d ib ility a n d c a n b e u n d e r s to o d in th e w id e r
c o n te x t o f th e id e n tity crisis th a t th e y h av e e x p e rie n c e d th r o u g h o u t th e last
c e n tu r ie s d u e to t h e i r m u lt ip le c o n ta c ts w ith th e W est. T h u s , it is n o t so

19 6

V a s il io s N . M a k r id e s

O r t h o d o x C h r is tia n ity , R a tio n a liz a tio n , M o d e r n iz a tio n

m u c h a b o u t O r th o d o x ir r a tio n a l a n d b ia s e d r e a c tio n s a g a in s t th e lig h ts o f

ra tio n a liz a tio n a n d m o d e rn iz a tio n , b u t a b o u t u n d e rs ta n d a b le d efen siv e a tti
tu d e s a g a in s t sp e cific W e s te rn in flu e n c e s , w h ic h h av e a lte re d ra d ic a lly th e
im a g e a n d th e f u tu r e o f th e so c ie tie s u n d e r d isc u ssio n .

V
T h ir d , i f w e lo o k b a c k a t O r th o d o x h is to ry in its d iffe re n t lo c al v a r ia tio n s ,
w e c a n fin d m a n y in s ta n c e s in w h ic h O rth o d o x C h r is tia n ity fav o red in o n e
w ay o r a n o th e r c e rta in ch a n g e s, e x h ib ite d m o d e rn iz in g te n d e n c ie s, a n d at
le ast a p p e a re d a p t in e n d o r s in g n o v eltie s, ev en if in its o w n sp ecific m a n n e r
(K okosalakis 1987, 1995). To av o id m is u n d e rs ta n d in g s , th is d o e s n o t signify
th e c o m p le te a b a n d o n m e n t o f O r th o d o x tr a d itio n a lis m a n d c o n s e r
v a t is m ; n e i t h e r d o e s th is a m o u n t to a w h o le s a le a c c e p ta n c e o f W e s te rn
m o d e rn ity in th e w ays th a t W e ste rn C h u rc h e s d e a lt w ith it. B u t it still sh o w s
th a t O r t h o d o x C h r is tia n ity is n o t a s ta tic a n d c h a n g e le ss s y s te m , as m a n y
O r t h o d o x lik e to p r e s e n t it. I t c a n v e ry w ell e n d o r s e a n d p r o m o te v a rio u s
c h a n g e s , d e s p ite in te r n a l c ritic is m a n d r e a c tio n s . C e rta in ly , if o n e lo o k s a t
O rth o d o x rig o ris m , b o th in its p a s t as w ell as in its c o n te m p o r a r y m a n ife s
ta tio n s , o n e fin d s m e n ta litie s a n d a ttitu d e s ( a n ti-r a tio n a lis m , a n ti-in te lle c tu a lis m , a n d so o n ) t h a t a r e a t o d d s w ith t h e p o s tu la te s o f m o d e r n i ty
(M a k rid e s 1991). Yet, a t th e sa m e tim e , o n e c a n n o t b u t b e im p re sse d b y th e
fa c t t h a t th e s e v e ry h a r d li n e r s m a k e a m p le u s e o f m o d e r n te c h n o lo g y in
n u m e r o u s a p p lic a tio n s . T h e sa m e is in fa c t tr u e w ith re s p e c t to P ro te s ta n t
fu n d a m e n ta lis ts . T h is e x a m p le illu stra te s th a t th e re la tio n s o f a c e rta in re li
g io u s g r o u p to m o d e rn ity are alw ays m u lti-fa c e te d , th u s th e y m u s t b e e x a m
in e d a t v a r io u s levels. By c o n c e n tr a tin g solely o n re a c tio n a r y a ttitu d e s o n e
m ig h t th u s m is s th e w h o le p ic tu re , w h ic h is in fac t m u c h m o re d iv erse.
T h e sa m e p e rta in s, fo r in stan c e, to M o u n t A th o s, th is o ld m o n a stic c o m
m u n ity , w h ic h h a s b e e n tr a d itio n a lly th e h e a r t o f th e O r th o d o x fa ith a n d
h a s ex h ib ite d h istorically an ti-W estern a n d a n ti-m o d e rn tre n d s p a r excellence.
H ow ever, th is v ery c o m m u n ity h a s b e e n h u g ely su b sid ize d in re c e n t y ears b y
th e E u r o p e a n U n io n w ith th e p u r p o s e o f r e n o v a tin g its t i m e - h o n o r e d
m o n a s tic co m p le x e s. To b e tr u e , th is w a s a c le a r m o d e rn iz a tio n p ro ce ss. In
a place w h e re e a rlie r ev en e le c tric lig h t w as n o t f o u n d ev e ry w h e re , n o w o n e
c a n w a tc h m o n k s u s in g m o b ile p h o n e s a n d I n te r n e t facilities. A s ex p e cted ,
th e r e w e re s o m e r e a c tio n s a g a in s t th is o n s la u g h t o f m o d e r n ity , a n d th e re
h a v e b e e n d is c u s s io n s w h e th e r th is p ro c e ss w ill a lte r irre v e rsib ly th e c h a r
a c te r o f M o u n t A th o s (N ik o la o s 1999, p p . 1 2 5 - 3 9 ) . Yet o n e c a n n o t a v o id

197

r e a liz in g t h a t h e r e it is a b o u t th e m o d e r n i z a t i o n o f th e v e ry c r a d le o f
O r th o d o x C h ris tia n ity , w h ic h w o u ld h av e b e e n u n im a g in a b le a few d ecad es
ag o . In th is w ay, b y lo o k in g a t all th e s e facets o f O r th o d o x C h r is tia n ity a n d
th e ir o fte n a n tin o m ia n a p p e a ra n c e s , it b e c o m e s d iffic u lt to a rg u e th a t th is
re lig io u s sy stem is a lto g e th e r a n ti- r a tio n a l a n d a n ti- m o d e r n .
In a d d i tio n , th e h is t o r y o f th e O r t h o d o x C h u r c h c a n e x h ib it m a n y
re fo rm e rs, w h o h av e a c c o m p lish e d m in o r o r m a jo r re fo rm s w ith in ac ce p te d
b o u n d s (n am e ly , w ith o u t b e c o m in g ra d ic a l re fo rm e rs , as w as th e case w ith
M a r tin L u th e r ) . T h is c a n b e o b s e rv e d , fo r e x a m p le , in th e r e f o rm s o f th e
a rc h b is h o p o f N o v g o ro d , F eo fan P ro k o p o v ic h ( 1 6 8 1 -1 7 3 6 ). S o m e o f th e se
r e f o rm s d id b e c o m e g e n e ra lly a c c e p te d , d e s p ite th e fa c t th e r e w e re s tr o n g
re a c tio n s a n d e v e n in te r n a l sc h ism s. T h e la tte r w as o b s e rv e d w ith th e c a l
e n d a r r e f o r m in th e e a r ly tw e n tie th c e n tu r y . S o m e O r t h o d o x C h u r c h e s
( P a tr ia r c h a te o f C o n s ta n ti n o p le , C h u r c h o f G re e c e ) c h o s e s in c e 1923 to
e n d o rs e th e c o rre c te d G re g o ria n c a le n d a r, w h ile still c a lc u la tin g th e a n n u a l
d a te o f E a s te r a c c o r d in g to th e o ld Ju lia n c a le n d a r. S o m e o th e r O r th o d o x
C h u rc h e s (P a tria rc h a te o f M o sco w , P a tria rc h a te o f S erb ia) c o n tin u e d to fol
lo w fully th e o ld Ju lian ca le n d ar, w h ile th e O r th o d o x C h u rc h o f F in la n d h as
e n d o r s e d fu lly th e n e w c a le n d a r (ev e n f o r th e c e le b ra tio n o f E a s te r). T h e
ac c e p ta n c e o f th e n e w c a le n d a r h a s c re a te d se rio u s in te r n a l sc h ism s, w h ic h
still ex ist to d a y in s o m e O r th o d o x C h u rc h e s (in G reece, R o m a n ia , B u lgaria,
C y p r u s ) . N o n e th e le s s , f o r o u r p u r p o s e , th e w h o le p ro c e s s o f th e c a le n d a r
r e f o r m c a n n o t ju s tif y th e v ie w o f t h e a lle g e d i n h e r e n t a n t i- m o d e r n is m
o f O r t h o d o x C h r is tia n ity . A fte r a ll, th e r e is n o t a s o le u n d if f e r e n tia te d
O r t h o d o x y e v e r y w h e re , b u t m a n y lo c a l v a r ia tio n s a n d a t t i t u d e s to w a r d
c h a n g e s . O n th e o th e r h a n d , m a n y o f th e re a s o n s th a t le d s o m e O r th o d o x
to d e n y th e c a le n d a r r e fo rm a re a g a in u n d e r s ta n d a b le a n d have to d o w ith
th e W e ste rn p ro v e n a n c e o f th e n e w c a le n d a r (K itsik is 1995, p p . 1 3 -1 4 ). It is
u se fu l to r e m e m b e r h e re th a t it to o k s o m e tim e fo r th e R e fo rm e d C h u rch e s,
w h ic h a fte r all a re c o n s id e re d to h av e b e e n th e lo c o m o tiv e s fo r m o d e rn ity ,
to ac cep t th e G re g o ria n c a le n d a r a fte r its first im p le m e n ta tio n in 1582 n o t
la stly b e c a u s e o f th e in te r -C h ris tia n d is p u te s o f th e day.
To tu r n o u r a tte n tio n n o w to s o m e o th e r cases: O r th o d o x C h ris tia n ity
h a s n o t b e e n a n e c e ssa rily a n d a b s o lu te ly n e g a tiv e fa c to r to w a rd e c o n o m ic
d e v e lo p m e n t (P a p a d e ro s 1975), as th is h as b e e n a rg u e d in th e p a s t (M u lle rA rm a c k 1968, p p . 3 2 8 -7 0 ). A lth o u g h n o t id e n tifie d w ith th e C a lv in ist eth ic
a n d its in n e r-w o rld ly a sceticism , s o m e sc h o la rs h av e ta lk e d a b o u t a c o rre
s p o n d in g O r th o d o x eth ic, u sin g as e v id e n c e th e c o n q u e r in g B alk an m e r
c h a n ts in th e e ig h te e n th a n d ea rly n in e te e n th c e n tu rie s a n d th e ir e c o n o m ic

19 8

V a s il io s N . M a k r id e s

O r t h o d o x C h r is t ia n it y , R a t io n a l iz a t io n , M o d e r n iz a t io n

a c h ie v e m e n ts (S to ia n o v ic h 1960, p . 2 9 4 ). E v en to d a y th e O r t h o d o x w o rld
d o e s n o t la c k a t te m p ts to a r ti c u la te a n O r t h o d o x e c o n o m ic e th ic ( A r in in
e t al. 2 0 0 1 ). T h e in te rfe re n c e o f h a r d O rth o d o x c o n v ic tio n s a n d so c ia l m a rg in a lity h a s a lso le d in s o m e c a se s to w o rth w h ile e c o n o m ic a c h ie v e m e n ts .
S u ch a n e x a m p le is th e s c h is m a tic R u s sia n O ld B elievers, w h o in th e n in e
te e n th c e n tu r y p ro v e d to b e v e ry a p t to w a rd m o d e r n iz a tio n , d e v e lo p m e n t,
a n d e c o n o m ic r a tio n a lis m (B u ss 1989, p p . 5 2 -7 0 ; R o s h c h in 1995). L ast, b u t
n o t least, p e r h a p s th e m o s t in d ic a tiv e e x a m p le o f O r th o d o x y s p o te n tia l fo r
c h a n g e c a n b e o b s e rv e d in its c o n te m p o r a r y c lo se st p o ssib le c o n n e c tio n to
n a tio n a lis m . T h e n a t io n a l iz a tio n o f O r th o d o x y is a re la tiv e ly r e c e n t p h e
n o m e n o n , a c c e n tu a te d e s p e c ia lly f ro m th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y u n til to d a y
w ith th e a d v e n t o f th e n a tio n - s ta te , w h ic h h a s h a d m a n y re p e rc u s s io n s fo r
m a in ta in in g p a n - O r th o d o x u n ity . Yet th is n o v e l p h e n o m e n o n is h a r d ly c o n
g r u e n t w ith th e O r t h o d o x u n iv e r s a lis tic t r a d i t i o n o f th e B y z a n tin e p a s t,
w h e n O r t h o d o x C h r is t ia n i ty t r ie d to p re s e rv e a s u p r a - n a t io n a l c h a r a c te r
(K itro m ilid e s 1996). T h e c h a n g e s t h a t h a v e o c c u r r e d in th is d o m a in h av e ,
how ever, a lte re d so d e e p ly O r th o d o x c o n sc io u sn e ss th a t th e v a rio u s n a tio n a l
O rth o d o x C h u rc h e s w o rld w id e a re h a ile d to d a y as p r o te c to r s o f th e re sp e c
tive n a tio n a l id e n titie s a n d c o lla b o r a te c lo se ly w ith th e re sp e c tiv e n a t i o n
states! H e re w e c a n clea rly o b se rv e h o w O rth o d o x C h r is tia n ity h a s a c q u ire d
a c h a r a c te r is tic t h a t is c e r ta in l y a t o d d s w ith its o w n h is t o r ic a l h e r ita g e .
G iven th e fa c t a lso t h a t n a tio n a lis m h a s b e e n a n e x p re s s io n o f th e B a lk a n
n a tio n s c la im to m o d e r n iz a tio n ( R o u d o m e to f 2 0 0 1 , p . 2 39; cf. G ro th u s e n
1 9 8 4 ), th e O r t h o d o x C h u r c h , w h ic h s tr o n g ly s u p p o r t e d th is c la im , c a n
h a rd ly b e c o n s id e re d as in h e re n tly a n ti- m o d e r n .

VI
F o u rth , a n o th e r fa c to r th a t m ig h t s h e d n e w lig h t o n o u r to p ic is re la te d to
a n e w u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e c o n c e p ts o f r a tio n a liz a tio n a n d m o d e r n iz a
tion, d ev e lo p e d m o re system atically in th e last decad es. P u t sh o rtly , th is r a d
ic al c h a n g e h a d t o d o w ith a r e a s s e s s m e n t o f W e s te r n a n d E u r o c e n t r ic
n u a n c e s o f th e s e n o tio n s , w h ic h w e re e x te n d e d u n c ritic a lly o v e r o th e r c u l
tu r a l c o m p le x e s, a n d a re je c tio n o f o ld e r id e a s o f W e ste rn c u ltu r a l s u p e r i
o rity . B e g in n in g w ith th e f ir s t c o n c e p t, i t h a s b e e n p o i n t e d o u t b y m a n y
s c h o la r s (C . L 6 v i-S tra u s s , R . H o r t o n , a n d o t h e r s ) t h a t th e r e e x is t o t h e r
m o d e s o f ra tio n a lity to o b e sid e s th e W e ste rn o n e , ev en a m o n g th e so -ca lle d
p rim itiv es. A n y d e v ia tio n fro m th e W e ste rn E u ro p e a n p a tte r n w as e a rlie r
th o u g h t w ro n g ly to b e a sig n o f ir r a tio n a l a ttitu d e s . S in ce th is fu n d a m e n ta l

19 9

r e v is io n o f o ld e r th e o r ie s , th e r e h a v e b e e n m a n y a t te m p ts to d is c e r n th e
d iv e rs ity o f c u ltu r e s a n d s o c ie tie s a n d lo o k f o r w ay s to w a r d th e ir m u tu a l
t r a n s l a t i o n a n d c o m m e n s u r a b ility . T h e s a m e p e r t a i n e d g e n e r a lly t o th e
d o m a in o f re lig io n , esp ecially w ith re g a rd to its alleg ed p e r m a n e n t c o n flic t
w ith scien c e (T a m b ia h 1990; S to lle r 1998; S ta rk 2 0 0 0 ). T h is rev ersal o f p e r
sp e c tiv e s c a n also b e se e n b y th e fa c t th a t, a c c o r d in g to n e w th e o rie s (e.g .,
th e r a tio n a l c h o ic e th e o r y ), re lig io n s a re n o t se en a n y m o r e as d e p o s ito
rie s o f ir r a tio n a lity b u t as sy ste m s o f th o u g h t a n d p ra c tic e b a s e d o n s tr ic t
r a ti o n a l o p tio n s a n d c h o ic e s (Y o u n g 1 9 9 7 ). S e e n f ro m th is b r o a d e r p e r
spective, it is c e rta in ly o n e -sid e d to claim th a t O rth o d o x C h ristia n ity is solely
a re lig io n o f s e n tim e n t a n d th a t it lik ely fo ste rs ir ra tio n a l a ttitu d e s . O n e c a n
a rg u e h e r e o n th e b asis o f v a rio u s m o d e s a n d levels o f r a tio n a lity th a t ex ist
in d if fe r e n t c u ltu r e s , a n a r g u m e n t in fa c t p u t f o rw a r d b y s o m e O r th o d o x
th in k e rs . F o r Y an n aras (1 9 8 4 ) O r th o d o x r a tio n a lity is n o t c o te rm in o u s w ith
W e ste rn in te lle c tu a lis m , b u t it is a p h e n o m e n o n w ith an a n c ie n t G re e k a n d
B y z a n tin e b a c k g r o u n d ; h a s its o w n logic, c rite ria , a n d p rio ritie s ; a n d h a s
h a d q u ite d iffe re n t so cial c o n s e q u e n c e s th a n W e ste rn ra tio n a lity .
A sim ila r d e v e lo p m e n t h as also e x p e rie n c e d th e n o tio n o f m o d e rn iz a
tio n , w h ic h , asid e fro m its m a n y c ritic s (W a lle rste in 1979, p p . 1 3 2 -3 7 ), h as
ceased a m o n g o th e r th in g s to b e e q u a te d w ith W e ste rn iz a tio n a lo n e a n d
to b e u n d e r s to o d in a lin e a r w ay b a s e d o n W e ste rn p re te n s io n s o f so c io c u l
tu r a l s u p e rio r ity a n d p o s tu la tio n s th a t so c ieties w o rld w id e w o u ld b e d ev e l
o p e d in th e s a m e w ay. O t h e r m o d e ls o f s y n c re tic m o d e r n i z a t io n , w h ic h
e m p h a s iz e th e id io sy n crasies o f lo cal c u ltu re s o n th e ir w ay to m o d e rn ity , are
m o r e en vogue to d ay . T h is re a sse ss m e n t w e n t h a n d in h a n d w ith a q u e s tio n
in g o f W e ste rn h e g e m o n y a n d th e p o w e r s tru c tu re s th a t h a d in fact given rise
to sp ecific id e o lo g ies (e.g., O rie n ta lis m a n d B a lk a n ism ) in v ie w in g a n d eval
u a tin g th e n o n - W e s te r n o th e rs . M o d e r n iz a tio n is th e n se en to d a y n o t as a
o n e -s id e d , lin e a r, a n d fix ed p h e n o m e n o n , b u t r a th e r as a d ia lec tic al p ro cess,
w h ic h p re se n ts b o th ad v a n ce s a n d p a th o lo g ie s a n d w h o se lo cal v a ria tio n s are
p e rh a p s e q u a l to th e n u m b e r o f c o u n trie s th a t a tte m p t to m o d e rn iz e th e m
selves (E ise n sta d t 1987a, 1987b). T h e re ex ists u n d o u b te d ly a W estern sp e ci
fic ity in m o d e rn ity , b u t th is is fa r f ro m b e in g th e so le a n d exclusive p a th to
m o d e rn ity . In th is way, it is m o re c o rre c t to sp e a k a b o u t m u ltip le m o d e r n i
tie s (B en av id es 1998, p p . 1 8 8 - 8 9 ,1 9 2 - 9 3 ; cf. a n issue o f D a ed a lu s 129, n o . 1
[W in te r 2000], d ev o ted to m u ltip le m o d e rn itie s ) o r even o f global m o d e r
n itie s (F e a th e rsto n e , L ash, a n d R o b e rts o n 1995), c o n s id e rin g th e im p a c t o f
g lo b a liz a tio n u p o n th is p ro ce ss. I t h a s also b e e n a rg u e d th a t th e m o d e rn iz a
t io n p a r a d ig m s h o u ld b e s e p a r a te d f r o m th e g lo b a liz a tio n d is c o u rs e a n d

2 ,0 0

V a s il io s N . M a k r id e s

O r t h o d o x C h r is t ia n it y , R a t io n a l iz a t io n , M o d e r n iz a t io n

s h o u ld n o t b e u se d a n y m o r e as a m a s te r n a rra tiv e in so c io lo g y b e c a u s e o f
th e d efic its it h a s in h e rite d fro m th e p a s t (e.g., th e a s s u m p tio n s o f so cial a n d
c u ltu ra l s u p e rio rity o f th e W est vs. T h ir d W o rld c o u n trie s ), w h ic h h av e b e e n
r e n d e r e d o b s o le te u n d e r th e in f lu e n c e o f c o n te m p o r a r y g lo b a l e c o n o m ic ,
p o litic a l, a n d c u ltu r a l fo rc es ( R o u d o m e to f 1994, 1997). T h is s e m a n tic e v o
lu tio n o f th e te r m a g a in m a k e s c lea r th a t it is n o t p e r tin e n t to p u t O r th o d o x
C h ristia n ity generally in th e a n ti- m o d e r n ca m p , b u t th a t it is b e tte r to ex p lo re
w h e th e r O r th o d o x so c ie tie s a re th e m se lv e s ( o r if th e y c a n b e ) c o n n e c te d to
a k in d o f m o d e r n ity su i g e n e ris in th e p re s e n t g lo b a l era .
T h e s e m a n tic e v o lu tio n o f th is te rm a n d its c o n se q u e n c e s b e c o m e m o re
e v id e n t if w e co n sid er, fo r in stan c e, th e d istin c tio n m a d e b etw e en m o d e rn is m
a n d m o d e r n i t y (L a w re n c e 1 9 8 9 , p p . 1 - 3 ) . T h is d is c re p a n c y s ig n ifie s th a t
m o d e rn ity s h o u ld n o t b e c o n fu s e d w ith in te lle c tu a l m o d e rn is m . M o d e rn ity
as a c o n s e q u e n c e o f m o d e r n i z a t io n is c o n n e c te d w ith th e p h e n o m e n a o f
u rb a n iz a tio n , c a p ita lism , te c h n o lo g ic a l p ro g re ss, a n d th e like. Yet m o d e rn is m
in d ic a te s in c o n n e c tio n to th e E n lig h te n m e n t tr a d i tio n a c o n c o m ita n t
o p tim is tic b e lie f in p ro g re s s a n d in h u m a n ca p a c itie s, w h ic h h a s le d to th e
c r e a tio n o f a u n iq u e c o n s c io u s n e s s a n d p e rsp e c tiv e o n life in te n s io n w ith
th e tr a d itio n a l re lig io u s w o rld v iew s. M o d e rn is m is th u s a n exercise in reflexivity, w hile m o d e rn iz a tio n is th e ca p ac ity to exercise pow er. T h e co n seq u en ces
o f th is differen ce p e rta in to relig io n s to o . It h a s b e e n a rg u e d th a t relig io n s are
n o t a n ti- m o d e m in th e sen se o f d e n y in g m o d e rn ity . T h e u se o f m o d e rn te c h
n o lo g y b y fu n d a m e n ta lis ts a c c o u n ts fo r th is . O n th e c o n tra ry , re lig io n s are
b a sic a lly a g a in s t th e s p ir it o f m o d e r n is m , w h ic h calls e v e ry th in g in to q u e s
tio n a n d relativizes claim s o f tr u th . T h ese d istin c tio n s c a n b e a p p lie d m u ta tis
m u ta n d is to O r th o d o x C h ris tia n ity a n d c a n sh o w h o w m isle a d in g so m e c a t
e g o riz a tio n s o f it as a lto g e th e r a n t i- m o d e r n are.

VII
L ast b u t n o t le a st, a n o t h e r f a c to r f o rc in g a s e rio u s r e c o n s id e r a tio n o f th e
w h o le m a tte r is th e im p a c t o f th e o n g o in g tr a n s - n a tio n a l p ro c e ss o f g lo b
a liz a tio n w ith its m u lti- fa c e te d e c o n o m ic , p o litic a l, a n d c u ltu r a l tr a n s f o r
m a tio n s u p o n O r th o d o x C h ris tia n ity . R e lig io n s h av e b e c o m e to d a y p a r t o f
a g lo b a liz in g so c ia l re a lity a n d h av e b e e n e x p o s e d to n e w ch a lle n g e s in th e
w a k e o f m o d e r n c o m m u n i c a t i o n te c h n o lo g ie s . B e in g in r e g u la r a n d
u n a v o id a b le c o n ta c t w ith o n e a n o th e r , p e o p le , c u ltu re s , so c ie tie s, c iv iliz a
tio n s , a n d n o t le a st re lig io n s e x p e rie n c e th e g lo b a l n e tw o r k in a v a r ie ty o f
w ay s r a n g in g f ro m c o n f lic t to a n a t t e n u a t i o n o f in te r - c u ltu r a l a n d i n t e r

201

re lig io u s d ifferen ces. In o th e r w o rd s, o n e o p tio n is c e rta in ly a r e a d ju s tm e n t

o f re lig io n s to a n s w e r th e n e w ch a lle n g es a n d a c o n c o m ita n t re fo rm u la tio n
o f th e b asic te n e ts o f th e ir tr a d itio n . T h is e x p la in s also w h y th e issu e o f th e
re la tio n s b e tw e e n g lo b a liz a tio n a n d re lig io n in all its a sp e c ts is a m o n g th e
m o s t fa sh io n a b le n o w a d a y s (B eyer 1994).
N a tu ra lly , O r th o d o x C h r is tia n ity c o u ld n o t b e left u n a ffe c te d b y th e se
ra d ic a l d e v e lo p m e n ts. In fact, m a n y O r th o d o x C h u rc h e s h av e trie d to voice
t h e ir p o s itio n o n iss u e s p e r ta in in g to th e g lo b e , as h a s b e c o m e e v id e n t
r e c e n tly b y th e R u s sia n O r th o d o x C h u r c h in its p r o m u lg a tio n o f a so cial
d o c u m e n t in 2000: O stiovy sotsialn oj kontseptsii Russkoj Pravoslavnoj Tserkvi
(F u n d am en tals/B ases o f th e Social C o n c e p t o f th e R ussian O rth o d o x C h u rch )
(T h e sin g a n d U e rtz 2001; see also c h a p te r 2 in th is v o lu m e ). T h is s h o u ld be
v iew ed as an im p o r ta n t ste p to w a rd e n te rin g in to d ia lo g u e w ith th e c o n te m
p o r a r y c u ltu re , fo r O rth o d o x C h u rc h e s u su a lly d id n o t p ro d u c e su c h official
a n d all-e n c o m p a ssin g d o c u m e n ts in th e p ast. To b e su re, th is h a rd ly signifies
a w h o le s a le e n d o r s e m e n t o f all o n g o in g c h a n g e s o n a g lo b a l scale. Several
issu es a re still tr e a te d in a v e ry tr a d itio n a l w ay in th is d o c u m e n t to o , w h ile
c ritic is m a g a in st v a rio u s asp ec ts o f g lo b a liz a tio n is also ex p re ssed (T h e sin g
a n d U e rtz 2001, p p . 1 2 3 -3 1 ). Yet, it is still im p o r ta n t th a t O rth o d o x y in th is
w ay s ta rte d a d ia lo g u e w ith to d a y s g lo b a l c u ltu re in ste a d o f b o a s tin g a b o u t
its p a s t glory. All th e se m u lti- fo r m fe rm e n ta tio n s c o n trib u te to a refash io n in g o f O rth o d o x y a n d , to a c e rta in d eg re e, g re a te r o r lesser r e a d ju s tm e n t to
th e ex ig en cies o f g lo b a l reality. T h is b e c o m e s o b v io u s, fo r ex a m p le , b y lo o k
in g a t th e w ay s in w h ic h m a n y O r t h o d o x C h u r c h e s a d d re s s in in n o v a tiv e
w ays th e cru cial issues o f b io eth ics, w h ich are o f w o rld w id e significance today,
w ith o u t u sin g th e C h u rc h F ath ers as a b so lu te guid elin es (H a tz in ik o la o u 2002,
p p . 6 - 1 7 ) . T h is is a tr e m e n d o u s ste p fo rw a rd c o n s id e rin g th e b in d in g fo rce
o f tr a d i t i o n in O r t h o d o x C h r is tia n ity . M a n y o f th e s e d is c u s s io n s a re , o f
co u rse , easier in m o re p lu ra listic m ilieu s su c h as in th e U n ite d States (H o p k o
1996). Yet, th is is n o t th e so le p la ce th a t th is h a p p e n s. A lb eit m o d estly , th e re
a re sev eral c u r r e n ts ev en w ith in th e O r th o d o x C h u rc h e s in E u ro p e th a t are
fo rm e d u n d e r th e in flu e n c e o f a g lo b a l civil re lig io n (cf. D av ie 2 0 0 1 ).
To a g a in av o id m is u n d e rs ta n d in g s : T h is n o v el situ a tio n d o es n o t m e an
th a t th e O r th o d o x C h u rc h e s h av e a b a n d o n e d th e ir u su a l co n s e rv a tism a n d
tra d itio n -b o u n d e d n e s s , w h ic h is seen b y th e m as an a u th e n tic c rite rio n a n d a
tim eless m o d e l o f o rie n ta tio n . It m e a n s th a t th e y d ev elo p to o in th e co u rse o f
h is to ry a n d th a t th e y a c tu a lly re fo rm u la te th e ir d o c trin e w ith reg a rd to n ew
d e v e lo p m e n ts, d e s p ite th e fac t th a t th e y o fte n p ro m u lg a te officially a su p ra h isto ric a l view o f th e ir o w n id e n tity as an im m u ta b le entity. C o n seq u en tly , it

202

V a s i l i o s N . M a k r id e s

O r t h o d o x C h r is t ia n it y , R a t io n a l iz a t io n , M o d e r n iz a t io n

is v ita l to d isc e rn th e ro le o f re lig io u s d y n a m ic s in th is c o n te x t th a t p ro h ib its

re lig io n s to r e m a in sta tic esse n c e s. T h e c o n te m p o r a r y g lo b a l e n v ir o n m e n t
m a k e s re lig io n s, in c lu d in g O r th o d o x C h ris tia n ity , m u c h m o r e o p e n to n e w
a d a p ta tio n s a n d a d ju s tm e n ts th a n in p re v io u s ce n tu rie s . By d ev e lo p in g , first,
a n o tio n o f h is to ric ity in th e a re a o f O rth o d o x C h ristia n ity , o n e c a n th u s
d isc e rn m o r e easily th e v a rio u s h is to ric a l p h a s e s o f its d e v e lo p m e n t a n d th e
c o n c o m it a n t c h a n g e s . T h is is b e c a u s e o n e c a n n o t id e n tif y th e O r t h o d o x
C h u r c h o f th e s e v e n te e n th c e n tu r y w ith th e o n e a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e
tw e n ty - f ir s t c e n tu r y . F r o m th is a n g le , i t a g a in b e c o m e s d if f ic u lt t o m a k e
s w e e p in g c h a r a c t e r iz a tio n s o f O r t h o d o x C h r i s t i a n i t y as a n t i - m o d e r n
th r o u g h o u t h isto ry . S e c o n d , b y p a y in g a tte n tio n to th e n o tio n s o f lo c a lity
a n d d e -lo c a liz a tio n w ith in th e p r e s e n t g lo b a l c o n te x t, o n e c a n b e tte r g rasp
th e id io s y n c ra sy o f th e v a r io u s n a tio n a l O r th o d o x C h u rc h e s a n d esp ecially
th e d is tin c t fea tu re s o f th e n u m e ro u s O r th o d o x d ia s p o ra s a r o u n d th e globe.
T h ese e th n o -re lig io u s d ia sp o ra s (especially in th e U n ite d States, A u stralia, a n d
W e ste rn E u ro p e ) d o n o t a p p e a r in m a n y cases to b e r e lu c ta n t to w a rd m a n y
asp ec ts o f m o d e rn iz a tio n , a n d th e y t r y to re fo rm u la te th e ir tr a d itio n w ith in
a m o r e glo b al sy m b o lic u n iv e rse , a fac t th a t h a s o fte n c o n trib u te d to te n s io n
w ith th e ir respective m o th e r C h u rch e s. F o r exam ple, G reek O rth o d o x rig o rists
h av e a c c u s e d th e G re e k A rc h b is h o p o f A u s tra lia S ty lia n o s (H a rk ia n a k is ) o f
e n d o rsin g a n a n ti-C h ristia n th e o ry , n a m e ly th e th e o ry o f ev o lu tio n (M ak rid es
1998, p. 204). T h is is ag a in a clea r sign o f p ro g re ss a n d n o t o f a s tu b b o r n rea c
tio n o n th e p a r t o f a n O rth o d o x p re la te v is -a -v is a s c ie n tific p a r a d ig m th a t
is w id ely accep ted today. G iven th e fac t th a t su c h O rth o d o x d ia sp o ra s te n d to
m o v e to w a rd g re a te r in d e p e n d e n c e f ro m th e ir o rig in a l h o m e la n d s , o n e ca n
th u s im a g in e th e p ro s p e c tiv e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f th is o n g o in g d if fe r e n tia tio n
o f th e O r th o d o x c h u r c h b o d y . T h is e m p h a s iz e s o n c e m o r e th e n e c e s sity to
a p p ro a c h O r th o d o x re a lity w ith b r o a d a n d flexible c o n c e p tu a l to o ls t h a t w ill
a llo w o n e to g ra s p b e t te r a n d to d o ju s tic e to its p lu ra lis m .

203

s ta n d in g s th a t n o t o n ly f lo u ris h a m o n g th e g e n e ra l p u b lic , b u t a re c o n s p ic
u o u s in a c a d e m ic circles as w ell a n d h av e p ro life ra te d recently. T h is p e rta in s
to t h e is s u e u n d e r e x a m in a tio n to o . A lth o u g h i t is t r u e t h a t O r t h o d o x
C h ris tia n ity stay ed f o r u n d e rs ta n d a b le re a so n s o u t o f th e p ro ce sses o f r a tio
n a liz a tio n a n d m o d e rn iz a tio n , as th e se h av e b e e n a rtic u la te d a n d d e v e lo p e d
in W e ste rn E u ro p e u n d e r th e in flu e n c e o f W e ste rn C h ris tia n ity to o , it w o u ld
b e w r o n g t o c o n s id e r it a s in tr in s ic a lly , p r e d o m i n a n tly , a n d e x c lu siv e ly
re la te d to a n ti- r a tio n a l a n d a n ti- m o d e r n tre n d s . T h e p r e d o m in a n c e o f c e r
ta in p a rtic u la r fe a tu re s in O r th o d o x C h ris tia n ity d u r in g lo n g h isto ric a l p e r i
o d s in th e p a s t b y n o m e a n s sig n ifies t h a t it c a n n o t d o w ith o u t th e m in th e
p r e s e n t g lo b a l e n v iro n m e n t, w h ic h w ill p r o b a b ly fo rc e re lig io n s to re d e fin e
th e m se lv e s in th e f u tu r e in a ra d ic a l a n d p e r h a p s u n fo re s e e n way.

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